A) Inference Questions
A) Inference Questions
LESSON 46
INFERENCE QUESTIONS AND PURPOSE QUESTIONS
A) Inference Questions
As in the Listening Comprehension section. there are questions in the Reading Comprehension
section that require you to make inferences. The answers to these questions are not directly
provided in the passage-you must "read between the lines." In other words, you must make
conclusions based indirectly on information in the passage. Many test-takers find these questions
the most difficult type of Reading question.
Inference questions may be phrased in a number of ways. Many of these questions contain some
form of the words infer or imply.
• Which of the following can be inferred from the passage?
• It can be inferred from the passage that ...
• The author implies that ...
• Which of the following does the passage imply?
• Which of the following would be the most reasonable guess about _ __
• The author suggests that ...
• It is probable that ...
There will probably be from five to eight of these questions per Reading section.
Choice (A) is not a valid inference; Alpha Centauri is similar to the Sun, but
Proxima Centauri is "a tiny red star." Choice (B) also cannot be inferred; the
closest star to the Earth is our own Sun. Nor can (C) be inferred; Proxima
Centauri is invisible, but there is no information as to whether Alpha
Centauri is. Since Alpha Centauri is 4.3 light-years away, it can be inferred
that Alpha Centauri, the closest star, is less than that. ...
B) Purpose Questions
These questions ask why the author of a passage mentions some piece of information, includes a
quotation from a person or a study, or uses some particular word or phrase.
314 Section 3 • Guide to Reading Comprehension
Sample Questions
• Why does the author mention ____ ?
• The author refers to to indicate that ...
• The author quotes in order to show ...
• The phrase _____ in line is mentioned to illustrate the effect of ...
Exercise 46.1
2. When apple growers talk about new varieties of apples, they don't mean something developed
last month, last year, or even in the last decade.
___ (A) Apple growers haven't developed any new varieties in recent decades.
___ (B) Some varieties of apples can be developed in a short time, but others take a long
time.
___ (C) New varieties of apples take many years to develop.
5. There is more quartz in the world than anyone kind of feldspar, but the feldspars as a group are
five times more common than quartz.
___ (A) One type of quartz is five times more plentiful than feldspar.
___ (B) Quartz is less common than the feldspars.
___ (C) The most common type of feldspar is as plentiful as quartz.
Section 3 • Guide to Reading Comprehension 315
6. Compared with the rest of its brain, the visual area of a turtle's brain is comparatively small since
turtles, like all other reptiles, depend on senses other than sight.
___ (A) No reptile uses sight as its primary sense.
___ (B) Animals that depend on sight all have larger visual areas in their brain than turtles do.
___ (C) The visual areas of other reptile brains are comparatively smaller than those of turtles.
7. Contrary to popular belief, there is no validity to the stories one hears of initials carved in a tree
by a young boy becoming elevated high above his head when he visits the tree as an old man.
___ (A) Trees don't grow the way many people think they do.
___ (B) If a child carves initials in a tree, it won't grow.
___ (C) Over time, initials that are carved into a tree will be elevated.
8. Illegible handwriting does not indicate weakness of character, as even a quick glance at the
penmanship of George Washington, Franklin D. Roosevelt, or John Kennedy reveals.
___ (A) Washington, Roosevelt, and Kennedy all had handwriting that was difficult to read.
___ (B) A person's handwriting reveals a lot about that person.
___ (C) The author believes that Washington, Roosevelt, and Kennedy all had weak
characters.
9. William Faulkner set many of his novels in and around an imaginary town, Jefferson, Mississippi,
which he closely patterned after his hometown of Oxford, Mississippi.
___ (A) William Faulkner wrote many of his novels while living in Jefferson, Mississippi.
___ (B) The town of Oxford, Mississippi, exists only in Faulkner's novels.
___ (C) Faulkner actually wrote about his hometown but did not use its real name.
10. Most fish take on, to a certain degree, the coloration of their natural surroundings, so it is not
surprising that the fish inhabiting warm, shallow waters around tropical reefs are colored all the
brilliant tints of the rainbow.
___ (A) Tropical fish are unlike other fish because they take on the coloration of their
environment.
___ (B) Tropical fish are brightly colored because they inhabit warm waters.
___ (C) Tropical reefs are brightly colored environments.
11. Although sheepherding is an older and more beloved occupation, shepherds never caught the
attention of American filmmakers the way cowboys did.
___ (A) There have been more American films about cowboys than about shepherds.
___ (B) Films about shepherds were popular before films about cowboys.
___ (C) Cowboys are generally younger than shepherds.
12. The Okefenokee Swamp is a fascinating realm that both confirms and contradicts popular notions
of a swamp, because along with huge cypresses, dangerous quagmires, and dim waterways, the
Okefenokee has sandy pine islands, sunlit prairies, and clear lakes.
___ (A) People generally feel that swamps are fascinating places.
___ (B) The Okefenokee has features that most people do not associate with swamps.
___ (C) Most swamps do not have huge cypresses, dangerous quagmires, and dim waterways.
13. As an architect, Thomas Jefferson preferred the Roman style, as seen in the University of Virginia,
to the English style favored by Charles Bullfinch.
___ (A) The University of Virginia was influenced by the Roman style.
___ (B) Bullfinch was an English architect.
___ (C) Jefferson preferred to build in the English style of architecture.
14. In all cultures, gestures are used as a form of communication, but the same gestures may have
very different meanings in different cultures.
___ (A) No two cultures use the same gestures.
___ (B) One gesture will never have the same meaning in two cultures.
___ (C) A person from one culture may misunderstand the gestures used by a person from
another culture.
316 Section 3 • Guide to Reading Comprehension
15. Even spiders that do not build webs from silk use it for a variety of purposes, such as
constructing egg sacs and nursery tents.
_ _ (A) All spiders build webs.
___ (B) Spiders that build webs don't build egg sacs or nursery tents.
_ _ (C) Silk is used by all spiders.
Exercise 46.2
Questions 1-7
Questions 8-15
12. Only recently has it been possible to satisfactorily synthesize the aroma of fresh coffee.
13 ' Not all synthetic flavors are harmless.
14. Synthesized substances mllst be tested for safety only if the\" are used in food.
15. Synthetic fragrances can be used to make a used car smell like a new one.
318 Section 3 • Guide to Reading Comprehension
Questions 16-20
Exercise 46.3
Questions 1-4
Questions 5-7
the water in the upper tubes is far cooler than the water
( I "i) at the bottom. The weight of the water puts pressure on the
column, and this raises the boiling point of the water near the
bottom. Finally. the water in the upper part of the column warms
and expands. some of it welling out of the mouth of the geyser.
This decreases the pressure on the superheated water, which
(20) abruptly turns to steam. This in turn forces all the water and
vapor out of the geyser.
'). It can be inferred from the passage that the earthquake of 1959 made Old Faithful geyser erupt
___ (A) more frequently
___ (ll) less regularly
___ (C) more suddenly
___ (D) less spectacularly
6. Why does the author mention a rainbow in line 7?
_. ._ (A) The column of water forms an arc in the shape of a rainbow.
___.. (B) In the sunlight, the column of water may produce the colors of the rainbow.
_ _ _ (C) Rainbows can be seen quite frequently in Yellowstone National Park.
____ . (D) The rainbow. like the geyser. is an example of the beauty of nature.
- The passage implies that Old Faithful would probably not erupt at all if
___ (A) the tuhes of the geyser system were very wide
_. _ _ (ll) the climate suddenly changed
___ (C) there had not been an earthquake in 1959
___ (D) the underground tubes were longer
Questions 8-12
Questions 13-17
Questions 18-20
The sea has been rising relative to the land for at least 100
years, geologists say. During that same period, the Atlantic
Coast has eroded an average of 2 to 3 feet per year, the Gulf
(line) Coast even faster. Many engineers maintain that seawalls and
(5) replenished beaches are necessary to protect the nation's
shoreline. Too many people live or vacation in Miami Beach,
Atlantic City, or Martha's Vineyard to allow their roads and
buildings to simply fall into the sea.
The problem with seawalls is that they simply don't work. One
(10) study has shown that, in fact, seawalls accelerate the erosion of
beaches.
Faced with the loss of their beaches, other communities have
tried a simple but expensive solution: replace the lost sand.
These replenishment programs, however, are costly and of dubious
(15) value. Another study has shown that only 10% of replenished
beaches lasted more than 5 years.
18. It can be inferred from the passage that the author
___ (A) opposes the use of both seawalls and beach replenishment
___ (B) believes beach replenishment would be more effective than seawalls
___ (C) opposes any actions to protect the shoreline
___ (D) denies that beach erosion is a problem
19. Why does the author mention Miami Beach, Atlantic City, and Martha's Vinyard?
___ (A) These are communities with seawalls.
___ (B) These are communities that have implemented replenishment programs.
___ (C) These are communities in danger of beach erosion.
___ CD) These are communities which have lost roads and buildings to erosion.
20. The author quotes the two studies in the passage in order to
___ (A) suggest that the sea is not rising as fast as was originally believed
___ (ll) strengthen the engineers' contention that seawalls and replenished beaches are
necessary
___ (C) propose two new solutions to beach erosion
___ (D) support his own position
324 Section 3 • Guide to Reading Comprehension
LESSON 47
VOCABULARY-IN-CONTEXT QUESTIONS
In vocabulary-in-context questions, you must determine which of four words or phrases can best
substitute for a word or words in the passage.
Most of the questions ask about single words (usually nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs).
Some ask about two- or three-word phrases.
Sometimes two or more of the answer choices for these items might be "correct" definitions of
the word that is asked about. In those cases, you must decide which is correct in the context of the
passage.
There are a number of clues that can help you determine the meaning of an unknown word:
• Synonyms
The first state to institute compulsory education was Massachusetts, which made it
mandatory for students to attend school 12 weeks a year.
The word mandatory is a synonym for the word compulsory.
• Examples
Many gardeners use some kind of mulch, such as chopped leaves, peat moss, grass
clippings, pine needles, or wood chips, in order to stop the growth of weeds and to
hold in moisture.
From the examples given, it is clear that mulch is plant matter.
• Contrast
In the 1820's the Southern states supported improvements in the national transportation
system, but the Northern states balked.
Since the Southern states supported improvements, and since a word signaling contrast
(but) is used, it is clear that the Northern states disagreed with this idea, and that the
word balked must mean objected or refused.
• General Context
In a desert, vegetation is so ~ as to be incapable of supporting any large human
population.
As is generally known, deserts contain little vegetation, so clearly the word scanty must
mean scarce or barely sufficient.
When answering vocabulary-in-context questions, you mllst often depend on the general context of
the sentence to help you choose the correct answer.
You should follow these steps to answer vocabulary-in-context items:
1. Look at the word being asked about and the four answer choices. If you are familiar with
the word, guess which answer is correct. Do not mark your answer sheet yet.
2. Read the sentence in which the word appears. If you were familiar with the word and
guessed at the answer, make sure that the word that you chose fits with the word as it is
used in the sentence. If you were unfamiliar with the word, see if context clues in the
sentence or in the sentences before or after help you guess the meaning.
Section 3 • Guide to Reading Comprehension 325
3. If you are not sure which answer is correct, read the sentence with each ofthe four
answer choices in place. Does one seem more logical, given the context of the sentence,
than the other three? If not, do any seem illogical? (Those you can eliminate.)
4. If you're still not sure, make the best guess you can and go on.
Sample Items
In Britain's NorthAmerican colonies, university
trained physicians were at a premium. At the time of
the Revolution, there were probably only around 400 physicians
(line) and some 3,000 practitioners who had on-the-job training as
(5) barber-surgeons or physicians' apprentices. Whether
university trained or not, none had much knowledge of
the causes of disease, and the "cures" they often
recommended-bleeding, blistering, and the use of
violent purgatives-were at best ineffective and at
(0) worst lethal.
l. The phrase"at a premium" in line 2 is closest in meaning to
(A) well-paid
(B) not very numerous
(C) very experienced
(D) not well-respected
The phrase "only around 400" indicates that there was a shortage of
university-trained physicians.
2. Which of the following words could best be substituted for the word
"lethal" in line 1O?
(A) Impractical
(B) Brutal
(C) Impossible
(D) Deadly
The phrase "at best ineffectual and at worst lethal" indicates that the
correct answer must describe a situation much worse than ineffectual.
Choices (A) and (C) don't create logical sentences when substituted for
lethal. Choice (B), brutal (which means savage or violent), is more logical,
but only choice (D) is synonymous with the word that is asked about. ...
Exercise 47.1
Focus: Using context clues to answer vocabulary-in-context questions involving words with multiple
definitions.
Directions: Read each item. Then mark the answer choice that could best be used in place of the
underlined expression as it appears in the sentence.
1. The planet Mercury is visible to the naked eye but is not the easiest planet to spot.
_ _ _ (A) unclothed
~ (B) unaided
___ (C) unarmed
326 Section 3 • Guide to Reading Comprehension
14. Furniture design and manufacture were originally the work of individuals, but by the eighteenth
century, many furniture makers had teams of craftsmen to help them carry out their plans.
___ (A) transport
_ _ (B) obey
___ (C) implement
15. Samuel Latham Mitchell helped found Rutgers Medical College in New Jersey in 1826, and he
produced several important works in chemistry and geology.
_ _ (A) books
___ (B) accomplishments
___ (C) factories
Exercise 47.2
Questions 1-11
3. The phrase "the stage was seC in line 3 is closest in meaning to which of the following?
___ (A) The play was over.
___ (B) The progress continued.
___ (C) The foundation was laid.
___ (D) The direction was clear.
4. The phrase "real estate" in line 5 refers to
___ (A) tools and machines
___ (B) actual income
___ (C) new enterprises
___ (D) land and buildings
5. The word "buttressed ,. in line 7 is closest in meaning to
___ (A) concerned
_ _ (B) supplemented
___ (C) restructured
___ (D) enriched
6. The word "accommodating" in line lO is closest in meaning to
___ (A) persistent
___ (B) indifferent
_ _ (C) balanced
_ _ (D) helpful
7. W11ich of the following could best be substituted for the word "posture" in line 12?
___ (A) Stature
___ (B) Predicament
___ (C) Position
___ (D) Situation
8. The word "prevailed" in line 15 is closest in meaning to
___ (A) influenced
___ (B) triumphed
_ _ _ (C) premiered
___ CD) evolved
9. The phrase"left to its own devices" in lines 15-16 means
_ _ _ CA) forced to do additional work
___ (B) allowed to do as it pleased
___ (C) made to change its plans
___ CD) encouraged to produce more goods
10. The word "vying" in line 18 is closest in meaning to
_ _ (A) competing
_ _ (B) hoping
___ (C) arranging
___ (D) caring
11. The word "savage" in line 21 is closest in meaning to
___ (A) fierce
_ _ (B) growing
___ (C) surprising
___ (D) genuine
Section 3 • Guide to Reading Comprehension 329
Questions 12-19
All birds have feathers, and all animals with feathers are birds.
No other major group of animals is so easy to categorize. All birds
have wings, too, but wings are not peculiar to birds.
(line) Many adaptations are found in both feathers and wings. Feathers
(5) form the soft down of geese and ducks, the long decorative plumes
of ostriches, and the strong flight feathers of eagles and hawks.
Wings vary from the short, broad ones of chickens, which seldom
fly, to the long, slim ones of albatrosses, which spend almost all
their lives soaring on air currents. In penguins, wings have been
(10) modified into flippers and feathers into a waterproof covering. In
kiwis, the wings are almost impossible to detect.
Yet diversity among birds is not so striking as it is among
mammals. The difference between a hummingbird and a penguin is
immense, but hardly as startling as that between a bat and a whale.
(15) It is variations in details rather than in fundamental patterns
that have been important in the adaptation of birds to many kinds of
ecosystems.
12. The word "categorize" in line 2 is closest in meaning to
___ (A) appreciate
___ (B) comprehend
_ _ (C) classify
___ (D) visualize
13. Which of the following is closest in meaning to the phrase "peculiar to" in line 3?
___ (A) Unusual for
___ (B) Common to
___ (C) Necessary for
___ (D) Unique to
14. The word "slim" in line 8 is closest in meaning to
___ (A) slender
_ _ (B) powerful
_ _ (C) graceful
_ _ (D) soft
15. The word "detect" in line 11 is closest in meaning to
___ (A) utilize
___ (B) extend
___ (C) observe
___ (D) describe
16. Which of the following is closest in meaning to the word "diversity" in line 12?
___ (A) Function
_ _ (B) Heredity
_ _ (C) SpeCialty
_ _ (D) Variety
Questions 20-27
Questions 28-35
Questions 36-42
37. Which of the following is closest in meaning to the phrase" sheds new light on" in line 3?
___ (A) Contradicts what is known about
___ (B) Gives new meaning to
___ (C) Provides more information about
___ (D) Calls more attention to
38. The word "inexorable" in line 4 is closest in meaning to
___ (A) cruel
___ (B) unstoppable
___ (C) essential
___ (D) incomprehensible
39. Which of the following could best be used in place of the phrase "more leisurely" in line 9?
___ (A) More relaxed
___ (B) Livelier
___ (C) Easier
___ (D) More irregular
40. The word "involved" in line 12 is closest in meaning to
___ (A) committed
___ (B) serious
___ (C) apparent
___ (D) complicated
4l. Which of the following is closest in meaning to the word "clues" in line 13?
___ (A) Plans
___ (B) Secrets
_ _ (C) Signals
_ _ (D) Hints
42. The word "heretofore" in line 13 is closest in meaning to
___ (A) universally
___ (B) almost
___ (C) previously
___ (D) somewhat
334 Section 3 • Guide to Reading Comprehension
lESSON 48
REFERENCE QUESTIONS
Reference questions ask what noun (called the referent) a pronoun or some other expression
refers to. The correct answer is not always the noun that is closest to the pronoun in the passage.
Incorrect choices are usually other nouns that appear in the passage. If you are unable to decide
immediately which answer is correct, substitute the four choices for the word that is being asked
about. Which one is the most logical substitute?
In general, reference questions tend to be the easiest type of reading question.
Sample Item
There is a poisonous, plant-like animal called the
anemone that lives among coral reefs. When small fish
venture too close to the tentacles of these "living
(line) flowers;' they are stung and eaten. For unknown reasons,
(5) the anemone makes an exception of the clownfish, which
swims through its deadly tentacles in safety. When in
danger, the clownfish dashes among the anemone's
tentacles where other fish are afraid to follow. The
clownfish even builds its nest where the anemone can
protect it.
1. The word "they" in line 4 refers to
(A) coral reefs
(B) small fish
(C) tentacles
(D) flowers
Exercise 48.1
Focus: Identifying the referents for pronouns and other expressions in sentences and very short
passages.
Directions: Read the items. Decide which choice is the correct referent for the underlined word,
and mark the answer. The first one is done as an example.
1. Detergents clean clothes by first removing particles of dirt from the fabric, then suspending the
particles until they can be washed away.
_ _ (A) clothes
~ (B) particles of dirt
___ (C) detergents
Section 3 • Guide to Reading Comprehension 335
2. Wooly mammoths were hunted by big cats called sabertooth tigers, which also became extinct
by the end of the last Ice Age. They were also hunted by early men armed with spears and clubs.
___ (A) sabertooth tigers
_ _ _ (B) early men
___ (C) wooly mammoths
3. X-rays allow art historians to examine paintings internally without damaging them.
_ _ (A) x-rays
_ _ _ (B) art historians
_ _ (C) paintings
4. There is a New England influence in southern Ohio, manifesting itself in white churches and
village greens.
___ (A) a New England influence
_ _ _ (B) southern Ohio
6. A flat kite needs a tail to supply drag and to keep the kite pointed toward the sky. A simple one
consists of cloth strips tied end to end.
_ _ (A) kite
_ _ (B) tail
_ _ (C) sky
7. A number of sculptors have rejected the abstractions of minimalist artists. These sculptors have
developed a style of extreme realism involving ordinary subjects.
___ (A) extreme realists
_ _ (B) minimalists
9. Compound bows are popular with bow hunters, but they are not permitted in international
archery competitions.
___ (A) bow hunters
_ _ _ (B) compound bows
10. Ropes are cords at least .15 inches in diameter and are made of three or more strands which are
themselves formed of twisted yarns.
_ _ (A) yarns
_ _ (B) ropes
_ _ (C) strands
_ _ (D) cords
11. Grocers slice sides, quarters, and what are called primal cuts of beef into smaller pieces. These
pieces are called retail cuts.
___ (A) smaller pieces
_ _ _ (B) sides, quarters, and primal cuts
12. Leaves are found on all deciduous trees, but they differ greatly in size and shape.
_ _ (A) trees
_ _ _ (B) leaves
336 Section 3 • Guide to Reading Comprehension
13. Yasuo Kuniyashi was born in Japan in 1883 and studied art at the Los Angeles School of Art and
Design. He also studied art in New York City, where he gave his fIrst one-man show. In 1925 he
moved from there to Paris where he was influenced by the works of Chagall and other artists.
_ _ (A) Japan
_ _ (B) Paris
_ _ (C) Los Angeles
_ _ (D) New York City
14. In the past, biologists considered mushrooms and other fungi as a type of non-green plant. Today,
however, they are most commonly regarded as a separate kingdom of living things.
___ (A) mushrooms and other fungi
_ _ _ (B) biologists
_ _ (C) plants
15. William Dean Howells, a contemporary and friend of Mark Twain, wrote a number of books that
realistically portrayed life on farms in Midwestern America. One of his followers, Hamlin Garland,
was even more bitter in his criticism of rural America than his mentor.
_ _ (A) Hamlin Garland
_ _ (B) Mark Twain
___ (C) William Dean Howells
16. The Wisconsin Dells is a region where the Wisconsin River cuts through soft sandstone. The
strange formations that have been carved out of the rocks there are a delight to tourists. They
have names such as Devil's Elbow, Grand Piano, and Fat Man's Misery.
___ (A) strange formations
_ _ _ (B) tourists
_ _ (C) rocks
17. The lives of beetles are divided into four stages, as are those of wasps, ants, and butterflies.
_ _ (A) lives
_ _ _ (B) stages
___ (C) insects
18. After electron microscopes were invented, scientists found many new viruses. Some of them
were round, some oval, and some corkscrew-shaped.
___ (A) electron microscopes
_ _ _ (B) viruses
___ (C) scientists
19. The detailed information in maps is now produced almost entirely from satellite photography
rather than by ground surveying because this method is faster, cheaper, and more accurate.
_ _ (A) satellite photography
_ _ _ (B) ground surveying
20. An elephant is bigger than a mouse because it has trillions more cells, not because its cells are
any bigger.
___ (A) a mouse's
_ _ (B) an elephant's
Section 3 • Guide to Reading Comprehension 337
Exercise 48.2
Questions 1-6
Questions 7-10
Questions 11-15
Some people associate migration mainly with birds. Birds do
travel vast distances, but mammals also migrate. An example is
the caribou, reindeer that graze on the grassy slopes of northern
(line) Canada. When the weather turns cold, they travel south until
(5) spring. Their tracks are so well-worn that they are clearly
visible from the air. Another migrating mammal is the Alaska fur
seal. These seals breed only in the Pribilof Islands in the
Bering Sea. The young are born in June and by September are
strong enough to go with their mothers on a journey of over 3,000
(10) miles. Together they swim down the Pacific Coast of North
America. The females and young travel as far as southern
California. The males do not journey so far. They swim only to
the Gulf of Alaska. In the spring, males and females all return
to the islands, and there the cycle begins again. Whales are
(15) among the greatest migrators of all. The humpback, fin, and blue
whales migrate thousands of miles each year from the polar seas
to the tropics. Whales eat huge quantities of tiny plants and
animals (called plankton). These are most abundant in cold polar
waters. In winter, the whales move to warm waters to breed and
give birth to their young.
11. The phrase "An example" in line 2 refers to an example of a
___ (A) migratory mammal
___ (B) place where animals migrate
_ _ (C) bird
___ (D) person who associates migration with birds
12. In line 5, the word "Their" is a reference to the
___ (A) caribou's
_ _ _ (B) grassy slopes'
_ _ (C) birds'
_ _ (D) seals'
13. To what does the word "They" in line 12 refer?
_ _ (A) female seals
_ _ _ (B) young seals
___ (C) the islands
___ (D) male seals
14. In line 14, the word "there" refers to
_ _ (A) the Gulf of Alaska
_ _ (B) the Pribilof Islands
___ (C) southern California
___ (D) the Pacific Coast of North America
15. The word "These" in line 18 refers to
_ _ (A) three types of whales
_ _ _ (B) tiny plants and animals
_ _ (C) polar seas
___ (D) warm waters
340 Section 3 • Guide to Reading Comprehension
Questions 16-19
Questions 20-22
Questions 23-26