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Cavitation Measurements
Cavitation Measurements
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UNCLASSIFIED
SECURITrY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PA-E
DTNSRDC-86/019
2 ,RSOn AL A,THOR(S)
Shen, Young T., Gowing, Scott, and Eckstein, Bruce P C
a TyPi-F FPORT 13b TIME COVERED 14 DATE OF REPORT (Year, Month, Day) 5 PAGE COUNT %
'i-i'j
iFROM_ _ TO __ 1986, May 51
S. 0 "IF 4TARY NOTATION
' (SA/i CODJFS 18 SUBJECT TERMS (Continue on reverse if necessary and identify by block number)
" (,R,P SUB-GROUP Cavitation Measurement
...... ,rCavitation Susceptibility .
Cavitation in Ocean, Lakes, and L.aboratory Waters
1 ' C,-n'nrue in reverse :f nere'ary .,i, 1IY-r0 y by bloik number)
iIle,w !rermnts. lhe depths covered ranged from 10 to 200 m, deeper than ever before for
th,,,
S t vpkcs ,f- measurements. To provide a reference for comparison between laboratory
'and natural waters, the same measuring devices were used in the DTNSRI)C 12-in. variable
res sure, water tunnel. (Continued on reverse side)
UNCLASSIFIED
SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE
(Block 19 continued)
-There was no difficulty inducing cavitation throughout the test matrix. At
depths less than 100 m, the water in the Gulf Stream was found to cavitate more
easily than the water in Exuma Sound. At deeper depths, the opposite trend was
I
I.
§I
UNCLASSIFIED
SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE
Page
LIST OF FIGURES.............................................................. ii
LIST OF TABLES...............................................................
ABSTRACT .................................................................... I
ADMINISTRATIVE INFORMATION............................................... I
INTRODUCTION ........................................................ ........ I
TENSILE STRENGTH OF A REAL VERSUS AN IDEAL FLUID...................... 3
CAVITATION SUSCEPTIBILITY MEASURING SYSTEM ............................... 4
MICROBUBBLE AND PARTICLE MEASURING SYSTEM.......................... 5
OCEANOGRAPHIC DATA MEASURING SYSTEM................................ 6
RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................... 22
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .......................................................... 22
*REFERENCES................................................................... 45
Page
iv
AL . -
As r .FV
* LIST OF TABLES
14
2- Measured Critical Throat Speeds and Cavitation Inception Indices
in the 12-Inch Water Tunnel .................................................. 7
3-Tensile Strength of Ocean Water (*Bar) Exuma Sound (Spring 1983)................... 19
Justificatioll.... ..........
a-~~B . . . .....
..................... , . . ....
0*.?
ABSTRACT
Experiments have been carried out in laboratories to relate cavitation
inception and nuclei distributions. The existence of a strong relationship
between cavitation and nuclei has been documented for laboratory
waters, but little information is available about ocean waters. Towards
this end, ocean and lake measurements were carried out in Exuma
Sound, the Gulf Stream off the coast of Florida, and Lake Pend Oreille
to provide comparative results in different bodies of water. The test pro-
gram included cavitation susceptibility measurements by a venturi system,
nuclei population measurements by a light scattering device, and a series
of standard oceanographic measurements. The cepths covered ranged
from 10 to 200 m, deeper than ever before for these types of measure-
ment. To provide a reference for comparison between laboratory and
natural waters, the same measuring devices were used in the DTNSRDC
12-in. variable pressure water tunnel.
There was no difficulty inducing cavitation throughout the test
matrix. At depths less than 100 m, the water in the Gulf Stream was
found to cavitate more easily than the water in Exuma Sound. At deeper
depths, the opposite trend was found. Depending on the nuclei popula-
tions, variations of the cavitation inception indices with depth took
different forms in Exuma Sound, the Gulf Stream, and Lake Pend
Oreille waters. Except at the shallow depths, the lake water was found to
be less susceptible to cavitation than the ocean waters. Bubble instability
theory and the Rayleigh-Plesset dynamic equation provide good explana-
tions of many of the observed phenomena. The postulation of a critical
bubble radius is used to explain the unexpected phenomenon that the
concentration of unstable bubbles can increase with depth.
ADMINISTRATIVE INFORMATION
This project was supported by the Ship and Submarine Technology Program Element 62543N
Propulsor Subproject SF 43-434 at NAVSEA.
INTRODUCTION
Most hvdrofoils or propellers \wil develop tip vortex and ,urface ca\itation at high speeds. The
occurrence of cavitation leads to undesirable changes in h\drodynanic performance, noise generation,
and physical damage from vibration and erosion. Fherefore, the ability to predict the occurrence of
cavitation is an important engineering problem. The prediction of cavitation inception performance
has relied heavily on model experiments and extrapolation of the model results to full scale because of
, the complexit of physical processes in\ol\ed \\ith cavitation inception. Full-scale evaluations are often
conducted and correlated with the model data.
Present k no\Icdgc is inadequate to lv5 ax accurately caluate ald predict cas itation performance
hoth in laboratories and in oceans. In laboratorie,,, it has otten been obscr\cd that cavitation take,, a
variety of forms which may differ from facility to facility \\ith similar model, or even the same
model. E"xperimental data collected for the International ro\\ing Tank (ion ference (ITTC) headform
. t-l'. ~ . . . -Sv~-
.,
are a good example. Cavitation inception indices on this headform ranged from 0.3 to 0.6. Even the
appearance of the cavitation varied, some forms looking totally dissimilar from others. It was pointed
out by Acosta and Parkin I* that boundary layer characteristics and free stream nuclei are responsible
for producing the varied appearance of cavitation on a single test model. Sensitivity to air content is
also observed in model propeller tip-vortex cavitation experiments. Due to the lack of nuclei, difficulty
in producing cavitation in a depressurized towing tank has been observed 2. With the introduction of
bubbles by electrolysis ahead of the propeller, the occurrence of tip-vortex cavitation was significantly
enhanced. This fact raises the question "Which cavitation number measured in model tests should be
used to scale the prototype inception?"
In the ocean, propeller cavitation inception data from the same class of ships have been known to
exhibit a wide range of scatter. The causes are many. However, laboratory studies suggest that
environmental effects may contribute partly to the scatter. The understanding of physical phenomena
governing the cavitation inception process, especially the influence of cavitation nuclei on bubble
bursting, is important for assisting a propeller designer in dealing with cavitation.
In the present investigation, the environmental effects of ocean, lake, and laboratory waters on
cavitation were examined. Ocean measurements were conducted at several locations in the early spring
of 1983 in Exuma Sound near the Bahamas and the Gulf Stream off the coast of Florida. Lake
measurements were conducted in April of 1985 at two locations in Lake Pend Oreille, Idaho. i ne
laboratory measurements were made in the DTNSRDC 12-in. water tunnel to provide a reference for
comparison between ocean, lake, and laboratory waters.
rhe environmental effect on cavitation was measured by a cavitation susceptibility meter
consisting of a venturi, a hydrophone, a pressure transducer, and a flow-rate sensor. It is important to
remark that the cavitation experiments were conducted in situ. Nuclei concentrations and size distribu-
tions were measured by a microbubble light detector. Water samples examined by the microbubble
detector were obtained from a sample collector which maintained in situ water pressure. In the ocean
investigation, 3 a full range of other types of oceanographic data was also collected. The range of
depth covered in the ocean and lake was 10 to 200 m. Related holographic measurements of cavitation
4
nuclei in the ocean have been reported by O'Hern, J. Katz and Acosta.
Experimental results show the influence of geographic locations and depths on both nuclei
distributions and cavitation inception. Bubble instability theory and the Rayleigh-Plesset dynamic
equation are used to assist the interpretation of the test results. Conclusions and recommendations are
given to complete the report.
.42
TENSILE STRENGTH OF A REAL VERSUS AN IDEAL FLUID .9
Pure liquids at ambient temperature are known to withstand very large tensile stresses before they 0
rupture to form cavities. However, in realistic circumstances a liquid contains weak spots or nuclei,
which allow a phase change of the liquid at much lower tensile stresses or even at positive pressures.
Cavitation inception indices measured on a lifting body or a headform are known to exhibit a wide
range of inception values with respect to the "quality" of the water.
The pressure distribution on a lifting surface can be described by a pressure coefficient,
P0 - P(x) (1)
C(x) (1/2) QV(
where P0 P, Q, and V o are the reference pressure, local pressure on the body surface, fluid density,
and the reference velocity, respectively. The symbol x denotes the spatial coordinate in the flow direc-
tion. The pressure coefficients are mainly functions of foil geometry and the foil angle of attack.
Cavitation measurements on a body or lifting surface are generally expressed in terms of a cavita-
tion number a, given by
P0O- P%
-0 0 (2)
(1/2) QV02
where P,, is the vapor pressure of the liquid. It has generally been assumed that cavitation inception
occurs when the local pressure falls to or below the vapor pressure of the fluid. One of the main goals
in the present investigation is to examine the validity of this assumption.
Cavitation inception on full scale propellers operated at a given depth often occurs at different
ship speeds V0 . Similarly, for a ship operated at different depths, the measured cavitation inception
speeds do not follow strictly the square root of depth or reference pressure relation which follows
from Equation (2) above. Thus, there is a large scattering of the inception data at sea. Similar
phenomena are found in laboratory cavitation experiments. These observations have led to the
hypothesis of cavitation occuring only on specific sites or nuclei.
Itis a plausible assumption that cavitation inception occurs at the spot on a body or lifting
surface corresponding to the minimum pressure. We can define the ca'itation inception index o by
0 - Pmin _ P
°i Cpnmn (I/*2)V (1/2) QV " .3
\%here Pmin is the minimum pressure occurring on the hod\. If \%c h\pothc,,i,e that inception is
actually the process of cavitation nuclei blov,ing up, then 1m represent,, the critical pressure P. of
the %weakestnucleus that transits through the lo\, pre,,sure ione. The term P. reflects the tensile
3-
.. . . .. . . - . .. . . .
strength required of a real fluid to have the phase change occur. If PC = Pv, then cavitation inception
represents vaporization and the classic cavitation scaling law follows. In general, however, Pc is
different from Pv. By carrying out cavitation susceptibility measurements in ocean and lake waters,
the environmental effects of nuclei on cavitation can be evaluated.
4
In the 12-in. water tunnel, the same venturi unit was used but the pressure sensors were replaced
by mercury and water manometers. A pipe parallel to the water tunnel flow was used to transfer
water from the center of the test section to the venturi. A sketch of this circulating system is shown in
Figure 3. A major difference between the ocean and the 12-in. water tunnel set-up is that the light- ,,%,
scattering microbubble detector was in-line with the venturi system in the 12-in. water-tunnel
experiments, whereas the microbubble detecting system and venturi systems were deployed separately
in the ocean and lake experiments.
-a. -, , a - - -A
aST denotes the dissolved air saturation relative to 201C and 1 bar pressure measured by a Van Slyke
device. The symbol aE denotes the same air content but relative to the actual pressure in the tunnel.
The symbol R0 denotes the bubble radius.
Because of the large deaerator tank on this tunnel, a factor of 30 difference in the bubble concen-
trations can be produced. The bubble concentrations and air contents measured at a constant ambient
WTI 1.05 0.5 2.10 8.47 1.31 1.8 x 104 1.28 -0.04 x 10"
WT2 1.20 1.17 1.02 13.0 1.39 2.6 x l04 1.25 -0.11 x l05
WT3 1.20 1.87 0.65 19.1 1.02 3.8 x 104 1.23 0.37 x 105
WT4 0.60 1.17 0.53 15.3 0.96 3.0 x 104 1.24 0.28 x 105
WT5 0.50 1.17 0.42 16.3 0.86 3.3 X 104 1.23 0.47 x 105
WT6 0.07 1.16 0.06 21.6 0.48 4.3 x 104 1.22 1.69 x 105
7
Consider the test series consisting of runs WT2, WT4, WT5 and WT6. These four test runs were
conducted at the same test pressure. The bubble concentrations in terms of air contents are given in
Table 1 and plotted in Figure 6. The decrease in bubble concentration with air content is evident. The
measured cavitation index o i varied from 0.48 at an extremely low air content to 1.38 at the super-
saturated conditions. A dramatic change in o i, of almost a factor of three, was measured. A large
variation in o i with air content and bubble distribution has also been observed in headform
measurements 9 .
From the series of 12-in. water tunnel tests, the following observations are made:
1. A factor of 30 difference in the bubble concentrations can be produced.
2. The bubble size distributions and inception indices follow air contents in a systematic pattern.
3. Depending on the bubble concentrations, oi can vary by a factor of three. Such a large varia-
tion in oi makes bubble cavitation scaling from model to prototype difficult without taking nuclei into
account.
4. The venturi used in the present program can detect relative changes in bubble concentrations
by its indication of different oi values. The variation of o i with bubble concentration is systematic.
5. The measured water tensile strength of 0.3 to 1.7 bars is compatible with the values measured
by Knapp..
OCEAN MEASUREMENTS
Sea measurements were carried out in Exuma Sound and the Gulf Stream near the coast of
Florida to provide comparable susceptibility results in natural bodies of water. To investigate the
effect of depth on susceptibility, measurements were made at depths from 10 to 200 m. The cruise
track and station locations are shown on the map of Figure 7. The cruise took place between
25 March and 5 April, 1983.
Station I was designated as the "shake down" station to check the instrumentation. Station 2 was
* used to tune the instruments. The data from these two stations were not used in this report. Suscepti-
bility measurements covered Stations 3 to 6 in Exuma Sound, and 7 to 9 in the Gulf Stream in the
Straits of Florida. Station 6 was the same location as Station 3 but 4 days later. Because of the
strong current and ship drift in the Gulf Stream, difficulties were experienced in obtaining deep depth
data there. However, with good weather throughout the whole test program, the fluctuations in
surface elevation were relatively small and the ambient pressures seen by the pressure sensors were
almost constant at a given depth.
The sequence of data collection follows. Once on station, the Neil Brown conductivity-
temperature-depth probe equipped with a transmissometer was used to collect standard oceanograhic
data. This was followed by the deployment of the General Oceanics Rosette sampling device to collect
. ...
. K. .** , *.*..: . :... ., . . .. : : .- , . .. i
water samples from discrete depths. All of the oceanographic tests took only 2 to 3 h/station.
Immediately after the completion of the oceanographic tests, the cavitation susceptibility meter was
deployed.
The underwater venturi unit was deployed to a specified depth while monitoring the pressure on
the transducers. Cable markers provided general guidance on the overall depth. Once at depth, the
flow rate was set just below the critical speed such that no acoustic signals were detected for
3 to 5 min. The flow was then gradually increased until high amplitude acoustic signals were detected,
and then tuned to attain a specific frequency of cavitation events. The flow rate, ambient pressure,
and acoustic signals were recorded on tape and displayed on the shipboard readout unit for
3 to 5 min, with a few 10 min runs.
Except at Station 6, three flow rates corresponding to three different frequencies of cavitation
events were measured at each depth. It took approximately 3 h to complete cavitation susceptibility
measurements at one station. The microbubble and particle measurements then followed. The deploy-
ment and retrieval of the water sample collector and the measurements of nuclei distributions by the
light scattering device consumed a lot of time. This limited the data on nuclei distribution.
OCEANOGRAPHIC MEASUREMENTS
The temperature, water density, and dissolved oxygen distributions relative to 1-bar pressure are
given in Figures 8, 9 and 10 as a function of depth. (The other important oceanographic data such as
nitrogen, salinity, carbon, and biological parameters etc. are given and discussed in Reference 12.) In
the ocean, the biological parameters such as photoplankton, zooplankton and living cell distributions
etc. may play a role in cavitation. Nevertheless, the evaluations in this report are limited to relating
cavitation to bubble measurements.
The water temperature distribution is shown in Figure 8. The temperature near the surface was
about 24°C and dropped to 211C at 200-m depth in Exuma Sound. In the Gulf Stream, the
temperature at the surface was about 25°C and dropped to 15'C at 200-m depth. 3 The influence of
geographic locations on water temperature was very small in Exuma Sound during the tests. On the
other hand, the water temperature in the Gulf Stream showed significant variation with geographic
locations. The thermoclines in Exuma Sound occurred at around 150-m deep and in the Gulf Stream
at around 75 to 100-m deep (see Figure 9).
The dissolved oxygen distribution in Exuma Sound was relatively insensitive to geographic loca-
tion (Figure 10). Furthermore, the percent of oxygen saturation dropped very gradually with increases
in water depth. At the surface, the water was about 10000 saturated with oxygen. Even at 200 m, 8307o
saturation was measured in Exuma Sound. On the other hand, the oxygen saturation distribution in
the Gulf Stream was very different. The percent of' saturation decreased markedly at depths greater
than 100 m. At 200 m, a value of less than 500'o saturation %%as measured)1 The significance of this
9
m"q-°b
. ,"°,I•
. . ~~~~.
. . ° .... ,. , . . . . . -. . .-.. '- • ". .. . - .
parameter, "dissolved oxygen", is that quite often biological activity is related to oxygen balances and
microbubble distributions may well be a consequence of biological activity.
The surface tension of the ocean and lake waters was measured using a capillary device from
Fisher Scientific Co. The device consists of a 0.5-mm diameter borosilicate glass capillary tube,
graduated from 0 to 10 cm in 1-mm increments. Using a reading glass, the distance between the lower
meniscus in the outer tube and the upper meniscus in the capillary tube gives the surface tension. In
the ocean, the water sample was taken from the microbubble sample collector or the Rosette Sampling
device. The test results, not given in this report, showed that the surface tension of the sea water was
invariant throughout the test within the accuracy of measurement. The same was true with Lake Pend
Oreille water.
MICROBUBBLE MEASUREMENTS
The size and concentration of microbubbles in the 12-in. water tunnel, the ocean, and the lake
were measured with the same light scattering bubble detector. The ocean and lake microbubble spectra
were measured by examining the microbubbles retrieved from depth in the large water sampler, and
the measurements were then carried out on shipboard. However, it is important to point out that the
entire sampling process maintained the ocean water sample at in situ pressure until the sample passed
downstream of the bubble detector. Because of the time involved in the deployment and retrieval of
the sample collector, the number of microbubble measurements is relatively limited compared to the
cavitation measurements.
From the nuclei measurements on board the container ship "Sydney Express" and other
- oceanographic investigations, Weitendorf 13 found that a great number of cavitation nuclei are always
present in the ocean. Experiments by Medwin 1 4 in coastal waters indicate that bubbles with radii
between 15 and 200 jAm are present to depths of 40 m.
The ocean microbubble measurements at the 10-m depth are given in Figure 11. The same data
are replotted in Figure 6 for comparison with the water-tunnel data. The ocean bubble concentrations
fall between those corresponding to supersaturation and medium air content conditions for the water
tunnel. Note that these laboratory bubble measurements were at 1.17 bars ambient pressure while the
ocean data were measured at 2.09 bars. The difference in bubble size because of these pressure
differences would be about 2107o. Because of the significant effect of ambient pressure on microbubble
instability, however, the comparison given in Figure 6 can only be interpreted qualitatively. The nuclei
size distributions with depth in Exuma Sound and the Gulf Stream are given in Figure 12.
The existence of gas bubbles near the ocean surface, down to 40 m, has been \\ell documented 15 .
But, the existence and persistence of gas bubbles at deep depths of 200 m has not been previously
reported. Gas absorption physics would predict rapid absorption of bubbles at these depths and low
10
CAVITATION MEASUREMENTS
Two types of acoustic signals were detected in the cavitation measurements. The first, due to
single and multiple bubble bursting in the venturi throat away from the venturi wall, appeared on an
o)scilloscope as a signal that rose very sharply above the background noise level and then decayed
gradually. If bubble bursting took place near or on the venturi wall, as in surface sheet cavitation, the
second type of signal resulted. This signal rose quickly, and persisted at the same level. The acoustic
*intensity of the surface cavitation was much higher than that of the background noise but significantly
* lower than that of the single bubble bursting. For the cavitation susceptibility study, only cavitation
from a single bubble or multi-bubble bursting was of interest. Surface sheet cavitation did occur in the
\venturi occasionally -but it was easily removed by reducing the throat velocity. Increasing the throat
clocitv again usually did not restart the surface cavitation.
* the background noise of the acoustic channel \,\as about 100 mV peak-to-peak. The bursting
noise of a cavitation bubble was generally a fe\% volts or more; hence the signal to noise ratio was
II.
much greater than 10. As a result, it was not difficult to detect cavitation bursting acoustically. To
determine the frequency of cavitation events, a threshold of 1 V was set as the trigger to count cavita-
tion bursting in the counter. The oscilloscope trace indicated that the rebound of the bubble bursting
was less than I ms. To distinguish the bursting of multibubbles from the rebound signals of a single
bubble, a time lapse of 1.5 ms was set to trigger the counting of another event. Typical acoustic
signals of a single bubble bursting .re shown in Figure 13.
The test matrix at Station 6 was more extensive than at other stations. The measured frequency of
cavitation events and flow rates at Station 6 are shown in Figure 14 at four depths. The vertical axis
shows the averaged frequency of cavitation events per minute for a typical test run of 3 to 5 min. The
horizontal axis gives the corresponding flow rate measured in the middle of the test run. Plots are _
shown for water depths of 75, 100, 125 and 150 m, respectively. Note that as the ambient pressure
increases with depth so does the required flow rate to induce cavitation.
Laboratory experiments indicate that the occurrence of bubble cavitation is related to the
available nuclei content which is not uniformly distributed in space. In a separate report under
preparation, the nuclei distributions measured in the ocean and laboratory are found to follow a
Poisson distribution within a 95070 confidence level. This fact has also been reported by Lecoffre, et
15 Consequently, the frequency of cavitation events per unit time at a given
al., for laboratory water.
flow rate should also be Poisson distributed. Occasionally, a small increase in flow rate produced a
lower frequency of cavitation events as seen in Figure 14, but overall, the general trend is very clear.
At a given depth or ambient pressure, there existed a critical flow rate below which no cavitation was
detected. For a flow rate greater than this critical value, a slight increase in flow rate resulted in a
significant increase in the frequency of cavitation events.
To investigate the influence of different venturis on cavitation, the first venturi was replaced by a
second venturi. Both venturis were purchased in the same lot from Neyretec in Grenoble. Cavitation
" susceptibility measurements were carried out at a 25-m depth at Station 6. The test results are shown
in Figure 15. The first venturi is denoted as Venturi 1. and the second as Venturi 2. Due to a slight
difference in ambient pressure between these two test runs, the nondimensional cavitation number is
used for comparison. Both venturis gave the same trend. This result adds to the confidence in the test
data. To add a remark, the original Venturi I was reinstalled in the cavitation susceptibility meter and
used in the subsequent tests in the Gulf Stream and Lake Pend Oreille.
For completeness, the cavitation frequency versus flow rates for Stations 3, 4, and 5 in Exuma Sound
and 7 and 9 in the Gulf Stream are given in Figure 16. The same conclusion obtained previously can also
be made from Figure 16, that, at a given depth, there existed a critical flow rate below which no
cavitation bursting was detected. A slight increase in flow rate beyond the critical value produced a
*.64.
large increase in the frequency of cavitation events. The question arises whether this is a real fluid
phenomenon or an intrinsic property of the venturi that was used as a cavitation generator.
As mentioned previously, the existence of gas bubbles down to 40 m has been well documented.
Bubble dynamic theory should be applicable to investigation of cavitation events at least down to a
40-in depth. Based on the Rayleigh equation, bubble instability curves have been constructed and are
given in Figure 17. The effect of the pressure drop due to viscous losses in the venturi throat has been
t
included. Further discussions are given in Reference. 1
The free parameter in Figure 17 is the ambient pressure PO. The bold line is a special case
corresponding to the 10-m depth pressure of 2.09 bars. The horizontal axis corresponds to bubble size.
The vertical axis corresponds to the critical velocity at which the bubble becomes unstable. The curves
are referred to as static bubble instability curves. Similar figures of bubble instability have been com-
puted by d'Agostino and Acosta assuming potential flow. 1 8 In the case of Figure 17, for bubbles
larger than 7 pm, the curve is almost flat. For bubbles smaller than 7 Am, a substantial increase in
throat velocity is needed for small bubbles to become unstable.
Figure 17 clearly shows that at a given depth or ambient pressure there exists a critical velocity
belowk Mhich all the bubbles are stable and bubble cavitation would not be expected to occur. When
the critical velocity is reached, all the bubbles greater than 7 Am become unstable and a large number
of bursting bubbles is expected. Different cavitators would have different critical velocities, but the
general characteristics of instability curves should remain the same. This instability theory supports the
idea that the sudden increase in cavitation frequency with flow rate is a consequence of bubbles
becoming unstable and hence this is a real fluid phenomenon. Even though the existence of micro-
bubble-, at deep depths has not been proved conclusively, the same cavitation frequency trends
observcd in Figure 16 occurred at the deep depths, which supports the possible existence of bubbles.
1 he measured cavitation inception indices in Exuma Sound and the Gulf Stream are given in
F-igures 18 and 19, respectively. The corresponding geographic stations have been given in Figure 7.
Cavitation inception must be defined here. Although the definition of cavitation inception is sub-
jcctive, it is simply assumed in this report that cavitation inception occurs Mhen the bursting signals
are detected at an average frequency of 10 events per minute. (0.17 e\ents per second.) Fhe corre-
spondinL l%%rate is called the critical fhok rate Qi and the mean throat elocit\ i Called the
:ritical throat xclocit\. The cavitation inception index o i,, defined as
P
P(0
()V P)
'
°,.,. (1 '2) O (4)
Basically l'quafion (4) is the same as [quat ion (2). Ihc onlIs difference is that the critical throat
velocity instead of free stream velocity is used for normali/ation Ilhe curve denoted \ C inll
13
°. . . . . . . . . .
* Figures 18 and 19 corresponds to the measured minimum pressure coefficient on the venturi surface at
* different Reynolds numbers.
From Figures 17, 18, and 19, the following observations can be made:
* 1. There was no difficulty to induce in situ cavitation throughout the test matrix, even down to
*200 m; hence, deep ocean water cavitates readily.
* 2. At 10 m, the values of oi exhibit a large variation with geographic location. They range from
0.92 to 1.16 in Exuma Sound among 4 stations and 1.13 to 1.24 in the Gulf Stream. A relatively large
* variation in 01 was also observed at 25 m.
* 3. At 75 m, the measured values of a. at 4 stations ranged from 1.17 to 1.21 in Exuma Sound.
The total variation of ai among these stations is within 3016. The same statement holds true at depths
greater than 75 m. Cavitation nuclei populations were also similar between stations in Exuma Sound,
* at least at depths greater than 75 m. This indicates that the venturi meter responds to similar nuclei
concentrations reasonably well and that similar nuclei populations yield similar cavitation results.
* 4. In Exuma Sound, the average value of oi among 4 stations increased at 200 m. This trend was
not originally expected and cannot be currently explained.
* 5. In the Gulf Stream, the peak value of ai was measured at 100 m and a. decreased at deeper
- depths. This trend is opposite to the one noted for Exuma Sound.
6. In Exuma Sound, oax = 1.26 was measured at 200 m and omin = 0.92 was measured at 10
m. This gives a total variation in a. of 370;'. Below 25 m, the lowest value of a = 1.16 was measured
at 75 m depth. This gives a total variation in oi of 907 between 75 to 200 m.
7. In the Gulf Stream, omax = 1.28 was measured at 100 m, and ommn = 1.15 was measured at
*200 m. This gives a total variation in aiof 1207 between 75 to 200 m.
8. Between 10 and 100 m of depth, oi is higher overall in the Gulf Stream than in Exuma Sound.
Hence, the Gulf Stream is seen to be more susceptible to cavitation than Exuma Sound. At depths
greater than 100 m, the opposite is true.
9. A comparison of oi measured between the ocean and the 12-in, water tunnel indicates that high
air contents are needed in the laboratory to produce the same cavitation susceptibility as the ocean.
This point will be further amplified in the following theoretical studies.
THEORETICAL INTERPRETATION
It is the purpose of this section to see whether some theories can be used to interpret some of the
test results. Water tunnel data show that gas bubbles produce cavitation bursting in the venturi throat.
It is assumed that both static and dynamic bubble theories are therefore applicable to the present
study.
14
At shallow depths the Gulf Stream was seen to be more susceptible to cavitation than Exuma
Sound. At deep depths the opposite trend was noticed. Microbubble measurements shown in Figure 12
give higher bubble concentrations in the Gulf Stream than in Exuma Sound at shallow depths, and the
opposite at deeper depths. Cavitation data are thus supported by nuclei measurements. This result %
compliments the water tunnel data for which cavitation was very closely related to the concentration
of cavitation nuclei. %
One of the unexpected results is the increase in oi with depth in Exuma Sound. Another unex-
pected result is that variation of oi among 4 stations is significantly greater at a 10-ni depth than say
at a 100-m depth, while the measured nuclei as seetn in Figure 12 are more abundant at shallow depth
than at deep depth. It was anticipated that oi would vary more with sparser nuclei populations than
abundant ones. Furthermore, the measured oi value greater than 1.0 was not expected.
In a recent paper by Shen, Gowing and Pierce, t 7 bubble instability curves, in terms of the
ambient pressure, were computed and they are repeated here in Figure 17. The curve denoted by 2.09
bars corresponds to an ocean depth of 10 m. The curve is almost flat for bubble sizes Ro greater than
7 pm. With only . minute increase in throat velocity, all bubbles greater than 7 ;Am will become
unstable, and this radius is termed the critical radius. The locus of critical bubble radii is also shoNsn
in Figure 17.
rhe critical radii are seen to decrease significantly with an increase in ambient pressure or depth.
For example, the critical radius is seen to be around 0.4 Mm at 200 m deep (21.7 bars). All bubbles
greater than 0.4 Mm would then be candidates for cavitation bursting. Recall that the bubble concen-
tration drops almost linearly with increasing bubble size on a logarithmic scale. Consequently, the con-
centration of bubbles eligible to cavitate can theoretically increase with depth if the plots in Figure 12
can be extrapolated to smaller sizes. This may explain the fact that o i increases with depth as it did in
Exunia Sound. Because the relatively large bubbles measured by the detector would only form a small
fraction of the total bubbles eligible for cavitation if the plots in Figure 12 were extrapolated, this
hypothesis may not be proved as the direct niiamrcincnt ol hiuhhlc ,ic, Ics thmin 5 pn lia not
successfully been made.
The cavitation inception index o, defined in Equation (4) is based on the mean vcnturi throat
velocity when the occurrence of bubble bursting was detected. According to potential flo\' theor\, o
should not be greater than unity. Ocean measurements gien in Figures 18 and 19 shom other\mise. lhe
viscous effect of a real fluid is seen to pla\ an important role in caitai ion Susceptibilit.\
measurements. This subject has recently been studied by Chahine and Shen, 19 and Shen and
Gowing.2 )
As flow passes through the ' enturi throat there \\ill be an enerey loss because of the
viscous effect. Furthermore, the boundar layer gro\ws and the potential core in the throat shrink,,.
This results in an accelerating flo%% in the potential corc along the throat. The \elocity in the potential
core will be substantially higher than the ican ihtoat \clocit\
15
. "
The measured pressure distribution along the 'enturi throat is given in Figure 20. Because of the
energy loss, the pressure coefficient based on the mean throat velocity is seen to be substantially
higher than unity. This fact explains why the measured o, from the ocean can be higher than unity.
The minimum pressure coefficient in the throat occurs at the exit and is shown in Figure 20. The
measurements show a 20 to 300,'o energy loss, which is about the value given by Schlichting in a pipe
flon. 2 1 The minimum pressure coefficients - CPTUII) corresponding to different flow rates at different
depths are plotted in Figures 18 and 19 along with the cavitation data. By comparing the measured oi
and - Cpmin some of the test data are seen to coincide with the classic assumption that Pmin = P\, at
the state of cavitation inception. On the other hand, a significant portion of test data shows the
noticeable error induced by the classic assumption.
16
;~~~~~~~~~~~~.....,......_.,................,...................,,...............,......... +.,...,,...•
2. At 100 m deep, the measured oi are 1.07 and 1.08 in the lake, 1.23 and 1.28 in the Gulf
Stream, and 1.18 to 1.21 in Exuma Sound. Lake water is seen to be less susceptible to cavitation than
ocean water at that depth.
3. At 200 m deep, the measured o is 1.14 at the lake, 1.15 in the Gulf Stream, and 1.20 to 1.26
* in Exuma Sound. The difference between the lake and Exuma Sound can be as high as 120.
In summary, lake measurements indicate that there w'ould be no difficulty in producing bubble
cavitation at 100- and 200-m depths. However, it was found that the flow rates required to induce
cavitation were higher at Lake Pend Oreille than at Exuma Sound.
The discussions so far are centered on the cavitation inception index and nuclei distribution.
Acoustic intensity generated by the bubble bursting has also been briefly investigated. One noticeable
distinction between ocean and lake data is that the acoustic intensities measured in the lake at 150-
and 200-i depths were significantly lower than those measured at the shallow depths. This
phenomenon was not observed in the case of the ocean measurements. Tile reason for different
acoustic signals in the two different bodies of water is not clear.
+
P, P0 K V--2 (5)
The negative sign on the right hand side is used to yield positi\e \alues for tension and negative values
for compression. The symbol K includes the loss coefficient due to viscosity. Tile actual \alue of K
depends on the venturi geometry and the friction coefficient. In this study, it is approximated by the
measured value of - Cpmin.
The computed tensile strengths of laboratory water at different air contents are given in Table 2.
,\t ,upersaturation conditions, compression was measured at the state of cavitation inception. At lo er'
air contcnts and bubble populations, tile tIUIleC \,,atcr ,ho\ed tcilstion at inception..A t ensile Irengh "Ii
of 1.69 bars, corresponding to 24.5 psi was computed at the 7% air content. A,, lhovn in I-able 2,tie
range of tensile strengths computed for the 12-in. \%ater tunnel is in tile sanle tangc as those measured
*" h\ Knapp at tile California Insitute of'l-echnology.
The computed tensile strengths of the ocean and lake \saters are given in 1 ables 3 and 4, respec-
tielv. The magnitudes of tensile strength mcasured in the ocean kater airc compatible \\itlh thosc of
. . . .. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . ,
7TT
laboratory water. The compression computed for the 200-m depth in Exuma Sound was not expected.
Further studies are being made to investigate this phenomenon. As a remark, susceptibility works by
Crump 2 2, 23 and Knapp I also showed large compression in some of their test measurements.
The critical pressure data obtained at sea by the U.S. Navy17 and French Navy 24 are summarized
in a recent report of the 18th ITTC Cavitation Committee and given in Table 5. It is noted that the
data given in Reference 16 only cover the depths of 10 and 25 m. The tensile strengths measured near
the Mediterranean and Britanny coasts were found to be higher than the values in the Gulf Stream,
and less than the values in the Exuma Sound. The existence of tension at the state of cavitation is
evident.
The tensile strength computed by Equation (5) does account for the energy loss due to viscosity
by using the measured -C value to substitute the value of K. However, the influence of boundary
layer growth and potential core acceleration in the throat are not considered. Hopefully, this
correction is not large. Further refinements of the theoretical analysis are needed to improve values
given in Tables 2, 3, and, 4.
CONCLUSIONS
For the first time, cavitation susceptibility and nuclei distributions were measured in ocean, lake,
and laboratory waters. The depths covered in this test program ranged from 10 to 200 m. To provide
a reference for comparison, the water in the 12-in. water tunnel was measured with the same devices
used in both ocean and lake.
, The important results obtained from the ocean measurements can be summarized as follows:
* 1. In the Gulf Stream, the water temperature and oxygen distributions were found to vary
significantly with change in depth and geographic location. In Exuma Sound, they were less sensitive
to change in depth and geographic location.
2. Measured nuclei populations decrease xith increased depth. The rate of decrease of nuclei
population with depth is qualitatively indicated b\ the oxygen levels.
3. Correlation between nuclei concentrations and cavitation inception indices was observed. At
depths of less than 100 m, bubbles were more abundant in the Gulf Stream than in Exuma Sound,
and cavitation was found to occur more easily in the Gulf Stream than in :xuma Sound. At depths
deeper than 100 in, there were more nuclei in ELxLma Sound than in the Gulf Stream, and cavitation
was found to occur more easily in Exuma Sound.
4. Depending on the nuclei populations, variations of ca itation inception indices with depth can
take different forms in different bodies of water, as noted il lxima Sound. the Gulf Stream, and (as
noted in the following paragraph) lake Pend Oreille.
TABLE 3 - TENSILE STENGTH OF OCEAN WATER EXUMA SOUND
(SPRING 1983)
Tensile Strength (bar)*
~~Depth""
lOm 25m 75m 100m 125m 150m 200m
*Station "
19
I
TABLE 5 - CRITICAL PRESSURE MEASURED AT SEA BY VENTURI METHOD
(TAKEN FROM 18th ITTC CAVITATION COMMITTEE REPORT)
Ambient Critical R
Station P PL equivalent 2
(bar) (bar) (tim)
It 20 2.96 0).
5( 0.73
"( !lOI in,'ception b kacd oli /Clo c\cI f,, i IIIIIItC i .l \lHO, (il jfl .
2--
i : -.- W:, , ', *,,i .,', . - ,. ~. S, ,ti,, 2 WJ ..5 .. *,. -- W
' WI
. W; VL
,- . .i.P ,. ':, ,. ,i - . . -. 'F ,-.: .- ' -- "- --
5. Bubble dynamic and static instability theories show that, given an ambient pressure and speed,
there exists a critical minimum bubble radius for cavitation bursting to occur. The sudden appearance
of cavitation with increasing speed is borne out by the measurements.
6. The unstable bubble population may actually increase with depth. This idea may be used to
explain why cavitation inception indices are higher at deep depths than at shallow depths in Exuma
Sound.
7. In Exuma Scind Omax = 1.26 was measured at 200 m and omin 0.92 was measured at
10 m. Thus, a total variation in oi of 37076 was observed.
8. In the Gulf Stream Omax = 1.28 was measured at 100 m and O n =i 1.15 was measured at
200 m. This gives a variation of 12o of o i between 100 to 200 m.
9. The classic assumption of Pmin = P, at the state of cavitation inception can be seriously in
error, as noted by the difference between measured values of a and - C
The fcllowing summary can be made of the lake measurements:
1. More nuclei were measured in the lake than in the ocean. This was not originally expected.
2. Particle measurements indicate that nuclei measured in the lake may consist of a substantial
amount of particles. This fact was supported by the observation of reduced visibility of the sample
collector at shallow depths, relative to the ocean visibility, and further supported by the light trans-
mission measurements taken with a transmissometer.
3. At the shallow depths of 10 and 25 m, cavitation inception indices measured at the lake are
compatible Aith the Gulf Stream measurements and slightly higher than the values measured at Exuma
Sound.
4. At depths greater than 25 m, the lake water was found to be less susceptible to cavitation than
in Exuma Sound.
5. At a 2(X) m depth, the measured value of o is 1.14 in the lake, 1.15 in the Gulf Stream, and
1.20 to 1.26 in Exuma Sound. The difference in a between the lake %ater and Exuma Sound \kater
can be as high as 12°0o.
The important results obtained in the 12-in. ,,ater tunnel can be sumnarited as follo\, s:
1. Because of the deaerator, a factor of 30 difference in the bubble concentration,, can be
produced.
2. The bubble concentration and size distributions follo\% the air content, in a systenatic s'as.
3. Depending on the bubble concentrations, c i ,aried from 0.49 to 1.38. his is almost a factor
" of 3 in o variation and makes cavitation scaling from model to prototype difficult.
4. A comparison with the ocean measurements indicate,, that high air contents are is needed i,
water tunnels to produce the same cavitation inception index as measured in the ocean at deep depth,.
21
5. From bubble dynamics and static instability theories, a critical bubble radius, strongly depen-
dent on pressure and velocity, may be computed. At deep depths and high ambient pressures, the
population of unstable bubbles can become very large. The bubble instability theory seems to suggest
that the cavitation scaling problem can be significantly minimized by testing the model at high ambient
pressUres and high test speeds.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Many important results have been obtained in this test program. Further work is recommended to
improve the level of confidence of cavitation susceptibility predictions. It must be noted that the con-
clusions given in the previous section have been based on limited test data. The influence of seasonal
variation and different geographic locations on cavitation should be further investigated.
Lake data clearly show that additional nuclei measurement devices, such as holography, 4 may
have to be used in line with the present measuring system so that particles and gas bubbles can be
distinguished in nuclei population counts. Further improvements are needed to enhance flow-rate
regulation and eliminate flow-rate fluctuations.
The importance of micro-organisms such as zooplankten and their influence on cavitation
inception has not been investigated in the present report.
The importance of viscous effects on cavitation measurements by a venturi system has been
partially investigated. More theoretical xork is needed to separate the viscous effects from nuclei
effects.
The report so far is concerned with the effect of nuclei on cavitation inception. The effect of
different nuclei on the acoustics of cavitation has not been included.
The present study uses a venturi device as a cavitator. Analytical works are recommended to
interpret results obtained in the \enturi relati\c to vortex-type cavitation.
Finally, the present work shows a qualitati e correlation bet\keen nuclei measurements and cavita-
(ion. As pointed out in recent ITTC and AT reports, guidance to relate nuclei distributions and
ca±itatlon testing procedures in laboratoric, i,needed. I hik iP an area that rCLuircs further
illS cstigation.
A(KN\()\ I IDI) IN IS
-he authors express their deep appreciation to l)r. A. Zsolna\ at NORDA for his support of the
scli nitise, and to Mr. D. Gerzina at I)TNSRI)C for hi', support of lake measurements. The
co1ntinuous, support and encouragement o .1. If.NIc(arth, and Dr. F. B. Peterson throughout
Mi.
tic course of this project are greatl. appiiicd I inall\ lhc benefits of technical discussions with
l)r. T. I. I luang are greatly apprccia[tcd.
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REFERENCES
1. Acosta, A.J. and B.R. Parkin, "Cavitation Inception - A Selective Review," 17th American
Towing Tank Conference Calif. Int. of Technology, Pasadena, Ca. (June 1974).
2. Kuiper, G. "Cavitation Inception on Ship Propeller Models," Ph.D. dissertation, Netherlands
Ship Model Basin, Waginengen, Netherlands (March 1981).
3. Zsolnay, A., D.M. Lavoie, D.A. Wiesenburg, and D. Reid, "Environmental Parameters in
Exuma Sound and the Straits of Floridas," Naval Ocean Research and Development Activity,
Technical Note 252 (1984).
4. O'Hern, T.J., J. Katz, and A.J. Acosta, "Holographic Measurements of Cavitation Nuclei in
the Sea," Cavitation and Multiphase Flow Forum, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
Albuquerque, N.M. (1985).
5. Brockett, T., "Computational Method for Determination of Bubble Distributions in
Liquids," DTNSRDC Report No. 2798 (April 1969).
6. Ripkin, J.R. and A.P. Killen, "Gas Bubbles: Their Occurrence, Measurement, and Influence
in Cavitation Testing," Proceedings IAHY Symposium, Sendai, Japan (1962).
7. LeGoff, J.P. and Y. Lecoffre, "Nuclei and Cavitation," 14th Symposium on Naval
Hydrodynamics, Ann Arbor, Mich. (1982).
8. Gowing, S. and S.C. Ling, "Measurements of Microbubbles in a Water Tunnel," 19th
American Towing Tank Conference at University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. (July 1980).
9. Ling, S.C., S. Gowing, and Y.T. Shen, "The Role of Microbubbles on Cavitation on Head-
forms," 14th Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics. Ann Arbor, Mich. (1982).
10. Katz, J., S. Gowing, T. O'Hern, and A. Acosta, "A Comparative Study Between
Hologiraphic and Light Scattering Techniques of Microbubble Detection," International Union of
I heoretical and Applied Mechanics Symposium-Measuring Techniques in Gas-Liquid Two-Phase
l-lovs, Nancy, France (1983).
II- Knapp, R.T., J.W. Daily, and F.G. Hammitt, "Cavitation," McGraw-Hill, New York (1970).
12. Medwin. H., "In Situ Acoustic Measurements of Microbubble at Sea," Journal of
Geophysics Research, Vol. 82 (1977).
13. Weitendorf, E.A., "Conclusions from Full-Scale and Model Investigations of the Free Air
Content and of the Propeller-Excited Hull Pressure Amplitudes Du, to Cavitation," International
Symposium on Cavitation Inception, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York City
(Dec 1979).
14. NMedwin, H., "Acoustic Bubble Spectra at Sea," Proceedings of First International
Conference on Cavitation and Inhomogeneitics in Underwater Acoustics, Gottingen, Fed. Republic of
(ermany (1979).
45
. e.°
o , • .o% .o, o , . ° ° . . . , . . --. . a ..- .a a . .k.. ... . - .. . ao
15. Shen, Y.T. and F.B. Peterson, "Cavitation Inception - A Review - Progress Since 19th
ATTC," 20th American Towing Tank Conference, Stevens Int. of Technology, Hoboken, N.J. (1983).
16. Godefroy, H.W., R.J. Jansen, A.P. Keller, Y. Lecoffre, D.M. Oldenziel, and
R.L. van Renesse, "Comparison of Measuring and Control Methods of the Water Quality with
Respect to Cavitation Behavior," Delft Hydraulic Laboratory, Delft, Netherlands (1981).
17. Shen, Y.T., S. Gowing, and R. Pierce, "Cavitation Susceptibility Measurements by a
Venturi," International Symposium on Cavitation Inception, Winter Annual Meeting of American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, New Orleans, La. (Dec 1984).
18. d'Agostino, L. and A.J. Acosta, "On the Design of Cavitation Susceptibility Meters," 20th
American Towing Tank Conference, Stevens Int. of Technology, Hoboken, N.J. (1983).
19. Chahine, G. and Y.T. Shen, "Bubble Dynamics and Inception in Cavitation Susceptibility
Meters," Winter Annual Meeting of American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Miami, Fla. (1985).
20. Shen, Y.T. and S. Gowing, "Scale Effect on Bubble Growth and Cavitation Inception in
Cavitation Susceptibility Meters," Cavitation and Multiphase Flow Forum, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, Albuquerque, NM (1985).
21. Schlichting, H., "Boundary Layer Theory," McGraw-Hill, New York (1979).
22. Crump, S., "Determination of Critical Pressures for the Inception of Cavitation in Fresh and
Sea Water as Influenced by Air Content of the Water," DTMB Report 575 (1949).
23. Crump, S., "Critical Pressures for the Inception of Cavitation in a Large-Scale Numachi
N['tzzle as Influenced by the Air Content of the Water," DTMP Report 770 (1951).
24. Ligneul, P., "Influence of Nuclei on Cavitation of Marine Propellers," Association Techni-
CIue Maritime et Aeronautique, Paris, France (1984).
46
.........................................................................
INITIAL DISTRIBUTION Ja
1 1543 Rood
1 NOSR 2501 (J. Hoyt)
1 1544 Peterson
1 U.S. Naval Academy (R. Johnson) i 1544 Jessup
1 19 Sevik
CIT (A. Acosta) 1 19 Strasberg
47
.................................................
.~ .* .(* ~