Therapeutic Potential of Some Medicinal Plants: Poisonous Category
Therapeutic Potential of Some Medicinal Plants: Poisonous Category
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Abhimanyu Kumar
Madan Mohan Padhi
Narayanam Srikanth
Bishnupriya Dhar
Anupam K. Mangal
ISBN : 978-93-83864-03-4
Disclaimer: All possible efforts have been made to ensure the correctness of
the contents. However CCRAS shall not be accountable for any inadvertent
error in the content. The corrective measures shall be taken up once such
errors are brought to notice.
Preface
Every country has its own traditional health care practices. These
practices have evolved based on culture, philosophy, geographical
conditions, flora, and mineral resources. From historical point of view it is
evident that plants, metals, minerals and animal products are being
exceedingly used in alleviating varied disease conditions. History of use of
natural products of medicinal value can be traced from remote past .Ever
since dawn of history man has been in pursuit of new substances that
could cure illness and promote health and longevity and medicinal plants
contribute a major role in health care.
India, endowed with rich diversity in its flora and fauna is
considered to be one of the top twelve mega-diversity countries of the
world. Being a subcontinent, it encompasses 15- different agro-climatic
zones, 10 vegetarian zones, 25 biotic provinces and 426 biomes. Almost all
the shades of climates, from the hottest Thar desert to arctic environment
in Himalaya, with intermediate gradations, occur in India.
The nature of diversity in environmental regimes and its position at
the tri-junction of African, Eurasian and Oriental biotas have enabled India
to harbor over 125,000 species of living organisms, constituting about 5%
of known species of the world. This country has very rich elements of
endemics in its flora. It has been estimated that about 35% of the higher
plant flora is endemic to India. Out of the 34 hot spots of biodiversity
identified in the world, India share geographic area of four hot spots
located in the Himalaya, Western Ghats & Srilanka, Indo- Burma and
Sundaland. These hot spots are rich in endemic flora.
India has a long history and strong base of Ayurveda and other
traditional systems of medicine which are gaining the attention of
international community. The health promotive, disease preventive,
rehabilitative and recuperative roles of Ayurveda with its holistic approach
are the reasons its acceptance. Based on sound concept and practice,
Ayurvedic System of Medicine is well documented and includes every
aspect of health and disease. In spite of advances in biomedical research,
many new diseases are emerging and management of such refractory
illness is posing a global challenge. Now it is time to integrate the benefits
of Ayurveda with its rational, affordable and evidence based use.
About 80% of population in India is reported to use Ayurveda and
medicinal plants to help meet their primary health care needs and the
safety of this vibrant tradition is attributed to time tested use, textual
reference and further endorsed by scientific studies. India is one of the few
countries that have developed services of traditional medicine through
the official planning process. With the growing use of Ayurveda, the safety
and efficacy as well as quality control have become major concerns and
are being addressed systematically backed by scientific evidence. A
number of scientists and institutions across the country have significantly
contributed for research and development on cultivation, conservation
and validation of safety and efficacy of medicinal plants.
This compendium titled 'Conservation ,Cultivation and Exploration
of Therapeutic potential of Medicinal Plants ' enriched with proficient
contributions by experienced workers in diverse interrelated fields would
certainly serve as useful reference document for scientists, academicians,
practitioners and will also be of immense help to scholars pursuing
research. I am convinced that this endeavor assuredly pose are markable
impact in disseminating the merits of Ayurveda and research outcomes for
their better utilization.
ii
Contributors
Abhimanyu Kumar
Director General, Central Council For Research in AyurvedIc Sciences, 61-
65, Institutional Area, Opposite 'D'Block, Janakpuri, New Delhi-110058.
Anjali Kak
Division of Germplasm Conservation, NBPGR, Pusa Campus, New Delhi.
A K Mangal
Research officer (Pharmacognosy) Scientist-2, Central Council For
Research in AyurvedIc Sciences, 61-65, Institutional Area, Opposite
'D'Block, Janakpuri, New Delhi-110058.
Amita Kumari
Consultant (Chemistry), Central Council For Research in AyurvedIc
Sciences, 61-65, Institutional Area, Opposite 'D'Block, Janakpuri, New
Delhi-110058.
A K Tripathi
Senior Research Fellow, Ayurveda Regional Research Institute (C.C.R.A.S.),
Department of AYUSH, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare,
Government of India, Itanagar-791111.
A K S Rawat
Scientist & Head, Pharmacognosy & Ethnopharmacology Division, CSIR-
National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow-226001.
Arti Pandey
Department of Food and Nutrition, College of Home Science; GB Pant
University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar 263 145,
Uttarakhand.
Bhagwan Sahai Sharma
Research officer (Ayurveda) Scientist-2, Central Council For Research in
AyurvedIc Sciences, 61-65, Institutional Area, Opposite 'D'Block,
Janakpuri, New Delhi-110058.
Bibhu Prasad Panda
Microbial and Pharmaceutical Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of
Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, Centre for Advanced Research in
Pharmaceutical Science, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jamia Hamdard, Delhi 62
iii
Bishnupriya Dhar
Assistant Director (Pharmacognosy) Scientist-3, Central Council For
Research in AyurvedIc Sciences, 61-65, Institutional Area, Opp.'D'Block,
Janakpuri, N ew Delhi-110058.
Bharti
Assistant Director (Scientist-3), Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic
Sciences (CCRAS), Department of AYUSH, Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare, Government of India, New Delhi.
Charvi Mahalwar
Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Agriculture, GB
Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar 263 145,
Uttarakhand.
Chinmay Rath
Research officer (Botany), Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic
Sciences, Janakpuri, New Delhi-110058.
C K Katiyar
Zandu Foundation for Health Care, 687, Anandapur, E. M. Bypass, Kolkata-
700107.
C S Chopra
Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Agriculture, GB
Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar 263 145,
Uttarakhand.
Dinesh Kumar Agrawala
Scientist-C, Botanical Survey of India, Sikkim Himalayan Regional Centre,
Gangtok-737103.
Divya Patel
Zandu Foundation for Health Care, 687, Anandapur, E. M. Bypass, Kolkata
700107.
G C Bhuyan
Research officer (Ayurveda) Scientist-2, Central Council For Research in
AyurvedIc Sciences, 61-65, Institutional Area, Opposite 'D'Block,
Janakpuri, New Delhi-110058.
iv
Gian Singh Aulakh
nd
Consultant, Rawal Medherb Consultants, Pvt. Limited. C-3/22,2 Floor,
Phase -2, Ashok Vihar delhi-110052.
GVR Joseph
Assistant Director (Botany) Scientist-3, Central Council For Research in
AyurvedIc Sciences, 61-65, Institutional Area, Opp.'D'Block, Janakpuri, N
ew Delhi-110058.
H B Singh
Chief Scientist Herbology, AIMIL Pharmaceuticals (I) Ltd, New Delhi.
J M Pathak
Zandu Foundation for Health Care, 687, Anandapur, E. M. Bypass, Kolkata
700107.
Kaushal K Srivastava
Ex-Director, DRDO, 8-A, Railway Board Officers Flat, Sarojani Nagar, New
Delhi-110023.
K Nishteswar
Professor & Head, Department of Dravyaguna, IPGT&RA, Gujarat
Ayurveda University, Jamnagar.
K V Billore
Ex-Head, National Research Institute for Basic Ayurveda Sciences (CCRAS),
Kothrud, Pune- 411 038.
Lalit Tiwari
Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia Laboratory, Ghaziabad- 201 002.
Manisha Mangal
Senior Scientist (Agriculture Biotechnology), Division of Vegetable
Sciences, IARI, New Delhi-110012.
M M Padhi
Deputy Director (Technical), Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic
Sciences (CCRAS), Department of AYUSH, Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare, Government of India, New Delhi.
M M Sharma
Research officer (Ayurveda) Scientist-2, Central Council For Research in
AyurvedIc Sciences, 61-65, Institutional Area, Opposite 'D'Block,
Janakpuri, New Delhi-110058.
v
Mojeer Hasan
Microbial and Pharmaceutical Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of
Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, Centre for Advanced Research in
Pharmaceutical Science, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi-
110062.
M S Chandorkar
Zandu Foundation for Health Care, 687, Anandapur, E. M. Bypass, Kolkata-
700107.
N Haripriya
Former Lecturer in Botany, Ramakrishna Junior College, Narasaraopet,
Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh.
N Srikanth
Assistant Director (Scientist-3), Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic
Sciences (CCRAS), Department of AYUSH, Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare, Government of India, New Delhi.
Nitin Rai
Pharmacopoeial Laboratory for Indian Medicine, Ghaziabad -201002.
Prakash Chandar Bhatt
Microbial and Pharmaceutical Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of
Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, Centre for Advanced Research in
Pharmaceutical Science, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi
110062.
Pratibha Gupta
Zandu Foundation for Health Care, 687, Anandapur, E. M. Bypass, Kolkata-
700107.
Preety Dixit
Research Fellow, Medicinal and Process Chemistry Division, CSIR-Central
Drug Research Institute,Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Sitapur Road,
Lucknow-226031.
Rajeev Kr Sharma
Pharmacopoeial Laboratory for Indian Medicine, Ghaziabad -201002.
Rajendra Gupta
Zandu Foundation for Health Care, Village-Ambach, Gujrat.
vi
Rakesh Maurya
Chief Scientist, Medicinal and Process Chemistry Division, CSIR-Central
Drug Research Institute,Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Sitapur Road,
Lucknow-226031.
Rama Shankar
Research Officer (Scientist-4), Ayurveda Regional Research Institute
(C.C.R.A.S.), Department of AYUSH, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare,
Government of India, Itanagar-791111.
Ratan Kumar
Former Additional Director, DIPAS, Timarpur, New Delhi-110058.
R N Acharya
Institute of Ayurvedic Pharmaceutical Science, Gujarat Ayurvedic
University, A.K. Jamal Building, Guru Nanak Road, Jamnagar-361008,
Gujarat.
Sangita Bansal
Sr. Scientist, Division of Food Grains and Oilseeds Processing, Central
Institute of Postharvest Engineering and Technology (ICAR), Ludhiana-
141004.
Shruti Khanduri
Research officer (Ayurveda), Central Council For Research in AyurvedIc
Sciences, 61-65, Institutional Area, Opposite 'D'Block, Janakpuri, New
Delhi-110058
Shweta Yadav
Associate Professor in Zoology, School of Biological Sciences, Dr. H.S.
Gaur Central University, Sagar – 470003.
S K Sharma
Asstt. Professor, Department of Food Science and Technology, College of
Agriculture, GB Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar
263 145, Uttarakhand.
S N Yoganarasimhan
Visiting Professor & Research Co-ordinator, Deptt. of Pharmacognosy,
M.S. Ramaiah College of Pharmacy, (MS Ramaiah University of Applied
Sciences), MSRIT Post, Bangalore-560 054.
vii
Subash Chandra Verma
Research officer (Chemistry), Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic
Sciences, Janakpuri, New Delhi-110058.
Sudesh N. Gaidhani
Asstt. Director (Pharmacology), Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic
Sciences, Janakpuri, New Delhi-110058.
Veena Gupta
Division of Germplasm Conservation, NBPGR, Pusa Campus, New Delhi.
Vinod Kumar Joshi
Former Dean, Faculty of Ayurveda; Professor & Head, Department of
Dravyaguna; Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi.
V K Lavaniya
Research officer (Ayurveda), Central Council For Research in AyurvedIc
Sciences, 61-65, Institutional Area, Opposite 'D'Block, Janakpuri, New
Delhi-110058.
V K Singh
Ex. Deputy Director (Botany), Central Council for Research in Unani
Medicine, Department of AYUSH, 61-65 Institutional Area, Janakpuri,
viii
Contents
Preface………………………………………………………………………....i
Contributors………………………………………………………………….. iii
ix
10. Cultivation, Collection and Endangered status of Medicinal Plants-
Ancient & Modern Perspectives..............................................................189
K Nishteswar
11. Exploration, Conservation and Cultivation of Therapeutically Important
Medicinal Plants in Meghalaya................................................................219
Rama Shankar, AK Tripathi and Abhimanyu Kumar
12. Conservation and Pharmacognostical studies on Smilax zeylanica –
An alternative source for the Ayurvedic Drug Chopachinee....................239
SN Yoganarasimhan
13. Medicinal Plants of North East India used in Indian Systems of
Medicine..................................................................................................259
GVR Joseph, M M Padhi and Abhimanyu Kumar
14. Issues to be addressed for Cultivation and Conservation of Indian
medicinal plants.......................................................................................291
Dinesh Kumar Agrawala, Bishnupriya Dhar, Chinmay Rath and Subash
Chandra Verma
x
20. The Adaptive Medicine............................................................................405
Kaushal K Srivastava and Ratan Kumar
21. Impact of Shodhana (Detoxification Procedures) on Certain Poisonous
Herbal Drugs Used in Ayurveda..............................................................427
R N Acharya
22. Challenges in Quality Assurance for Desired Therapeutic Potential of
Herbal
Drugs/Formulations.................................................................................451
A K S Rawat
23. Therapeutic Potential of Some Medicinal Plants: Poisonous Category..469
Sudhesh N Gaidhani, Amita Kumari, Vinod Kumar Lavaniya, Bhagwan
Sahai Sharma, Madan Mohan Sharma, Guru Charan Bhuyan, Subash
Chandra Verma and Chinmay Rath
xi
Issues to be Addressed for Cultivation and Conservation of
Indian Medicinal Plants
Dinesh Kumar Agrawala, Bishnupriya Dhar,
Chinmay Rath and Subash Chandra Verma
291
Dinesh Kumar Agrawala et al.
There are several issues which could be addressed to frame strategies for
conservation and sustainable utilization of medicinal plants in our country.
· Exploration and documentation of distribution and availability of
medicinal plant species in India.
· Evaluation of their natural distribution and abundance.
· Morphological characterization of medicinal plants for correct
identification.
· Collection of folk–lore claims regarding the traditional use of medicinal
plants by the rural and indigenous people.
· Identification of medicinally important plants of high trade value.
· Explore the possibility of developing alternative climatic/habitat
condition for those species for ex–situ conservation and germplasm
maintenance.
· Develop protected areas in the natural habitats of most important
medicinal plants for in-situ conservation.
· Large scale cultivation using various agro–techniques to meet the
demand.
· Develop sustainable harvesting methods so that source of the drug
material will not deplete after harvesting of the drug part.
· Mass multiplication through seed/tissue/organ culture.
Distribution and availability
Botanical wealth (including medicinal plants) of our country and adjoining areas
was mostly explored by the Britishers during pre-independence period. This has
resulted in the publication of “Flora of British India” (1872-1897) in 7 volumes by
Sir J.D. Hooker. Though this book does not provide much information on the
medicinal value of the plants, it gives morphological description and diagnostic
characters of the plants and is still used as a major reference material for
identification and distribution of medicinal plants. In the post independence
scenario, Botanical Survey of India is the leading organization in exploring the
floristic diversity (including medicinal plants) of our country. This apart, several
other institutes/ universities/ NGOs are also engaged in collecting information on
distribution and availability of medicinal plants and associated traditional
knowledge. As a result, several publications in national as well as regional context
were come out providing information on distribution and availability of medicinal
plants.
India is divided in to 11 phyto-geographic regions such as 1. Western
Himalaya, 2. Eastern Himalaya, 3. North-East India, 4. Gangetic Plains, 5. Arid
292
Issues to be Addressed for Cultivation and Conservation ............
293
Dinesh Kumar Agrawala et al.
294
Issues to be Addressed for Cultivation and Conservation ............
cultivated source.
Cultivation practice of medicinal plants often leads to development of
new varieties/ cultivars having superior quality and quantity of bioactive
constituents. Also, the cultivation site acts as ex-situ conservation site for the
medicinal plants. In-situ conservation of natural resources alone cannot meet the
ever increasing demand of pharmaceutical industry. It is, therefore, inevitable to
develop cultivation practices and propagate these plants in suitable agro-climatic
regions. Commercial cultivation will put a check on the continued exploitation
from wild sources and serve as effective means to conserve the rare floristic wealth
and genetic diversity. Various issues to be addressed for a good cultivation practice
of medicinal plants are:
· Identify villagers/ farmers for on-farm pilot propagation and cultivation
trials of medicinal plants to reduce pressure from wild population.
· Farmers should be encouraged to cultivate medicinal plants and provided
with crop insurance and subsidy.
· Farmers/ villagers should be trained about the flowering, fruiting and
suitable maturity time for the drug parts for optimum harvesting.
· The price for the harvested product should be fixed before they initiate the
cultivation work.
· Pharmaceutical industry and government should bear some or all the
investment cost for the farmers cultivating the medicinal plants.
· Forest department should provide land for use in the cultivation purpose.
· Efforts are required to develop appropriate cropping patterns for the
incorporation of these plants into the conventional agricultural and forestry
cropping systems.
· It is also necessary to develop genetically superior planting material for
assured uniformity and desired quality and resort to organized cultivation to
ensure the supply of raw material at growers end.
· The selected propagation materials have to be distributed to the farmer
either through nurseries or seed banks.
Conservation
The universe is the creation of the supreme power meant for the benefit to all
his creations. Individual species must therefore learn to enjoy benefits by
forming a part of the system in close relation with other species. Let not any one
species encroach upon the others right*.
*Isho-Upanishad
295
Dinesh Kumar Agrawala et al.
296
Issues to be Addressed for Cultivation and Conservation ............
wild progenitors for future genetic resource in crop improvement. Despite all
these conservation efforts, the medicinal plant resource of our country is
continuously depleting due to one or more of the following threat factors:
• Over-exploitation due to medicinal importance.
• Urbanization.
• Grazing.
• Jhoom and Terrace Cultivation.
• Smuggling by traders.
• Over enthusiastic collection by students and researchers.
• Natural Calamities.
• Non-availability of pollinators.
Sustainable utilization
For Sustainable utilization of medicinal plants, the Departments/Institutions
/agencies must be identified for preparation of document on various aspects of
cultivation and conservation covering availability of planting material, agro-
practices, protocol, status of technology, ex-situ and in-situ conservation etc.
various issues to be addressed for sustainable utilization of medicinal plants are:
• Identify the medicinally important species and study their biology.
• Identify the therapeutically important ingredients and set up
pharmaceutical industry.
• Develop scope for their commercial exploitation.
• Set up artificial propagation methods to fulfill the demand.
• Maintain the germplasm through conserving the species in-situ and ex-
situ.
Role of botanical survey of india in conservation of medicinal plants
It is essential to document the distribution and population status of individual
species for framing conservation strategies. Botanical Survey of India (BSI) is the
leading organization in India, which is responsible for survey and documentation
of plant resources (including medicinal plants) of the country and has been playing
a significant role in the conservation of our plant resources. Through its regional
centers situated in most phyto-geographical areas in India, BSI has been engaged
in exploration, sample collection, identification, taxonomic studies,
characterization and documentation of floristic wealth of our country. BSI has also
been engaged in the collection of ethno-botanical data, study of the fragile
ecosystems and protected areas, and listing of threatened and endemic species to
undertake effective conservation measure. BSI is one of the oldest and leading
297
Dinesh Kumar Agrawala et al.
298
Issues to be Addressed for Cultivation and Conservation ............
PLATE-1:
A. Malaxis acuminata D.Don [Whole plant of the Ashtavarga drug 'Jeevaka'].
B. Malaxis acuminata D.Don [close up view of a flower].
C. Vanda coerulea Griff. ex Lindl. [The famous 'Blue Vanda', included in Appendix-I
of CITES, used as one of parents in several hybridization experiments].
D. Vanda coerulea Griff. ex Lindl. [close up view of a flower].
E. Renanthera imschootiana Rolfe [The famous 'Red Vanda', included in Appendix-I
of CITES, used as one of parents in several hybridization experiments].
299
Dinesh Kumar Agrawala et al.
300
Therapeutic Potential of Some Medicinal Plants:
Poisonous Category
Sudhesh N. Gaidhani, Amita Kumari, Subash Chandra Verma
Vinod Kumar Lavaniya, Bhagwan Sahai Sharma, Madan Mohan
Sharma, Guru Charan Bhuyan and Chinmay Rath
469
Sudhesh N. Gaidhani et al.
formulations are not well studied. For example, during the 1990s, kava, an
auyrvedic drug obtained from the roots of Piper methysticum, consist active
principal ingredients kavalactones, and all are considered psychoactive (Pittler &
Ernst, 2003). Due to said property, kava was used as anti-anxiety, sleep aid and
considered relatively safe and as effective as some prescription antidepressant
drugs i.e. tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs). However, now it is well-established
that long-term use of kava may cause severe liver toxicity and even death
(Teschke, R., 2010), consequently, kava is regulated in a number of countries
(Sarris, J., et al., 2011). But it is interesting that the South Pacific Islanders who use
kava drinks for religious ceremonies are not suffering from liver damage. This may
be due to the fact that they drink kava extract infrequently or they drink aqueous
(water) extract of kava which may not contain harmful chemicals. In the US most
kava products sold are a water/alcohol extract of the plant. Present chapter deals
with medicinal plants having therapeutic potential to treat diverse diseases but are
poisonous in a number of ways. So caution must be taken in their use.
Plant containing gastrointestinal toxins
Adonis aestivalis L.: The plant is a cardiotonic, diuretic and stimulant. Flowers are
considered to be diuretic, laxative and lithontripic. But glycoside adonilide of the
plant cause gastrointestinal and myocardial necrosis (Wood, L.W., et al., 2004)
(Table 1 (S.no. 9).
Colchicum autumnale L.: It is commonly known as autumn crocus, meadow
saffron or naked lady, is a flower that resembles the true crocuses, but blooms in
autumn. The bulb-like corms contain colchicines (Bruni, A., et al., 1986), an useful
drug with a narrow therapeutic index. Colchicine is approved by the US FDA for
the treatment of gout and familial Mediterranean fever (FDA, 2009). All parts of
the autumn crocus are highly toxic and can cause severe gastrointestinal signs
(e.g., drooling, vomiting, gastrointestinal bleeding, bloody diarrhea, etc.), liver
and kidney damage, respiratory failure, central nervous system signs (e.g.,
seizures), and even death. Poisonings and fatalities from Colchicum autumnale
have occurred around the world, in countries such as the United States, Slovenia,
Croatia, Austria, Japan, and other countries. (Klintschar, M., et al., 1999,
Lascaratos, J., et al.,1995, Sannohe, S., et al., 2002, Sundov, Z., et al., 2005,
Finkelstein, Y., et al., 2010).(Table 1 (S.no. 28).
Rhododendron aberconwayi Cowan: All parts of this plant contain toxic resins
(andromedotoxins, now commonly referred to as grayanotoxin) and leaves being
the most potent source. Grayanotoxin produces gastrointestinal irritation with
some hemorrhage, secondary aspiration pneumonia, sometimes renal tubular
470
Therapeutic Potential of Some Medicinal Plants: Poisonous Category
damage and mild liver degeneration (Spoerke & Smolinske, 2000, Jing, X., et al.,
2009) (Table 1 (S.no. 50).
Solanum nigrum L.: Toxic glycoalkaloids of the plant including solamargine,
solasonine and solanine (Aslanov, S.H.,1971, Mohy-ud-Din, A., et al., 2010). The
toxins are most concentrated in the unripe green berries, but also occur in ripe
berries (Robert, H., 2001). Main target organs of active ingredients are the
cardiovascular and central nervous system, and the gastrointestinal tract.
Symptoms may appear rapidly i.e. nausea, vomiting, abdominal pains, diarrhoea,
headache, mydriasis, flushed and warm skin, delirium, psychomotor agitation,
coma, paralysis, circulatory and respiratory depression, loss of sensation and even
death. Unripe, green fruits should always be considered poisonous (Cooper &
Johnson, 1984,). (Table 1 (S. no. 52).
Solanum tuberosum L.: Main glycosides of the plant, α-chaconine and α-solanine
exhibit antifeedant, fungicide, and pesticide activities and both are used in the
treatment of asthma and epilepsy (Jensen, P.H., 2008). Alkaloid solanine is
gastrointestinal toxic phytochemical of the plant (Barceloux, D.G., 2009).
Plant containing central nervous system toxins
Argemon mexicana L.: Yellow juice of the plant is used to treat dropsy, jaundice
and cutaneous affections (Sarkar, 1926). Plant alkaloids sanguinarine and
dihydrosanguinarine are hepatotoxic (Pathak, N.K.R., et al., 1985).The seeds
resemble the seeds of Brassica nigra (mustard), as a result, mustard can be
adulterated by argemone seeds, rendering it poisonous (Watt, 1889-96). (Table 1
(S.no. 16).
Atropa belladonna L.: Belladonna has been used in herbal medicine for centuries
as a pain reliever, muscle relaxer, anti-inflammatory, to treat menstrual problems,
peptic ulcer disease, histaminic reaction, and motion sickness (Vaughan, J.G.,
2003; Lee, M.R., 2007; Manuchair, E., 2007). Belladonna preparations are used in
homeopathy as treatments for various conditions (Brien, S. et al., 2003). Tropane
alkaloid from the plant affects central nervous system (Trabattoni, G., et al., 1984;
Caksen, H. et al., 2003; Mateo, M.A., et al., 2009). (Table 1 (S.no. 17).
Brassica juncea (L.) Czern.: Brassica juncea significantly prevented the
development of insulin resistance in rats fed fructose-enriched diet (Grover, J.K.
et al., 2002; Yokozawa, T. et al., 2003; Lavanya, B., et al., 2011). Glycosides from
the plants are toxic and reported for cattle poisoning (Cheeke, P.R. et al., 1989;
Kernaleguen, A. et al., 1989, Semalulu & Rousseaux, 1989) (Table 1 (S.no.18).
Cimicifuga racemosa (L.) Nutt. : Plant is found from Bhutan to Kashmir at
471
Sudhesh N. Gaidhani et al.
altitude of 7,000 to 12,000 ft. Plant has a wide action upon the cerebrospinal and
muscular system, as well as upon the uterus and ovaries. Useful in the treatment of
rheumatic, nervous subjects with ovarian irritation, uterine cramps and heavy
limbs. Its muscular and crampy pains, primarily of neurotic origin, occurring in
nearly every part of the body (Fabricant, D.S., et al., 2005; Nappi, R.E., et al.,
2005). Herbal medicinal product prepared from the plant is used for the relief of
menopausal complaints such as hot flushes and profuse sweating. Empirical data
suggest black cohosh should be avoided during pregnancy because of its possible
uterine-stimulating effect and during lactation as it may cause colic (Burdette,
J.E., et al., 2003; Whiting, P.W., et al., 2002). (Table 1 (S.no. 24).
Conium maculatum L.: Conium contains the piperidine alkaloids coniine, N-
methylconiine, conhydrine, pseudoconhydrine and gamma-coniceine (or g-
coniceine), which is the precursor of the other hemlock (Chopra, R.N. et al.,
2006). Alkaloids of the plant produce depression of CNS which result nausea and
vomiting (Vetter, J., 2004). (Table 1 (S.no. 29).
Lathyrus sativus L.: The seeds contain variable amounts of β-N-Oxalyl-L-α,β-
diaminopropionic acid or ODAP, a neurotoxic amino acid (Rao, S.L.N., et al.,
1964; Murti & Seshadri, 1964). ODAP causes wasting and paralysis if eaten over a
long period, and is considered as the cause of the disease neurolathyrism, a
neurodegenerative disease that causes paralysis of the lower body and emaciation
of gluteal muscle (buttocks) (Rao, S.L.N., 2001) (Table 1 (S.no.38).
Lobelia inflata L.: It is reported that patient after ingesting tea made of the leaves
of this plant, developed tachycardia, vomiting and diarrhea, salivation, agitation,
and convulsions (Siegel, R.K., 1976). Phytoconstituent lobeline from the plant
affect central nervous system. (Barthelson, R.A., et al., 2006). (Table 1 (S.no. 39).
Mandragora officinarum L.: Juice from the finely grated root was applied
externally to relieve rheumatic pains. The fresh or dried root contains highly
poisonous alkaloids, including atropine, hyoscyamine, scopolamine, scopine, and
cuscohygrine (Chan, T.Y., 1995, Frasca, T., et al., 2009, Al-Quran, S., 2009,
Hanus, L.O., et al., 2005) (Table 1 (S.no. 40.).
Nymphaea alba L.: Plant contains the toxic alkaloids nupharine and nymphaeine,
these substances have an effect on the nervous system (Chopra. R.N., et al., 2006).
(Table 1 (S.no. 44).
Paeonia emodi Wall. ex Royle: Plant is found in E. Asia-Himalayas from Pakistan
to W. Nepal. The tubers are a useful medicine for the treatment of hysteria,
convulsions, colic, uterine diseases and obstructions of the bile duct. They are
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given to children as a blood purifier. The seeds are cathartic and emetic. An
infusion of the dried flowers is useful in the treatment of diarrhea (Chopra, R.N. et
al., 2006). A tea made from the dried crushed petals of various peony species has
been used as a cough remedy, as a treatment for haemorrhoids and varicose veins.
If taken in full doses, the drug produces headache, noise in the ears, confused
vision, vomiting. The seed are emetic and cathartic (Chauhan, N.S., 1999) (Table 1
(S.no. 45).
Papaver dubium L.: Plant is found in Western Himalayas from Garhwal and
Kumaon to Hazara and in the plains of Northern India as a colder weed. Capsules
contained alkaloid aporeine, which produces a burning and numbing sensation on
the tongue, and is a titanic poison (Kiritar & Basu, 1999; Kapoor, L., 1995) (Table
1 (S.no. 46).
Papaver rhoeas L. : This plant is met only in Kashmir and Pangi. The leaves and
latex have an acrid taste and are mildly poisonous to grazing animals. Plant is
potentially poisonous to horses, cattle and sheep if eaten in large quantities, but
unlikely to cause human poisoning (Bown, D., 2008). The flowers have been used
in treating mild pain caused by earache, toothache and neuralgia. Infusion of the
petals is traditionally taken for coughs, insomnia and poor digestion (Cooper,
M.R., et al., 2003). (Table 1 (S.no. 47).
Papaver somniferum L.: India, Australia and Turkey are the major producers of
poppy for medicinal purposes and poppy-based drugs, such as morphine or
codeine (Yadav, H.K., et al., 2006). Cattle have been poisoned in Europe after
ingesting either stalks with pods that were being discarded or seed residue left over
from oil extraction. Humans are either poisoned or addicted by various contained
and derived chemicals found in the opium poppy. Oil seed is insecticidal (Ziegler,
J., et al., 2003). Latex from poppy is anodyne, antitussive, astringent, diaphoretic,
emmenagogue, hypnotic, narcotic and sedative. As well as its pain-relieving
properties, the latex has also been used as an antispasmodic and expectorant in
treating certain kinds of coughs, whilst its astringent properties make it useful in
the treatment of dysentery etc. A homeopathic remedy is made from the dried
latex. This is used in the treatment of a variety of complaints, including
constipation, fevers and insomnia (Gomez-Serranillos, M.P., et al., 2003). (Table
1 (S.no. 48).
Solanum lycopersicum L.: Tomato leaves and stems contain solanine that is toxic
if ingested, causing digestive upset and nervous excitement (Pittenger, D.R.,
2002; Barceloux, D.G. 2009). Fruit contain lycopene, due to lycopene it is
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