PHYSICS

CHAPTER SIX
ELECTRONICS
FORM THREE

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 SEMI-CONDUCTORS AND BAND THEORY
A substance whose electric conductivity is in between conductor and insulator is
called semiconductor. These are solids containing a few free electrons. These
material that can be made to behave sometimes as an insulator and sometimes as
conductor is termed as semiconductor.
At low temperature semiconductors behave like insulators at high temperature, some
of the valance electrons move into the conduction band, creating vacancies in the
valance band. The absence of an electron in the valance band is called a hole.

The free electrons in the conduction band move under the influence of small electric
fields. The conductivity increases slightly and the substance becomes a
semiconductor. The motion of the electrons in the conduction band and the motion of
holes in the valence band are responsible for the electrical conduction in
semiconductor. Examples of semiconductors are germanium and silicon.
CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTORS
1. Intrinsic semiconductor
A pure semiconductor is called intrinsic semiconductor, e.g., Silicon,
germanium. The presence of the mobile charge carriers is the intrinsic property
of the material. At room temperature, some covalent bonds are broken and
electrons are made free. The absence of electron in the covalent bond forms
hole. The electrical conduction is by means of mobile electrons and holes. Hole
act as positive charge, because it can attract an electron. If some other bond is
broken and the electron thus free electron fills this hole (vacancy), it seems as
though the hole is moving. Actually an electron is travelling in opposite
direction. In a pure (intrinsic) semiconductor, the number of holes is equal to
the number of free electrons.
2. Extrinsic Semiconductor
These are obtained by adding or doping the pure semiconductor material with
small amount of certain specific impurities with valence different from that of
the atoms of the parent element. Consequently, the number of mobile
electrons/holes gets extremely changed. So the electrical conductivity in such
materials is essentially due to the foreign atoms. or in other words, extrinsic in
nature.

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Doping process
The process of adding impurities to the semiconductor in order to conduct electricity
is called doping process.
a. P-doping
 Addition of atoms with less valence electron in
order to create a shortage of electrons in the
crystal bonds as shown figure right.
 Positive holes are formed that can transport
current.
 The dopant atoms are called acceptors because
they accept electrons from the nearby atoms.
b. N-doping
 Addition of atoms with extra valence electrons
in order to create an excess of electrons in the
crystal bonds.
 Negative electrons are available that can
transport current.
 The dopant atoms are called donors because
they donate electrons to nearby atoms.

P-N JUNCTION DIODE AND RECTIFICATION

What is a Diode?
A Diode is a two-terminal device that acts as a one way conductor that is it permits
current flow in only one direction. The most basic type of diode is the p-n junction
diode.

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Important rules about diodes:
1. If the voltage on the anode is positive with respect to the voltage on the
cathode, we say that the diode is forward biased. At forward biased condition
the diode permits current flow.
2. If the voltage on the anode is negative with respect to the voltage on the
cathode, we say that the diode is Reverse biased. At reverse biased condition
the diode inhibits current flow.
PN Junction Diode
Connect negative end or cathode of the diode to the negative terminal of the cell. The
lamb lights, a current flow and this is called forward biasing. The diode conducts as
electrons and holes are able to cross over the junction between p and n region and
complete the circuit.

Reverse the connection to the diode as shown in fig 1.4.7, where its negative end is
joined to the positive terminal of the cell, this is called reverse biasing. The diode
now acts as an insulator; no current can flow through the diode.

What happens in the Reverse Biased Condition?

When the diode is reversing biased the hole from the p-side will get attracted towards
the negative terminal of the supply and electrons from the n-side are attracted
towards the positive terminal. So the process of widening of the depletion region takes
place and from this time more and more opposition to the flow of current takes place.

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 USES OF DIODES
a. Protecting equipment
An important use of diodes is to prevent circuit
damage due to back electromotive force (known
as emf). This is a momentary change in the
direction of the flow of electricity when
components such as motors, solenoids or
relays are switched off. The diode is connected
in parallel to the component, which generates
the back emf in reverse bias to the 'normal'
direction of flow of electricity in the circuit. A
diode used in this way is called a clamping diode.
If the battery in the diagram was connected the other way round, then no current
would flow and no damage would be done.
b. Switching in stand-by batteries
As shown below is a circuit that could be
used on your bicycle: if you are riding
the bike, the dynamo will produce a
higher voltage than the battery, and light
the lamp using the left hand circuit only,
saving your battery. But if you stop, the
dynamo will stop and then the right-
hand circuit will light the lamp.
c. Rectification
I. half wave rectification
Diode acts as a rectifier (device which allow current to flow in only one
direction). The figure 1.4.14a and b below shows an a.c. source, a diode and
a load resistor. If an alternating current is supplied to a voltage, the output
from the diode will be as in the figure a below. Only half of the input
produces a voltage across the output terminals. This is called half wave
rectification.
The figure b below shows the effect of connecting a capacitor across the
diode. The output from the diode is smoothed out.
What happens to the energy in the switched off half of the cycle? It appears
as heat. The diode warms up.

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 FUNCTIONS OF SOME BASIC ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
1. Light-dependent resistor (LDR)
The action of an LDR depends on the fact that the resistance of
the semiconductor cadmium sulfide decreases as the intensity of
the light falling on it increases.
Working Principle of LDR
This resistor works on the principle of
photo conductivity. When the light
falls on its surface, the material
conductivity reduces and also the
electrons in the valence band of the
device are excited to the conduction
band. This makes the electrons to
jump from the valence band to
conduction.
Applications of LDR:
In The Figure right shows how an LDR can be used to switch a ‗relay‘. The LDR
forms part of a potential divider across the 6 V supply. When light falls on the LDR,
the resistance of the LDR decreases, and hence the voltage across it, decreases. There
is a corresponding increase in the voltage across resistor R and the relay; when the
voltage across the relay coil reaches a high
enough p.d. (its operating p.d.) it acts as a
switch and the normally open contacts
close, allowing current to flow to the bell,
which rings. If the light is removed, the p.d.
across resistor R and the relay drops below
the operating p.d. of the relay so that the
relay contacts open again; power to the bell
is cut and it stops ringing.
2. Thermistor
A thermistor is an electrical component in which the
resistance decreases as the temperature increases. Below
is a picture of typical thermistors and their symbols:
A thermistor is also used in a fire alarm. A thermistor is
placed into a fire alarm circuit such that above a set
temperature the current through the thermistor is at an amount to trigger a
relay circuit which rings an alarm.
Thermistor can be used to switch a relay. The
thermistor forms part of a potential divider across
the d.c. source. When the temperature rises, the
resistance of the thermistor falls, and so does the
p.d. across it. The voltage across resistor
R and the relay increases. When the voltage across
the relay reaches its operating p.d. the normally
open contacts close, so that the circuit to the bell
is completed and it rings. If a variable resistor is
used in the circuit, the temperature at which the
alarm sounds can be varied.

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 USES OF THERMISTOR
a. Electronic thermometer
The circuit below contains a thermistor
and ammeter connected in series This
circuit could be used as an electronic
thermometer if the ammeter was
calibrated °C
b. As a protection
Thermistors are used to protect the
filaments of projector lamps and TV tubes from a current surge as they are
switched on. The cold thermistor keeps the current low at first; as the filament
heat up, so does the thermistor and it gradually lets more current pass. This
extends the life of the filament.
3. Light-emitting diode (LED)
A LED, as shown in Figure 4.1.22 below (a), is a diode made from the
semiconductor gallium arsenide phosphate. When forward biased (with the
cathode C connected to the negative terminal of the voltage supply, as shown in
Figure 4.1.22 b), the current in it makes it emit red, yellow or green light. No
light is emitted on reverse bias (when the anode A is connected to the negative
terminal of the voltage supply). If the reverse bias voltage exceeds 5 V, it may
cause damage. In use an LED must have a suitable resistor R in series with it

Seven-segment LED display

A seven-segment LED is a special type of LED display used in digital clocks.

4. Reed switches
If you've got a laptop computer or a cellphone that flips open like a clamshell,
you've probably noticed that it senses when you open and close it and switches
on or off accordingly. So that, many laptops and phones use an inexpensive
and very reliable device called a reed switch that turns on or off when a
magnet is nearby. Intruder alarms and model railroads often use them too.

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 How does a reed switch
work? Reed switches come
in two varieties called
normally open (normally
switched off) and normally
closed (normally switched
on).

Uses of reed switch

a. Alarm systems – A reed switch will be found in many
alarm systems for sensing whether doors and windows
are open or closed. They are also used to make
systems tamperproof by placing either magnets or
switches in covers so when they are removed; it
actuates the switch triggering the alarm.

b. Laptops – Ever wondered how your laptop or tablet

knows how to switch on or off when the screen is
lowered or the cover is placed over the screen? This is reed switches and
magnets in action – due to the interaction of the
switch and magnet, the device knows the
proximity of the cover or screen and reacts
accordingly.