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Epithermal 5
Epithermal 5
Abstract
Known epithermal deposits in the Coromandel region belong to the low-sulphidation type, represented by three
subtypes: (1) andesite-hosted epithermal Au-Ag, (2) rhyolite-hosted epithermal Au-Ag, and (3) andesite-hosted
polymetallic veins. Paleo-depths for a range of deposits are estimated using various features including: paleo-surface
indicators (e.g. sinters), hydrostatic pressures estimated from homogenisation temperature measurements on fluid
inclusions, and alteration mineralogy. Paleo-depth estimates to the base of the ore zone for the rhyolite-hosted
Coromandel deposits are in the range 200 to 500 m. Andesite-hosted Au-Ag deposits have more variable paleo-
depths, and are deeper (up to 950 m) in those deposits with base metals at depth. The majority of Coromandel Au-
Ag deposits have limited depth extents (<200 m) of economic grade mineralisation, although Waihi and Karangahake
are notable exceptions with depth extents of 575 m and 700 m respectively. Limited depth extents of economic ore
are a feature of epithermal systems worldwide and are commonly attributed to gold deposition from boiling fluids.
Under hydrostatic conditions in epithermal/geothermal systems, boiling in an up-flowing hydrothermal fluid is
controlled by the boiling point for depth (BPD) curve. From fluid inclusion studies of many low-sulphidation
epithermal systems, deposition of electrum in economic concentrations appears to be confined to a temperature
window of 260 to180oC. This means that for dilute, gas-poor fluids that follow the BPD curve, gold deposition is
limited to a vertical depth zone of about 400 m, with its upper boundary at about 100 m below the ground surface.
The greater depth extent at Waihi and Karangahake, can be explained by mixing of a deep, hot (300oC) fluid with
cooler (c. 200oC) heated ground waters. This has the effect of lowering the 260oC isotherm by up to 300 m, thereby
increasing the depth range of economic grade gold deposition within the 260 to 180oC window of electrum deposition.
2000 New Zealand Minerals & Mining Conference Proceedings • 29-31 October 2000
locating zones of gold ore within deposits, and to evaluating sulphidation gold systems, where at depth quartz-sulphide-
the potential size of the deposits. The Coromandel Au-Ag gold±copper veins are transitional to porphyry Cu-Au
province contains a variety of deposits that range from shallow mineralisation.
to deep epithermal environments. Here we present data and
paleo-depth interpretations for a selection of these. Mineral deposit types and models
Coromandel gold-silver province The Coromandel epithermal Au-Ag province contains a
variety of types or styles of epithermal deposits, and linkages
The Coromandel gold-silver province (Brathwaite and Pirajno between the type of deposit and depth extent may be expected.
1993) (Figure 1) contains some 50 epithermal Au-Ag deposits Mineral deposit types have been widely used (e.g. Cox and
and coincides with the Miocene-Pliocene Coromandel Singer 1986; Eckstrand et al. 1995), to describe the essential
Volcanic Zone (Skinner 1986). Mineralisation is geological and geochemical attributes that are common to a
predominantly localised in steeply dipping quartz veins filling number of similar mineral deposits that are presumed to have
extensional fracture systems (Christie and Brathwaite 1986; been formed by the same genetic process. The main attributes
Brathwaite et al. 1989; Christie et al. 1994). The majority of used in classifying a mineral deposit type are: tectonic setting,
the quartz veins are hosted by andesite and dacite of the structural controls, host rock lithology, form of the deposit,
Coromandel Group; rhyolites and basement greywacke are main economic elements or minerals, mineralogy of ore and
lesser hosts. At some locations (e.g. Neavesville), host rocks, and geochemical and geophysical characteristics.
mineralisation extends from andesite into overlying rhyolitic
volcanics and the style of veining changes from relatively Within the broad class of epithermal ore deposits, two styles
thick, continuous veins in andesite to thin stockwork veins in have been distinguished: low-sulphidation (also known as
rhyolite (Brathwaite et al. in press). adularia-sericite) and high-sulphidation (acid-sulphate) (e.g.
Hayba et al. 1985; White and Hedenquist 1990; White et al.
The quartz veins strike mainly northeast to east and are 1995). The known Coromandel deposits are all low-
generally subvertical to steeply dipping, although some sulphidation, although advanced argillic alteration
relatively gently dipping to flat-lying veins are known. Vein characteristic of high-sulphidation deposits has been
widths are typically between 1 and 5 m, but may range up to recognised at Lookout Rocks near Thames (Merchant 1986;
30 m (e.g. Martha vein zone, Waihi). Vein strike lengths are Brathwaite et al. 1998) and at Pumpkin Hill near Tairua
up to c. 800 m, although large, but predominantly only weakly (Swindale and Hughes 1968).
mineralised quartz vein zones at Tokatea Big Reef
(Coromandel) and Big Buck Reef (Waiorongomai) have strike Sillitoe (1993) subdivided the low-sulphidation type into three
lengths of up to 4.5 km. The veins were mined over a vertical subtypes: (1) sulphide (and base-metal-)-rich associated with
interval typically of 170 to 330 m, but ranging up to 700 m at sub-alkalic rocks, especially of andesitic to rhyodacitic
Karangahake and 575 m at Waihi. composition (our Andesite-hosted epithermal Au-Ag
deposits), (2) sulphide-poor associated with sub-alkalic rocks,
Individual deposits occur as vein systems cropping out in areas especially of rhyolitic composition (our Rhyolite-hosted
up to 3 km2 (Waihi and Karangahake) surrounded by areas of epithermal Au-Ag deposits), and (3) sulphide-poor associated
up to 14 km2 of hydrothermally altered rocks. Many deposits with alkalic volcanic rocks. The rhyolite subtype mainly differs
contain only two or three major, parallel-striking veins. from the andesite-rhyodacite subtype in having a low sulphide
Although the bonanza-style deposits at Coromandel and and base-metal content, but these two subtypes are probably
Thames have a large number of thin veins, which in some transitional into each other. The relatively base-metal sulphide-
places have a wide range of strike directions (e.g. Hauraki rich, andesite-rhyodacite subtype may form at greater depths
deposit at Coromandel). than the rhyolite subtype. Except for the alkalic subtype, these
subtypes are well represented in the Coromandel Au-Ag
Two distinct styles of epithermal gold veins have been province.
recognised (Finlayson 1909; Clarke 1991) as: (1) mainly
coarse comb or massive quartz, with coarse free electrum, Andesite-hosted epithermal Au-Ag
accompanied by quartz-illite-calcite-kaolinite alteration
without adularia, and (2) crustiform fine grained quartz, Synonyms: Adularia-sericite, quartz adularia or low-
electrum and sulphides, associated with quartz-adularia-illite sulphidation type.
(sericite) alteration. The bonanza veins at Thames and
Coromandel are examples of the first type, whereas Martha Equivalent international model: “Comstock epithermal
Hill (Waihi) and Golden Cross are examples of the second. veins” (Cox and Singer 1986, Model 25c, p. 150). “Epithermal
The deeper levels of the first type are represented by gold- Au-Ag: low-sulphidation” (Lefebure and Höy 1996, Model
bearing quartz-sulphide veins on the periphery of porphyry H05, pp. 41-43).
intrusives as at the Sylvia and Monowai deposits (Brathwaite
and Pirajno 1993; Brathwaite et al. 1998). Corbett and Leach Description: Au+Ag±Zn±Pb±Cu bearing quartz veins, quartz
(1998) have classified the first style (epithermal quartz-gold- vein stockworks and hydrothermal breccias hosted in andesitic
silver) as the shallowest level of porphyry-related low and dacitic volcanics.
2000 New Zealand Minerals & Mining Conference Proceedings • 29-31 October 2000
Figure 1. The Coromandel Au-Ag province showing generalised geology and the location of epithermal deposits.
Main references: Brathwaite et al. (1989), Brathwaite and Examples: Waihi, Karangahake and Golden Cross. Overseas
McKay (1989), Keall et al. (1993), Mauk et al. (1997), and examples include Comstock (Nevada), Guanajuato (Mexico
Simmons et al. 2000. - low Au:Ag ratio) and Hishikari (Japan).
2000 New Zealand Minerals & Mining Conference Proceedings • 29-31 October 2000
Host rocks: Andesite and dacitic lavas, breccias and tuffs. centres of the Minden Rhyolite subgroup of the Whitianga
Group.
Mineralogy and texture: Crustiform quartz-sulphide veins.
Main ore minerals are electrum and acanthite with ubiquitous Main references: Brathwaite et al. (1989), Rabone et al.
pyrite, and some deposits contain significant sphalerite, galena (1989) and Brathwaite (1996).
and chalcopyrite at depth. Quartz and calcite are the main
gangue minerals, with Mn-carbonate, adularia and inesite Examples: Broken Hills, Wharekirauponga and Komata.
present in some deposits. Bladed quartz and quartz Overseas examples include McLaughlin (California), Round
pseudomorphous after calcite are common textures in some Mountain (Nevada) and Delamar (Idaho).
veins.
Host rocks: Rhyolite flows and associated pyroclastic breccias
Alteration: Quartz-adularia-pyrite ± illite (sericite) adjacent and tuffs. Overseas examples may be hosted in bimodal basalt-
to quartz veins, with propylitic (characterised by chlorite and rhyolite suites.
calcite) and argillic (illite + interstratified illite-smectite +
chlorite + pyrite) alteration in outer zones. Mineralogy and texture: Electrum, acanthite and pyrite in
chalcedonic and vuggy quartz veins.
Age: K-Ar dates for the deposits range from about 14 Ma to 6
Ma and appear to be only slightly younger than the associated Alteration: Classic quartz-adularia alteration, accompanied
andesitic volcanic centres (Brathwaite and Christie 1996). by or associated with pyrite + chlorite (propylitic alteration),
and illite + illite-smectite + pyrite ± kaolinite (argillic
Fluid chemistry and source: Ore deposition at 180 to 260oC alteration).
from low salinity (<2.0 wt% NaCl equiv.), neutral pH fluids
of predominantly meteoric origin. Ore with abundant base Age: K-Ar ages for the deposits range from 9 Ma to 5 Ma, as
metals was formed at the higher part of the temperature and for the associated rhyolitic volcanic centres.
salinity ranges. Precipitation was as a result of fluid mixing
and boiling. Fluid chemistry and source: Ore deposition at 180 to 250oC
from very low salinity (<0.5 wt% NaCl equiv.), neutral pH
Ore controls: Extensional fault/fracture systems associated fluids of predominantly meteoric origin. Precipitation was as
with hydrothermal fluid convection driven by cooling a result of boiling and fluid mixing.
subvolcanic intrusives.
Ore controls: Extensional fault/fracture systems associated
Geochemical signature: Anomalous Au+Ag±Zn±Pb±Cu±As. with hydrothermal fluid convection driven by cooling
subvolcanic intrusives. Some deposits may be localised along
Geophysical signature: Magnetic lows associated with faults related to caldera subsidence.
hydrothermal alteration. Resistivity highs from zones of
silicification and quartz veining. Surface expression: Zones of thin quartz veins and associated
silicification, sinters and hydrothermal breccias.
Comment: The past production and mineralogy of these
deposits suggests that there are several variants. Many deposits Geochemical signature: Anomalous Au+Ag±As±Sb±Hg.
in the Colville and Coromandel areas have prominent
arsenopyrite. Deposits in the southern part of the region (e.g. Geophysical signature: Magnetic lows associated with
Komata, Golden Cross, Waihi, Karangahake) have significant hydrothermal alteration. Resistivity highs from zones of
calcite. Stibnite is present at Thames. Deposits in greywacke silicification.
basement and Kuaotunu Subgroup andesite and dacite are
characterised by high Au:Ag ratios (1.8) compared with Comment: There are indications of disseminated low grade,
deposits in Waiwawa Subgroup andesite and dacite (average large tonnage deposits at Broken Hills, Neavesville and
Au:Ag = 0.25) (Brathwaite et al. 1989). Wharekirauponga that could be economic if they were located
in a region where heap leaching of low grade Au-Ag ore was
possible (Brathwaite 1996).
Rhyolite-hosted epithermal Au-Ag
Synonyms: Hot spring Au-Ag deposits. High-sulphidation quartz-alunite
epithermal Au
Equivalent international model: “Hot-spring Au-Ag” (Cox
and Singer 1986, Model 25a, p. 143-144). “Hot-spring Au- Synonyms: Acid-sulphate.
Ag” (Lefebure and Höy 1996, Model H03, pp. 33-35).
Equivalent international model: “Epithermal quartz-alunite
Description: Au-Ag bearing quartz veins, quartz vein Au” (Cox and Singer 1986, Model 25e, p. 158). “Epithermal
stockworks and hydrothermal breccias hosted in rhyolitic Au-Ag-Cu: high-sulphidation” (Lefebure and Höy 1996,
volcanics. These deposits are associated with rhyolitic volcanic Model H04, pp. 37-39).
2000 New Zealand Minerals & Mining Conference Proceedings • 29-31 October 2000
Description: Au±Cu±Ag bearing, fine grained replacement Description: Zn±Pb±Cu±Ag+Au bearing quartz veins hosted
quartz and hydrothermal breccias hosted in andesitic and in andesitic and dacitic volcanics adjacent to mineralised
dacitic volcanics. porphyry stocks.
Main references: Merchant (1986), Brathwaite et al. (1989) Examples: Sylvia, Monowai, Tui and Waiorongomai.
and Brathwaite et al. (1998).
Host rocks: Andesite and dacitic lavas, breccias and tuffs.
Examples: None known in the Coromandel region, but similar
geological environments are present at Lookout Rocks and Mineralogy and texture: Massive and banded quartz-
Pumpkin Hill. Overseas examples include Summitville in sulphide veins. Main ore minerals are sphalerite, galena,
Colorado, Nansatsu in Japan, El Indio in Chile, Temora in chalcopyrite and tetrahedrite, with minor gold and hessite,
New South Wales, Yanacocha in Peru and Lepanto in the and ubiquitous pyrite. Quartz, calcite and anhydrite are the
Philippines. main gangue minerals.
Host rocks: Andesite and dacite lavas, breccias and tuffs Alteration: Quartz-illite-pyrite adjacent to quartz veins, with
associated with dacitic porphyry intrusives. propylitic (characterised by chlorite and calcite) and argillic
(illite + interstratified illite-smectite + chlorite + pyrite) in
Mineralogy and texture: Gold and pyrite, with enargite, outer alteration zones.
tetrahedrite, chalcocite, covellite and bornite. Commonly
associated with vuggy quartz. Age: K-Ar ages of the host volcanic rocks are in the range of
12 Ma to 7 Ma.
Alteration: Advanced argillic alteration characterised by
quartz-alunite proximal to ore, with pyrophyllite at deeper Fluid chemistry and source: Ore deposition at 250 to 320oC
levels and gibbsite in outer alteration zones. from low salinity (<4 wt% NaCl equiv.), slightly acid pH fluids
of predominantly meteoric origin. Precipitation as a result of
Age: Alunite at Lookout Rocks is K-Ar dated at 11.2 Ma fluid mixing.
(Brathwaite et al. 1998).
Ore controls: Extensional fault/fracture systems associated
Fluid chemistry and source: Advanced argillic alteration with hydrothermal fluid convection driven by cooling
produced by highly acid, vapour-rich fluids at 200 to 300oC subvolcanic intrusives.
that were derived from a magmatic vapour phase. Precipitation
was as a result of fluid mixing. Geochemical signature: Anomalous Zn±Pb±Cu±Ag±Au.
Ore controls: Extensional fault/fracture systems as pathways Geophysical signature: Magnetic lows associated with
for a magmatic vapour-rich phase. hydrothermal alteration.
Geochemical signature: Anomalous Au+Cu±As. Comment: Andesite-hosted polymetallic veins are separated
from Andesite-hosted epithermal Au-Ag deposits by their
Geophysical signature: Magnetic lows associated with higher base metal content, deeper level of deposition and the
advanced argillic alteration. higher temperature and salinity of their parent ore fluids.
2000 New Zealand Minerals & Mining Conference Proceedings • 29-31 October 2000
Deposit Deposit Paleosurface Ore minerals Zonation Vertical Paleodepth General
subtype indicator with depth extent of to base of depth
ore (m) ore (m) level
n = not present, y = present, - = no data, ac = acanthite, adl = adularia, anhy = anhydrite, As = native arsenic, aspy = arsenopyrite,
ba = barite, bis = bismuthinite, cp = chalcopyrite, el = electrum, gn = galena, hes = hessite, marc = marcasite, mo = molybdenite,
py = pyrite, pyrarg = pyrargyrite, sb = stibnite, sp = sphalerite, s’salts = sulphosalts, tel = tellurides, td = tetrahedrite. S =
shallow, M = medium, D = deep.
2000 New Zealand Minerals & Mining Conference Proceedings • 29-31 October 2000
Hydrothermal alteration
Hydrothermal mineral assemblages are indicators of the
temperature range and fluid conditions in geothermal systems
(e.g. Reyes 1990). Specific mineral assemblages are diagnostic
of distinct fluid types that, when integrated with other data,
provide broad indicators of depth levels, boiling and mixing
zones. At shallow depths and on the margins of geothermal
systems, alteration by steam-heated waters produces an argillic
illite-smectite-calcite±kaolinite assemblage (e.g. Simmons and
Browne 2000). Smectite dominates at <150oC and illite
dominates at >220 o C. These clay mineral indicator
assemblages are listed for a selection of Coromandel
epithermal deposits in Table 2.
2000 New Zealand Minerals & Mining Conference Proceedings • 29-31 October 2000
Deposit Alteration Fluid inclusions References
minerals
Vapour-rich1 Th oC Salinity
n = not present, y = present, - = no data, 1 = apparent salinity (wt% NaCl equivalent), adl = adularia, cc = calcite, ill = illite, kaol
= kaolinite, sm = smectite.
Table 2. Alteration and fluid inclusion data for some Coromandel epithermal deposits
2000 New Zealand Minerals & Mining Conference Proceedings • 29-31 October 2000
these flat bases are generally at the same elevation throughout estimated from fluid inclusions, and alteration mineralogy.
an individual mining field and may be correlated with the Paleo-depth estimates for rhyolite-hosted deposits are 200
level of first boiling in the upflow zone of a geothermal system. to 500 m, whereas andesite-hosted Au-Ag deposits are
In the Coromandel deposits, ore zones with flat-lying bases more variable, and deeper (up to 950 m) in those with
are indicated from old mine plans for Kuaotunu, Thames, base metals at depth.
Komata and Golden Cross. In some other deposits, ore zones
• The majority of Coromandel Au-Ag deposits have limited
were reported to diminish in strike length with depth (e.g.
depth extents (<200m) of economic grade mineralisation,
Komata, Downey 1935). This second type of ore zone
although Waihi and Karangahake are notable exceptions
geometry may better fit with the vertical cone-shaped boiling
with depth extents of 575 m and 700 m respectively.
zones described from the Broadlands-Ohaaki geothermal field
by Simmons and Christenson (1994). • Limited depth extents of economic ore, fluid inclusion
data, and modelling of gold deposition in active geothermal
The greater depth extent of the Waihi deposit can be explained systems suggest that deposition of electrum in economic
by mixing of a deep, hot (300oC) fluid with cooler (c. 200oC) concentrations is confined to a temperature window of 260
heated ground waters (Brathwaite 1999). This has the effect to180oC. Under boiling conditions in low-salinity, low-
of lowering the 260oC isotherm by up to 300 m, thereby gas systems, gold deposition is therefore generally limited
increasing the depth range of economic grade gold deposition to a vertical depth zone of about 400 m, with its upper
within the 260 to 180oC window of electrum deposition. A boundary at about 100 m below the ground surface.
similar model can be applied to other low-sulphidation • The greater depth extent at Waihi and Karangahake
epithermal deposits with large depth extents of economic ore. resulted from the mixing of a deep, hot (300oC) fluid with
cooler (c. 200oC) heated ground waters, lowering the 260oC
Paleo-depth estimates isotherm by up to 300 m.
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2000 New Zealand Minerals & Mining Conference Proceedings • 29-31 October 2000
Authors
BOB BRATHWAITE and TONY CHRISTIE are senior minerals geologists at the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences
(GNS). Bob has a MSc from Victoria University of Wellington and a PhD from the University of Tasmania. Previous to joining
New Zealand Geological Survey (now GNS) in 1979, he worked as a mine and exploration geologist for several major mining
companies in Australia. Tony graduated from Victoria University of Wellington with BSc, BSc (Hons), MSc and PhD degrees,
and worked for four years in mineral exploration with BP before joining New Zealand Geological Survey. Tony is Chairman of
the NZ branch of the AusIMM.
2000 New Zealand Minerals & Mining Conference Proceedings • 29-31 October 2000