Deposit types and paleo-depth extents of Coromandel

epithermal Au-Ag deposits

RL Brathwaite and AB Christie

Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences Ltd, PO Box 31-312, Lower Hutt, Email [email protected] and
[email protected]

Abstract
Known epithermal deposits in the Coromandel region belong to the low-sulphidation type, represented by three
subtypes: (1) andesite-hosted epithermal Au-Ag, (2) rhyolite-hosted epithermal Au-Ag, and (3) andesite-hosted
polymetallic veins. Paleo-depths for a range of deposits are estimated using various features including: paleo-surface
indicators (e.g. sinters), hydrostatic pressures estimated from homogenisation temperature measurements on fluid
inclusions, and alteration mineralogy. Paleo-depth estimates to the base of the ore zone for the rhyolite-hosted
Coromandel deposits are in the range 200 to 500 m. Andesite-hosted Au-Ag deposits have more variable paleo-
depths, and are deeper (up to 950 m) in those deposits with base metals at depth. The majority of Coromandel Au-
Ag deposits have limited depth extents (<200 m) of economic grade mineralisation, although Waihi and Karangahake
are notable exceptions with depth extents of 575 m and 700 m respectively. Limited depth extents of economic ore
are a feature of epithermal systems worldwide and are commonly attributed to gold deposition from boiling fluids.
Under hydrostatic conditions in epithermal/geothermal systems, boiling in an up-flowing hydrothermal fluid is
controlled by the boiling point for depth (BPD) curve. From fluid inclusion studies of many low-sulphidation
epithermal systems, deposition of electrum in economic concentrations appears to be confined to a temperature
window of 260 to180oC. This means that for dilute, gas-poor fluids that follow the BPD curve, gold deposition is
limited to a vertical depth zone of about 400 m, with its upper boundary at about 100 m below the ground surface.
The greater depth extent at Waihi and Karangahake, can be explained by mixing of a deep, hot (300oC) fluid with
cooler (c. 200oC) heated ground waters. This has the effect of lowering the 260oC isotherm by up to 300 m, thereby
increasing the depth range of economic grade gold deposition within the 260 to 180oC window of electrum deposition.

Introduction lower and upper limits are generally correlated with a

temperature control that may be related to the BPD curve.
Many volcanic-hosted epithermal gold-silver deposits have Seward (1991) determined, with reference to the Rotokawa
shallow (<300 m) depth extents, and this is a critical factor in geothermal system, that adiabatic closed-system boiling from
limiting the size of these deposits. The depth extents of 300oC initially increases the solubility of gold as a bisulphide
epithermal deposits are clearly related to the paleosurface at complex, but with continued boiling and loss of H2S to the
the time of formation, since the epithermal mineralisation is steam phase, much of the gold in solution is precipitated over
deposited by hydrothermal waters whose temperature and the temperature interval from 250 to 180oC. Using reaction
pressure is controlled by the hydrostatic pressure gradient path modelling for a Broadlands-Ohaaki deep fluid, Simmons
within the upper 1 to 2 km of the crust (e.g. White and and Browne (2000) confirm that most of the gold in solution
Hedenquist 1990). In geothermal systems, which are present is precipitated in boiling from 260 to 180 oC. Similar
day analogues of epithermal systems, the temperature of the temperature windows for gold ore deposition, within a range
water under hydrostatic conditions is constrained by the fluid of 260o to 180oC, have been reported from the Waihi deposit
vapour pressure existing at a given depth, as represented by (Brathwaite 1999) and other epithermal deposits, such as
the boiling point with depth curve. The upflow zones of Hishikari, Japan (Izawa et al. 1990) and Osilo, Sardinia
geothermal systems have pressure/temperature profiles on or (Simeone and Simmons 1999).
near the “boiling point with depth” (BPD) curve.
Determination of the paleo-depth (depth below the
Within epithermal deposits, zones of gold-silver ore commonly paleosurface) in epithermal systems, especially in terms of
have sharp lower and upper limits (e.g. Buchanan 1981). These paleo-temperatures of the hydrothermal fluid, is thus a key to

2000 New Zealand Minerals & Mining Conference Proceedings • 29-31 October 2000
locating zones of gold ore within deposits, and to evaluating sulphidation gold systems, where at depth quartz-sulphide-
the potential size of the deposits. The Coromandel Au-Ag gold±copper veins are transitional to porphyry Cu-Au
province contains a variety of deposits that range from shallow mineralisation.
to deep epithermal environments. Here we present data and
paleo-depth interpretations for a selection of these. Mineral deposit types and models
Coromandel gold-silver province The Coromandel epithermal Au-Ag province contains a
variety of types or styles of epithermal deposits, and linkages
The Coromandel gold-silver province (Brathwaite and Pirajno between the type of deposit and depth extent may be expected.
1993) (Figure 1) contains some 50 epithermal Au-Ag deposits Mineral deposit types have been widely used (e.g. Cox and
and coincides with the Miocene-Pliocene Coromandel Singer 1986; Eckstrand et al. 1995), to describe the essential
Volcanic Zone (Skinner 1986). Mineralisation is geological and geochemical attributes that are common to a
predominantly localised in steeply dipping quartz veins filling number of similar mineral deposits that are presumed to have
extensional fracture systems (Christie and Brathwaite 1986; been formed by the same genetic process. The main attributes
Brathwaite et al. 1989; Christie et al. 1994). The majority of used in classifying a mineral deposit type are: tectonic setting,
the quartz veins are hosted by andesite and dacite of the structural controls, host rock lithology, form of the deposit,
Coromandel Group; rhyolites and basement greywacke are main economic elements or minerals, mineralogy of ore and
lesser hosts. At some locations (e.g. Neavesville), host rocks, and geochemical and geophysical characteristics.
mineralisation extends from andesite into overlying rhyolitic
volcanics and the style of veining changes from relatively Within the broad class of epithermal ore deposits, two styles
thick, continuous veins in andesite to thin stockwork veins in have been distinguished: low-sulphidation (also known as
rhyolite (Brathwaite et al. in press). adularia-sericite) and high-sulphidation (acid-sulphate) (e.g.
Hayba et al. 1985; White and Hedenquist 1990; White et al.
The quartz veins strike mainly northeast to east and are 1995). The known Coromandel deposits are all low-
generally subvertical to steeply dipping, although some sulphidation, although advanced argillic alteration
relatively gently dipping to flat-lying veins are known. Vein characteristic of high-sulphidation deposits has been
widths are typically between 1 and 5 m, but may range up to recognised at Lookout Rocks near Thames (Merchant 1986;
30 m (e.g. Martha vein zone, Waihi). Vein strike lengths are Brathwaite et al. 1998) and at Pumpkin Hill near Tairua
up to c. 800 m, although large, but predominantly only weakly (Swindale and Hughes 1968).
mineralised quartz vein zones at Tokatea Big Reef
(Coromandel) and Big Buck Reef (Waiorongomai) have strike Sillitoe (1993) subdivided the low-sulphidation type into three
lengths of up to 4.5 km. The veins were mined over a vertical subtypes: (1) sulphide (and base-metal-)-rich associated with
interval typically of 170 to 330 m, but ranging up to 700 m at sub-alkalic rocks, especially of andesitic to rhyodacitic
Karangahake and 575 m at Waihi. composition (our Andesite-hosted epithermal Au-Ag
deposits), (2) sulphide-poor associated with sub-alkalic rocks,
Individual deposits occur as vein systems cropping out in areas especially of rhyolitic composition (our Rhyolite-hosted
up to 3 km2 (Waihi and Karangahake) surrounded by areas of epithermal Au-Ag deposits), and (3) sulphide-poor associated
up to 14 km2 of hydrothermally altered rocks. Many deposits with alkalic volcanic rocks. The rhyolite subtype mainly differs
contain only two or three major, parallel-striking veins. from the andesite-rhyodacite subtype in having a low sulphide
Although the bonanza-style deposits at Coromandel and and base-metal content, but these two subtypes are probably
Thames have a large number of thin veins, which in some transitional into each other. The relatively base-metal sulphide-
places have a wide range of strike directions (e.g. Hauraki rich, andesite-rhyodacite subtype may form at greater depths
deposit at Coromandel). than the rhyolite subtype. Except for the alkalic subtype, these
subtypes are well represented in the Coromandel Au-Ag
Two distinct styles of epithermal gold veins have been province.
recognised (Finlayson 1909; Clarke 1991) as: (1) mainly
coarse comb or massive quartz, with coarse free electrum, Andesite-hosted epithermal Au-Ag
accompanied by quartz-illite-calcite-kaolinite alteration
without adularia, and (2) crustiform fine grained quartz, Synonyms: Adularia-sericite, quartz adularia or low-
electrum and sulphides, associated with quartz-adularia-illite sulphidation type.
(sericite) alteration. The bonanza veins at Thames and
Coromandel are examples of the first type, whereas Martha Equivalent international model: “Comstock epithermal
Hill (Waihi) and Golden Cross are examples of the second. veins” (Cox and Singer 1986, Model 25c, p. 150). “Epithermal
The deeper levels of the first type are represented by gold- Au-Ag: low-sulphidation” (Lefebure and Höy 1996, Model
bearing quartz-sulphide veins on the periphery of porphyry H05, pp. 41-43).
intrusives as at the Sylvia and Monowai deposits (Brathwaite
and Pirajno 1993; Brathwaite et al. 1998). Corbett and Leach Description: Au+Ag±Zn±Pb±Cu bearing quartz veins, quartz
(1998) have classified the first style (epithermal quartz-gold- vein stockworks and hydrothermal breccias hosted in andesitic
silver) as the shallowest level of porphyry-related low and dacitic volcanics.

2000 New Zealand Minerals & Mining Conference Proceedings • 29-31 October 2000
Figure 1. The Coromandel Au-Ag province showing generalised geology and the location of epithermal deposits.

Main references: Brathwaite et al. (1989), Brathwaite and Examples: Waihi, Karangahake and Golden Cross. Overseas
McKay (1989), Keall et al. (1993), Mauk et al. (1997), and examples include Comstock (Nevada), Guanajuato (Mexico
Simmons et al. 2000. - low Au:Ag ratio) and Hishikari (Japan).

2000 New Zealand Minerals & Mining Conference Proceedings • 29-31 October 2000
Host rocks: Andesite and dacitic lavas, breccias and tuffs. centres of the Minden Rhyolite subgroup of the Whitianga
Group.
Mineralogy and texture: Crustiform quartz-sulphide veins.
Main ore minerals are electrum and acanthite with ubiquitous Main references: Brathwaite et al. (1989), Rabone et al.
pyrite, and some deposits contain significant sphalerite, galena (1989) and Brathwaite (1996).
and chalcopyrite at depth. Quartz and calcite are the main
gangue minerals, with Mn-carbonate, adularia and inesite Examples: Broken Hills, Wharekirauponga and Komata.
present in some deposits. Bladed quartz and quartz Overseas examples include McLaughlin (California), Round
pseudomorphous after calcite are common textures in some Mountain (Nevada) and Delamar (Idaho).
veins.
Host rocks: Rhyolite flows and associated pyroclastic breccias
Alteration: Quartz-adularia-pyrite ± illite (sericite) adjacent and tuffs. Overseas examples may be hosted in bimodal basalt-
to quartz veins, with propylitic (characterised by chlorite and rhyolite suites.
calcite) and argillic (illite + interstratified illite-smectite +
chlorite + pyrite) alteration in outer zones. Mineralogy and texture: Electrum, acanthite and pyrite in
chalcedonic and vuggy quartz veins.
Age: K-Ar dates for the deposits range from about 14 Ma to 6
Ma and appear to be only slightly younger than the associated Alteration: Classic quartz-adularia alteration, accompanied
andesitic volcanic centres (Brathwaite and Christie 1996). by or associated with pyrite + chlorite (propylitic alteration),
and illite + illite-smectite + pyrite ± kaolinite (argillic
Fluid chemistry and source: Ore deposition at 180 to 260oC alteration).
from low salinity (<2.0 wt% NaCl equiv.), neutral pH fluids
of predominantly meteoric origin. Ore with abundant base Age: K-Ar ages for the deposits range from 9 Ma to 5 Ma, as
metals was formed at the higher part of the temperature and for the associated rhyolitic volcanic centres.
salinity ranges. Precipitation was as a result of fluid mixing
and boiling. Fluid chemistry and source: Ore deposition at 180 to 250oC
from very low salinity (<0.5 wt% NaCl equiv.), neutral pH
Ore controls: Extensional fault/fracture systems associated fluids of predominantly meteoric origin. Precipitation was as
with hydrothermal fluid convection driven by cooling a result of boiling and fluid mixing.
subvolcanic intrusives.
Ore controls: Extensional fault/fracture systems associated
Geochemical signature: Anomalous Au+Ag±Zn±Pb±Cu±As. with hydrothermal fluid convection driven by cooling
subvolcanic intrusives. Some deposits may be localised along
Geophysical signature: Magnetic lows associated with faults related to caldera subsidence.
hydrothermal alteration. Resistivity highs from zones of
silicification and quartz veining. Surface expression: Zones of thin quartz veins and associated
silicification, sinters and hydrothermal breccias.
Comment: The past production and mineralogy of these
deposits suggests that there are several variants. Many deposits Geochemical signature: Anomalous Au+Ag±As±Sb±Hg.
in the Colville and Coromandel areas have prominent
arsenopyrite. Deposits in the southern part of the region (e.g. Geophysical signature: Magnetic lows associated with
Komata, Golden Cross, Waihi, Karangahake) have significant hydrothermal alteration. Resistivity highs from zones of
calcite. Stibnite is present at Thames. Deposits in greywacke silicification.
basement and Kuaotunu Subgroup andesite and dacite are
characterised by high Au:Ag ratios (1.8) compared with Comment: There are indications of disseminated low grade,
deposits in Waiwawa Subgroup andesite and dacite (average large tonnage deposits at Broken Hills, Neavesville and
Au:Ag = 0.25) (Brathwaite et al. 1989). Wharekirauponga that could be economic if they were located
in a region where heap leaching of low grade Au-Ag ore was
possible (Brathwaite 1996).
Rhyolite-hosted epithermal Au-Ag
Synonyms: Hot spring Au-Ag deposits. High-sulphidation quartz-alunite
epithermal Au
Equivalent international model: “Hot-spring Au-Ag” (Cox
and Singer 1986, Model 25a, p. 143-144). “Hot-spring Au- Synonyms: Acid-sulphate.
Ag” (Lefebure and Höy 1996, Model H03, pp. 33-35).
Equivalent international model: “Epithermal quartz-alunite
Description: Au-Ag bearing quartz veins, quartz vein Au” (Cox and Singer 1986, Model 25e, p. 158). “Epithermal
stockworks and hydrothermal breccias hosted in rhyolitic Au-Ag-Cu: high-sulphidation” (Lefebure and Höy 1996,
volcanics. These deposits are associated with rhyolitic volcanic Model H04, pp. 37-39).

2000 New Zealand Minerals & Mining Conference Proceedings • 29-31 October 2000
Description: Au±Cu±Ag bearing, fine grained replacement Description: Zn±Pb±Cu±Ag+Au bearing quartz veins hosted
quartz and hydrothermal breccias hosted in andesitic and in andesitic and dacitic volcanics adjacent to mineralised
dacitic volcanics. porphyry stocks.

Main references: Merchant (1986), Brathwaite et al. (1989) Examples: Sylvia, Monowai, Tui and Waiorongomai.
and Brathwaite et al. (1998).
Host rocks: Andesite and dacitic lavas, breccias and tuffs.
Examples: None known in the Coromandel region, but similar
geological environments are present at Lookout Rocks and Mineralogy and texture: Massive and banded quartz-
Pumpkin Hill. Overseas examples include Summitville in sulphide veins. Main ore minerals are sphalerite, galena,
Colorado, Nansatsu in Japan, El Indio in Chile, Temora in chalcopyrite and tetrahedrite, with minor gold and hessite,
New South Wales, Yanacocha in Peru and Lepanto in the and ubiquitous pyrite. Quartz, calcite and anhydrite are the
Philippines. main gangue minerals.

Host rocks: Andesite and dacite lavas, breccias and tuffs Alteration: Quartz-illite-pyrite adjacent to quartz veins, with
associated with dacitic porphyry intrusives. propylitic (characterised by chlorite and calcite) and argillic
(illite + interstratified illite-smectite + chlorite + pyrite) in
Mineralogy and texture: Gold and pyrite, with enargite, outer alteration zones.
tetrahedrite, chalcocite, covellite and bornite. Commonly
associated with vuggy quartz. Age: K-Ar ages of the host volcanic rocks are in the range of
12 Ma to 7 Ma.
Alteration: Advanced argillic alteration characterised by
quartz-alunite proximal to ore, with pyrophyllite at deeper Fluid chemistry and source: Ore deposition at 250 to 320oC
levels and gibbsite in outer alteration zones. from low salinity (<4 wt% NaCl equiv.), slightly acid pH fluids
of predominantly meteoric origin. Precipitation as a result of
Age: Alunite at Lookout Rocks is K-Ar dated at 11.2 Ma fluid mixing.
(Brathwaite et al. 1998).
Ore controls: Extensional fault/fracture systems associated
Fluid chemistry and source: Advanced argillic alteration with hydrothermal fluid convection driven by cooling
produced by highly acid, vapour-rich fluids at 200 to 300oC subvolcanic intrusives.
that were derived from a magmatic vapour phase. Precipitation
was as a result of fluid mixing. Geochemical signature: Anomalous Zn±Pb±Cu±Ag±Au.

Ore controls: Extensional fault/fracture systems as pathways Geophysical signature: Magnetic lows associated with
for a magmatic vapour-rich phase. hydrothermal alteration.

Geochemical signature: Anomalous Au+Cu±As. Comment: Andesite-hosted polymetallic veins are separated
from Andesite-hosted epithermal Au-Ag deposits by their
Geophysical signature: Magnetic lows associated with higher base metal content, deeper level of deposition and the
advanced argillic alteration. higher temperature and salinity of their parent ore fluids.

Comment: No examples of these deposits are known in the Paleosurface indicators

Coromandel region, but the characteristic style of alteration
associated with these deposits is present in Coromandel Group In shallow epithermal environments, evidence may be
rocks at Lookout Rocks, Pumpkin Hill and Black Jack preserved of the original paleosurface in the form of sinters,
(Kuaotunu), and may be undiscovered elsewhere in hydrothermal eruption breccias, or lake sediments. However,
Coromandel Group rocks (e.g. buried beneath cover rocks). it is often not clear if these features were contemporaneous
with and related to the hydrothermal system that formed an
Andesite-hosted polymetallic veins individual epithermal ore deposit. Also, silicified sedimentary
or volcanic rocks have frequently been miss-identified as
Equivalent international model: “Polymetallic veins” (Cox sinters in the literature.
and Singer 1986, Model 22c, p. 125). “Polymetallic veins Ag-
Pb-Zn±Au” (Lefebure and Höy 1996 Model H05, p. 67-70). For the Coromandel data set, definite sinters have been found
There are also some similarities to “Creede epithermal veins” near the Broken Hills deposit, and at Ohui and Onemana (Table
(Cox and Singer 1986, Model 25b, p. 145). 1). At Gladstone Hill, recent exploration has identified
hydrothermal eruption breccias that fill vent structures (S.
Main references: Weissberg and Wodzicki (1970), Robinson Rabone, pers. com. 1998; Weedon, 1999). These vent breccias
(1974), Merchant (1986), Brathwaite et al. (1989) and are overlain by an eruption breccia tuff ring and by
Brathwaite et al. (1998). sedimentary deposits that fill the eruption crater.

2000 New Zealand Minerals & Mining Conference Proceedings • 29-31 October 2000
Deposit Deposit Paleosurface Ore minerals Zonation Vertical Paleodepth General
subtype indicator with depth extent of to base of depth
ore (m) ore (m) level

Kapanga Andesite n py,el,(aspy,marc, 137 - S−M

pyrarg,As)
Tokatea Andesite n py,el,(hes,sp,gn,cp) base metals 330 - M
at depth?
Success Andesite n py,el,(hes,sp,gn,cp) base metals 80 - M
at depth?
Hauraki Andesite n py,el,(aspy,sb, marc, shallow sb 120 - S-M
pyrarg,As)
Kuaotunu Andesite sinter? py,el,(py,po,sp,gn) 155 - S
Tiki-Matawai Andesite n py,el,(sp,cp,gn) <50 - M
Monowai Polymetallic n py,gn,sp,cp,el base metal-rich 300 - D
Sylvia Polymetallic n py,sp,gn,cp,gold,anhy base metal-rich 135 ~800 D
Thames Andesite n py,pyrarg,el,sb,ba, shallow sb 150 ~500 S-M
(cp,sp, gn, td, tel) & ba
Broken Hills Rhyolite sinter py,marc,el,ac, 170 ~480 S-M
(Au-Ag-As-Se s’salts)
Ohui Rhyolite sinter py,el <50 - S
Onemana Rhyolite sinter py,ac,gold,el, base metals >150 ~200 S
(sp, gn,cp) at depth
Neavesville Rhyolite eruption py,marc,el,ac,adl, base metals 150 ~500 S-M
breccias (mo,sp,gn,cp) at depth
Puriri Andesite n py,ac,el 30 ~200 S
Wharekirau- Rhyolite py,el - - S-M
ponga
Maratoto Andesite n py,marc,gn,sp,cp, 100 550-800 M-D
ac,hes,el
Golden Cross Andesite n py,marc,el,ac,adl, calcite at depth 190 ~350 S
(polybasite,pyrarg)
Komata Rhyolite n py,ac,el,adl,(sp,gn,cp) 200 - M
Jubilee Andesite n py,gn,sp,cp,el 185 - M-D

Owharoa Rhyolite n py,marc,ac,el 100 - S-M

Karangahake Andesite n py,ac,el,sp,gn,cp base metals 700 ~900 S-D
at depth
Waihi Andesite n py,ac,el,sp,gn,cp, adl base metals 575 745 M-D
at depth
Gladstone Hill Andesite eruption py,ac,el ~230 330-400 S-M
breccias
Tui Polymetallic n sp,gn,cp,py,(bis,td,gold) base metal-rich 260 ~850 D
Waiorongomai Polymetallic n py,cp,sp,gn,el,(td, hes) base metal-rich 80 ~950 D

n = not present, y = present, - = no data, ac = acanthite, adl = adularia, anhy = anhydrite, As = native arsenic, aspy = arsenopyrite,
ba = barite, bis = bismuthinite, cp = chalcopyrite, el = electrum, gn = galena, hes = hessite, marc = marcasite, mo = molybdenite,
py = pyrite, pyrarg = pyrargyrite, sb = stibnite, sp = sphalerite, s’salts = sulphosalts, tel = tellurides, td = tetrahedrite. S =
shallow, M = medium, D = deep.

Table 1. Ore zones and paleo-depths in some Coromandel epithermal deposits

2000 New Zealand Minerals & Mining Conference Proceedings • 29-31 October 2000
Hydrothermal alteration
Hydrothermal mineral assemblages are indicators of the
temperature range and fluid conditions in geothermal systems
(e.g. Reyes 1990). Specific mineral assemblages are diagnostic
of distinct fluid types that, when integrated with other data,
provide broad indicators of depth levels, boiling and mixing
zones. At shallow depths and on the margins of geothermal
systems, alteration by steam-heated waters produces an argillic
illite-smectite-calcite±kaolinite assemblage (e.g. Simmons and
Browne 2000). Smectite dominates at <150oC and illite
dominates at >220 o C. These clay mineral indicator
assemblages are listed for a selection of Coromandel
epithermal deposits in Table 2.

Boiling indicators Figure 2. Fluid inclusion homogenisation temperatures (Th)

for vein quartz samples versus depth from the Neavesville
A variety of mineral indicators are considered to be diagnostic Au-Ag deposit, in relation to the BPD curve (dashed) for pure
of boiling conditions in epithermal environments. These water. Graces and Ajax samples are from old mine workings;
include: co-existing vapour- and liquid-rich fluid inclusions, most other samples are from drill holes.
adularia, platy calcite, hydraulic fracture vein breccias, and
steam condensate argillic alteration (illite/smectite, calcite,
kaolinite). with its upper boundary at about 100 m below the ground
surface.
Fluid inclusion boiling point with depth
profiles Depth extent of economic ore
Under hydrostatic conditions that prevail in fracture systems The vertical extent over which ore was mined in historic
open to the ground surface, as in epithermal/geothermal underground mining operations provides a measure of the
systems, boiling in an up-flowing hydrothermal fluid is depth extent of economic ore in Coromandel gold-silver
controlled by the BPD curve. Fluid inclusion homogenisation deposits. This data, as extracted from Fraser and Adams
temperatures, particularly where there is evidence of boiling (1907), Fraser (1910), Bell and Fraser (1912), Henderson and
conditions from co-existing vapour- and liquid-rich inclusions, Bartrum (1913) and Downey (1935), is presented in Table 1.
are used to determine the hydrostatic pressure and hence the Separate mining claims have been grouped to make up individual
depth below the surface. Fluid inclusion data for a selection deposits, as previously described by Brathwaite (1981).
of Coromandel epithermal deposits are summarised in Table 2.
The majority of the deposits have ore zones with depth extents
Where a fluid inclusion data set over reasonable depth range of less than 200 m, including significant producers such as
is available, modal or mean homogenisation temperatures for Kapanga, Hauraki, Kuaotunu, Sylvia, Thames, Komata and
the different sample depths can be fitted to a BPD curve. The Golden Cross. Since most of the ore zones crop out at the
salinity and CO2 content of the water has an effect on the surface, part of the original ore zone has likely been eroded
BPD curve (Haas 1971; Hedenquist and Henley 1985), but and for many deposits these are minimum depth extents. Waihi
for dilute and relatively shallow fluids, the BPD curve for and Karangahake are notable exceptions with depth extents
pure water is a reasonable approximation. As an example, of 575 m and 700 m respectively.
Figure 2 shows the BPD curve fitted to fluid inclusion
homogenisation data for the Neavesville epithermal Au-Ag Some ore zones show transitions at depth into Au-poor base
deposit. The apparent salinities of the fluid inclusions are low, metal sulphides (sphalerite, galena and chalcopyrite). This
generally <0.3 wt% NaCl equivalent, and CO2 is also inferred deep base metal sulphide mineralisation was probably
to be low. The data are from several different prospects within deposited at a higher temperature (260-320oC) than the
the Neavesville area, and the uncertainty in fitting groups of overlying ore zone. For example at Waihi, electrum-base metal
temperature data points to the curve may be due to post- sulphide ore deposited at 190 to 255oC passes down into
mineral fault displacements. This “best fit” plot indicates that electrum-barren base metal sulphides that were deposited at
the ore zone, as mined in the Ajax no. 2 level, was located at 255 to >300oC (Brathwaite 1999). In other deposits, notably
about 400 m below the paleo-water table. Golden Cross, the ore-bearing quartz vein diminishes rapidly
in thickness at depth, with no significant change in ore
In many low-sulphidation epithermal systems, deposition of mineralogy.
electrum in economic concentrations appears to be confined
to a temperature window of 260 to180oC. This means that for In the historic mining literature, ore zones are commonly
dilute, gas-poor fluids that follow the BPD curve, gold described or shown on mine longitudinal projections as having
deposition is limited to a vertical depth zone of about 400 m, flat-lying bases. As noted by Buchanan (1981) and others,

2000 New Zealand Minerals & Mining Conference Proceedings • 29-31 October 2000
Deposit Alteration Fluid inclusions References
minerals
Vapour-rich1 Th oC Salinity

Kapanga ill - - - Fraser & Adams 1907; Downey 1935

Tokatea ill n 200-260 0.5-4 Fraser & Adams 1907; Downey 1935;
Christie 1982
Success ill - - - Fraser & Adams 1907; Downey 1935
Hauraki ill-sm, kaol - - - Fraser & Adams 1907; Downey 1935;
Robson & Stevens 1993
Kuaotunu ill-sm, kaol n 220-270 - Fraser & Adams 1907; Downey 1935;
Parkinson 1980; Christie 1982
Tiki-Matawai ill-sm, kaol - - - Fraser & Adams 1907; Downey 1935;
Robson & Stevens 1993
Monowai ill - - - Downey 1935; Roberts 1989
Sylvia Ill-sm-cc n 250-320 1-3 Downey 1935; Brathwaite et al. 1998
Thames ill-sm-cc n 200-240 - Fraser 1910; Downey; 1935; Merchant 1978
Broken Hills adl-ill y 200-250 0.3-2 Bell & Fraser 1912; Moore 1979; Christie 1982
Ohui adl-ill - - - Bell & Fraser 1912; Merchant et al. 1988
Onemana adl-ill, kaol - - - Robson & Stevens 1991; Brathwaite &
Boswell 1997
Neavesville adl-ill y 195-250 0.1-0.9 Downey 1935; Barker et al. 1980; Christie
1982; Brathwaite unpub.
Puriri ill-sm y 207-218 - Downey 1935; Torckler 1989
Wharekirau- adl-ill y 180-250 0.2-0.9 Rabone et al. 1989; Moore 1985; Christie
ponga unpub.
Maratoto adl-ill y 220-300 0-3 Bell & Fraser 1912; Main 1979; Christie 1982
Golden Cross adl-ill y 170-220 0-2 Bell & Fraser 1912; Keall et al. 1993;
Simmons et al. 2000; Simpson et al. in press
Komata adl-ill y 235-265 0.5-3.5 Bell & Fraser 1912; Christie 1982; Wayper 1988
Jubilee adl-ill - - - Bell & Fraser 1912; Rabone 1975
Owharoa adl-ill - - - Bell & Fraser 1912; Rabone 1975
Karangahake adl-ill n 230-280 0.7-3.2 Henderson & Bartrum 1913; Christie 1982;
Brathwaite 1989
Waihi adl-ill y 190-255 0.3-1.7 Bell & Fraser 1912; Christie 1982; Brathwaite
& McKay 1989; Brathwaite 1999
Gladstone Hill adl-ill y 200-250 0.1-0.5 Oldfield 1990; Weedon 1999
Tui adl-ill n 280-310 1-6 Robinson 1974; Christie 1982; Bates 1989
Waiorongomai ill y 230-280 1-4 Cartwright 1982; Christie 1982; Bates 1989

n = not present, y = present, - = no data, 1 = apparent salinity (wt% NaCl equivalent), adl = adularia, cc = calcite, ill = illite, kaol
= kaolinite, sm = smectite.

Table 2. Alteration and fluid inclusion data for some Coromandel epithermal deposits

2000 New Zealand Minerals & Mining Conference Proceedings • 29-31 October 2000
these flat bases are generally at the same elevation throughout estimated from fluid inclusions, and alteration mineralogy.
an individual mining field and may be correlated with the Paleo-depth estimates for rhyolite-hosted deposits are 200
level of first boiling in the upflow zone of a geothermal system. to 500 m, whereas andesite-hosted Au-Ag deposits are
In the Coromandel deposits, ore zones with flat-lying bases more variable, and deeper (up to 950 m) in those with
are indicated from old mine plans for Kuaotunu, Thames, base metals at depth.
Komata and Golden Cross. In some other deposits, ore zones
• The majority of Coromandel Au-Ag deposits have limited
were reported to diminish in strike length with depth (e.g.
depth extents (<200m) of economic grade mineralisation,
Komata, Downey 1935). This second type of ore zone
although Waihi and Karangahake are notable exceptions
geometry may better fit with the vertical cone-shaped boiling
with depth extents of 575 m and 700 m respectively.
zones described from the Broadlands-Ohaaki geothermal field
by Simmons and Christenson (1994). • Limited depth extents of economic ore, fluid inclusion
data, and modelling of gold deposition in active geothermal
The greater depth extent of the Waihi deposit can be explained systems suggest that deposition of electrum in economic
by mixing of a deep, hot (300oC) fluid with cooler (c. 200oC) concentrations is confined to a temperature window of 260
heated ground waters (Brathwaite 1999). This has the effect to180oC. Under boiling conditions in low-salinity, low-
of lowering the 260oC isotherm by up to 300 m, thereby gas systems, gold deposition is therefore generally limited
increasing the depth range of economic grade gold deposition to a vertical depth zone of about 400 m, with its upper
within the 260 to 180oC window of electrum deposition. A boundary at about 100 m below the ground surface.
similar model can be applied to other low-sulphidation • The greater depth extent at Waihi and Karangahake
epithermal deposits with large depth extents of economic ore. resulted from the mixing of a deep, hot (300oC) fluid with
cooler (c. 200oC) heated ground waters, lowering the 260oC
Paleo-depth estimates isotherm by up to 300 m.

Estimates of the vertical distance from the paleo-surface, or Acknowledgements

paleo-water table, to the base of the ore zone for some of the
deposits are listed in Table 1. For other deposits, the available We thank Ian Graham and David Skinner for reviewing a draft
data is insufficient to attempt to quantify the paleo-depth, of the paper. The research described here is being funded by
although most can be categorised in terms of shallow (<300 the New Zealand Foundation for Research Science and
m), medium (300-500 m) or deep (>500 m). Some deposits Technology.
span two of these depth zones. The estimates are based on
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2000 New Zealand Minerals & Mining Conference Proceedings • 29-31 October 2000
Authors
BOB BRATHWAITE and TONY CHRISTIE are senior minerals geologists at the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences
(GNS). Bob has a MSc from Victoria University of Wellington and a PhD from the University of Tasmania. Previous to joining
New Zealand Geological Survey (now GNS) in 1979, he worked as a mine and exploration geologist for several major mining
companies in Australia. Tony graduated from Victoria University of Wellington with BSc, BSc (Hons), MSc and PhD degrees,
and worked for four years in mineral exploration with BP before joining New Zealand Geological Survey. Tony is Chairman of
the NZ branch of the AusIMM.

2000 New Zealand Minerals & Mining Conference Proceedings • 29-31 October 2000