Political history of medieval Karnataka

The political history of medieval Karnataka spans the 4th to the 16th centuries, when the empires that
evolved in the Karnataka region of India made a lasting impact on the subcontinent. Before this, alien
empires held sway over the region, and the nucleus of power was outside modern Karnataka. The medieval
era can be broadly divided into several periods: The earliest native kingdoms and imperialism; the
successful domination of the Gangetic plains in northern India and rivalry with the empires of Tamilakam
over the Vengi region; and the domination of the southern Deccan and consolidation against Muslim
invasion. The origins of the rise of the Karnataka region as an independent power date back to the fourth-
century birth of the Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi, the earliest of the native rulers to conduct
administration in the native language of Kannada in addition to the official Sanskrit. This is the historical
starting point in studying the development of the region as an enduring geopolitical entity and of Kannada
as an important regional language.

In the southern regions of Karnataka, the Western Gangas of Talakad were contemporaries of the
Kadambas. The Kadambas and Gangas were followed by the imperial dynasties of the Badami Chalukya
Empire, the Rashtrakuta Empire, the Western Chalukya Empire, the Hoysala Empire and the Vijayanagara
Empire, all patronising the ancient Indic religions while showing tolerance to the new cultures arriving from
the west of the subcontinent. The Muslim invasion of the Deccan resulted in the breaking away of the
feudatory Sultanates in the 14th century. The rule of the Bahamani Sultanate of Bidar and the Bijapur
Sultanate from the northern Deccan region caused a mingling of the ancient Hindu traditions with the
nascent Islamic culture in the region. The hereditary ruling families and clans ably served the large empires
and upheld the local culture and traditions. The fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565 brought about a
slow disintegration of Kannada-speaking regions into minor kingdoms that struggled to maintain autonomy
in an age dominated by foreigners until unification and independence in 1947.

Contents
Kadambas and Gangas
Badami Chalukyas
Rashtrakutas
Western Chalukyas
Hoysalas
Vijayanagara Empire
Bahmani Sultanate
Bijapur Sultanate
Modern era
Timeline
See also
Notes
References
Kadambas and Gangas
Prior to and during the early centuries of the first millennium, large
areas of the Karnataka region was ruled by such imperial powers as
the Mauryas of Maghada and later the Satavahanas, empires whose
centres of power were in the Gangetic plains and Central India
respectively. With the weakening of the Satavahanas, the Pallavas
of Kanchi took control for a brief duration.[1] In the 4th century, the
rise to power of the Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi identified the
Karnataka region as an independent political entity and Kannada as
an administrative language from the middle of the 5th century.[2]
Kadamba tower at Doddagaddavalli
The Kadambas were natives of the Talagunda region (in modern
Shivamogga district) as proven by inscriptions.[3][4][5][6][7]
Mayurasharma, a Brahmin native of Talagunda who was
humiliated by a Pallava guard, rose in rage against the Pallava
control of the Banavasi region and declared his independence in
345.[8][9][10] After many wars, the Pallava king had to accept the
sovereignty of the Kadambas and Mayurasharma, the founding
king, crowned himself at Banavasi (in the present day Uttara
Kannada district).[11]

The fact that the Kadambas

cultivated marital ties with
the imperial Vakatakas and
Gupta dynasties attests to
their power.[12]
Kakusthavarma, the most
Kadamba Empire, 500 CE.
powerful ruler of the
dynasty whom inscriptions
describe as "ornament of
the Kadamba family" and "Sun among the kings of wide spread
flame", gave one daughter in marriage to Vakataka Narendrasena
and another to Skandagupta, grandson of Chandragupta II of the
Gupta dynasty.[13][14] Historians trace their rise to political power
through the examination of the contemporaneous Sanskrit writing, Western Ganga Territories, 800 CE.
Aichitya Vichara Charcha by Kshemendra, which quotes portions
of a writing Kunthalesvara Dautya by the famous poet Kalidasa.
Here Kalidasa describes his visit to the Kadamba kingdom as an ambassador where he was not offered a
seat in the court of the Kadamba king and had to sit on the ground. Historians view this act as one of
assertion by the Kadambas who considered themselves equal to the imperial Gupta dynasty.[15]

Family feuds and conflicts ended the Kadamba rule in the middle of the 6th century when the last Kadamba
ruler Krishna Varma II was subdued by Pulakeshin I of the Chalukya feudatory, ending their sovereign
rule. The Kadambas would continue to rule parts of Karnataka and Goa for many centuries to come but
never again as an independent kingdom.[16] Some historians view the Kadambas as the originators of the
Karnataka architectural tradition although there were elements in common with the structures built by the
contemporaneous Pallavas of Kanchi.[17] The oldest surviving Kadamba structure is one dating to the late
5th century in Halsi in modern Belgaum district. The most prominent feature of their architectural style, one
that remained popular centuries later and was used by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagar kings, is the
Kadamba Shikara (Kadamba tower) with a Kalasa (pot) on top.[18]
 The Western Ganga Dynasty, contemporaries of the Kadambas,
came to power from Kolar but in the late 4th century - early 5th
century moved their capital to Talakad in modern Mysore
district.[19] They ruled the region historically known as Gangavadi
comprising most of the modern southern districts of Karnataka.
Acting as a buffer state between the Kannada kingdoms of
Karnataka region and the Tamil kingdoms of Tamilakam, the
Western Ganga architectural innovations show mixed
influences.[20] Their sovereign rule ended around the same time as
the Kadambas when they came under the Badami Chalukya
control. The Western Gangas continued to rule as a feudatory till
the beginning of the eleventh century when they were defeated by
the Cholas of Tanjavur.[21] Important figures among the Gangas
were King Durvinita and Shivamara II, admired as able warriors
and scholars,[22] and minister Chavundaraya who was a builder, a
warrior and a writer in Kannada and Sanskrit.[23][24] The most
Roof relief sculpture, Jain important architectural contributions of these Gangas are the
Panchakuta basadi at Kambadahalli. monuments and basadis of Shravanabelagola, the monolith of
Gomateshwara termed as the mightiest achievement in the field of
sculpture in ancient Karnataka and the Panchakuta basadi ( five
towers) at Kambadahalli.[25] Their free standing pillars (called Mahasthambhas and Brahmasthambhas)
and Hero stones (virgal) with sculptural detail are also considered a unique contribution.[26]

Badami Chalukyas
The Chalukya dynasty, natives of the Aihole and Badami region in
Karnataka, were at first a feudatory of the Kadambas.[27][28]
[29][30][31] They encouraged the use of Kannada in addition to the

Sanskrit language in their administration.[32][33] In the middle of

the 6th century the Chalukyas came into their own when
Pulakeshin I made the hill fortress in Badami his center of
power.[34] During the rule of Pulakeshin II a south Indian empire
sent expeditions to the north past the Tapti River and Narmada
River for the first time and successfully defied Harshavardhana, the
King of Northern India (Uttarapatheswara). The Aihole inscription
of Pulakeshin II, written in classical Sanskrit language and old
Kannada script dated 634,[35][36] proclaims his victories against the
Kingdoms of Kadambas, Western Gangas, Alupas of South
Canara, Mauryas of Puri, Kingdom of Kosala, Malwa, Lata and Badami Chalukya Empire during the
Gurjaras of southern Rajasthan. The inscription describes how reign of Pulakeshin II, 640 CE.
King Harsha of Kannauj lost his Harsha (joyful disposition) on
seeing a large number of his war elephants die in battle against
Pulakeshin II.[37][38][39][40][41]

These victories earned him the title Dakshinapatha Prithviswamy (lord of the south). Pulakeshin II
continued his conquests in the east where he conquered all kingdoms in his way and reached the Bay of
Bengal in present-day Orissa. A Chalukya viceroyalty was set up in Gujarat and Vengi (coastal Andhra)
and princes from the Badami family were dispatched to rule them. Having subdued the Pallavas of
Kanchipuram, he accepted tributes from the Pandyas of Madurai, Chola dynasty and Cheras of the Kerala
region. Pulakeshin II thus became the master of India, south of the Narmada River.[42] Pulakeshin II is
 widely regarded as one of the great kings in Indian history.[43][44]
Hiuen-Tsiang, a Chinese traveller visited the court of Pulakeshin II
at this time and Persian emperor Khosrau II exchanged
ambassadors.[45] However, the continuous wars with Pallavas took
a turn for the worse in 642 when the Pallava king
Narasimhavarman I avenged his father's defeat,[46] conquered and
plundered the capital of Pulakeshin II who may have died in
battle.[46][47] A century later, Chalukya Vikramaditya II marched
victoriously into Kanchipuram, the Pallava capital and occupied it
on three occasions, the third time under the leadership of his son
and crown prince Kirtivarman II. He thus avenged the earlier
humiliation of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas and engraved a
Kannada inscription on the victory pillar at the Kailasanatha
Temple.[48][49][50][51] He later overran the other traditional
kingdoms of Tamil country, the Pandyas, Cholas and Keralas in
addition to subduing a Kalabhra ruler.[52]
Badami Cave Temples No 3.(Vishnu)
The Kappe Arabhatta record from this period (700) in tripadi (three
line) metre is considered the earliest available record in Kannada
poetics. The most enduring legacy of the Chalukya dynasty is the architecture and art that they left
behind.[53] More than one hundred and fifty monuments attributed to them, built between 450 and 700,
have survived in the Malaprabha basin in Karnataka.[54] The constructions are centred in a relatively small
area within the Chalukyan heartland. The structural temples at Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site,
the cave temples of Badami, the temples at Mahakuta and early experiments in temple building at Aihole
are their most celebrated monuments.[53] Two of the famous paintings at Ajanta cave no. 1, "The
Temptation of the Buddha" and "The Persian Embassy" are also credited to them.
[55]
[56] Further, they
influenced the architecture in far off places like Gujarat and Vengi as evidenced in the Nava Brahma
temples at Alampur.[57]

Rashtrakutas
In the middle of the 8th century the Chalukya rule was ended by
their feudatory, the Rashtrakuta family rulers of Berar (in present-
day Amravati district of Maharashtra). Sensing an opportunity
during a weak period in the Chalukya rule, Dantidurga trounced
the great Chalukyan "Karnatabala" (power of Karnata).[58][59]
Having overthrown the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas made
Manyakheta their capital (modern Malkhed in Kalaburagi
district).[60][61] Although the origins of the early Rashtrakuta ruling
families in central India and the Deccan in the 6th and 7th centuries
is controversial, during the eighth through the tenth centuries they
emphasised the importance of the Kannada language in conjunction
with Sanskrit in their administration. Rashtrakuta inscriptions are in
Kannada and Sanskrit only. They encouraged literature in both
languages and thus literature flowered under their Rashtrakuta Empire in 800 CE, 915
rule.[62][63][64][65][66] CE.

The Rashtrakutas quickly became the most powerful Deccan

empire, making their initial successful forays into the doab region of Ganges River and Jamuna River
during the rule of Dhruva Dharavarsha.[67] The rule of his son Govinda III signaled a new era with
Rashtrakuta victories against the Pala Dynasty of Bengal and Gurjara Pratihara of north western India
 resulting in the capture of Kannauj. The Rashtrakutas held Kannauj
intermittently during a period of a tripartite struggle for the
resources of the rich Gangetic plains.[68] Because of Govinda III's
victories, historians have compared him to Alexander the Great and
Pandava Arjuna of the Hindu epic Mahabharata.[69]
The Sanjan
inscription states the horses of Govinda III drank the icy water of
the Himalayan stream and his war elephants tasted the sacred
waters of the Ganges River.[70] Amoghavarsha I, eulogised by
contemporary Arab traveller Sulaiman as one among the four great
Kailash Temple in Ellora Caves emperors of the world, succeeded Govinda III to the throne and
ruled during an important cultural period that produced landmark
writings in Kannada and Sanskrit.[71][72][73] The benevolent
development of Jain religion was a hallmark of his rule. Because of his religious temperament, his interest
in the arts and literature and his peace-loving nature,[71] he has been compared to emperor Ashoka.[74] The
rule of Indra III in the tenth century enhanced the Rashtrakuta position as an imperial power as they
conquered and held Kannauj again.[75] Krishna III followed Indra III to the throne in 939. A patron of
Kannada literature and a powerful warrior, his reign marked the submission of the Paramara of Ujjain in the
north and Cholas in the south.[76]

An Arabic writing Silsilatuttavarikh (851) called the Rashtrakutas one among the four principle empires of
the world.[77] Kitab-ul-Masalik-ul-Mumalik (912) called them the "greatest kings of India" and there were
many other contemporaneous books written in their praise.[78] The Rashtrakuta empire at its peak spread
from Cape Comorin in the south to Kannauj in the north and from Banaras in the east to Broach (Bharuch)
in the west.[79]
While the Rashtrakutas built many fine monuments in the Deccan, the most extensive and
sumptuous of their work is the monolithic Kailasanatha temple at Ellora, the temple being a splendid
achievement.[80] In Karnataka their most famous temples are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain
Narayana temple at Pattadakal. All of the monuments are designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[81]

Western Chalukyas
In the late 10th century, the Western Chalukyas, also known as the
Kalyani Chalukyas or 'Later' Chalukyas rose to power by
overthrowing the Rashtrakutas under whom they had been serving
as feudatories. Manyakheta was their capital early on before they
moved it to Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan). Whether the kings of
this empire belonged to the same family line as their namesakes, the
Badami Chalukyas is still debated.[82][83] Whatever the Western
Chalukya origins, Kannada remained their language of
administration and the Kannada and Sanskrit literature of their time
was prolific.[65][84][85][86] Tailapa II, a feudatory ruler from
Tardavadi (modern Bijapur district), re-established the Chalukya
rule by defeating the Rashtrakutas during the reign of Karka II. He
timed his rebellion to coincide with the confusion caused by the
invading Paramara of Central India to the Rashtrakutas capital in Western Chalukya Empire in 1121
973.[87][88][89] This era produced prolonged warfare with the CE.
Chola dynasty of Tamilakam for control of the resources of the
Godavari River-Krishna River doab region in Vengi. Someshvara I,
a brave Chalukyan king, successfully curtailed the growth of the Chola Empire to the south of the
Tungabhadra River region despite suffering some defeats[90][91] while maintaining control over his
feudatories in the Konkan, Gujarat, Malwa and Kalinga regions.[92] For approximately 100 years,
beginning in the early 11th century, the Cholas occupied large areas of South Karnataka region
(Gangavadi).[93]

In 1076, the ascent of the most famous king of this Chalukya

family, Vikramaditya VI, changed the balance of power in favour
of the Chalukyas.[94] His fifty-year reign was an important period
in Karnataka's history and is referred to as the "Chalukya Vikrama
era".[95] His victories over the Cholas in the late 11th and early
12th centuries put an end to the Chola influence in the Vengi region
permanently.[94] Some of the well-known contemporaneous
feudatory families of the Deccan under Chalukya control were the
Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty
Gadag style pillars, Western and the Southern Kalachuri.[94] At their peak, the Western
Chalukya art. Chalukyas ruled a vast empire stretching from the Narmada River
in the north to the Kaveri River in the south. Vikramaditya VI is
considered one of the most influential kings of Indian
history. [96][97] Important architectural works were created by these Chalukyas, especially in the
Tungabhadra river valley, that served as a conceptual link between the building idioms of the early Badami
Chalukyas and the later Hoysalas.[98][99] With the weakening of the Chalukyas in the decades following
the death of Vikramaditya VI in 1126, the feudatories of the Chalukyas gained their independence.

The Kalachuris of Karnataka, whose ancestors were immigrants into the southern deccan from central
India, had ruled as a feudatory from Mangalavada (modern Mangalavedhe in Maharashtra).[100] Bijjala II,
the most powerful ruler of this dynasty, was a commander (mahamandaleswar) during the reign of
Chalukya Vikramaditya VI.[101] Seizing an opportune moment in the waning power of the Chalukyas,
Bijjala II declared independence in 1157 and annexed their capital Kalyani.[102] His rule was cut short by
his assassination in 1167 and the ensuing civil war caused by his sons fighting over the throne ended the
dynasty as the last Chalukya scion regained control of Kalyani. This victory however, was short-lived as
the Chalukyas were eventually driven out by the Seuna Yadavas.[103]

Hoysalas
The Hoysalas had become a powerful force even during their rule
from Belur in the 11th century as a feudatory of the Chalukyas (in
the south Karnataka region).[104] In the early 12th century they
successfully fought the Cholas in the south, convincingly defeating
them in the battle of Talakad and moved their capital to nearby
Halebidu.[105][106] Historians refer to the founders of the dynasty
as natives of Malnad Karnataka, based on the numerous
inscriptions calling them Maleparolganda or "Lord of the Male
(hills) chiefs" (Malepas).[104][107][108][109][110][111] With the
waning of the Western Chalukya power, the Hoysalas declared
their independence in the late twelfth century.

During this period of Hoysala control, distinctive Kannada literary

metres such as Ragale (blank verse), Sangatya (meant to be sung to
Hoysala Empire in 1200 CE.
the accompaniment of a musical instrument), Shatpadi (six-line
verse or sestet) etc. became widely accepted.[65][112][113][114] The
Hoysalas expanded the Vesara architecture stemming from the Chalukyas,[115] culminating in the Hoysala
architectural articulation and style as exemplified in the construction of the Chennakeshava Temple at Belur
 and the Hoysaleshwara Temple at Halebidu.[116] Both these
temples were built in commemoration of the victories of the
Hoysala Vishnuvardhana against the Cholas in 1116.[117][118]
Veera Ballala II, the most effective of the Hoysala rulers, defeated
the aggressive Pandya when they invaded the Chola kingdom and
assumed the titles "Establisher of the Chola Kingdom"
(Cholarajyapratishtacharya), "Emperor of the south" (Dakshina
Chakravarthi) and "Hoysala emperor" (Hoysala
Chakravarthi). [119] The Hoysalas extended their foothold in areas
known today as Tamil Nadu around 1225, making the city of
Kannanur Kuppam near Srirangam a provincial capital.[105] This
gave them control over South Indian politics that began a period of
Hoysala hegemony in the southern Deccan.[120][121]

In the early 13th century, with the Hoysala power remaining

unchallenged, the first of the Muslim incursions into South India
began. After over two decades of waging war against a foreign
power, the Hoysala ruler at the time, Veera Ballala III, died in the
Shilabalika, Chennakeshava Temple, battle of Madurai in 1343.[122] This resulted in the merger of the
Belur. sovereign territories of the Hoysala empire with the areas
administered by Harihara I, founder of the Vijayanagara Empire,
located in the Tungabhadra region in present-day Karnataka. The
new kingdom thrived for another two centuries with Vijayanagara as its capital.[123]

Vijayanagara Empire
The Vijayanagara Empire quickly rose to imperial status as early as
the late 14th century. During the reign of Bukka Raya I, the island
of Lanka paid tributes and ambassadors were exchanged with the
Ming Dynasty of China.[124][125][126] The empire's most famous
rulers were Deva Raya II and the Tuluva king Krishnadevaraya.
Deva Raya II (known as Gajabetekara or hunter of elephants)
ascended the throne in 1424 and was the most effective of the
Sangama dynasty rulers.[127][128] He quelled rebelling feudal lords,
the Zamorin of Calicut and the Quilon in the south, and invaded the
island of Lanka while becoming overlord of the kings of Burma at
Pegu and Tanasserim.[129][130] After a brief decline, the empire
reached its peak in the early 16th century during the rule of
Krishnadevaraya when the Vijayanagara armies were consistently
victorious. The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates Vijayanagara Empire in 1446 CE,
in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan, 1520 CE.
including Kalinga, while simultaneously maintaining control over
all its subordinates in the south.[131]

Many important monuments at Hampi were either completed or commissioned during the reign of
Krishnadevaraya. The enduring legacy of this empire is the vast open-air theatre of monuments at the regal
capital, Vijayanagara, which is now a UNESCO World Heritage site. Vijayanagara architecture is a vibrant
blend of the preceding Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles.[132] Literature in Telugu, Kannada,
Tamil and Sanskrit languages found royal patronage. Telugu attained its height in popularity and reached its
peak under Krishnadevaraya.[133] The Kannada Haridasa movement contributed greatly to Carnatic music
and fostered a strong Hindu sentiment across South India.[134][135][136] With the defeat of the Vijayanagara
 Empire in the Battle of Talikota in 1565 by the Deccan sultanates,
the Karnataka region and South India in general became
fragmented and subsumed under the rule of various former
feudatories of the empire. A diminished Vijayanagara Empire
moved its capital to Penukonda in modern Andhra Pradesh and
later to Chandragiri and Vellore before disintegrating. In the south
and coastal Karnataka region, the Kingdom of Mysore and the
Keladi Nayaka of Shimoga held sway while the northern regions
were under the control of the Bijapur Sultanate.[137] The Nayaka
kingdom lasted into the 18th century before merging with the
Kingdom of Mysore which remained a princely state until Indian
independence in 1947, though they came under the British Raj
(rule) in 1799 following the defeat and death of the last
independent Mysore king, Tipu Sultan.

Bahmani Sultanate
Stone Chariot Hampi The Bahmani Sultanate, a
contemporary of the
Vijayanagara Empire, was
founded in 1347 by Alla-ud-din-Hasan, a breakaway commander
of the armies of the northern invaders led by Mohammed-bin-
Tughlaq. The capital was Gulbarga but was later moved further
north to Bidar in 1430.[138] The first of the Muslim invasions of the
Deccan came in the early decades of the 14th century. At its peak,
the Bahamani kingdom extended from the Krishna River in the
south to Penganga River in the north, thus covering the regions of
northern parts of modern Karnataka, parts of Maharashtra and
Andhra Pradesh. The most famous of the Bahamani Kings was
Firuz Shah (also known as Taj Ud Din Firuz), who ruled from
1397 to 1422.[139] Militarily, the rule of Firuz Shah had uneven Bahmani Sultanate territories, 1470.
success against the Vijayanagara kings while he was more
convincingly successful against the Kherla rulers of Madhya
Pradesh and the Vema Reddies of Rajamundry, areas that he annexed in 1417. His last encounter with the
Vijayanagara armies in 1417 was disastrous and led to his defeat, ill health and ultimate death in 1422.[139]

Contemporary writers such as Tabataba, in his writings have heaped praise on Firuz Shah. Tabataba wrote
of the king as, "[a]n impetuous, mighty monarch who patronised learned men, Sheiks and hermits", while
Shirazi described him as "a just, pious and generous king and one without equal". He has earned the
honorific Sultan-i-ghazian for his bravery, tolerant nature and patronage of the fine arts.[140] In the opinion
of one historian, Firuz Shah was one of the most notable Sultans to rule in India.[141] Another well-known
figure from this kingdom was Kwaja Mahamud Gavan, the prime minister, who served under several kings
and regents. He rose above the kings and princess of the dynasty by virtue of his ministerial, administrative,
martial, literary and philanthropic abilities. A Persian by descent and a visitor to Bidar in 1445, he
impressed the ruling Sultan Alla-ud-din II and was chosen to become a minister in his court. As a
commander he was able to extend the kingdom from Hubli in the south to Goa in the west and Kondavidu
and Rajamahendri in the east. He soon rose to the position of prime minister (Vakil-Us-Sultanat).[142]

The Bahamanis introduced the large-scale use of paper in administration and began the Indo-Sarasenic
architectural style, designed and constructed by Persian architects and artisans, (also known as Deccani
architecture) with its local influences in Karnataka.[143] The Sultanate monuments of Bidar and Gulbarga
are testimony to their interest in architecture. The Bande Nawaz tombs and a Jama Masjid in Gulbarga
which exhibits a Spanish influence are well known. In Bidar, their buildings have Persian, Turkish, Arabic
and Roman influences (the Solah Khamba mosque being an example).[144] Rangin Mahal, Gangan Mahal,
Tarkash Mahal, Chini Mahal, Nagina Mahal and the Taqk Mahal are some of the palaces built by them that
have retained their beauty. The Ahmad Shah Wali tombs are noted for their decor, and the school of
learning (madrasa) built by Gavan in Bidar (1472), with its lecture halls, library, mosque and residential
houses are also famous.[145] In the later part of the 15th century, with a growing rift between the local
Deccani Muslims and the Pardeshi Muslims (foreign) who occupied influential positions in the kingdom,
the execution of Gavan under dubious circumstances in 1481, and constant wars with the Vijayanagara
kings weakened the Bahamani Kingdom eventually bringing about its end in 1527.[146]

Bijapur Sultanate
The Bijapur Sultanate (or Adilshahi Kingdom) emerged towards
the end of the 15th century with the weakening of the Bahmani
Sultanate . The main sources of information about this kingdom
comes from contemporaneous inscriptions and writings in Persian
and Kannada, travelogues of European visitors to the Deccan and
inscriptions of neighbouring kingdoms.[147] In 1489, Yusuf
Adilkhan, a Turkic general in the Bahmani army, broke away to
found the kingdom from modern Bijapur . Throughout his rule, the
Sultanate was at war with the Vijayanagara Empire over the
strategic Raichur doab, with the Portuguese over Goa, with the
Barid Shahis of Bidar and later with the erstwhile feudatories of the
Vijayanagara Empire who had gained independence after 1565.
The Italian writer Varathema wrote about the founder Adilkhan and Bijapur Sultanate territories under
Bijapur, "A powerful and prosperous king", "the city was encircled Ibrahim II, 1620 CE.
by many fortifications and contained beautiful and majestic
buildings".[147]

Inter-Sultanate marriages normalised relations and Ali I (1557–1580) joined a confederacy of Sultanates
who eventually inflicted a crushing defeat on the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565.[148] The most notable ruler
of the dynasty was Ibrahim II (1580–1626) who ascended the throne as a nine-year-old with Chandbibi, the
king's aunt acting as the regent. Later when Ibrahim II was defeated by the first of the Moghul incursions
into the Deccan, he gave his daughter in marriage to Daniyal, a son of Emperor Akbar, but managed to
collect tributes from the former feudatories of the Vijayanagara Empire.[149] According to a historian, the
rule of Ibrahim II was the high point of the Bijapur Sultanate.[150] A tolerant king inclined to the fine arts,
the earliest book on music in Urdu language called Kitab-e-Nauras is ascribed to him. The opening song in
the book is an invocation of the Hindu Goddess Saraswati.[149] During the rule of his son Muhammad,
Shahji Bhosle from Ahmadnagar joined the Bijapur army and along with commander Ranadullah Khan
conducted many successful campaigns in the southern Deccan collecting tribute from local rulers there. The
final end of the diminished Vijayanagara Empire ruling from Vellore came during these campaigns.[151]

However, the rise of Maratha Shivaji and constant invasions by the Mughals from the north took its toll on
the kingdom, eventually bringing it to an end in the later part of the 17th century. The contributions of the
Bijapur Sultanate in the Indo-Saracenic idiom to the architectural landscape of Karnataka is noteworthy.
Their most famous monuments are the mausoleums called Ibrahim Rauza and the Gol Gumbaz apart from
many other palaces and mosques.[152] The elegance, finish and beauty of Mehtar Mahal is claimed by a
historian to be equal to anything in Cairo.[153] Their Kali Masjid at Lakshmeshwar is a synthesis of Hindu
and Muslim styles. The Ibrahim Rauza built by Ibrahim II is a combination of a mausoleum and a mosque
and is called the "Taj Mahal of the Deccan".[154] The Gol Gumbaz built by Muhammad is the largest dome
 in India and the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after
the Byzantine Hagia Sophia with an impressive "whispering
gallery". Some historians consider this one of the architectural
marvels of the world.[155] Persian language was given state
patronage while the use of the local languages, Kannada and
Marathi was popularised in local affairs.[156]

Modern era
Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, has the
The fall of the Vijayanagara
second largest pre-modern dome in
the world after the Byzantine Hagia
Empire in 1565 at the Battle of
Sophia.
Talikota started a slow
disintegration of the Kannada
speaking region into many
short-lived palegar chiefdoms,
and the better known
Kingdom of Mysore and the
kingdom of Keladi Nayakas,
which were to later become
important centres of Kannada
literary production.[157] These
kingdoms and the Nayakas Kingdom of Mysore under Tipu
Mysore Palace at dusk (Indo- ("chiefs") of Tamil country Sultan.
Saracenic style). continued to owe nominal
support to a diminished
Vijayanagara Empire ruling from Penukonda (1570) and later from
Chandragiri (1586) in modern Andhra Pradesh, followed by a brief period of independence.[158] By the
mid-17th century, large areas in north Karnataka came under the control of the Bijapur Sultanate who
waged several wars in a bid to establish a hegemony over the southern Deccan.[159] The defeat of the
Bijapur Sultanate at the hands of the Mughals in late 17th century added a new dimension to the prevailing
confusion.[160] The constant wars of the local kingdoms with the two new rivals, the Mughals and the
Marathas, and among themselves, caused further instability in the region.[161] Major areas of Karnataka
came under the rule of the Mughals and the Marathas. Under Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan, the
Mysore Kingdom reached its zenith of power but had to face the growing English might who by now had a
firm foothold in the subcontinent.[162] After the death of Tipu Sultan in 1799 in the fourth Anglo-Mysore
war, the Mysore Kingdom came under the British umbrella.[163] More than a century later, with the dawn
of India as an independent nation in 1947, the unification of Kannada speaking regions as modern
Karnataka state brought four centuries of political uncertainty (and centuries of foreign rule) to an end.

Timeline
See also
History of India
History of Bihar
History of Bengal
History of Tamil Nadu
Timeline of Karnataka

Notes
1. Ramesh (1984), pp1–3
2. From the Halmidi inscription (Ramesh 1984, pp10–11)
3. The Kadambas were Kanarese speaking dravidians inducted into the Brahmin fold (Moraes
1931, p11)
4. Their local tribal origins is attested by the Talagunda inscription, R.N. Nandi in Adiga (2006),
p93
5. Ramesh (1984), p3
6. Some inscriptions claim the Kadambas came from a Naga descent (snake worshippers)
making them natives of Karnataka region, Moraes (1931), p10
7. Kamath (2001), p30
8. From the Talagunda inscription (B.L. Rice in Kamath 2001, pp 30–31)
9. Ramesh (1984), 1984, p6
10. Moraes (1931), p10
11. Chopra (2003), p161, part1; Kamath (2001), p30
12. Moraes (1931), p26
13. From the Talagunda inscription (Moraes 1931, pp26–27)
14. From the Balaghat inscription of Vakataka Prithvisena (Kamath 2001, p33)
15. Moraes, Desai and Panchamukhi in Kamath (2001), p33
16. Chopra (2003), p162, part1; Kamath (2001), p35
17. Moraes in Kamath (2001), p37
18. Kamath (2001), p38
19. Chopra (2003), p159, part1; Kamath (2001), p40
20. The impact of the Pallava, early Chalukya and a distinct Jain influence added to their own
innovations are the main features of their architectural idiom (Reddy, Sharma and Rao in
Kamath 2001, p50)
21. Chopra (2003), p160, part1
22. Narasimhacharya (1988), p2
23. Narasimhacharya (1988), p18
24. Chopra (2003), pp159–160, part1; Kamath (2001), p50
25. Kamath (2001), pp51–52
26. Fergusson in Kamath (2001), p52
27. N. Laxminarayana Rao and S. C. Nandinath in Kamath 2001, p57
28. Keay (2000), p168
29. Jayasimha and Ranaraga, ancestors of Pulakeshin I, were administrative officers in the
Badami province under the Kadambas (Fleet in Kanarese Dynasties, p343), (Moraes 1931,
p51)
30. Thapar (2003), p328
31. Quote:"They belonged to the Karnataka country and their mother tongue was Kannada"
(Sen 1999, p360); Kamath (2001), p58,
32. Considerable number of their records are in Kannada (Kamath 2001, p67)
33. 7th century Chalukya inscriptions call Kannada the natural language (Thapar 2003, p345)
34. Sen (1999), p360
35. In this composition, the poet deems himself an equal to Sanskrit scholars of lore like Bharavi
and Kalidasa (Sastri 1955, p312
36. Kamath (2001), p59
37. Keay (2000), p169
38. Sen (1999), pp361–362
39. Kamath (2001), pp59–60
40. Some of these kingdoms may have submitted out of fear of Harshavardhana of Kannauj
(Majumdar in Kamat 2001, p59)
41. The rulers of Kosala were the Panduvamshis of South Kosala (Sircar in Kamath 2001, pp59)
42. Keay (2000), p170
43. Kamath (2001), pp58
44. Ramesh 1984, p76
45. From the notes of Arab traveller Tabari (Kamath 2001, p60)
46. Smith, Vincent Arthur (1904). The Early History of India (https://archive.org/details/earlyhistor
yind00smitgoog). The Clarendon press. pp. 325 (https://archive.org/details/earlyhistoryind00
smitgoog/page/n375)–327.
47. Sen (1999), p362
48. Thapar (2003), p331, p345
49. Sastri (1955) p140
50. Ramesh (1984), pp159–160
51. Sen (1999), p364
52. Ramesh (1984), p159
53. Hardy (1995), p65–66
54. Over 125 temples exist in Aihole alone, Michael D. Gunther, 2002. "Monuments of India" (htt
p://www.art-and-archaeology.com/india/india.html). Retrieved 10 November 2006.
55. Arthikaje, Mangalore. "History of Karnataka—Chalukyas of Badami" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20061104095148/http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm). © 1998–2000
OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. Archived from the original (http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.ht
m) on 4 November 2006. Retrieved 10 November 2006.
56. The Badami Chalukya introduced in the western Deccan a glorious chapter alike in heroism
in battle and cultural magnificence in peace (K.V. Sounderrajan in Kamath 2001, p68
57. Kamath (2001), p68
58. From the Rashtrakuta inscriptions (Kamath 2001, p57, p64)
59. The Samangadh copper plate grant (753) confirms that feudatory Dantidurga defeated the
Chalukyas and humbled their great Karnatik army (referring to the army of the Badami
Chalukyas) (Reu 1933, p54)
60. A capital which could put to shame even the capital of gods-From Karda plates (Altekar
1934, p47)
61. A capital city built to excel that of Indra (Sastri, 1955, p4, p132, p146)
62. Altekar (1934), pp411–413
63. Chopra (2003), p87, part1; Literature in Kannada and Sanskrit flowered during the
Rashtrakuta rule (Kamath 2001, p73, pp 88–89)
64. Even royalty of the empire took part in poetic and literary activities (Thapar 2003, p334)
65. Narasimhacharya (1988), p68, p17–21
66. Reu (1933), pp37–38
67. Chopra (2003), p89, part1; His victories were a "digvijaya" gaining only fame and booty in
that region (Altekar in Kamath 2001, p75)
68. Chopra (2003), p90, part1
69. Keay (2000), p199)
70. Kamath 2001, p76
71. Chopra (2003), p91, part1
72. Kavirajamarga in Kannada and Prashnottara Ratnamalika in Sanskrit (Reu 1933, p38)
73. Kamath (2001), p90
74. Panchamukhi in Kamath (2001), p80
75. Chopra (2003), p92, part1; Altekar in Kamath 2001, p81
76. Chopra (2003), p92–93, part1
77. Reu (1933), p39
78. Murujul Zahab by Al Masudi (944), Kitabul Akalim by Al Istakhri (951), Ashkal-ul-Bilad by Ibn
Haukal (976) (Reu 1933, p41–42)
79. From the Sanjan inscriptions, Dr. Jyotsna Kamat. "The Rashrakutas" (http://www.kamat.com/
kalranga/deccan/rashtrakutas/). 1996–2006 Kamat's Potpourri. Retrieved 20 December
2006.
80. Keay (2000), p200
81. Vijapur, Raju S. "Reclaiming past glory" (https://web.archive.org/web/20111007194411/htt
p://archive.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/feb272007/spectrum1437452007226.asp).
Deccan Herald. Spectrum. Archived from the original (http://archive.deccanherald.com/decc
anherald/feb272007/spectrum1437452007226.asp) on 7 October 2011. Retrieved
27 February 2007.
82. Chopra (2003), p137, part1
83. Fleet, Bhandarkar and Altekar and Gopal B.R in (Kamath 2001, p100)
84. Sen (1999), p. 393
85. Sastri (1955), pp356–358; Kamath (2001), p114
86. More inscriptions in Kannada are attributed to the Chalukya King Vikramaditya VI than to
any other king prior to the 12th century, Kamat, Jyotsna. "Chalukyas of Kalyana" (http://www.
kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/deckings.htm). 1996–2006 Kamat's Potpourri. Retrieved
24 December 2006.
 87. From the 957 and 965 records (Kamath 2001, p101)
88. Sastri 1955, p162
89. Tailapa II was helped in this campaign by the Kadambas of Hanagal (Moraes 1931, pp 93–
94)
90. Ganguli in Kamath 2001, p103
91. Sastri (1955), p167–168
92. Kamath (2001), p104
93. Sastri (1955), p164, p174; The Cholas occupied Gangavadi from 1004 to 1114 (Kamath
2001, p118)
94. Chopra (2003), p139, part1
95. Thapar, 2003, pp 468–469
96. Poet Bilhana in his Sanskrit work wrote "Rama Rajya" regarding his rule, poet
Vijnaneshwara called him "A king like none other" (Kamath 2001, p106)
97. Sastri (1955), p6
98. Sastri (1955), pp 427–428; Quote:"Their creations have the pride of place in Indian art
tradition" (Kamath 2001, p115)
99. Quote:"Of the city of Kalyana, situated in the north of Karnataka nothing is left, but a fabulous
revival in temple building during the 11th century in central Karnataka testifies to the wealth
during Kalyan Chalukya rule"(Foekema (1996), p14)
100. Kamath (2001), p107
101. From the 1142 and 1147 records, Kamath (2001), p108
102. Chopra (2003), p139, part1; From the Chikkalagi records (Kamath 2001, p108)
103. Chopra (2003), p140, part1; Kamath (2001) p109
104. Sen (1999), p498
105. Sen (1999), p499
106. Vishnuvardhana made many military conquests later to be further expanded by his
successors into one of the most powerful empires of South India—William Coelho. He was
the true maker of the Hoysala kingdom—B.S.K. Iyengar in Kamath (2001), p124–126
107. B.L.Rice in Kamath (2001), p123
108. Keay (2000), p251
109. Thapar (2003), p367
110. Kamath (2001), p123
111. Natives of south Karnataka (Chopra, 2003, p150 Part1)
112. Shiva Prakash in Ayyappapanicker (1997), pp164, 203; Rice E. P. (1921), p59
113. Kamath (2001), pp132–134
114. Sastri (1955), p359, p361
115. Sastri (1955), p427
116. Sen (1999), pp500–501
117. Foekema (1996), p14
118. Kamath (2001), p124
119. The most outstanding of the Hoysala kings according to Barrett and William Coelho in
Kamath (2001), p126
120. B.S.K. Iyengar in Kamath (2001), p126
121. Keay (2000), p252
122. Sen (1999), p500
123. Two theories exist about the origin of Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I. One states
that they were Kannadiga commanders of the Hoysala army and another that they were
Telugu speakers and commanders of the earlier Kakatiya Kingdom (Kamath 2001, pp 159–
160)
124. Sastri (1955), p241
125. Chopra (2003), p28, part2
126. Indicated by records of the Ming dynasty (Kamath 2001, p162)
127. Sastri (1955), p244
128. Chopra (2003), p32, part2
129. Chopra (2003), p32, part2; From the notes of Persian Abdur Razzak. Writings of Nuniz
confirms that the kings of Burma paid tributes to Vijayanagara empire (Sastri 1955, p245)
130. Kamath (2001), p164
131. Chopra (2003), pp37–39, part2; The notes of Portuguese Barbosa during the time of
Krishnadevaraya confirms a very rich and well provided Vijayanagara city (Kamath 2001,
p186)
132. Chopra (2003), p177, part2; Art critic, Percy Brown calls Vijayanagar architecture a
blossoming of Dravidian style–Kamath (2001), p182
133. Chopra (2003), pp171–173, part2; Kamath (2001), pp181–182
134. Owing to his contributions to carnatic music, Purandaradasa is known as Karnataka Sangita
Pitamaha.Dr. Jyotsna Kamat. "Purandara Dasa" (http://www.kamat.com/indica/faiths/bhakti/p
urandara.htm). Kamats Potpourri. Retrieved 31 December 2006.
135. Madhusudana Rao CR. "Sri Purandara Dasaru" (http://www.dvaita.org/haridasa/dasas/pura
ndara/purandara.html). Dvaita Home Page. Retrieved 31 December 2006.
136. S. Sowmya, K. N. Shashikiran. "History of Music" (http://carnatica.net/origin.htm). Srishti's
Carnatica Private Limited. Retrieved 31 December 2006.
137. Kamath (2001), p174
138. Chopra (2003), p53, part2; Kamath (2001), p190
139. Chopra (2003), pp56–57, part2; Kamath (2001), p191
140. Chopra (2003), p57, part2; Kamath (2001), p192
141. Sinha in Kamath (2001), p192
142. Chopra (2003), p63, part2; Kamath (2001), p195
143. Chopra (2003), pp181–182, part2; Kamath (2001), p198
144. Kamath (2001), p198
145. Chopra (2003), p182, part2; Kamath (2001), p199
146. Chopra (2003), p62, pp64–65, part2; Kamath (2001), p194
147. Kamath (2001), p200
148. Kamath (2001), p201
149. Kamath (2001), p202
150. Sinha in Kamath (2001), p2002
151. Kamath (2001), p203
152. Kamath (2001), p207
153. Fergusson in Kamath (2001), p207
154. Fergusson in Kamath (2001), p208
155. Kamath (2001), p209
156. Kamath (2001), p206
157. Nagaraj in Pollock (2003), p370; Kamath (2001), p171, p174
158. Subrahmanyam (2001), pp67–68; Kamath (2001), pp173–174
159. Chopra (2003), p96, part2; Kamath (2006), pp173–174
160. Chopra (2003), pp101; Kamath (2006), p204
161. Kamath (2001), p226
162. Chopra (2003), p71, part3; Kamath (2001), p231–234
163. Chopra (2003), pp80–81, part3

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