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IGCSE Chemistry A - Notes Chapter 8 - Acids, Bases and Salts
IGCSE Chemistry A - Notes Chapter 8 - Acids, Bases and Salts
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Chapter 8
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Name: _____________
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Acid are corrosive because they can eat away metal, skin and cloth. Therefore,
acid must be handled carefully.
Lemon and lime juice contain citric acid, ant stings contain methanoic acid,
and fizzy drinks contain carbonic acid, formed when carbon dioxide dissolves
in water.
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= proton acceptor.
= electron pair donor.
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Example of base = CaO, MgO, CuO, Ca(OH)2, NaOH, KOH and NH3
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Alkalis are soluble bases that release OH– ions in aqueous solution.
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The pure alkalis are solids – except for ammonia, which is a gas. They are used
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Like acids, alkalis must be handled carefully as they too can burn skin.
Acid always reacts with base to produce salt. A salt is produced when the H+ ion
of an acid is replaced by a metal ion or ammonium ion.
Some salts can have water molecules incorporated in their structure. Such salts
are said to be hydrated. The water is known as water of crystallisation. For
example, hydrated copper(II) sulfate, CuSO4.5H2O(s).
Anhydrous salts are salts that exist without any water of crystallisation. For
example, anhydrated copper(II) sulfate, CuSO4(s).
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Strong acids + H2O ꞊> all acids molecules react with H2O to produce H3O+
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E.g., HCl(l) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
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Weak acids + H2O ꞊> small fraction of the acids molecules react with H2O to
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A 0.1M solution of hydrochloric acid contains many more H+ ions than a 0.1M
solution of ethanoic acid. So it is more acidic. It has a lower pH. The higher the
concentration of hydrogen ions, the lower the pH.
A monobasic or monoprotic acid is an acid that has only one hydrogen ion to
donate to a base in an acid-base reaction. Therefore a monobasic molecule has
only one replaceable hydrogen atom. Examples are HCl and HNO3.
Solution of acids contain hydrogen ions and the solutions of alkalis contain
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hydroxide ions.
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Bases → strong bases (α = 1, e.g. NaOH, KOH & Mg(OH)2)
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→ weak bases (α = very small, e.g. NH3)
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form ions.
A 0.1M solution of sodium hydroxide contains many more OH– ions than a 0.1M
solution of ammonia. So it is more alkaline. It has a higher pH. The higher the
concentration of hydroxide ions, the higher the pH.
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2HNO3(aq) + 2Na(s) → 2NaNO3(aq) + H2(g) .c
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Acids are neutralised by:
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Bases such as sodium, potassium and calcium hydroxides react with ammonium
salts, driving out ammonia gas.
E.g., Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2NH4Cl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
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bromothymol blue yellow green blue
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phenolphthalein colourless pink red
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The pH scale
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pH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
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violet
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Soil forms when rock is broken up over many years by the action of rain and
weather. It may be acidic because of the type of rock it came from. But rotting
vegetation, and heavy use of fertilisers, can also make it acidic.
Soil can be acidic or alkaline. Its pH depends on factors such as the rock it
came from, the decayed vegetation in it, the fertilisers used on it, and whether
there is acid rain.
Crops and other plants take in nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium from the soil, through their roots.
But if the soil is too acidic, the nutrients are not available in the form the plants
can use.
So to reduce its acidity, the soil is treated with crushed limestone, which is
calcium carbonate, or quicklime (calcium oxide) or slaked lime (calcium
hydroxide). A neutralisation reaction takes place.
These compounds are chosen because they are quite cheap, and only sparingly
(slightly) soluble in water, so rain won’t wash them away.
Types of oxides
Oxygen is very reactive. Its compounds with other elements are called oxides.
Magnesium ribbon is lit over a Bunsen flame, and plunged into a jar of oxygen.
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It burns with a brilliant white flame, leaving a white ash, magnesium oxide:
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s) .c
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Hot iron wool is plunged into a gas jar of oxygen. It glows bright orange, and
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throws out a shower of sparks. A black solid, iron(III) oxide is left in the gas jar:
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Copper is too unreactive to catch fire in oxygen. But when it is heated in a stream
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of the gas, its surface turns black. The black substance is copper(II) oxide:
2Cu(s) + O2(g) → 2CuO(s)
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Copper(II) oxide is insoluble in water. But it does dissolve in dilute acid. For
example, the reaction between copper(II) oxide and hydrochloric acid is:
CuO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
In general, metals form basic oxides, which will neutralise acids. Basic
oxides belong to the larger group of compounds called bases.
Powdered carbon is heated over a Bunsen burner until red-hot, then plunged into
a jar of oxygen. It glows bright red, and the gas carbon dioxide is formed:
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
Phosphorus burns into flame in air or oxygen, without heating. (So it is stored
under water). A white solid, phosphorus pentoxide, is formed:
P4(s) + 5O2(g) → P4O10(s)
Carbon dioxide is slightly soluble in water. The solution will turn litmus red: it is
acidic. The weak acid carbonic acid has formed:
CO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2CO3(aq)
Sulfur dioxide and phosphorus pentoxide also dissolve in water to form acids. So
they are called acidic oxide.
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For example, the reaction between sulfur dioxide and sodium hydroxide is:
SO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO3(aq) + H2O(l)
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In general, non-metals form acidic oxides. These will neutralise bases.
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Some oxides are both acidic and basic. They are called amphoteric. For
example, aluminium burns in oxygen with a white flame, to form aluminium
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oxide:
4Al(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Al2O3(s)
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But aluminium oxide acts as an acidic oxide with sodium hydroxide, giving a
compound called sodium aluminate:
Al2O3(s) + 6NaOH(aq) → 2Na3AlO3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Some oxides of non-metal are neither acidic nor basic: they are neutral.
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Acidic oxide sulfur dioxide, SO2
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nitrogen dioxide, NO2
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phosphorus pentoxide, P4O10
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Neutral oxide
carbon monoxide, CO
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water, H2O
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Amphoteric oxide
lead(II) oxide, PbO
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Preparation of salts
The method used to make a salt depends on whether the salt is soluble.
All chlorides are soluble except silver chloride and lead chloride.
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For example, barium sulfate is an insoluble salt. It can made by mixing solutions
of barium chloride and magnesium sulfate:
BaCl2(aq) + MgSO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + MgCl2(aq)
The ionic equation does not show the magnesium and chloride ions, because
they are spectator ions. They are present, but so not take part in the reaction.
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The steps in making barium sulfate: .c
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Make up solutions of barium chloride and magnesium sulfate.
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Mix them by add excess of one solution to the other. A white precipitate of
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Dry off the precipitate in a warm oven. The oven must not be hot enough to
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Barium sulfate can also be made from barium nitrate and sodium sulfate, since
both of these are soluble. As long as barium ions and sulfate ions are present,
barium sulfate will precipitate.
To precipitate an insoluble salt, a solution that contains its positive ions must
mix with another solution that contains its negative ions.
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It is both a photochemical reaction and a redox reaction. The silver ions are
reduced: 2Ag+ + 2e– → 2Ag (electron gain) and the bromide ions are oxidised:
2Br– → Br2 + 2e– (electron loss)
Soluble salts can be made by reacting acids with metals, or insoluble bases, or
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soluble bases (alkalis) or carbonate.
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For example, zinc sulfate can be made by reacting dilute sulfuric acid with zinc:
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Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
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bubbles off. Bubbling stops when all the acid is used up. Use an excess of
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Copper will not react dilute sulfuric acid. Therefore, copper(II) sulfate can be
made by reacting dilute sulfuric acid with copper(II) oxide:
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
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It is dangerous to add sodium to acid. So to make sodium salts. Start with sodium
hydroxide. Sodium chloride can be made by reacting dilute hydrochloric acid with
sodium hydroxide:
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
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Both reactants are soluble, and no gas bubbles off. The exact volume of
hydrochloric acid that needed to neutralise a known volume of sodium hydroxide
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can be determined by carrying out a titration.
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Pipette 25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution into a conical flask. Add two
drops of phenolphthalein indicator. The indicator will turns pink in alkaline
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solution.
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Add the hydrochloric acid from a burette, just a little at a time. Swirl the
flask carefully, to help the acid and alkali to mix.
Add the acid drop by drop when the end-point of neutralisation is near. On
adding one more drop, pink colour suddenly disappears. So the sodium
hydroxide has all been used up. The solution is now neutral. Do not add
any more acid.
Note down the volume of acid is needed to neutralise 25 cm3 of sodium
hydroxide solution.
Now repeat the titration without the indicator. Add the same volume of
hydrochloric acid to neutralise 25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution. The
indicator would be an unwanted impurity.
Finally, heat the solution from the flask to evaporate the water. White crystal
of sodium chloride will be left behind.
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Positive ions are called cations. Negative ions are called anions.
The tests for ions rely on reactions that form a precipitate, or release a gas.
Take a small amount of the unknown solid or solution. Add a small amount
of the dilute sodium hydroxide solution, and heat gently.
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ions.
Dilute sodium hydroxide or ammonia solution can be used to test for metal
cations since both provide hydroxide ions. But the results are not always the
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same.
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ammonia gas. The ionic equation for the reduction of nitrate solution by
aluminium:
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Sulfur dioxide gas is given off when dilute acids and then potassium
manganate(VII) are added to sulfite solution.
SO32–(aq) + 2H+(aq) → SO2(g) + H2O(l)
Carbon dioxide gas is given off when solid carbonate or solution is warmed with
dilute acids.
CO32–(aq) + 2H+(aq) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
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Anion
Cation
𝐍𝐎−
𝟑 Cl– Br– I– 𝐒𝐎𝟐−
𝟒
OH– 𝐂𝐎𝟐−
𝟑
K+
Na+
NH4+
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Ca2+ white white white
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Ba2+ white white
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Fe3+
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brown brown
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NO−
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none
SO2−
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Ba2+, Pb2+ insoluble, Ag+, Ca2+ slightly soluble
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Insoluble anions Exceptions
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OH–
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Na+, K+, Ba2+ soluble, Ca2+ slightly soluble
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CO2−
3 Na+, K+, NH4+ soluble
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PO3−
4 Na+, K+, NH4+ soluble
* This table applies to the cations Na+, K+, NH4+ , Mg2+, Ca2+, Ba2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Cu2+, Ag+,
Zn2+, Sn2+ and Pb2+.
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𝐍𝐎−
𝟑 Cl– 𝐒𝐎𝟐−
𝟒 𝐂𝐎𝟐−
𝟑
AgNO3 Ag+ n.r. white ppt. n.r. pale yellow ppt. turning brown on heating
Fe2+
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FeSO4 n.r. n.r. n.r. dirty green ppt.
CuSO4 Cu2+ n.r. n.r. n.r. .c blue ppt. turning black on heating
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ZnSO4 Zn2+ n.r. n.r. n.r. white ppt.
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Flame Test
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Reagents 𝐒𝐎𝟐−
𝟑 𝐒𝐎𝟐−
𝟒
Add BaCl2 follow by HCl White ppt soluble in dilute White ppt insoluble in dilute
HCl HCl and in dilute HNO3
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CFL/Headsup 2020 – Chapter 8 – Acids, bases and salts.docx
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