Indian Logic:

Source of Knowledge
Indian logic for
parts Prama and
knowledge (cognition) is divided into two ) Indeterminate Perception A perception is c
consides
Aprama i.e., true knowledge (or possess indeterminate when We cant determine its f e a d
the property called Pramaya) and those that are not true (or colour, shape, size etc. which means it cant s ike
do not
possess the property of
Pramanya). through our vocabulary. This sort
when self has merely
knowledgeexplarises
of the
ained
Prama/Pramana
an awareness
object w

It means
having any concrete knowledge of its name torm, o
valid
knowledge, which tc. Ir's existence is only proved through infetene
of an
object which is implies the manifestation not
said that if the presented to us as it is. It has been perception.
knowledge has to pass the validity test, then i) Determinate Perception Determinate perception :
it must
correspond to reality. when the knowledge ot an object consists of acter arises
Types of Pramanas as name, colour, shape etc. It gives knowledge ofthe su
as a result, we cognize "lt is a tree, He is a
Pramanas are the source of Valid man eretc.
Indian logic, there are six knowledge. According to this case, an individual can identity and cognize
the oki
categories of Pramanas as it is. oba
1. Pratyaksha (Perception)
(iii) Recognition The senses contact with the object and
2. Anumana (Inference) recalled that whether the same object had been
3. Upamana (Comparison) encountered earlier or not. If it had encountered in the pal
4. Shabda (Verbal Testimony) and positively recapitulating the situation and
of the object then it would be considered as
the feature
5. Archapati (Implication) recognition.
6. Anupalabdhi (Non-Apprchension) (iv) Extraordinary Perception This is a perception that
1. Pratyaksha (Perception)
provides knowledge even without the senses-object conta
This sort of perception arises whenever the contacts
Perception is the direct and immediate cognition produced berween sense organs and objects occur in an unusual
by the interaction between the object and sense-organs. manner.

In this type
For perception, four elements are necessary. These are self, of perception, an
object is not directly presented o
mind, sense organs and objects. The self is in contact with thesense organs, but it is retrieved in memory through the par
the mind (manas), the mind is in contact with the sense cognition of it and is perceived through representation.
organs and lastly, the sense organs are in contact with the Suppose that a person has in the part experienced a piece of
objects, as a result, we perceive objects. its colour and its coldness.
Owing to such invariable assocat
ot touch and colour, the in his visual
There are two types of perception:Ordinary perception person presents percep
of ice and its coldness, this results him say, ice looks cold.
(laukika) and extraordinary perception (alaukika). Ordinary
perception is further divided into two sorts; external (bahya) The
following chart represents distinctions on perceptons
and internal (manas). External perceptions have five
distractions because it is connected with five sense Perceptual knowledge
organs-auditory, visual, tactual, gustatory and olfactory.
Extra ordinary
In case of internal perception, the contacts occur between
Ordinary
mind and the object. As a result, knowledge produces. External Internal
Examples of internal perceptions are feelings, desiring,
wishing etc. Determinate Indeterminate Recognition
divided in three sorts. These are
Again, perceptions are determinate Gustatory Ollacto
indeterminate perception (Nirvikalpa), Visual Auditory Factual
and recognition (Prativijnana).
perception (Sarvikalpa)
L0gICaH
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Reasoning
211

umana (Inference)
3.Upamana (Comparison)
a n a
(lnfe knowledge which follows from
ferencc) is such
dge. The word 'anu' stands for 'after' and 'mana' Upamana as a source of knowledge The word
is derived from
Anuma
t h e rk n o w l e
Similarity between two things/objects. 'upamana
c o g n i t i o n ,
So, numana' means 'after cognition'.
Anu
Is derived from two words, 'upa' and 'mana'. The word 'upa
ncans nts of Anumana ference) An inference is means similarity and 'mana' means cognition.
with atleast three statements or sentences and these is,
know that a 'squirrel
Rstite c are again constitutcd of three different terms. For Example If a person does not like rat, but it has long a

e sentences are named as major premise', 'minor He is told that it is a small animal some
nd conclusion respective The major term is found fury tail and strips on its body. After period of time,
when he sees such an
he knows that iIt
animal in the forest,
premise emise. Similarly the minor term is found in minor
which is found in both
is a squirrel.
major and minor
i nm a j o r

and the
term
of an
There are four steps involved in acquiring knowledge
premisea
is called a middle term. In the conclusion only major
object in comparison (upamana).
nd
minor term is present. The middle term makes a link word denotes
e ma
nor term and major term. Major, minor and middle Having an authoritative statement that a
hewee

1sed inter changeably as 'sadhya, paksa' and 'hetic'. objects of a certain description.
has the knowledge of
r e r m s &

One observes any such objects he

o rExample that it answers to the given description.
Major Premise:.All things which have smoke have fire. There is a recollection of the descriptive statement

. MinorPremise: 'This hill has smoke. received from the authority.

Conclusion: Therefore, this hill has fire. There is a resulting knowledge that, this kind of objects
Fire Minor Term - Hill are denoted by the word is same.
Major Term
-

Middle Term - Smoke

4. Shabda (Verbal Testimony)
Th aplain the above example, it is stated that an individual saw Shabda' literally means verbal knowledge. It is the
he smoke on a hill from a distant place. By seeing the smoke knowledge of objects derived from words or sentences. But
heshe relates his/her previous knowledge that whenever there is all the verbal knowledge is not valid. Shabda is the
Soke there is fire. Here, an inference, knowledge of an object instructive assertion of a reliable person, who is expert in
s derived due to previous knowledge ot some sign or mark. The certain matter and is willing to communicate his/her
previous knovwledge is due to the universal relation between the experience of it.
major term and the middle term is being present in the minor
For Example Ifa lady ask fisherman, who is fishing there
a
that if she can cross the river. Since the fisherman is a local
Kinds of Anumana (Inference) Anumana person over there and has no enmity with her replied that
you can cross the river easily. Here, the word of the
his basically clasified into following threekinds fisherman is to be accepted as a means of right
1. Purvavat In Purvavat Anumana, we inter the unperceived
knowledge
called verbal testimony. There are two different kinds of
effect from a perceived causes.
Shabda Laukika and Alaukika.
For Example
When from the presence of dark 5. Arthapatti (Implication)
heavy clouds in the sky,
we infer that there will be rainfall. Arthapatti refers to the way in which knowledge is derived
L. Sesavat Here, we infer the unperceived from the set of circumstances. It
cause from a generally requires an
perceived effect. observation of fact (s) and postulation based an such fact(s)
to arrive at the information. It
For Example When we see a flood in a river, we infer that supposes a fact in order to
there was a support a well established fact.
S.
heavy rain. This is called Sesavat inference. For Example
Samanyatodrsta
observed
This inference is based on certain
points of general similarity. Rahul, who is alive, but is not in his house, the
knowledge of his being out of his house is basedvary
on
or Example When we see a horned animal and inter that
nas cloven hoofs, we have this kind of inference. There perception. We ourselves look for him in the house, but we
do not see him, so we conclude that since he is alive
uniformity of co-existence between horns and cdoven and is
hoofs, though they are not casually related. not inside the house, he must be somewhere
outside his
house.
 N E T - ( T e a c h i n g
andResearc ResearchAAptitude
UGC
212
tha
inter the presence
of tire on
that hil
invariable ssociationon ben
So. here
we
experience
ot that .
the
6. Anupalabdhi (Non-Apprehension) of o u r past
smoke and fire.
Anupalabdhi recogniscs that things cxist cither in a po
itive

their surrounan invariable

association
between smoke a

and the ite

Or a hegative relation to the observer and
This
by the send
STEIvC relation means that they are perceived Vyapti
of Vyapti
non-cxistence they canno
owever in negative relation, or Basic
Terms

De perceived by the senses. So an alternative "mode ot and fire, there is

movement" is necded. The "mode of movement or u In the example
of
between
relationship
smoke
them which is called unfaling
called Vyapti.
mind is called Anupalabdhi. 1. Vyapya(Pervaded) The consequence of the
Within the concept of Anupalabdhi there are four
kinds or

called Vyapya,
as in the above example 's argume
perceptions of fire. 1s
as it is the consequence

() Karana Which is non-perception of casual conditio object of the action .

2. Vyapaka (Pervade) The
i) Vyapaka Which is non-perception of pervader called
is Vyapaka, as in the ah
consequence
(11) Svabhava Which is non-perception of the presenceO as it causes smoke
fire' is Vyapaka,
itself.
(iv) Viruddha Which is non-perception of the opposed. Hetvabhasas
Anumana (Inference) In Indian logic, Anumana'
means
(Fallacies of Inferences)
Interence. It is a knowledge that arises from other A fallacy in Inference is called Hervabhasas. It mean thars
knowledge. In every anumana there are three
terms
to be real or appropriate but infat i
or a reason appears
1. Major Term (Sadhya)
2. Minor Term (Paksa) Solved Example
3. Middle Term (Hetu) are two
sentence below
Suppose there
because it has horns.
(a) This is a horse,
Aprama doubt, (b) This is a bull,
because it has horns.
It invalid knowledge. It includes memory,
means inconclusive reason and this fall
Doubt is regarded as This is an example of
error and hypothetical reasoning. Hetvabhasa.
is regarded Indian logic is called
uncertainty in cognition. Hypothetical reasoning to be a reason bur
as no real knowledge. It means that the middle term appears
unreal a valid reason.
So, Prama is always real whereas aprama gives
us

reasoning five kinds ofHervabhasas

knowledge. Prama is arrived by of our There
use are
and defective unpro
whereas Aprama is arrived by doubtful
1. Asiddha It is referred to as a fallacy ofthe
knowledge and reasoning middle. It has been said that when the middle tems

present in the minor term.

Vyapti (nvariable Relation) 2. Savyabhicara It is regarded as the fallacy of the ums-
ofpervasion. It is considered as the
Vyapti refers to the state which is one of the means of
middle.
of inference
logical ground 3. Satpratipaka The middle term is contradictedDy
can be inferred without the
knowledge. No conclusion the truth of conclusion,.
middle term in this fallacy. Here, the counterbaan-
knowledge of Vyapti. lt guarantees reason by another reason is required.
For Example 4. Badhita It is regarded as the non-inferentialy
adicta
If we observe smoke on the hill,
we immediately perceive contradicted middle. The middle term is contru
be fire, But this interence is only made, if we
thar there must some other pramana in this fallacy.
relation between fire and smoke.
already know that there is a 5. Viruddha It is referred as the contradictoryi
This relation is called Vyapti. the middle term is pervaded by the absence or
 Chapter Practice
of the knowledge includes
The parts 11 Anumana means
(A)P r a m a (B) Aprama
Both 'A and B (D) Rationality (A) An Inferential Knowledge
C)
20wledge leads to (B) Non-Inferential Knowledge
Invalid
(C) Ideal Knowledge
(A)F a i l u r e
(B) Disappointment
B' (D) Extraordinary Knowledge
( Both A' and D) Acceptable notion
12 Anumana has how many terms'
3 Aprama includes
(A) One (B) Two
(A) Memory (B) Doubt (C) Three (D) Four
(C) Error (D) All of these
13 The major term is called
Valid knowledgeincludes how many valid
means (A) Sadhya (B) Paksha
of knowledge?
(C) Vyapti D) None of these
(A) One (B) Two (C) Three (D) Four 14 Hetu' is the
5 Manifestation of object is found in
.. term in Anumana.
(A) Major term (B) Minor term
(A) Prama B) Aprama (C) Middle term D) None of these
(C) Both 'A and B D) None of these 15 What kind of
knowledge is derived from
6 Non-erroneous cognition which is produced by the comparison?
intercourse of the sense-organs with the objects is (A) Upamana (B) Arthapatti
known as
(C) Anupalabdhi (D) Vyapti
(A) Perception (B) Inference 16.... refers to unperceived cause from a
(C) Comparison D) Verbal Testimony perceived effect.
7 Laukika refers to (A) Sadharana (B) Purvavat
(4) Ordinary perception (C) Shesavat (D) None of these
B) Extraordinary perception 17 Shabda is referred to
C) General perception (A) Statement of trustworthy person.
D) All of the above (B) Sentence of a trustworthy person.
8 Internal and (C) Critical speech.
External perception comes under the
domain of (D) Acceptance speech.
(A) Ordinary perception 18 Vyapti has .
(8) Extraordinary perception (A) Vyapta (B) Vyapaka
C) Relevant perception (C) Both 'A and B (D) None of these
D) Necessary perception 19 Fallacies in Inferences is called
The perception in which we can't determine the (A) Hetvabhasas (B) Vyapti
Ieature like size, colour, shape of object is called (C) Arthapatti D) Anumana
(A) Indeterminate perception 20 In
6 Determinate perception
. . .
Hetvabhasa there is a non-inferentially
contradictory middle.
C)Both A and B (A) Viruddha (B) Badhita
D) None of the above (C) Asiddha (D) None of these
aman asks Rahul what is a cat'. Rahul explaims 21 Anumana means
h a t "it is an animal, which is small, active, 1. Inference. 2. Second kind of knowledge.
eats rats etc.
3. Perception. 4. Third kind of knowledge.
What kind ofperception does it represents? (A) 1 and 2 (B) 2 and 3
(a) Bxtraordinary (C)3 and 4
(B) Ordinary. (D) 2 and 4
C)Recognition. D) None of these.
214
NET-(Teaching and Research .
UGC
Aptituc Pan
22 Mntch
the 24 Consider the following Inferences
following 1. Tom is a rational animal.
List-
A. Perception List-I1 2. All men are rational animals.
B. Interence Ordinary 3. Tom is such a man.
C. Comparison Vyapti 4. Because Tom is a man.
D. Verbal Testimony 3 Analogy 5. Therefore, Tom 18 a rational
4. Shabda animal
The correct sequence of
statements are
Codes (A) 14235 (B) 4 1253
A BC D (C) 2 43 51
A BC D (D) 13452
(A) 1 2 3 4
(B) 4 3 2 1 25 Match the following.
(C) 1 4 3 2
(D) 3 4 2 1
23 Vyapti means List- List-lI
1. Inference A. Major Term . Hetu
B. Minor Term 2. Sadhya
2. Invariable concomittance
C. Middle Term 3. Paksha
3. Existential fallacy
4. Referent fallacy Codes
(A) 1 and 2 A BC A BC
(B) 2 and 3
(C) 3 and 4 (A) 2 3 1 (B).1 2 3
D) 2 and4 (C) 3 2 1 (D) None of these

ANSWERS
1 C) 2 C) 3 (D) 4 (0) 5 C) 6 (A) 7 (A) 8 A (A)
11 A 12 (D) 10
13 (A) 14 C 15 (A) 16 () 17 (A) 18 19 (A) 20
21 (A) 22 (A)
23 (A) 24 A) 25 (A)

Hints & Solutions

1. The parts of knowledge includes both prama and aprama. 15. Upamana is derived from conclusion.
2. Invalid knowledge leads to both failure and disappointment. 16. Shesavat refers to unperceived cause from a perceived efedd
3. Aprama includes all memory, doubt and
error 17. Shabda refers to the statement of trustworthy person.
4. Valid knowledge includes four valid means of knowledge. 18. Vyapti has both Vyapta and Vyapaka.
5. Manifestation of object is found both in Prama and Aprama. 19. Fallacies in Inferences is called Hetabhasas.
6. Perception. 20. Badhita
7. Laukika refers to ordinary perception. 21. Anumana means inference and it is also called secondknu
8. Internal and External perception comes under the domain of knowledge.
ordinary perception. 22. Perception: Ordinary
, Sra
9. Indeterminate perception. interence: Vyapti comparison; Analogy Verbal Testimony,
10. Extraordinary perception. 23. Vyapti means both inference and Invariable
11. Anumana means Inferential Knowledge.
Concomiud
24. The correct sequence is 14235
12. Anumana has four terms. 25. Major Term Sadhya
13. The major term is called Sadhya.
Minor Term: Papsha
14. 'Hetu' is the middle term in Anumana. Middle Term: Hetu