Professional Documents
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About Financial Accounting - Volume 1 by F. Doussy, R.N. Ngcobo, Rehwinkel, D Scheepers, D Scott
About Financial Accounting - Volume 1 by F. Doussy, R.N. Ngcobo, Rehwinkel, D Scheepers, D Scott
Financial Accounting
Volume 1
Seventh Edition
About
Financial Accounting
Volume 1
Seventh Edition
Contributing authors
F Doussy (editor)
D Scott
Volume 2
Seventh Edition
Contributing authors
RN Ngcobo
A Rehwinkel
D Scheepers (editor)
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© 2018
Full acknowledgement is given to the IFRS Foundation for quotes and definitions used in this publication.
Copyright subsists in this work. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
the publisher’s written permission. Any unauthorised reproduction of this work will constitute a copyright
infringement and render the doer liable under both civil and criminal law.
Whilst every effort has been made to ensure that the information published in this work is accurate, the
editors, authors, writers, contributors, publishers and printers take no responsibility for any loss or damage
suffered by any person as a result of the reliance upon the information contained therein.
The accelerating globalisation of business has affected South Africa in many ways and
the discipline of accounting has not been left untouched. Accounting is a challenging
subject because it is always changing. These changes are reflected in this book, but
the authors have not lost sight of the fact that the basic principles of accounting have
not altered since the invention of double-entry bookkeeping centuries ago.
One has to learn to crawl before one can learn to walk. This is a fact of life and a re-
flection of life itself. With this in mind, many aspects of the intricacies of disclosure and
the exact or complete disclosure requirements of generally accepted accounting prac-
tice were left for the more advanced student of accounting. This book is not intended
to be a reference book. Rather, the following guidelines were adopted by the authors:
• simplicity
• basic principles
• creating knowledge blocks
• practical application
• demonstration by way of examples.
To achieve this goal, the focus is on a handwritten system, thus avoiding the notion
that the basics of accounting, like the processing of data and closing-off procedures,
are mysterious activities that take place inside a computer. This notion seems to be a
growing problem for serious students of accounting.
The book is divided into two volumes. Volume 1 deals with the concepts, principles
and procedures of financial accounting. Volume 2 (suitable for NQF level 6) deals with
accounting for partnerships, close corporations, branches and manufacturing entities.
Volume 2 also covers some management accounting principles such as budgets and
the analysis and interpretation of financial statements. It introduces the reader to com-
panies and discusses ordinary shares and different types of preference shares, the
calculation of dividends in respect of the different share types, conversions and de-
bentures issues at par, at a discount and at a premium. This edition has been updated
with the March 2018 Conceptual Framework and introduces International Financial
Reporting Standards (IFRSs) to readers. The standards that are covered in Volume 2
are IAS 1 (presentation of financial statements), an introduction to financial instruments,
and IAS 7 (cash flows).
The authors of this book represent a large pool of lecturing and practical experience
gained over many years of work and study. This book reflects the hard work and deter-
mination of these authors, for which we are very grateful.
The editors
November 2018
v
Table of abbreviations
vii
Contents
Page
Preface .................................................................................................................... v
Table of abbreviations ............................................................................................ vii
1. The basic concepts, principles and objectives of accounting ..................... 1
2. The financial position .................................................................................... 21
3. The financial performance ............................................................................ 33
4. The recording of transactions ....................................................................... 45
5. Processing accounting data ......................................................................... 71
6. Adjustments .................................................................................................. 109
7. The closing-off procedure, determining profit and
preparing financial statements ..................................................................... 127
8. Cash and cash equivalents .......................................................................... 163
9. Credit granted: Trade and other receivables ............................................... 197
10. Inventory ....................................................................................................... 233
11. Property, plant and equipment ..................................................................... 249
12. Other non-current assets and financial assets ............................................. 283
13. Current liabilities ........................................................................................... 295
14. Non-current liabilities .................................................................................... 311
15. Financial statements of a sole proprietorship ............................................... 323
16. Non-profit entities .......................................................................................... 339
17. Incomplete records ....................................................................................... 369
Index ....................................................................................................................... 385
ix
CHAPTER 1
The basic concepts, principles and objectives
of accounting
Contents
Page
Overview of financial accounting ............................................................................ 3
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 3
1.2 What is bookkeeping and what is accounting? ............................................ 4
1.3 Why study accounting? ................................................................................ 5
1.4 Developments in accounting ........................................................................ 5
1.5 The function of accounting ........................................................................... 6
1.6 The reporting entity concept ......................................................................... 7
1.7 The nature of and the need for financial information .................................... 8
1.8 Users of financial information ....................................................................... 9
1.9 The objective of general purpose financial statements ................................ 10
1.10 Financial performance, changes in equity, financial position and
cash flow ....................................................................................................... 10
1.10.1 Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income ......... 10
1.10.2 Statement of changes in equity ....................................................... 11
1.10.3 Statement of financial position......................................................... 11
1.10.4 Statement of cash flows................................................................... 13
1.11 The accounting process ............................................................................... 13
1.12 The domains of accounting .......................................................................... 14
1.13 Going concern assumption .......................................................................... 14
1.14 Fundamental qualitative characteristics of financial statements .................. 15
1.14.1 Relevance ........................................................................................ 15
1.14.2 Faithful representation ..................................................................... 16
1.14.3 Further enhancements to the qualitative characteristics of
financial information......................................................................... 16
1.14.3.1 Comparability .................................................................. 16
1.14.3.2 Verifiability ....................................................................... 16
1.14.3.3 Timeliness ....................................................................... 16
1.14.3.4 Understandability ............................................................ 17
1.14.3.5 Applying the enhancing qualitative characteristics ........ 17
1.14.4 The cost constraint on useful financial reporting............................. 17
1
2 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Page
1.15 The elements of financial statements ........................................................... 17
1.16 Recognition of the elements of financial statements .................................... 17
1.17 Measurement of the elements of financial statements ................................. 18
1.18 Summary ....................................................................................................... 19
Chapter 1: The basic concepts, principles and objectives of accounting 3
ACCOUNTING
Bookkeeping
• Orderly & systematic
• Reporting on the financial results
of these transactions • Identification &
• Provision of financial information recording of
monetary value
• Generating financial statements as
of economic
basis for decision-making
transactions
1.1 Introduction
Study objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
l describe how accounting developed over the ages;
l define accounting;
l describe the function of accounting;
l explain the entity concept;
l explain why an accounting framework is necessary;
l describe the nature of and the need for financial information;
l identify the various users of financial information;
l describe what the objectives of financial statements are;
l explain what is meant by financial performance, changes in equity, financial
position and cash flow;
l describe what the accounting process entails;
continued
4 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
The above definition indicates that accounting must fulfil the following requirements:
l the orderly and systematic recording of
l the monetary values of
l economic transactions of
Chapter 1: The basic concepts, principles and objectives of accounting 5
The 300 years between Pacioli’s Summa and the more scientific accounting of the
nineteenth century was a period of refinement and elaboration of the procedures
described by Pacioli. The Summa became the standard reference work for book-
keepers and a model for numerous textbooks that provided a record of bookkeeping
innovations between the fifteenth and the nineteenth centuries.
The development of bookkeeping can be divided into three phases:
l The period from 1450 to 1560: Business practices were more sophisticated than
textbooks, and authors tried to promote bookkeeping mechanics as developed by
merchants.
l The period from 1560 to about 1800: Major improvements were made to the
bookkeeping model and theoretical research on bookkeeping began, especially
with the emergence of financial statements and the acknowledgement of
enterprises as being separate and distinct from their owners.
l The period since 1800: Manufacturing operations, income tax and the emerging
accounting profession have acted as major stimulants to the development of
bookkeeping.
The early literature mainly described the technique of bookkeeping, i.e. how
transactions could be recorded according to the double-entry system. The
development of the theory of accounting, i.e. the why as opposed to the how, began
only in the nineteenth century.
Towards the middle of the nineteenth century, the formation of professional accounting
societies began in many countries. The purpose of the various institutes and societies
was to make recommendations on accounting practice to their members. This was to
improve uniformity in dealing with financial transactions and to formulate basic
principles applicable to financial statements. Today, the issuing of recommendations
on accounting practice is one of the most important functions of professional societies
of accountants and auditors throughout the world.
The first organised society of accountants in South Africa came into being in 1894,
with the formation of the Institute of Accountants in the then South African Republic
(the ZAR). Today, the profession in South Africa is organised into various provincial
and national accounting institutes and societies, the most prominent being the South
African Institute of Chartered Accountants (SAICA).
Currently, the Audit Profession Act 26 of 2005 controls the practising section of the
accountancy profession in South Africa. This legislation regulates the Public
Accountants’ and Auditors’ Board, whose functions include registering accountants
and auditors who are permitted to practice in public, ensuring discipline in the
profession and training accountants.
and costs on the one hand and the higher selling price on the other is called a profit.
The proceeds from the profit increase the assets of the entity and are available for use.
The financial results of economic activities therefore have two aspects:
l the value added to the net worth of a person or an entity during a particular period;
and
l the accumulated net worth of that person or entity.
A single statement may not be enough to fulfil all the needs of a user of the information
since information about one transaction may be included in different statements. For
example, the information disclosed on the statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income may give an incomplete picture of the entity’s performance
and the information in the statement of financial position and statement of cash flows,
or even that disclosed in the notes or schedules, may be necessary.
The notes and schedules include aspects such as risks and uncertainties that may
influence the future results or position of the entity. Resources and obligations not
disclosed on the statement of financial position (such as insurance claims against or
by the institution) are also included in the notes. It would therefore be necessary to
make a study of the complete set of financial statements before a decision can be
made.
Information about the financial results of an entity is provided in a complete set of
financial statements consisting of:
l a statement of financial position as at the end of the period;
l a statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income for the period. It can
also be called the statement of financial performance;
l notes comprising a summary of significant accounting policies and other
explanatory information;
l a statement of cash flows for the period;
l a statement of changes in equity for the period; and
l the methods, assumptions and judgements used in estimating the amounts
presented or disclosed and changes in those methods, assumptions and
judgements.
entity to which the information relates must be clearly defined. A person using the
financial information must be sure about the identity of the entity concerned.
Most entities are defined legally, i.e. by statute – for example, companies registered in
terms of the Companies Act or close corporations registered in terms of the Close
Corporations Act – or by common law, and can be identified fairly easily. In terms of
the Companies Act, an incorporated (registered) company is a legal person and is
therefore an independent entity.
Specifications regarding the accounting concepts, principles, procedures and
methods are not given in the Act. These have been laid down by the accounting
profession. The same requirement applies to close corporations and other institutions
created by statute.
An accounting entity does not necessarily have to be an acknowledged legal entity.
Any economic entity, whether it exists as an individual legal entity or not, for which
separate financial statements must be prepared, can be considered to be an
accounting entity.
In the private sector, there are mainly four types of business organisations with profit
motives that can be considered as individual entities:
l sole traders (or sole proprietors);
l partnerships;
l close corporations; and
l companies.
A wide variety of private-sector organisations with various objectives and without a
profit motive can be regarded as individual entities:
l clubs;
l charitable organisations;
l churches;
l educational institutions;
l associations; and
l trusts.
In the public sector, the state as a whole or individual government establishments
such as provinces, state departments, municipalities, boards and commissions are all
regarded as accounting entities.
Planning decisions are sometimes very simple as in, for example, the case of
routine activities, sometimes very complex when, for example, decisions regarding
the financial strategy and planning of an entity for the next financial year are to be
made.
l Control decisions entail using financial information to evaluate the results of
financial activities. A control decision can be that the decision-maker is satisfied
with the results and that no further action is required. If the decision-maker is not
satisfied with the results, action, which will lead to additional corrective steps being
taken, may be necessary.
The most important control function of financial information is the provision of
accountability and stewardship. Financial accountability is the responsibility of a
person to whom assets have been entrusted and entails giving account to the
provider of the assets regarding the use of the assets. The provider of the assets
exercises control over the use of the assets through the enforcement of
accountability.
The different decision-makers have different needs and use the information disclosed
in the financial statements differently.
The financial performance reflects the profit made or the loss incurred by the entity
over a specific period of time. It is reported in a statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income. A statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income
reports the two elements of financial performance, i.e. revenue that was earned and
expenses that were incurred to earn the revenue. The difference between the revenue
and the expenses results in the profit or loss for that specific period. The various types
of revenue and expenses are shown as separate items on the statement of profit or
loss and other comprehensive income.
Information about the performance of an entity is required to assess potential changes
in the economic resources that the entity may control in the future. This type of
information is useful in predicting the capacity of the entity to generate cash flows from
its existing resources. It may also help in assessing the effectiveness of the way in
which new resources will be managed. Example 1.1 shows the statement of profit or
loss and other comprehensive income of Alpha Services.
Chapter 1: The basic concepts, principles and objectives of accounting 11
Example 1.1
Alpha Services
Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income for
the year ended 31 March 20.2
R
Revenue 850 000
Income from services rendered 850 000
Distribution, administrative and other expenses (579 000)
Salaries 520 000
Wages 50 000
Telephone expenses 4 000
Stationery 2 000
Insurance 3 000
R
Balance at 1 April 20.1 409 000
Additional capital invested 100 000
Profit/Total comprehensive income for the year 271 000
Drawings (90 000)
Balance at 31 March 20.2 690 000
R
ASSETS
Property, plant and equipment 500 000
Trade and other receivables 100 000
Cash and cash equivalents 300 000
900 000
The first part of the statement of financial position reflects the assets of the entity, while
the second part reflects the sources from which the assets were financed.
The first part of the statement of financial position in example 1.3 shows that assets to
the value of R900 000 were in the possession of Alpha Services as at 31 March 20.2.
The statement of financial position also shows a breakdown of the total assets into the
various types of assets.
The second part of the statement of financial position shows the sources from which
the assets were financed. The owner, Mr Alpha, made a personal contribution of
R690 000 which he invested in Alpha Services. The entity therefore owes this amount
to the personal account of Mr Alpha. Alpha Services also borrowed an amount of
R150 000 from the bank. Creditors supplied goods and/or services to Alpha Services
to the value of R60 000. Alpha Services must repay these amounts in future.
Two main types of sources of finance are distinguished, namely equity and liabilities.
The contribution by the owner is the equity. Equity represents the interest of the
owner(s) in the assets of the entity. Liabilities are the amounts owing to creditors, for
purchases or services received which are to be paid for at a later stage, or financial
institutions from which the entity borrowed money. Liabilities reflect the claims of
creditors against the assets of the entity. The statement of financial position therefore
Chapter 1: The basic concepts, principles and objectives of accounting 13
reflects the three elements of the financial position – assets, equity and liabilities, as
indicated in diagram 1.2:
Diagram 1.2
The information processed in the accounting records is then presented in the financial
statements and communicated to the users of the information. The accounting process
will be explained in detail from chapter 2.
write off only one year’s value R10 000 (1/5 of the cost) in the first year, leaving R40 000
to be treated as a fixed asset with future economic value for the business.
The going concern concept supports the assumption that when a business buys
assets like land, equipment or buildings, it does so intending that these assets will
produce income over a number of years. In other words, the business did not
purchase these assets with the intention of closing operations soon afterwards and
then reselling them.
The going concern assumption can be summarised as follows:
1.14.1 Relevance
For financial statements to be useful to their users, the information included must be
relevant. Users must be able to use the particular information to make decisions based
on it.
Relevant information plays both a forecasting or predictive role and a confirming role.
It serves as the basis on which forecasts can be made, and can be used to confirm to
what extent the previous forecast has materialised.
Materiality is an entity-specific aspect of relevance. It is judged in relation to the nature
and extent of the activities of the entity. When the economic results of transactions are
immaterial to the overall activities of the entity, they can be treated in any way the
accountant deems fit. Deciding whether an issue is material is a matter of professional
judgement.
Thus, if an entity with an annual turnover of R50 million purchases merchandise at
R1 000 per unit and if, at the end of the financial year, there are 2 000 of these items in
stock, the inventory will be valued according to the historical cost basis at R2 million.
This value is material and must be disclosed separately in the financial statements. If
the same entity buys 100 pencils for R100, and at the end of the financial year there
are only 20 of these pencils in stock, the inventory of pencils (20 @ R1 = R20) will, in
accordance with the materiality principle, not be disclosed separately (because the
value is immaterial).
16 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
element, for example an asset, requires the recognition of another element, for
example income or a liability.
l The probability of future economic benefit: The concept of probability is used in the
recognition criteria to refer to the degree of certainty with which future economic
benefits associated with the item will flow to or from the entity. When it is probable
that there will be a future inflow or outflow of resources, the influence must be
recognised. When there is no evidence that a debtor will not pay his or her
account, the total trade and other receivables amount must be disclosed as an
asset. If non-payment is probable, an expense that represents the reduction in
economic benefits (for example, credit losses) must be recognised.
l Reliability of measurement: An item must also possess a cost or value that can be
measured reliably before it can be recognised, as is discussed in paragraph
1.14.3. The fact that cost or value must sometimes be estimated reasonably will not
undermine reliability. If a reasonable estimate cannot be made, the item must not
be disclosed on the statements but should be included in a note to the financial
statements.
If an item does not meet the recognition criteria at a certain date, it can be recognised
at a later stage. When an item fails to meet the criteria, but still possesses the
characteristics of an element, it should be disclosed in the notes to the statements in
order to provide the users of the statements with the relevant information.
1.18 Summary
The functions and objectives of accounting are important, since they indicate what the
subject of accounting entails. The subject of accounting includes an explanation of
why it is important, even for individuals for private use, to study accounting. It also
includes a description of how accounting has developed through the ages. It answers
the questions of what the function of accounting is and what the entity concept entails.
These rules and concepts are in line with the Conceptual Framework for Financial
Reporting 2018 approved by the IASB.
The nature of and need for financial information have been explained as has been the
nature and needs of users of financial information and the consequent objectives of
financial statements.
A complete set of financial statements of an entity comprises:
l a statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income (to report on
financial performance);
l a statement of changes in equity (to report on such changes);
l a statement of financial position (to report on the financial position of the entity);
and
l a statement of cash flows.
The methods, assumptions and judgements used in estimating the amounts presented
or disclosed, and changes in those methods, assumptions and judgements.
These statements are accompanied by notes to support the amounts disclosed in the
statements or to give more information thereon.
The underlying assumptions, including the accrual basis and the going-concern
concept as well as the qualitative characteristics of financial statements, have been
discussed. These characteristics include relevance, materiality, faithful representation,
comparability, verifiability, timeliness and understandability. There is, however, a cost
constraint on the provision of quality financial reporting.
Each component of financial statements serves a particular purpose when reporting
on the financial position and financial performance of the entity. In order to report on
the financial position, assets, liabilities and equity elements must be included on the
statement of financial position. In the statement of profit or loss and other comprehen-
sive income the financial performance is indicated by the income, expenses and
capital maintenance adjustments that are reported.
CHAPTER 2
The financial position
Contents
Page
Overview of the financial position ........................................................................... 23
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 23
2.2 The financial period ...................................................................................... 24
2.3 The elements of financial statements ........................................................... 24
2.3.1 Assets .............................................................................................. 24
2.3.2 Liabilities .......................................................................................... 25
2.3.3 Equity ............................................................................................... 26
2.4 The double-entry system .............................................................................. 27
2.5 The basic accounting equation (BAE) .......................................................... 27
2.6 The statement of financial position ............................................................... 29
2.7 Summary ....................................................................................................... 32
21
Chapter 2: The financial position 23
Financial statements
• Statement of financial
position Objectives
• Statement of profit or loss To provide information about
and other comprehensive • the financial position;
income
• performance; and
• Statement of changes in
• changes in the financial
equity
position,
• Statement of cash flows
for decision-making
• Accounting policies and
explanatory notes
2.1 Introduction
Study objectives
After studying this chapter you should:
l understand what is meant by the financial period concept;
l be able to discuss the elements of the statement of financial position;
l understand the double-entry system;
l be able to calculate the elements of the basic accounting equation; and
l be able to describe the financial position of an entity.
2.3.1 Assets
An asset is defined as a resource controlled by the entity as a result of past events
and from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the entity.
For a resource to be controlled by an entity, it does not have to be owned by the entity.
A resource also does not need to have physical form, for example, intangible assets
(which will be discussed in a later chapter) are resources. The future economic benefit
expected from assets is the capability they have of directly or indirectly providing an
inflow of cash or cash equivalents. An item can be classified as an asset only if it has
already been acquired by the entity as a result of past events.
Assets are therefore the possessions of the entity. Assets can be either non-current or
current, depending on the permanence of the asset.
ASSETS
NON-CURRENT CURRENT
Non-current assets are those resources of a more permanent nature which are
essential in the process of earning income. It is not the intention of the entity to sell
Chapter 2: The financial position 25
non-current assets, but to use these assets over the long-term in its business
operations. Non-current assets are those assets with a useful life of longer than one
year.
Assets can therefore be classified as non-current when they:
l were not acquired for the main purpose of resale;
l are to be used in the business; and
l have a lifespan of longer than twelve months.
The following are examples of non-current assets:
l land and buildings;
l furniture and equipment;
l vehicles; and
l financial assets.
Current assets are assets which have a short lifespan and continually change in the
normal course of business.
An asset shall be classified as current when it satisfies any of the following criteria:
l it is expected to be realised in, or is intended for sale or consumption in, the
entity’s normal operating cycle;
l it is held primarily for the purpose of being traded;
l it is expected to be realised within twelve months after the reporting period; or
l it is cash or a cash equivalent (as defined in IAS 7 Statement of Cash Flows)
unless it is restricted from being exchanged or used to settle a liability for at least
twelve months after the reporting period.
All other assets shall be classified as non-current.
The following are examples of current assets:
l inventories;
l trade and other receivables;
l bills receivable; and
l cash at bank.
Assets are to be listed in a specific order on the statement of financial position. Firstly,
non-current assets are shown, followed by the current assets.
2.3.2 Liabilities
Liabilities are present obligations of the entity arising from past events, the settlement
of which is expected to result in an outflow from the entity of resources embodying
economic benefits.
For an item to be classified as a liability, an obligation towards another party must
already exist: this means that there must be a present obligation. An obligation is a
duty or responsibility to act or perform in a certain way. Only obligations that have
arisen from past events or transactions can be recognised as liabilities. Future
commitments cannot be recognised as liabilities until the entity has received an asset
or until an irrevocable agreement has been entered into by the entity to acquire an
26 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
asset. Obligations are settled by cash payments; by means of the transfer of other
assets; by the provision of services; or by any other specified performance. The
settlement of liabilities arising from the normal course of business often has specified
conditions, for example, suppliers may require that accounts be settled within a
specified period of time. In many cases, the settlement of an obligation is enforced by
contractual agreements or by statutory or other authoritative regulations. These
obligations are known as legal obligations; this means that they are enforceable by
law. Income taxes payable to government or municipal rates and taxes payable to
local governments are examples of obligations that arise from statutory or other
authoritative regulations. Liabilities can be non-current or current, depending on when
the liability must be settled.
LIABILITIES
NON-CURRENT CURRENT
Non-current liabilities are long-term debts, which have to be settled after one year of
the date of the statement of financial position.
The following are examples of non-current liabilities:
l long-term loans;
l mortgages; and
l debentures.
Current liabilities are debts that have to be settled in the short-term, usually within a
year of the date of the statement of financial position.
A liability shall be classified as current when it satisfies any of the following criteria:
l it is expected to be settled in the entity’s normal operating cycle;
l it is held primarily for the purpose of being traded;
l it is due to be settled within twelve months after the reporting period; or
l the entity does not have an unconditional right to defer settlement of the liability for
at least twelve months after the reporting period.
All other liabilities shall be classified as non-current.
The following are examples of current liabilities:
l trade and other payables; and
l bank overdrafts.
2.3.3 Equity
Equity is the residual interest in the assets of the entity after deducting all its liabilities.
Equity represents the interest of the owners in the net assets of an entity, which means
the part of the assets against which there is no claim from other parties. The equity of
Chapter 2: The financial position 27
an entity can be obtained from two sources, namely contributions by the owners of the
entity and any net profit made in the periods during which the entity is conducting
business. Contributions by the owners of the entity are usually in the form of cash, but
owners may also contribute other assets, such as land and buildings or machinery and
equipment, to the entity. The equity which the owner(s) contribute toward the funding
of a sole trader or partnership is known as capital. In close corporations, it is known as
members’ interests and, in companies, as share capital. Equity is therefore the amount
the entity owes to its owners.
Equity differs from liabilities in that liabilities are obligations which must be settled out
of the assets of the entity, while equity is not an obligation which has to be settled.
Equity is not a claim against assets; it is what is left over after all liabilities are
deducted from assets. This can be expressed in terms of the following equation:
Equity = Assets – Liabilities
Written differently:
Assets = Equity + Liabilities
or A = E+L
This equation is known as the basic accounting equation or BAE.
The financial position of an entity is indicated by this equation. By using this equation,
any unknown elements can be calculated.
Example 2.1
B Buckingham runs a small service business from home. On 30 April 20.2, he tells you
that his interest in the business is R28 000 and the value of his assets is R40 000.
28 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Required
Calculate the liabilities of B Buckingham’s business.
A =E+L
A–E =E+L–E (subtract E from both sides)
∴L =A–E
= R40 000 – R28 000
= R12 000
The liabilities of the business on 30 April 20.2 amount to R12 000.
Example 2.2
N Nicks is the owner of Nicks Plumbing. The following is a list of the assets and
liabilities as at 31 May 20.2:
R
Vehicles 54 000
Tools and equipment 15 000
Trade and other payables 6 500
Trade and other receivables 3 700
Cash in bank 4 300
Long-term loan 20 000
Required
Calculate the equity of Nicks Plumbing.
Identify assets:
Vehicles 54 000
Tools and equipment 15 000
Trade and other receivables 3 700
Cash in bank 4 300
Identify liabilities:
Long-term loan 20 000
Trade and other payables 6 500
Using the BAE,
A =E+L
A–L =E+L–L
∴E =A–L
= R(54 000 + 15 000 + 3 700 + 4 300) – R(20 000 + 6 500)
= R77 000 – R26 500
= R50 500
The equity of Nicks Plumbing is therefore R50 500, which means that N Nicks has that
amount of capital invested in the business.
Chapter 2: The financial position 29
The statement of financial position should be prepared in narrative form, i.e. vertically.
A statement of financial position is not part of the double-entry system but a statement
of balances. No entries are made in the accounts when a statement of financial
position is compiled. All that happens is that the balances on the accounts are listed.
30 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
The following is a framework for the vertical presentation of the statement of financial
position.
Figure 2.2
Statement of financial position as at . . . (specific point in time)
R
ASSETS
Non-current assets XXX XXX
Property, plant and equipment XXX XXX
Financial assets XX XXX
As a minimum, the statement of financial position must include line items that present
the following amounts:
(a) property, plant and equipment;
(b) investment property;
(c) intangible assets;
(d) financial assets (excluding amounts shown under (e), (h) and (i));
(e) investments accounted for using the equity method;
(f) biological assets;
(g) inventories;
(h) trade and other receivables;
(i) cash and cash equivalents;
Chapter 2: The financial position 31
(j) the total of assets classified as held for sale and assets included in disposal
groups classified as held for sale in accordance with IFRS 5 Non-Current Assets
Held for Sale and Discontinued Operations;
(k) trade and other payables;
(l) provisions;
(m) financial liabilities (excluding amounts shown under (k) and (l));
(n) liabilities and assets for current tax, as defined in IAS 12 Income Taxes;
(o) deferred tax liabilities and deferred tax assets, as defined in IAS 12;
(p) minority interest, presented within equity; and
(q) issued capital and reserves attributable to equity holders of the parent.
Example 2.3
Using the information in example 2.2, we have the following balances:
R R
Vehicles 54 000 Cash in bank 4 300
Tools and equipment 15 000 Long-term borrowings 20 000
Trade and other payables 6 500 Equity 50 500
Trade and other receivables 3 700
Required
Compile the statement of financial position for Nicks Plumbing as at 31 May 20.2.
Nicks Plumbing
Statement of financial position as at 31 May 20.2
R
ASSETS
Non-current assets 69 000
Property, plant and equipment R(54 000 + 15 000) 69 000
2.7 Summary
The financial position of an entity is shown on the statement of financial position, which
is made up of three elements, namely:
l assets;
l equity; and
l liabilities.
The statement of financial position shows the financial position at a specific point in
time. With every transaction, the financial position of an entity changes, thereby
changing the value of one or more of the elements.
CHAPTER 3
The financial performance
Contents
Page
Overview of the financial performance ................................................................... 35
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 35
3.2 Elements of the statement of profit or loss and
other comprehensive income ....................................................................... 36
3.2.1 Income ............................................................................................. 36
3.2.2 Expenses ......................................................................................... 36
3.3 Influence of profit or loss on equity ............................................................... 37
3.4 Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income
(financial performance) ................................................................................. 38
3.5 Statement of changes in equity .................................................................... 40
3.6 Notes to the financial statements .................................................................. 41
3.7 Summary ....................................................................................................... 43
33
Chapter 3: The financial performance 35
Financial performance
Reflected in:
Statement of changes in equity
3.1 Introduction
Study objectives
After studying this chapter you should:
l be able to discuss the elements of the statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income;
l understand the influence of profit and loss on equity;
l be able to determine the financial performance of a sole proprietorship;
l be able to compile a statement of changes in equity for a sole proprietorship;
and
l be able to discuss and compile certain notes to the financial statements.
The statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income provides information
about the financial performance of an entity for a specific period of time, the financial
period. Income and expenses are the elements on the statement of profit or loss and
other comprehensive income by which financial performance is measured. This leads
to the following equation:
Financial performance = Income – Expenses
36 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Financial performance is measured in terms of the profit or loss which an entity makes
over a specific period of time. Therefore:
Profit or loss = Income – Expenses
3.2.1 Income
Income is increases in economic benefits during the accounting period in the form of
inflows or enhancements of assets or decreases of liabilities that result in increases in
equity, other than those relating to contributions from equity participants.
It is important to remember that when the owner(s) make(s) direct contributions to
equity, it is not classed as income. Income includes both revenue and gains.
INCOME
REVENUE GAINS
l Revenue
Revenue is earned from the entity’s ordinary activities, for example:
• fees earned;
• sales;
• interest income;
• dividend income;
• rent income;
• commission income; and
• credit losses recovered.
l Gains
Gains are increases in economic benefits which do not arise from the normal
activities of the entity, for example profit made on the sale of a non-current asset.
3.2.2 Expenses
Expenses are decreases in economic benefits during the accounting period in the
form of outflows or depletions of assets or incurrences of liabilities that result in
decreases in equity, other than those relating to distributions to equity participants.
Losses are also included in the definition of expenses.
Chapter 3: The financial performance 37
EXPENSES
l Normal expenses
Expenses are incurred in the normal course of the entity’s activities. They arise
from the production of income, for example:
• purchases of inventory;
• customs and excise duty;
• carriage on purchases;
• carriage on sales;
• rent expenses;
• salaries and wages;
• cost of raw materials;
• depreciation;
• administrative expenses;
• water and electricity;
• advertising;
• interest expenses;
• bank charges;
• credit losses; and
• insurance.
l Losses
Losses are decreases in economic benefit which do not arise from the normal
activities of the entity, for example damage caused by a fire or loss on the sale of a
non-current asset.
Example 3.1
Using the information in example 2.2, the financial position of Nicks Plumbing as at
31 May 20.2 is as follows:
R
Assets 77 000
Equity 50 500
Liabilities 26 500
During the financial year 1 June 20.2 to 31 May 20.3, N Nicks had the following income
and expenses with regard to Nicks Plumbing:
R
Fees earned 89 000
Wages paid 12 000
General expenses 18 000
Interest expense 3 000
Required
Calculate Nicks Plumbing’s equity as at 31 May 20.3.
Net profit = Income – Expenses
= R89 000 – (12 000 + 18 000 + 3 000)
= R89 000 – 33 000
= R56 000
The equity as at 31 May 20.3 is calculated as follows:
Equity = Capital + Income – Expenses
= Capital + Net profit
= R50 500 + 56 000
= R106 500
The equity as at 31 May 20.3 is therefore R106 500. This is the balance on the capital
account because Nicks Plumbing is a sole proprietorship.
R
Revenue XXX XXX
Cost of sales (XXX XXX)
Gross profit XXX XXX
Other income X XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX XXX
Distribution, administrative and other expenses (XX XXX)
XX XXX
X XXX
Finance costs (X XXX)
(X XXX)
As a minimum, the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income shall
include line items that present the following amounts for the period:
(a) revenue;
(b) finance costs;
(c) share of the profit or loss of associates and joint ventures accounted for using the
equity method;
(d) tax expense; and
(e) a single amount comprising the total of
(i) the post-tax profit or loss of discontinued operations; and
(ii) the post-tax gain or loss recognised on the measurement to fair value less
costs to sell or on the disposal of the assets or disposal group(s) constituting
the discontinued operations;
(f) profit or loss;
(g) each component of other comprehensive income classified by nature (excluding
amounts in (h));
(h) share of other comprehensive income of associates and joint ventures accounted
for using the equity method; and
(i) total comprehensive income.
40 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
The following are examples of items which will appear under the different sub-
headings on the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income:
Distribution,
administrative
Revenue Other income Finance costs
and other
expenses
Fees earned Credit losses recovered Advertising Interest on bank overdraft
Net sales Commission income Credit losses Interest on mortgage
Dividend income Bank charges Interest on long-term loan
Interest income Carriage on sales Interest paid on capital/
Profit on sale of asset Delivery expenses savings accounts in a
Rent income Depreciation partnership
Insurance
Postage
Rent expenses
Repairs
Salaries
Stationery
consumed
Telephone expenses
Water and electricity
Example 3.2
Required
Prepare the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income of Nicks
Plumbing for the year ended 31 May 20.3.
Nicks Plumbing
Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income for
the year ended 31 May 20.3
Notes* R
Revenue 2 89 000
Distribution, administrative and other expenses (30 000)
Wages 12 000
General expenses 18 000
Finance costs (3 000)
Interest expense 3 000
* Notes to the financial statements will be explained at the end of the chapter.
R
Balance as at 1 June 20.2 50 500
Profit/Total comprehensive income for the year 56 000
Drawings (65 000)
Balance as at 31 May 20.3 41 500
Nicks Plumbing
Notes for the year ended 31 May 20.3
1. Basis of presentation
The annual financial statements have been prepared in accordance with generally
accepted accounting practice appropriate to the business of the entity. The
annual financial statements have been prepared on the historical cost basis.
2. Revenue is measured at the fair value of the consideration received or receivable.
Revenue from fees earned for services rendered to clients consists of the total net
invoiced fees excluding value-added tax (VAT) and settlement discount granted.
Example 3.5
M McVie runs a dressmaking business from home. The following information relates to
the business:
Balances as at 31 December 20.2
R
Capital 21 350
Furniture and equipment 15 000
Trade and other receivables 1 800
Cash in bank 5 100
Trade and other payables 550
M McVie
Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income for the year ended
31 December 20.3
Note* R
Revenue 2 22 000
Distribution, administrative and other expenses (23 640)
Wages 4 400
Telephone expenses 1 580
Other expenses 17 660
M McVie
Statement of changes in equity for the year ended 31 December 20.3
R
Balance as at 1 January 20.3 21 350
Loss/total comprehensive loss for the year (1 640)
Drawings (15 000)
Balance as at 31 December 20.3 4 710
M McVie
Notes for the year ended 31 December 20.3
1. Basis of presentation
The annual financial statements have been prepared in accordance with generally
accepted accounting practice appropriate to the business of the entity. The
annual financial statements have been prepared on the historical cost basis.
2. Revenue is measured at the fair value of the consideration received or receivable.
Revenue from fees earned for services rendered to clients consists of the total net
invoiced fees, excluding value-added tax (VAT) and settlement discount granted.
3.7 Summary
The financial performance is depicted on the statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income of an entity. The elements shown on that statement are income
and expenses. The difference between income and expenses gives the profit or loss
of the entity for a financial period (which is usually a year). If income exceeds
expenses, a profit is made, which increases equity; if expenses exceed income, a loss
is made, which decreases equity. The statement of changes in equity reflects these
changes and reconciles the equity at the beginning of the financial period with the
equity at the end of the financial period.
CHAPTER 4
The recording of transactions
Contents
Page
Overview of the recording of transactions .............................................................. 47
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 47
4.2 The effect of transactions on the basic accounting equation....................... 47
4.2.1 Transactions which affect only assets ............................................. 53
4.2.2 Transactions which affect both assets and liabilities ...................... 53
4.2.3 Transactions which affect both assets and equity .......................... 53
4.2.4 Transactions which affect both equity and liabilities ....................... 54
4.3 Recording of transactions into ledger accounts ........................................... 54
4.3.1 Asset accounts ................................................................................ 55
4.3.2 Liability accounts ............................................................................. 55
4.3.3 Equity accounts ............................................................................... 55
4.3.4 Income accounts ............................................................................. 56
4.3.5 Expense accounts ........................................................................... 56
4.4 Balancing an account ................................................................................... 61
4.4.1 Only one entry in the account.......................................................... 61
4.4.2 The same amount entered on both sides of the account ................ 61
4.4.3 More than one entry on only one side of the account ..................... 62
4.4.4 More than one entry on both sides of the account .......................... 62
4.5 The trial balance ........................................................................................... 65
4.5.1 Errors not revealed by a trial balance ............................................. 66
4.5.2 Errors which will be revealed by a trial balance .............................. 66
4.5.3 Tracing errors in a trial balance....................................................... 67
4.6 Preparing the financial statements of a sole proprietor ................................ 68
4.7 Summary ....................................................................................................... 69
45
Chapter 4: The recording of transactions 47
BAE
Assets = Equity + Liabilities
Equity = Assets ದ Liabilities
Liabilities = Assets – Equity
4.1 Introduction
Study objectives
After studying this chapter you should:
l understand and record the effect of transactions on the BAE;
l be able to post transactions to the ledger accounts;
l be able to extract a trial balance; and
l be able to compile the financial statements of a sole proprietorship.
The accounting process starts once a transaction has taken place. In chapter 2, it was
stated that the financial position of an entity changes with each transaction. Also, each
transaction has an effect on two or more items in the basic accounting equation (BAE),
which is the basis of the double-entry system. Therefore transactions must be re-
recorded in ledger accounts using the double-entry system. After all the ledger
accounts have been balanced, a list of balances called a trial balance can be drawn.
From the trial balance, the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income,
statement of changes in equity and statement of financial position can be compiled.
The BAE (Assets = Equity + Liabilities) is an equation that must stay in balance after
each transaction. The assets are on the left-hand side of the equation, while the equity
and liabilities are on the right-hand side. There are four different ways in which the
equation can change but still remain in balance:
l an increase on the left-hand side with a corresponding increase on the right-hand
side:
Left-hand side = Right-hand side
ASSETS = EQUITY + LIABILITIES
“+” “+”
l a decrease on the left-hand side with a corresponding decrease on the right-hand
side:
Left-hand side = Right-hand side
ASSETS = EQUITY + LIABILITIES
“–” “–”
l a corresponding increase and decrease on the left-hand side:
Left-hand side = Right-hand side
ASSETS = EQUITY + LIABILITIES
“+” and “–”
and
l a corresponding increase and decrease on the right-hand side:
Left-hand side = Right-hand side
ASSETS = EQUITY + LIABILITIES
“+” and “–”
Before reading further, please refer back to paragraph 3.3 on how income and
expenses influence equity.
The following example will explain the effect of transactions on the BAE.
Example 4.1
S Stipe started REM Removal Services on 1 July 20.3. The following is a list of
transactions entered into by the business during July 20.3:
No Date Details
1 20.3
July 1 S Stipe deposited R50 000 into the bank account of the business as
capital.
2 3 He bought a second-hand removal van on credit from
M Mills for R80 000.
continued
Chapter 4: The recording of transactions 49
No Date Details
3 20.3 3 Filled the removal van with petrol and paid cash, R700.
July
4 4 Placed an advertisement in the Eye News for R250 on credit.
5 Paid his personal telephone account of R460 for June 20.3 with a business
EFT (electronic fund transfer).
6 7 Obtained a loan from Rapid Bank for R25 000.
7 10 Transported furniture for B Berry on credit, R2 000.
8 14 He transferred personal equipment to the value of R10 000 to the business.
9 17 Paid R15 000 to M Mills, as first payment on the removal van.
10 18 Bought a computer for R6 000 from Movement Ltd and paid by EFT.
11 22 Received R800 from B Buck for the transport of equipment.
12 25 Received a payment from debtor, B Berry, R1 000.
Transaction 1
S Stipe deposited R50 000 into the bank account of the business as capital.
With this transaction, assets and equity increase. This means that the left-hand side
and the right-hand side of the BAE are each increased by R50 000.
ASSETS = EQUITY + LIABILITIES
Trade Trade
Vehicles Equipment Bank Capital Income Expenses Loan
receivables payables
R R R R R R R R R
Opening balance 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Transaction 1 + 50 000 + 50 000
Closing balance 0 0 0 + 50 000 + 50 000 0 0 0 0
Transaction 2
He bought a second-hand removal van on credit from M Mills for R80 000.
The removal van is an asset for the business, and the business now owes M Mills
R80 000 (he becomes a creditor). The left-hand side and the right-hand side are each
increased by R80 000.
ASSETS = EQUITY + LIABILITIES
Trade Trade
Vehicles Equipment Bank Capital Income Expenses Loan
receivables payables
R R R R R R R R R
Opening balance 0 0 0 + 50 000 + 50 000 0 0 0 0
Transaction 2 + 80 000 + 80 000
Closing balance + 80 000 0 0 + 50 000 + 50 000 0 0 0 + 80 000
Transaction 3
Filled the removal van with petrol and paid cash, R700.
The purchase of petrol is an expense to the entity, which decreases equity. Assets
also decrease as there has been an outflow of cash from the bank.
50 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Transaction 4
Placed an advertisement in the Eye News for R250 on credit.
Advertising is also an expense, which decreases equity. The entity now owes Eye
News R250, and Eye News thus becomes a creditor. The right-hand side is therefore
increased and decreased by R250.
ASSETS = EQUITY + LIABILITIES
Trade Trade
Vehicles Equipment Bank Capital Income Expenses Loan
receivables payables
R R R R R R R R R
Opening balance + 80 000 0 0 + 49 300 + 50 000 0 – 700 0 + 80 000
Transaction 4 – 250 + 250
Closing balance + 80 000 0 0 + 49 300 + 50 000 0 – 950 0 + 80 250
Transaction 5
Paid his personal telephone account of R460 for June 20.3 with a business EFT.
Drawings are when the owner pays personal accounts through the business or takes
goods or cash for his own use. Drawings decrease equity because the owner is taking
something out of the business. Assets also decrease as the bank balance is thereby
reduced.
ASSETS = EQUITY + LIABILITIES
Trade Trade
Vehicles Equipment Bank Capital Income Expenses Loan
receivables payables
R R R R R R R R R
Opening balance + 80 000 0 0 + 49 300 + 50 000 0 – 950 0 + 80 250
Transaction 5 – 460 – 460
Closing balance + 80 000 0 0 + 48 840 + 49 540 0 – 950 0 + 80 250
Transaction 6
Obtained a loan from Rapid Bank for R25 000.
In this transaction, money is coming into the business, which means that the bank and
assets increase. Because R25 000 is owed to Rapid Bank liabilities also increase.
ASSETS = EQUITY + LIABILITIES
Trade Trade
Vehicles Equipment Bank Capital Income Expenses Loan
receivables payables
R R R R R R R R R
Opening balance + 80 000 0 0 + 48 840 + 49 540 0 – 950 0 + 80 250
Transaction 6 + 25 000 + 25 000
Closing balance + 80 000 0 0 + 73 840 + 49 540 0 – 950 + 25 000 + 80 250
Chapter 4: The recording of transactions 51
Transaction 7
Transported furniture for B Berry on credit, R2 000.
Income is being earned, which increases equity. B Berry owes the entity R2 000 (he
becomes a debtor); therefore assets increase.
ASSETS = EQUITY + LIABILITIES
Trade Trade
Vehicles Equipment Bank Capital Income Expenses Loan
receivables payables
R R R R R R R R R
Opening balance + 80 000 0 0 + 73 840 + 49 540 0 – 950 + 25 000 + 80 250
Transaction 7 + 2 000 + 2 000
Closing balance + 80 000 0 + 2 000 + 73 840 + 49 540 + 2 000 – 950 + 25 000 + 80 250
Transaction 8
He transferred personal equipment to the value of R10 000 to the business.
S Stipe is transferring assets to the business in the form of equipment. Equity also
increases as the equipment is from him personally and not acquired through the
business itself.
ASSETS = EQUITY + LIABILITIES
Trade Trade
Vehicles Equipment Bank Capital Income Expenses Loan
receivables payables
R R R R R R R R R
Opening balance + 80 000 0 + 2 000 + 73 840 + 49 540 + 2 000 – 950 + 25 000 + 80 250
Transaction 8 + 10 000 + 10 000
Closing balance + 80 000 + 10 000 + 2 000 + 73 840 + 59 540 + 2 000 – 950 + 25 000 + 80 250
Transaction 9
Paid R15 000 to M Mills, as first payment on the removal van.
Assets decrease because money is being paid out and the creditor M Mills decreases
because the business now owes him R15 000 less.
ASSETS = EQUITY + LIABILITIES
Trade Trade
Vehicles Equipment Bank Capital Income Expenses Loan
receivables payables
R R R R R R R R R
Opening balance + 80 000 + 10 000 + 2 000 + 73 840 + 59 540 + 2 000 – 950 + 25 000 + 80 250
Transaction 9 – 15 000 – 15 000
Closing balance + 80 000 + 10 000 + 2 000 + 58 840 + 59 540 + 2 000 – 950 + 25 000 + 65 250
Transaction 10
Bought a computer for R6 000 from Movement Ltd and paid by EFT.
This transaction only affects assets. The asset equipment is increased, whereas the
asset bank is decreased by R6 000.
52 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Transaction 11
Received R800 from B Buck for the transport of equipment.
This is a cash income transaction. The asset bank increases and equity increases.
ASSETS = EQUITY + LIABILITIES
Trade Trade
Vehicles Equipment Bank Capital Income Expenses Loan
receivables payables
R R R R R R R R R
Opening balance + 80 000 + 16 000 + 2 000 + 52 840 + 59 540 + 2 000 – 950 + 25 000 + 65 250
Transaction 11 + 800 + 800
Closing balance + 80 000 + 16 000 + 2 000 + 53 640 + 59 540 + 2 800 – 950 + 25 000 + 65 250
Transaction 12
Received a payment from debtor, B Berry, R1 000.
Receiving a payment from a debtor only affects the assets. The asset, ‘bank’ is
increased (money coming in), while the asset ’trade receivables’ is decreased (the
debtor now owes the business less).
ASSETS = EQUITY + LIABILITIES
Trade Trade
Vehicles Equipment Bank Capital Income Expenses Loan
receivables payables
R R R R R R R R R
Opening balance + 80 000 + 16 000 + 2 000 + 53 640 + 59 540 + 2 800 – 950 + 25 000 + 65 250
Transaction 12 – 1 000 + 1 000
Closing balance + 80 000 + 16 000 + 1 000 + 54 640 + 59 540 + 2 800 – 950 + 25 000 + 65 250
have an effect on at least two accounts in the ledger; the amount debited to an
account must always equal the amount credited to another account. This is the basis
of the double-entry system. If the transactions are posted correctly, the total of the
debit balances must equal the total of the credit balances. The following is an example
of an account:
Dr Name of account Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
The details column is for the cross-reference account, called the contra account. The
folio (fol) column is used to indicate the page in the subsidiary journals, which will be
discussed in chapter 5.
There are five main groups of accounts, namely:
l asset accounts;
l liability accounts;
l owner’s equity accounts;
l income accounts; and
l expense accounts.
l Capital
In a sole proprietorship, when the owner deposits cash into the business or transfers
other assets to the business, the capital account is affected. Capital is increased on
the credit side and decreased on the debit side.
Dr Capital Cr
Decrease Increase
l Drawings
Withdrawals by the owner (drawings) decrease the equity of the owner and are
transferred to the capital account at the end of the period. The drawings account
therefore has a debit balance.
Dr Drawings Cr
Increase Decrease
Once a transaction has taken place, the information on the source document is recorded
into subsidiary journals which will be discussed in chapter 5. From there, the amounts
are posted to the general ledger accounts. The term general ledger is used here, as
there are also subsidiary ledgers, for example, ’trade receivables’ and ’trade payables’
ledgers. For a better understanding of the accounting system, the transactions are, for
now, going to be recorded straight into the general ledger accounts.
Example 4.2
Using the information in example 4.1, we will now post the transactions into the
relevant ledger accounts.
Transaction 1
1 July 20.3: S Stipe deposited R50 000 into the bank account of the business as
capital.
The two accounts involved in this transaction are bank and capital. Money in the bank
is an asset and therefore increases on the debit side. Capital is an equity account,
Chapter 4: The recording of transactions 57
which increases on the credit side. The transaction will be entered into the accounts
as follows:
Dr Bank Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
July 1 Capital 50 000
Dr Capital Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
July 1 Bank 50 000
Transaction 2
3 July 20.3: He bought a second-hand removal van on credit from M Mills for
R80 000.
The removal van is an asset for the business; therefore the asset account ‘vehicles’ is
debited. The business now owes M Mills R80 000 and his account is credited.
Dr Vehicles Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
July 3 Creditor: M Mills 80 000
Dr Creditor: M Mills Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
July 3 Vehicles 80 000
Transaction 3
3 July 20.3: Filled the removal van with petrol and paid cash, R700.
Petrol is an expense and the petrol expense account is debited. The bank decreases
by R700 and the bank account is credited.
Dr Petrol Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
July 3 Bank 700
Dr Bank Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3 20.3
July 1 Capital 50 000 July 3 Petrol 700
58 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Transaction 4
4 July 20.3: Placed an advertisement in the Eye News for R250 on credit.
Dr Advertising Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
July 4 Trade payables:
Eye News 250
20.3
July 4 Advertising 250
Transaction 5
4 July 20.3: Paid his personal telephone account of R460 for June 20.3 with a
business EFT.
Dr Drawings Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
July 4 Bank 460
Dr Bank Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3 20.3
July 1 Capital 50 000 July 3 Petrol 700
4 Drawings 460
Transaction 6
7 July 20.3: Obtained a loan from Rapid Bank for R25 000.
Dr Bank Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3 20.3
July 1 Capital 50 000 July 3 Petrol 700
7 Loan: 4 Drawings 460
Rapid Bank 25 000
Transaction 7
10 July 20.3: Transported furniture for B Berry on credit, R2 000.
Dr Trade receivables: B Berry Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
July 10 Services
rendered 2 000
Dr Services rendered Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
July 10 Trade
receivables:
B Berry 2 000
Transaction 8
14 July 20.3: He transferred personal equipment to the value of R10 000 to the
business.
Dr Equipment Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
July 14 Capital 10 000
Dr Capital Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
July 1 Bank 50 000
14 Equipment 10 000
Transaction 9
17 July 20.3: Paid R15 000 to M Mills as first payment on the removal van.
Dr Trade payables: M Mills Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3 20.3
July 17 Bank 15 000 July 3 Vehicles 80 000
Dr Bank Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3 20.3
July 1 Capital 50 000 July 3 Petrol 700
7 Loan: 4 Drawings 460
Rapid Bank 25 000 17 Trade payables:
M Mills 15 000
60 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Transaction 10
18 July 20.3: Bought a computer for R6 000 from Movement Ltd and paid by
business EFT.
Dr Equipment Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
July 14 Capital 10 000
18 Bank 6 000
Dr Bank Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3 20.3
July 1 Capital 50 000 July 3 Petrol 700
7 Loan: 4 Drawings 460
Rapid Bank 25 000 17 Trade payables:
M Mills 15 000
18 Equipment 6 000
Transaction 11
22 July 20.3 Received R800 from B Buck for the transport of equipment.
Dr Bank Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3 20.3
July 1 Capital 50 000 July 3 Petrol 700
7 Loan: 4 Drawings 460
Rapid Bank 25 000 17 Trade payables:
22 Services M Mills 15 000
rendered 800 18 Equipment 6 000
Dr Services rendered Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
July 10 Trade
receivables
B Berry 2 000
22 Bank 800
Chapter 4: The recording of transactions 61
Transaction 12
25 July 20.3: Received a payment from debtor, B Berry, R1 000.
Dr Bank Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3 20.3
July 1 Capital 50 000 July 3 Petrol 700
7 Loan: 4 Drawings 460
Rapid Bank 25 000 17 Trade payables:
22 Services M Mills 15 000
rendered 800 18 Equipment 6 000
25 Debtor: B Berry 1 000
Where there is only one entry in the account, leave it as is, as this amount is the balance.
The balance on this account is nil (zero). A double line is drawn on either side to
indicate that the account has been closed off.
62 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
4.4.3 More than one entry on only one side of the account
Dr Services rendered Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
Jan 10 Bank 1 200
15 Trade
receivables
M Mike 1 850
23 Bank 670
3 720
The amounts must be added together and the total entered underneath. This amount
(R3 720) is the balance on the account. Note that a double line is not drawn under the
total as the account is not closed off.
To balance an account which has more than one entry on both sides, do the following:
l Add up the debit side of the account and enter the total in pencil.
l Add up the credit side of the account and enter the total in pencil.
l Subtract the smaller total from the larger total. The difference between the two
totals is the balance of that account. This balance is entered on the side of the
account that has the smaller total.
l After entering the balance on the side with the smaller total, the totals of both sides
will be the same and can now be entered in pen. Draw a double line under the
totals to indicate that the account has been balanced.
l The last step is to carry the balance calculated over to the opposite side of the
account and enter it under the total. This is then the opening balance of the account
for the next period.
When the debits total is larger than the credits total on an account, the account has a
debit balance; when the credits total is larger than the debits total on an account, the
account has a credit balance.
Chapter 4: The recording of transactions 63
Example 4.3
All the transactions in example 4.2 have been posted to the accounts and we can now
balance them.
Dr Capital Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
July 1 Bank 50 000
14 Equipment 10 000
60 000
Dr Drawings Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
July 4 Bank 460
Dr Vehicles Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
July 3 Trade payables
M Mills 80 000
Dr Equipment Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
July 14 Capital 10 000
18 Bank 6 000
16 000
Dr Bank Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3 20.3
July 1 Capital 50 000 July 3 Petrol 700
7 Loan: 4 Drawings 460
Rapid Bank 25 000 17 Trade payables
22 Services M Mills 15 000
rendered 800 18 Equipment 6 000
25 Trade 31 Balance c/d 54 640
receivables
B Berry 1 000
76 800 76 800
Aug 1 Balance b/d 54 640
64 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Dr Services rendered Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
July 10 Trade
receivables:
B Berry 2 000
22 Bank 800
2 800
Dr Advertising Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
July 4 Trade payables:
Eye News 250
Dr Petrol expense Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
July 3 Bank 700
Chapter 4: The recording of transactions 65
Although the debit and credit columns of a trial balance agree, it does not prove the
accuracy of the accounting records, as it does not provide indisputable evidence that
no errors have occurred in the records.
66 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
l Compensating errors
An addition, balancing or posting error on one side of the ledger may coincidentally be
compensated for by an identical error on the other side of the ledger.
l Errors of principle
In these cases, the principle underlying the recording of the transaction is faulty, and
this error is often repeatedly recorded incorrectly. An example is the debiting of repair
costs to the motor vehicle account instead of to the repair costs account.
continued
Chapter 4: The recording of transactions 69
R
EQUITY AND LIABILITIES
Total equity 61 390
Capital 61 390
Notes:
1. Basis of presentation:
The annual financial statements have been prepared in accordance with generally
accepted accounting practice appropriate to the business of the entity. The annual
financial statements have been prepared on the historical cost basis.
2. Revenue is measured at the fair value of the consideration received or receivable.
Revenue from fees earned for services rendered to clients consists of the net
invoiced fees, excluding value-added tax (VAT) and settlement discount granted.
Please note: There are other notes that you are required to know at this level. These
notes will be discussed in later chapters.
4.7 Summary
The accounting process starts once a transaction has taken place. Each transaction
has an influence on the BAE, which means the elements of the BAE are affected. The
BAE does not form part of the accounting system and transactions have to be recorded
in ledger accounts. A trial balance is a list of all account balances in the ledger. If the
transactions have been recorded correctly, the debit balances should equal the credit
balances. The financial statements can be drawn up from a trial balance.
CHAPTER 5
Processing accounting data
Contents
Page
Overview of processing accounting data ............................................................... 73
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 73
5.2 The design and use of subsidiary journals ................................................... 74
5.3 Cash journals ................................................................................................ 75
5.3.1 Cash receipts journal (CRJ) ............................................................ 75
5.3.1.1 Column headings ............................................................ 76
5.3.1.2 Columns for non-cash transactions ................................ 77
5.3.1.3 Folio columns .................................................................. 78
5.3.2 Cash payments journal (CPJ) .......................................................... 82
5.3.3 Credit journals and the general journal ........................................... 87
5.3.3.1 Purchases journal ............................................................ 87
5.3.3.2 Purchases returns journal ............................................... 89
5.3.3.3 Sales journal .................................................................... 91
5.3.3.4 Sales returns journal ........................................................ 91
5.3.3.5 General journal ................................................................ 93
5.4 Value-added tax (VAT) ................................................................................. 94
5.4.1 Background ..................................................................................... 94
5.4.2 The collection, payment and settlement of VAT .............................. 96
5.4.3 Accounting procedures for the recording of VAT ........................... 97
5.5 Summary ....................................................................................................... 106
71
Chapter 5: Processing accounting data 73
Purchases journal
General journal
VAT output
Value-added tax
(VAT)
VAT input
5.1 Introduction
Study objectives
After studying this chapter you should:
l know which source document to complete for each different transaction;
l be able to record the source documents in the correct subsidiary journals;
l be able to balance and post from the different subsidiary journals to the ledger;
and
l be able to apply the basic principles of value-added tax (VAT) and know how to
record VAT in the books of an entity.
74 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
In chapter 4, transactions were entered directly into the general ledger. In the normal
course of business, entities enter into a large number of transactions. If every
transaction is recorded directly into the ledger, the ledger could become bulky and
unmanageable. In a manual system, in which only one person can work on the ledger,
it could eventually become an impossible task to record transactions in this manner.
To overcome this problem, subsidiary journals, also referred to as books of first
entry, were developed. The purpose of subsidiary journals is to group transactions of
the same kind together and to record and analyse them in date and/or document
sequence. To further assist in the analysing and recording of transactions, specific
source documents were developed for different types of transactions. When a
transaction takes place, the information should be captured in the source document
developed for the particular transaction. The source document used should clearly
distinguish between cash and credit transactions and should indicate the ledger
accounts affected by the transaction. Source documents of the same kind are
grouped together and are recorded and analysed in subsidiary journals. The
information is then transferred to the general ledger. This procedure is known as
posting. The purpose of subsidiary journals is to summarise information and to reduce
the number of postings to the general ledger.
The purpose of developing the accounting system in this way is to process transaction
data into the refined information that is needed for financial reporting. This process is
illustrated in diagram 5.1.
Diagram 5.1 The process of developing transaction data into useful information
An accounting system can be designed once the output that must be provided by the
process is known. The source documents, the journals and the ledger accounts
should be designed to process the accounting data in order to supply the information
needed for compiling financial statements and reports, taking the requirements of IFRS
into account.
A subsidiary journal has a separate amount column for each ledger account which is
repeatedly affected by a series of transactions. The primary purpose of a journal is to
record transactions chronologically from source documents as they occur. Each
transaction is analysed and entered into the columns that represent the ledger
accounts that are affected by the transactions. The summarised information is then
posted to the general ledger.
The following journals are most frequently used:
l cash receipts journal;
l cash payments journal;
l sales journal;
l sales returns journal;
l purchases journal;
l purchases returns journal; and
l general journal.
These are not the only subsidiary journals that can be used. An entity can decide what
its needs are and which journals it wants to use. However, in this chapter, specific
attention is given to the design and completion of the journals mentioned. VAT,
introduced in 1991, is levied at every point in the chain of production and distribution.
As VAT would first be captured in a subsidiary journal, there is a section in this chapter
on how to enter VAT in the various journals and how to post it to the general ledger.
Where cash is received from a third party, for example a debtor or tenant, a receipt
may be issued.
Where the payment is done electronically, the debtor provides an account number as
a reference to assist in identifying from whom the payment was received. It is
customary for an organisation that allows electronic bank transfers to first consult with
its bank, which will then program its computers to prompt for an account number and,
if one is not supplied, to reject the transfer. The bank statement then serves as a proof
of payment.
All cash receipts, which include cash, credit card payments and electronic transfers,
are recorded from the appropriate source documents into the cash receipts journal
(CRJ). In a manual system, the CRJ is normally designed in columnar form, where
each column represents a ledger account and the amounts are analysed according to
the reason for the cash receipt (refer to paragraph 5.3.1.1, column headings). In larger
organisations with more than one bank account, or in more complex systems, a
separate CRJ is often used for each account or for each type of cash receipt.
The summarised information is then posted from the CRJ to the general ledger and the
relevant subsidiary ledgers, applying the double-entry system in the general ledger.
Refer to example 5.1(a).
A cash receipts journal should provide for the recording of:
l the serial number of the source document;
l the date of the cash receipt;
l the name of the person from whom the cash was received;
l the amount;
l the date and amount of all deposits into the bank account; and
l the account or accounts to be credited.
the general ledger and the total receipts from debtors are posted to the trade
receivables control account at the end of the month. Refer to chapter 9 where this
concept is explained in detail.
Before posting to the general ledger at the end of the month, the totals of the columns
must be cross-checked (cross-balanced) to ensure that the correct amounts are
transferred to the ledger.
5.3.1.2 Columns for non-cash transactions
Columns can also be opened in the CRJ for non-cash transactions to assist in
reducing posting to the general ledger. An example of such a column is settlement
discount granted. When inventory to the amount of R13 680 is sold on credit, the
amount is reflected as outstanding (a debit balance) on the trade receivables account.
(This entry is first entered in the sales journal as explained in paragraph 5.3.3.3.)
To encourage debtors to settle their accounts promptly, a discount (for example, 5%)
can be offered if the account is paid within a certain period (for example, 30 days). If
the debtor then pays the account within the specified period, the amount offered as a
discount (R684) is subtracted from the amount the debtor owes (R13 680 – 684 =
R12 996). The amount received from the debtor (R12 996) is credited to his/her
account, but since this is less than the amount recorded in his/her account (R13 680),
the debtor’s account remains in debit unless the settlement discount is recorded. To
give effect to this entry, the settlement discount granted must be debited and the
debtor’s account credited. This entry is usually recorded in the general journal as book
of first entry (explained in paragraph 5.3.3.5 and example 5.3).
Where settlement discount is granted to debtors on a regular basis, a column can be
opened for this purpose in the CRJ, instead of using the general journal to record the
discount. However, the discount is a non-cash transaction that is entered in the CRJ
and represents an expense for the entity. The total of the settlement discount granted
column should thus be debited to the settlement discount granted account in the
general ledger. When such a column is provided for in the CRJ and the debtor pays
his/her account, the actual amount of the transaction (R13 680) is entered in the trade
receivables column, the discount (R684) is entered in the settlement discount granted
column and the amount received as payment (R12 996) is entered in the bank column.
At the end of the month, the total of the bank column is debited to the bank account,
the total of the settlement discount granted column is debited to the settlement
discount granted account and the total of the trade receivables column is credited to
the trade receivables control account. (For an example of how to record such an entry
refer to the entry on 15 August 20.3 in example 5.1(a).)
Other examples of non-cash transactions are cost of sales, which is explained in para-
graph 5.3.3.1, and the reversal of value-added tax due to discount, explained in
example 5.3. When the totals of all the columns in the CRJ are cross-checked (cross-
balanced), the columns for non-cash transactions should be deducted from the total of
all the analysis columns (or added to the total of the bank column) to verify the
arithmetical correctness of the totals of the columns.
78 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Aug 17 Sold goods to Leake Studios on credit for R9 804, per invoice 002.
18 Received R456 for photos taken for the Northern Rugby Club.
19 Received an EFT for R57 from Express Printers with a note that indicated that
a calculation error had been made on their invoice (refer 12 August).
21 The week’s cash sales to the value of R14 706 were banked. Drawn cash from
an ATM and paid the week’s wages, R1 200.
22 Sold goods on credit to Jays Photo Services for R4 446, per invoice 003.
23 Paid by EFT for goods purchased from Fiji Enterprises, R16 530.
25 Jays Photo Services returned a defective camera to the value of R1 026 (refer
22 August). Issued credit note number SCN001. Returned the defective
camera, purchased for R513, to Foto Corporation and received their credit
note number C0183.
26 Paid the telephone account of R969 received from the Telephone Company.
Installation fees included in the R969 amounted to R342.
27 Paid the water and electricity account of R1 596 for the month to the Northern
Municipality.
28 Cash sales for the week to the value of R15 048 were banked. The owner
withdrew cash from an ATM for R6 200 for the week’s wages of R1 200; the
balance was for his own use.
30 Sold goods to the value of R1 710 on credit to Rayon Photo Centre per in-
voice 004.
Leake Studios paid R9 690 in full settlement of their account (refer 17 August).
31 Paid by way of an EFT an amount of R6 000 to Kojak Suppliers as a payment
on their account. Paid by way of an EFT an amount of R20 000 to Foto
Corporation. Received a discount of R171 (refer 6 August).
Required
(a) Prepare the cash receipts journal of Vision Camera Centre for August 20.3 with
analysis columns for sales, trade receivables control, settlement discount granted
and sundry accounts.
(b) Post the individual items on a daily basis and the appropriate totals at the end of
the month to the applicable accounts in the general ledger of Vision Camera
Centre.
80 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Solution
Vision Camera Centre
(a) Cash receipts journal – August 20.3 CRJ1
Settle- Sundry accounts
Trade
ment
Doc receiv-
Day Details Fol Bank Sales dis-
no ables
count Amount Fol Details
control
granted
R R R R R
Rec 1 2 D Moja 100 000 100 000 GL1 Capital
CRR 1 7 Cash sales 6 384 6 384
CRR 2 14 Cash sales 13 224 13 224
Rec 2 15 Rayon Photo
Centre 12 996 13 680 (684)
CRR 3 18 Northern
Rugby Club 456 456
Rec 3 19 Express 57 57 GL2 Advertising
Printers
CRR 4 21 Cash sales 14 706 14 706
CRR 5 28 Cash sales 15 048 15 048
Rec 4 30 Leake Studios 9 690 9 804 (114)
172 561 49 818 23 484 (798) 100 057
GL3 GL4 GL5 GL6
20.3
Aug 2 Bank CRJ1 100 000
Dr Advertising 2 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
Aug 19 Bank CRJ1 57
Dr Bank 3 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
Aug 31 Receipts CRJ1 172 561
Dr Sales 4 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
Aug 31 Bank CRJ1 49 818
Chapter 5: Processing accounting data 81
20.3
Aug 31 Bank and
settlement
discount
granted CRJ1 23 484
Items in the sundries column are posted individually to the appropriate general ledger
accounts on the date on which the transaction occurs. At the end of the month, the
columns are totalled. The total of the bank column is debited to the bank account and
the total of the settlement discount granted column (a non-cash transaction) is debited
to the settlement discount granted account (an expense account) in the general
ledger. The total of the sales column is credited to the sales account and the total of
the trade receivables control column is credited to the trade receivables control
account in the general ledger. The amount paid by each debtor should be credited to
the individual debtor’s account in the trade receivables ledger on the date of the
transaction. This has not been done in this example, as the trade receivables ledger is
only discussed in chapter 9. Take note of the use of folio numbers for cross-reference
purposes and proof that the entry was posted.
The general ledger entries in example 5.1(a) show only the posting from the CRJ. For
this reason, the trade receivables control account and advertising account (an
expense account that should have a debit balance) currently reflects credit balances.
When all the subsidiary journals have been explained and the postings to the general
ledger have been completed, the trade receivables control account and advertising
should have debit balances.
Although the correct contra account must be used in the ledger, the entry in the details
column of the bank account is “receipts” or “total receipts”, representing the total
receipts for the month. In the other accounts, the correct contra account (the account
where the double entry is completed) should be used. In this example, the contra
account is “bank” in the accounts that are credited and “trade receivables control” in
the settlement discount granted account.
The total debits should add up to the total credits:
Total debits: R(172 561 + 798) = R173 359
Total credits: R(100 000 + 57 + 49 818 + 23 484) = R173 359
This is proof that the double-entry system was completed in the general ledger.
82 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
The amount written on the EFT is the amount that should be entered in the bank column.
Refer to the entries on 2 August 20.3 and 28 August 20.3.
Chapter 5: Processing accounting data 85
Dr Wages 14 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
Aug 31 Bank CPJ1 4 800
Dr Purchases 15 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
Aug 31 Bank CPJ1 22 230
The total debits posted should add up to the total credits posted from the CPJ:
Total debits: R(10 000 + 11 400 + 1 000 + 1 140 + 855 + 969 + 1 596 + 5 000 +
4 800 + 22 230 + 34 171)
= R93 161
Total credits: R(92 990 + 171)
= R93 161
This is proof that the double-entry system was completed in the general ledger.
l Inventory systems
There are two different systems for recording merchandise purchased for resale
purposes, namely the perpetual inventory system and the periodic inventory system. In
the perpetual inventory system, inventory records are continuously updated with each
sale. The balance on the inventory account reflects the inventory that is available for
resale. A physical count of inventory is necessary to control the correctness of the
perpetual inventory records.
In the periodic inventory system, inventory purchased is entered in a purchases
account. The cost of goods sold is determined at the end of the financial period, when
the inventory is physically counted, and deducted from the total of opening inventory
and the inventory purchased during the period. The inventory account (with an
opening balance that remains unchanged during the financial period) is then updated
with the value of the closing inventory. Practical considerations, such as the relative
simplicity and low cost of implementing the periodic system, have resulted in this
system being extensively used by small entities. In the periodic inventory system,
where merchandise purchased is debited to a purchases account, provision must be
made for a purchases column in the subsidiary journals.
When the perpetual inventory system is used, provision must be made for an inventory
column in the subsidiary journals. Merchandise purchased for resale must be debited
to the inventory account. Since the inventory account is updated with every sale of
merchandise, provision must also be made for a cost of sales column in both the cash
receipts and sales journals. A complete double entry must be performed from the cost
of sales column, as cost of sales is not taken into account in any other column. The
column total is debited to the cost of sales account and credited to the inventory
account. The cost of sales column in the CRJ is another example of a column for non-
cash transactions. The cost of sales column differs from the settlement discount
granted column (refer to paragraph 5.3.1.2) in that a single entry needs to be made
from the total of the settlement discount granted column to complete the double entry
since the discount has been taken into account in the trade receivables column.
These two inventory systems are discussed in more detail in chapter 7.
must be recorded in the purchases journal. Therefore a trade discount is not recorded
in the books of the entity. This differs from settlement discount received, in that
settlement discount is received after the original transaction has been recorded. When
the creditor allows the entity to pay less than the recorded amount of the transaction,
the difference is shown as settlement discount received in the books of the entity.
The layout of a simple purchases journal is as follows:
Purchases journal – Month and year PJ no
Invoice number Day Details Fol Purchases Trade
payables
control
R R
From the entries in the purchases journal, the individual accounts of creditors are up-
dated on a daily basis in the trade payables ledger. The columns are usually totalled
at the end of the month. If the periodic system is in use, the total of the purchases
column is debited to the purchases account. If the perpetual inventory system is in use,
the heading of the column would be inventory and the inventory account would be
debited. The trade payables control account is credited with the total of the trade
payables control column.
Refer to the purchases journal in example 5.1(c).
(c) Post the totals at the end of the month to the applicable accounts in the general
ledger of Vision Camera Centre.
Solution
Vision Camera Centre
(a) Purchases journal – August 20.3 PJ 1
Trade
Invoice number Day Details Fol Purchases payables
control
R R
P001 6 Foto Corporation 72 732 72 732
P002 11 Foto Corporation 14 478 14 478
87 210 87 210
GL15 GL16
Dr Purchases returns 18 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
Aug 31 Trade payables
control PRJ1 969
Chapter 5: Processing accounting data 91
From the entries in the sales journal, the individual accounts of debtors are updated on
a daily basis in the trade receivables ledger. The columns are usually totalled at the
end of the month. The total of the sales column is credited to the sales account and
the total of the trade receivables control column is debited to the trade receivables
control account. If the perpetual inventory system is in use, provision should be made
for a column for cost of sales. From this column, cost of sales is debited and inventory
credited.
Refer to the sales journal in example 5.1(d).
5.3.3.4 Sales returns journal
When inventory is sold on credit, it is invoiced to the client at selling price. If, after it
has been delivered, the inventory is unacceptable to the client because of its inferior
quality or for other acceptable reasons, it is usually returned by the debtor. The debtor
will be issued with a credit note informing him/her that his/her account has been
reduced by the amount indicated on the credit note.
Where returns on sales occur regularly, a sales returns journal can be used. The sales
returns journal is similar to the sales journal, with columns for sales returns and trade
receivables control. The sales returns account is debited and the trade receivables
control account is credited from this journal. It is appropriate to record returns
separately and not as a debit on the sales account, as this helps to identify reasons for
returns of inventory and to identify suppliers who deliver inventory of inferior quality.
92 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
continued
Chapter 5: Processing accounting data 93
Dr Sales returns 19 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
Aug 31 Trade
receivables
control SRJ1 1 026
When entries affecting debtors and creditors form a major part of the entries made in
the general journal, analysis columns for trade receivables (debtors) and trade
payables (creditors) can be added to the journal, thus reducing the number of
postings to the trade receivables and trade payables control accounts. This is then
referred to as an analysis general journal.
Example 5.1(e)
Use the information in example 5.1(a).
94 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Required
(a) Prepare the general journal of Vision Camera Centre for August 20.3.
(b) Post the entries to the applicable accounts in the general ledger of Vision Camera
Centre.
Solution
Vision Camera Centre
(a) General journal J1
Month Day Details Fol Debit Credit
20.3 R R
Aug 4 Equipment at cost GL20 79 800
Trade payables control/Kojak GL16 79 800
Suppliers
Equipment purchased on credit from
Kojak Suppliers (Invoice 0769)
Example 5.1 will be done in its entirety, taking value-added tax (VAT) into account, at
the end of this chapter. It is necessary, however, first to explain what VAT is and how it
should be recorded in the books.
In section 1 of the Value-Added Tax Act, No 89 of 1991 (the VAT Act), certain words
are comprehensively defined. It is necessary to take note of the following:
l Supply includes all forms of supply whether voluntary or compulsory, irrespective
of place. Any derivation of the word supply is included.
l Goods includes corporeal moveable things and fixed property.
l Services includes anything done or to be done and the making available of any
facility or advantage, excluding the supply of money.
l Enterprise embraces various types of activities carried on on a regular or continuous
basis where goods or services are supplied for a consideration whether for a profit
or not.
l A vendor is a person (not an enterprise) who is registered or is required to register
for VAT.
l Taxable supplies means any supply of goods or services which is chargeable with
tax including tax chargeable at the rate of zero per cent.
The amount at which an entity is required to register as a vendor is defined in the VAT
Act. Although an enterprise may apply for voluntary registration (taxable supplies must
exceed R50 000 in a 12-month period), the enterprise must register as a vendor if its
taxable supplies exceeded R1 000 000 in the preceding period of 12 months or if
there are reasonable grounds for believing that the total taxable supplies in the
following 12 months will exceed R1 000 000. The onus is on the business to register,
where necessary, within 21 days of becoming liable to register. A tax period is allocated
by the South African Revenue Services (SARS) and can be for example 1, 2, 4, 6 or
12 months, indicating when vendors must submit their returns to cover the period.
There are two types of supplies:
l taxable supplies that can either be at
• a standard rate (currently 15%); or
• zero-rated (0%) supplies;
l exempt supplies.
Some examples of zero-rated supplies are:
l brown bread, samp, lentils, unflavoured milk powder, graded maize meal for human
consumption, etc. as specified in part B of Schedule 2;
l certain goods used for agricultural purposes;
l petrol, diesel and crude oil; and
l certain exported goods or services.
Exempted supplies include:
l certain educational services;
l the transport of passengers by road or rail;
l members’ contributions to a trade union;
l the supply of accommodation in a dwelling; and
l the supply of financial services.
96 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Exempt goods are exempted from VAT and differ from zero-rated supplies in that no
output tax is charged and the supplier is unable to claim input tax on such goods.
Thus, a vendor who supplies zero-rated goods can claim a deduction for input tax
paid by him, while a vendor that makes exempted supplies cannot claim any input tax
paid by him as a deduction.
A detailed study of VAT is beyond the scope of this text. However, it is necessary that
you understand the basic principles underlying this form of taxation, because
accounting systems must provide for the receipt and payment of VAT. VAT will be
illustrated in this chapter and only where necessary in later chapters.
When input tax exceeds output tax, a refund will be made to the vendor by SARS.
Example 5.2 illustrates how VAT is charged as goods move from one vendor to the
next in the manufacturing and distribution chain until they reach the final consumer.
Example 5.2
Purchase Selling
VAT VAT VAT
value value Selling
Vendor Sold to input output payable
(VAT (VAT price
(a) (b) (b) – (a)
excluded) excluded)
R R R R R R
Raw material
merchant Manufacturer – – 1 000 150 1 150 150
Manufacturer Wholesaler 1 000 150 4 000 600 4 600 450
Wholesaler Retailer 4 000 600 9 000 1 350 10 350 750
Retailer Consumer 9 000 1 350 10 000 1 500 11 500 150
1 500
The total tax paid to SARS by the vendors in the chain is equal to the VAT paid by the
consumer on the final selling price, namely 15% × R10 000 = R1 500
Chapter 5: Processing accounting data 97
Dr Purchases Cr Dr Sales Cr
R R R R
W Whole- C Consumer 10 000
saler 9 000
Dr W Wholesaler Cr Dr C Consumer Cr
R R R R
Purchases Sales and
and VAT 10 350 VAT 11 500
Dr VAT input Cr Dr VAT output Cr
R R R R
W Whole- C Consumer 1 500
saler 1 350
It is clear from the above entries that the amounts of VAT input and VAT output are
recorded separately from the purchases and sales amounts. The retailer will thus
apply his profit margin on the net purchase price of R9 000.
If it is assumed that the above were the only transactions in the retailer’s two-month
VAT period, he would have to pay R150 to SARS by the twenty-fifth of the following
month. The accounting entries for the calculation of this amount are explained in
example 5.2(b).
98 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Example 5.2(b)
Dr VAT input Cr Dr VAT output Cr
R R R R
W Wholesaler 1 350 VAT control 1 350 VAT control 1 500 C Consumer 1 500
Dr VAT control Cr
R R
VAT input 1 350 VAT output 1 500
Bank (SARS) 150
1 400 1 400
Any credit balance on the VAT control account at the end of any financial period
should be reflected as a current liability on the statement of financial position of the
entity. A debit balance on the VAT control account will be shown as a current asset.
If a vendor is not registered for VAT purposes, input VAT is not recoverable and should
be included in the cost of the item and forms part of the purchase price. It will be
assumed throughout this chapter that all enterprises are registered as vendors, that all
goods and services are supplied at the standard rate (currently 15%) and that tax
invoices are issued with all transactions.
Example 5.3 shows how VAT should be recorded by an entity that is registered as a
VAT vendor.
Example 5.3
Use the information in example 5.1(a), taking the following additional information into
account. Vision Camera Centre is registered as a VAT vendor. The VAT period of the
business ends on unequal months.
Required
(a) Record the transactions in the following subsidiary journals of Vision Camera
Centre for August 20.3:
l Cash receipts journal with analysis columns for bank, sales, VAT output, trade
receivables control, settlement discount granted, VAT input and sundry
accounts.
l Cash payments journal with analysis columns for bank, wages, purchases,
trade payables control, settlement discount received, VAT input, VAT output
and sundry accounts.
l Sales journal with analysis columns for VAT output, sales and trade
receivables control.
l Purchases journal with analysis columns for VAT input, purchases and trade
payables control.
l Sales returns journal with analysis columns for VAT output, sales returns, and
trade receivables control.
l Purchases returns journal with analysis columns for VAT input, purchases
returns and trade payables control.
l General journal.
(b) Post the entries to the general ledger of Vision Camera Centre. All the accounts
must be properly balanced at 31 August 20.3.
(c) Prepare the trial balance of Vision Camera Centre at 31 August 20.3.
Solution
Vision Camera Centre
(a) Cash receipts journal – August 20.3 CRJ1
Trade Settle- Sundry accounts
VAT receiv- ment VAT
Doc no Day Details Fol Bank Sales
output ables discount input Amount Fol Detai
control granted
R R R R R R
Rec 1 2 D Moja 100 000 100 000 GL1 Capital
CRR 1 7 Cash sales 6 384 5 551 833
CRR 2 14 Cash sales 13 224 11 499 1 725
Rec 2 15 Rayon Photo Centre 12 996 13 680 (595) (89)
CRR 3 18 Northern Rugby Club 456 397 59
Rec 3 19 Express Printers 57 7 50 GL2 Advertising
CRR 4 21 Cash sales 14 706 12 788 1 918
CRR 5 28 Cash sales 15 048 13 085 1 963
Rec 4 30 Leake Studios 9 690 9 804 (99) (15)
172 561 43 320 6 505 23 484 (694) (104) 100 050
GL3 GL4 GL22 GL5
GL5 G GL21
Chapter 5: Processing accounting data 99
Vision Camera Centre
Cash payments journal – August 20.3 CPJ1
The transfer of VAT input and VAT output to the VAT control account (entries on
31 August 20.3 above) can only be done once the VAT input and VAT output accounts
have been completed in the general ledger.
Vision Camera Centre
(b) General ledger
Dr Capital 1 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
Aug 2 Bank CRJ1 100 000
Dr Advertising 2 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3 20.3
Aug 12 Bank CPJ1 743 Aug 19 Bank CRJ1 50
31 Balance c/d 693
743 750
Sep 1 Balance b/d 693
Dr Bank 3 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3 20.3
Aug 31 Receipts CRJ1 172 561 Aug 31 Payments CPJ1 92 990
Balance c/d 79 571
172 561 172 561
Sep 1 Balance b/d 79 571
continued
Chapter 5: Processing accounting data 103
Dr Sales 4 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
Aug 31 Bank CRJ1 43 320
Trade
receivables
control SJ1 25 774
69 094
Dr Rent deposit 7 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
Aug 2 Bank CRJ1 10 000
Dr Rent expense 8 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
Aug 2 Bank CRJ1 9 913
Dr Water and electricity deposit 9 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
Aug 3 Bank CRJ1 1 000
Dr Stationery 10 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
Aug 5 Bank CRJ1 991
continued
104 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Dr Telephone expense 11 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
Aug 26 Bank CRJ1 843
Dr Drawings 13 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
Aug 28 Bank CRJ1 5 000
Dr Wages 14 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
Aug 31 Bank CRJ1 4 800
Dr Purchases 15 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
Aug 31 Bank CRJ1 19 331
Trade payables
control PJ1 75 835
95 166
Dr Purchases returns 18 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
Aug 31 Creditors
control PRJ1 843
Dr Sales returns 19 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
Aug 31 Trade
receivables
control SRJ1 892
Dr Equipment at cost 20 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
Aug 4 Creditors
control J1 69 391
Dr VAT input 21 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3 20.3
Aug 4 Creditors Aug 31 Creditors
control J1 10 409 control PRJ1 126
31 Bank CPJ1 4 981 VAT control J1 26 743
Bank CRJ1 104
Creditors
control PJ1 11 375
26 869 26 869
Dr VAT output 22 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3 20.3
Aug 31 Trade Aug 31 Bank CRJ1 6 505
receivables Trade
control SRJ1 134 receivables
control SJ1 3 866
VAT control J1 10 259 Bank CPJ1 22
10 393 10 393
Dr VAT control 23 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3 20.3
Aug 31 VAT input J1 26 743 Aug 31 VAT output J1 10 259
Balance c/d 16 484
26 743 26 743
Sep 1 Balance b/d 16 484
106 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
The accounts in the general ledger are in transaction sequence. When a new entity
starts with a new set of books, the accounts must be arranged in the correct
sequence. For the correct sequence of accounts refer to chapter 4, paragraph 4.3.
Vision Camera Centre
(c) Trial balance at 31 August 20.3
Fol Debit Credit
R R
Capital GL1 100 000
Advertising GL2 693
5.5 Summary
Transactions should first be recorded in subsidiary journals before they are posted in a
summarised form to the general ledger. The repetitive nature of transactions in an
entity usually determines the subsidiary journals used. A source document should be
completed for every transaction. Sufficient information should be captured on the
source document to identify the subsidiary journal in which the transaction should be
recorded and to recognise the accounts affected by the transaction. The details of the
transaction are recorded in the subsidiary journal, from where they are analysed and
summarised to minimise the number of entries in the general ledger. The totals on
journals are posted to the general ledger in compliance with the double-entry system.
VAT, currently levied at 15% on taxable supplies, is collected on behalf of SARS.
Vendors, who are entities registered for VAT purposes, submit a VAT return at the end
of the VAT period. To record VAT, additional columns are opened in the subsidiary
journals for this purpose. VAT on sales, i.e. VAT output, is levied on behalf of SARS
and must be paid over to SARS, while VAT paid on purchases, i.e. VAT input, can be
Chapter 5: Processing accounting data 107
deducted from this amount. The amount due to or by SARS is calculated in the VAT
control account. A credit balance on the VAT control account at the end of the
financial year, before the next payment is due to SARS, is shown under current
liabilities as VAT payable, while a debit balance is shown under current assets as VAT
receivable.
CHAPTER 6
Adjustments
Contents
Page
Overview of adjustments ......................................................................................... 111
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 112
6.2 The necessity for adjustments ...................................................................... 113
6.3 The recording of adjustments ....................................................................... 114
6.3.1 Depreciation .................................................................................... 114
6.3.2 Consumable inventory on hand....................................................... 116
6.3.3 Recording credit losses................................................................... 118
6.3.4 Accrued income and income received in advance ........................ 119
6.3.4.1 Accrued income .............................................................. 119
6.3.4.2 Income received in advance ........................................... 121
6.3.5 Accrued and prepaid expenses...................................................... 123
6.3.5.1 Accrued expenses .......................................................... 123
6.3.5.2 Prepaid expenses ........................................................... 124
6.4 The post-adjustment trial balance ................................................................ 126
6.5 Summary ....................................................................................................... 126
109
Chapter 6: Adjustments 111
Overview of adjustments
Depreciation
6.1 Introduction
Study objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
l identify the accounts that have to be adjusted;
l calculate and record the adjustments in the subsidiary journal;
l post the adjustments to the ledger; and
l prepare a post-adjustment trial balance.
The financial performance of an entity for a financial period is measured in the state-
ment of profit or loss and other comprehensive income. This was explained in chapter 3,
where it was stated that:
l financial performance is measured over a specific period of time, but can be
measured as often as required by the management of the entity, usually once
every twelve months (the financial year); and
l financial performance = profit/loss (total comprehensive income/loss for the
period) = income – expenses.
In order to understand adjustments, it is important to know exactly what assets,
liabilities, income and expenses are. For this purpose, review the definitions of these
elements in chapter 1 and the financial performance and financial position in chapters 2
and 3.
Until now, the transactions that were recorded were applicable to the specific period
under review. As business is conducted without interruption and on a continuous
basis, some of the transactions recorded are not applicable to the particular
accounting period in which they are recorded. Payments can be made in advance, or
expenses incurred can be paid for after the end of a financial period. A water and
electricity account serves as an example. The municipality makes a reading of the
units of water and electricity used during a specific period, at the end of that period.
This information is then processed and accounts are sent to the users to be paid by
the end of the following month. Thus, the water and electricity used, for example in
April, will only be paid for in May or June. If the financial year of the entity ends at the
end of April, the actual usage for April will be known, but it will not have been paid for
yet. This then needs to be recorded before the water and electricity usage for the
financial year can be determined. As other accounts could be affected in a similar
manner, the balances of all the accounts in the ledger should be examined with care
and, if necessary, adjusted to ensure that the actual income and expenses for the
period under review and the exact value of assets and liabilities at the end of the
period are reflected.
Adjusting entries form an integral part of the accounting cycle and are recorded only
at the end of a financial period, when the accounts are examined and adjusted to
ensure that the information is applicable to the particular period under review.
Adjustments are internal transactions that are usually recorded in the general journal
as book of first entry. The source documents used to give effect to the recording of
these transactions are usually internal vouchers specifically developed for this
purpose, which should be properly signed by an authorised person.
Chapter 6: Adjustments 113
Adjustments are not corrections of mistakes. Corrections are recorded when they are
detected and could influence a wide variety and numerous combinations of accounts,
while adjusting entries always influence at least one statement of financial position
account and one income or expense account. There is also a difference between
adjustments and closing entries. Once the accounts have been adjusted and the
accountant is satisfied that the correct information is reflected in all the accounts,
closing off can be done. Closing off is done to determine the profit (total comprehensive
income) or loss of the entity for a financial period. The closing-off procedure is discussed
in chapter 7.
6.3.1 Depreciation
When an asset is purchased, it is expected to produce income over a certain period,
usually longer than one year. The asset gradually loses value over its useful life, which
cannot always be determined precisely and has to be estimated. The estimation of the
portion of the cost of an asset used in the production of income is known as depreci-
ation. Depreciation is thus the accounting process by means of which the cost of an
asset is fairly and systematically allocated to expenses over the economic life of that
asset. Writing off depreciation would ensure that the income generated by the asset in
that period is suitably associated with the expenses of that period. There are various
methods of calculating depreciation which will be discussed in more detail in chapter
11. In this chapter, attention is given to the accounting entries of depreciation as an
adjustment entry.
Assets are originally recorded in the books at historical cost, which is the amount
actually paid in cash for the asset. Because depreciation represents a calculation and
not an accurate valuation, an interim account, known as the accumulated depreciation
account, is created to record the total depreciation that has been written off since the
asset was purchased. The accumulated depreciation account is a contra-asset
account that is not reflected on the face of the statement of financial position, but is
used to determine the depreciated value of assets in the property, plant and
equipment note to the statement of financial position. This depreciated value is known
as the carrying amount.
Example 6.1
Boulder Enterprises purchased equipment to the value of R30 000 on 1 May 20.2. On
30 April 20.3, the end of the financial year, it was estimated that the value of the
equipment was R24 000.
Required
Record the depreciation of equipment in the books of Boulder Enterprises at
30 April 20.3.
Chapter 6: Adjustments 115
Solution
Steps 1 and 2: Identify the accounts and how they would be affected. The effect of
the entry on the financial statements is also shown:
ACCOUNTS TYPE OF FINANCIAL STATEMENT
ADJUSTMENT
AFFECTED ACCOUNT AFFECTED
Depreciation
The depreciation calculated on all the assets for the financial year must be totalled and
shown as one amount under distribution, administrative and other expenses on the
statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income or as a separate line item
called “depreciation”. The balance on the accumulated depreciation: equipment
account is subtracted from equipment at cost in the notes to the statement of financial
position to determine the carrying amount of equipment. The carrying amount of
equipment is included in the property, plant and equipment indicated under non-
current assets on the statement of financial position. The closing-off procedure is
explained in the next chapter.
Debit: Asset
Statement of
Stationery (increase)
financial position
inventory
Consumable
inventory
Statement of profit or
Credit: Expense
loss and other
Stationery (decrease)
comprehensive income
Boulder Enterprises
General journal J12
Month Day Details Fol Debit Credit
20.3 R R
Apr 30 Stationery inventory GL16 2 500
Stationery GL24 2 500
Recording of stationery inventory on hand
Dr Stationery 24 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3 20.3
Apr 30 Balance b/d 13 700 Apr 30 Stationery
inventory J12 2 500
Balance c/d 11 200
13 700 13 700
Apr 30 Balance b/d 11 200
Dr Stationery consumed 24 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
Apr 30 Stationery
inventory J12 11 200
Statement of profit or
Expense
Debit: Credit losses loss and other
(increase)
comprehensive income
Bad debts
interest calculations will be used. It is also assumed that all stated interest rates are
market-related to the investment risk.
Income must be recorded in the financial period in which it was earned (refer to
paragraph 6.2). Income earned for which no cash has been received would not have
been recorded in the books of the entity. The main reason for the omission is that the
information was not captured on a source document.
If money is invested for a twelve-month period during a financial year and the interest
is receivable at the end of the period, interest was earned for the months of the
financial period under review, but has not yet been received.
The interest earned on the investment (accrued income) is calculated as follows:
Commission earned, but not yet received, is also an example of accrued income.
Example 6.4
On 1 September 20.2, Boulder Enterprises invested R15 000 at the Real Bank for
twelve months, at an interest rate of 10%, payable on expiry.
Required
Calculate and record the accrued interest at 30 April 20.3.
Solution
Steps 1 and 2: Identify the accounts and how they would be affected. The effect of
the entry on the financial statements is also shown:
ACCOUNTS TYPE OF FINANCIAL
ADJUSTMENT
AFFECTED ACCOUNT STATEMENT AFFECTED
Debit:
Asset Statement of
Accrued interest/
(increase) financial position
income
Accrued
income
Statement of profit or
Credit: Income
loss and other
Interest income (increase)
comprehensive income
Dr Interest income 26 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
Apr 30 Accrued
income J12 1 000
The interest income account is shown under other income as interest income: loans
and receivables: fixed deposit on the statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income. (Refer to chapter 15, example 15.2.) Accrued income is
money that is owed to the entity and shown as a financial asset under current assets
on the statement of financial position.
6.3.4.2 Income received in advance
Income received in advance usually relates to cash received for goods or services that
have not yet been delivered. Examples are rental received in advance, magazine
subscriptions and the sale of tickets by airlines. Receipts of this nature cannot be
recognised as income before the sale of inventory or the rendering of the service.
Income received in advance can be seen as the direct opposite of accrued income.
With accrued income, money is owed to the entity for inventory sold or services
already rendered, whereas with income received in advance money has already been
received but the inventory or service has not yet been delivered.
Example 6.5
On 28 April 20.3, Boulder Enterprises received a deposit of R5 000 from Rock
Breakers to remove boulders from a site during May 20.3. The balance will be paid
once the work is completed. The deposit received was included in the balance on the
income from services rendered account of R895 000 at 30 April 20.3.
Required
Adjust the income from services rendered account to reflect the correct income
amount for the year.
122 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Solution
Steps 1 and 2: Identify the accounts and how they would be affected. The effect of
the entry on the financial statements is also shown:
ACCOUNTS TYPE OF FINANCIAL
ADJUSTMENT
AFFECTED ACCOUNT STATEMENT AFFECTED
Statement of profit or
Debit: Income from Income
loss and other
services rendered (decrease)
comprehensive income
Income
received in
advance
Credit: Income Liability Statement of
received in advance (increase) financial position
The income from services rendered account is shown as revenue on the statement of
profit or loss and other comprehensive income and income received in advance is
shown as a separate line item under current liabilities on the statement of financial
position. The income received for services not yet rendered is repayable if the work is
not done; it is therefore a liability at the end of the financial year.
Statement of profit or
Debit: Water and Expense
loss and other
electricity (increase)
comprehensive income
Accrued
expenses
Credit: Accrued Liability Statement of
expenses (increase) financial position
20.3 R R
Apr 30 Water and electricity GL27 1 130
Accrued expenses GL20 1 130
Water and electricity account for April 20.3
received in May 20.3
20.3
Apr 30 Balance b/d 11 490
Accrued
expenses J12 1 130
12 620
Dr Accrued expenses 20 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3
Apr 30 Water and
electricity J12 1 130
Example 6.7
On 28 April 20.3, Boulder Enterprises entered into an agreement with Spot Cleaners to
render cleaning services for a fee of R1 500 per month for the next twelve months. On
the same date, Boulder Enterprises made a payment of R4 500 for cleaning services
for the next three months. This amount was debited to the cleaning expenses account
and included in the balance of R18 100 at 30 April 20.3.
Required
Adjust the cleaning expenses account to reflect the correct amount for the year ended
30 April 20.3.
Solution
Steps 1 and 2: Identify the accounts and how they would be affected. The effect of
the entry on the financial statements is also shown:
ACCOUNTS TYPE OF FINANCIAL
ADJUSTMENT
AFFECTED ACCOUNT STATEMENT AFFECTED
Dr Cleaning expense 28 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3 20.3
Apr 30 Balance b/d 18 100 Apr 30 Prepaid
expenses J12 4 500
Balance c/d 13 600
18 100 18 100
April 30 Balance b/d 13 600
The cleaning expenses for the current financial year are included in distribution,
administrative and other expenses on the statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income. Prepaid expenses are shown as a separate line item under
the heading of current assets on the statement of financial position.
6.5 Summary
At the end of the financial period, when all transactions have been journalised and
posted to the general ledger and a trial balance drawn to confirm that the double-entry
principle has been applied, a further accounting step is necessary before the financial
statements for that particular period can be prepared. Each ledger account has to be
analysed with great care to determine whether the balance on that account needs to
be adjusted to ensure that the income, expense, asset, liability and equity accounts
are correctly stated.
The accrual basis of accounting gives rise to adjustment entries resulting in the
recognition of prepaid and accrued items on the statement of financial position.
Although certain accounts need to be adjusted with prepaid and arrear (accrued)
amounts, it is also necessary to distribute systematically the cost price of assets used
to produce income (depreciation). Certain factors such as passage of time, utilisation
or consumption often cannot be measured on a daily basis. They can, however, be
calculated or estimated at the end of a financial period. Therefore adjustments are
made at the end of the financial year.
CHAPTER 7
The closing-off procedure, determining profit
and preparing financial statements
Contents
Page
Overview of the closing-off procedure, determining profit and preparing
financial statements ................................................................................................ 129
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 129
7.2 The closing procedure of a service entity .................................................... 130
7.2.1 The profit or loss account of a service entity ................................... 131
7.2.2 The statement of profit or loss and
other comprehensive income .......................................................... 134
7.2.3 The statement of changes in equity ................................................ 135
7.2.4 The statement of financial position .................................................. 136
7.3 The closing procedure of a trading entity ..................................................... 137
7.3.1 Profit determination of a trading entity............................................. 137
7.3.2 Cost of sales .................................................................................... 137
7.3.2.1 The perpetual inventory system ...................................... 138
7.3.2.2 The periodic inventory system ........................................ 141
7.3.2.3 Differences between the perpetual and
periodic inventory systems ............................................. 145
7.3.3 The gross profit percentage ............................................................ 147
7.3.4 The financial statements of a trading entity ..................................... 148
7.4 Summary ....................................................................................................... 161
127
Chapter 7: Closing-off, determining profit and preparing financial statements 129
Close
Service income & expense
entity accounts to
profit & loss Transfer
profit/loss
to capital
account
(equity)
Transfer gross
Close sales &
profit to
Trading profit & loss
entity Cost of sales
account as well as
all income &
to trading account expense accounts
7.1 Introduction
Study objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
l journalise and post the closing entries;
l calculate the profit/total comprehensive income or loss for the year of a service
entity;
l record transactions according to the perpetual inventory system;
l record transactions according to the periodic inventory system;
l calculate the gross profit and the profit/total comprehensive income or loss for
the year of a trading entity;
l prepare the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income;
l prepare the statement of changes in equity;
l prepare the statement of financial position; and
l calculate appropriate percentages for evaluation purposes.
130 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
From the previous chapters it is evident that the life of an entity can be divided into
accounting periods and that each period constitutes a repetitive accounting cycle. In
diagram 5.1 in chapter 5, the compiling of financial reports was shown as the step
after posting to the ledger. There are, however, a few other steps that must first be
completed before the financial reports can be compiled. Diagram 7.1 illustrates the
different steps in the accounting cycle and how often they are usually done:
Diagram 7.1 The accounting cycle
In chapter 6, the adjusting process was explained. In this chapter, the remaining two
steps, i.e. the closing of nominal accounts to determine the profit/total comprehensive
income or loss for the year and the compiling of the financial statements and report on
the results, are explained. Only the very basics of analysing results will be explained.
1 Financial statements can be prepared as often as management requires, but must be prepared at least
annually.
Chapter 7: Closing-off, determining profit and preparing financial statements 131
The capital with which a business commences changes as profits or losses are made
and as money is withdrawn by the owner for personal use. Diagram 7.2 illustrates the
main categories of accounts and how equity is influenced by income, expenditure and
drawings:
Diagram 7.2 Main categories of accounts
Expense Income
Dr Cr Dr Cr
accounts accounts
+ – – +
Drawings and the profit/total comprehensive income or loss for the year, determined in
the profit or loss account, are closed off to the capital account. Drawings, income and
expense accounts are therefore subcategories of the capital account.
the profit or loss account and debited to the capital account. To finalise closing
entries, the balance on the drawings account is closed off (debited) against the capital
account.
The closing-off procedure is explained in example 7.1.
Example 7.1
At 31 July 20.5, the end of the financial year, Watt Electrical had the following
balances:
R
Drawings: V Watt 24 000
Capital: V Watt 30 000
Vehicles 65 000
Tools and equipment 17 000
Trade payables control 8 700
Trade receivables control 2 300
Bank (dr) 9 900
Long-term loan 40 000
Income from services rendered 77 300
Wages paid 18 000
General expenses 15 000
Interest expense 4 800
Required
Journalise the closing entries and prepare only the accounts in the general ledger that
are affected by the closing entries.
Solution
Watt Electrical
General journal J12
Month Day Details Fol Debit Credit
20.5 R R
Jul 31 Income from services rendered GL15 77 300
Profit or loss GL19 77 300
Closing entry
Profit or loss GL19 37 800
Wages paid GL16 18 000
General expenses GL17 15 000
Interest expense GL18 4 800
Closing entry
continued
Chapter 7: Closing-off, determining profit and preparing financial statements 133
The profit or loss account must first be completed before the next journal entry can be made
to transfer the profit/total comprehensive income for the year to the capital account:c
Month Day Details Fol Debit Credit
Profit or loss GL19 39 500
Capital GL13 39 500
Transfer of profit/total comprehensive
income for the year to the capital
account
Capital GL13 24 000
Drawings GL12 24 000
Transfer of drawings to the capital
account
General ledger
Dr Drawings 12 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.5 20.5
Jul 31 Balance b/d 24 000 Jul 31 Capital J12 24 000
Dr Capital 13 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.5 20.5
Jul 31 Drawings J12 24 000 Jul 31 Balance b/d 30 000
Balance c/d 45 500 Profit or loss c J12 39 500
69 500 69 500
Aug 1 Balance b/d 45 500
Dr Wages paid 16 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.5 20.5
Jul 31 Balance b/d 18 000 Jul 31 Profit or loss J12 18 000
Dr General expenses 17 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.5 20.5
Jul 31 Balance b/d 15 000 Jul 31 Profit or loss J12 15 000
continued
134 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Dr Interest expense 18 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.5 20.5
Jul 31 Balance b/d 4 800 Jul 31 Profit or loss J12 4 800
The profit/total comprehensive income for the period, i.e. the balancing figure on the
profit or loss account, is transferred to the capital account.
The statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income for Watt Electrical is
as follows:
Watt Electrical
Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income for the year ended
31 July 20.5
Notes R
Revenue 77 300
Administrative and other expenses (33 000)
Wages paid 18 000
General expenses 15 000
In table 7.1, the difference between a statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income and the profit or loss account is explained.
Table 7.1 Differences between a statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income and a profit or loss account
No entries are made in the general ledger The double-entry principle is applied
According to IAS 1 According to the requirements of the
entity
Compiled when required by management Compiled only at the end of the financial
year
Profit/total comprehensive income or loss Profit/total comprehensive income or loss
used to calculate the current state of credited/debited to capital account
equity
R
Capital:
Balance as at 1 August 20.4 30 000
Profit/total comprehensive income for the year 39 500
Drawings (24 000)
Balance as at 31 July 20.5 45 500
Notes R
ASSETS
Non-current assets 82 000
Property, plant and equipment R(65 000 + 17 000) 82 000
According to IFRS, notes form part of the financial statements. The notes introduced
so far are shown in example 7.5.
Chapter 7: Closing-off, determining profit and preparing financial statements 137
100 900
To calculate the cost: ×
150 1
90 000
=
150
= R600
l Mark-up as a percentage of selling price
In the example in paragraph 7.3.1, the mark-up on selling price was calculated at
33 1/3%. If the mark-up (33 1/3%) and the selling price (R900) were given and the cost of
merchandise sold unknown, the cost of sales could be calculated as follows:
Assume the selling price = 100
Mark-up percentage on selling price = 33 1/3
∴ cost price = 66 2/3
66 2/3 900
To calculate the cost: ×
100 1
60 000
=
100
= R600
When the cost price of the goods has been calculated, the two double entries from the
sale should be recorded. If the sale was on credit and the balance on the inventory
account was R5 400, the entries would be recorded as follows:
Example 7.2
Abe Discount Stores
Sales journal – April 20.5 SJ1
Trade
Invoice Cost of
Day Details Fol Sales receivables
number sales
control
R R R
S001 9 R Rupert 600 900 900
600 900 900
GL18/GL11 GL19 GL10
continued
140 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Dr Inventory 11 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.5 20.5
Apr 01 Balance b/d 5 400 Apr 30 Cost of sales SJ1 600
Dr Cost of sales 18 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.5
Apr 30 Inventory SJ1 600
Dr Sales 19 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.5
Apr 30 Trade
receivables SJ1 900
When the perpetual inventory system is used, the gross profit can be determined
continuously, by deducting the cost of sales from the sales. At the end of the financial
year, the sales and cost of sales accounts, being nominal accounts, are closed off to
the trading account, where the gross profit is determined. The closing entries are
recorded in the general journal before they are posted to the general ledger.
If the given entries were the only entries for the year, the two accounts are closed off to
the trading and profit or loss accounts as follows:
General journal J1
Month Day Details Fol Debit Credit
20.5 R R
Apr 30 Trading account GL25 600
Cost of sales GL18 600
Closing entry
Sales GL19 900
Trading account GL25 900
Closing entry
The trading account must first be completed before the next journal entry can be made to
transfer the gross profit to the profit or loss account:c
Trading account GL25 300
Profit or loss account GL26 300
Transfer of the gross profit to the
profit or loss account
continued
Chapter 7: Closing-off, determining profit and preparing financial statements 141
General ledger
Dr Cost of sales 18 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.5 20.5
Apr 30 Inventory SJ1 600 Apr 30 Trading J1
account 600
Dr Sales 19 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.5 20.5
Apr 30 Trading Apr 30 Trade
account J1 900 receivables SJ1 900
Dr Trading account 25 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.5 20.5
Apr 30 Cost of sales J1 600 Apr 30 Sales J1 900
Profit or loss
account
(Gross
profit) c J1 300
900 900
Dr Profit or loss 26 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.5
Apr 30 Trading
account
(Gross
profit) c J1 300
Inventory is an asset account that cannot be closed off. The value of inventory on hand
at the end of the financial year is recorded by means of an adjusting entry and the
opening inventory is closed off to the trading account by means of a closing entry.
The accounting procedure of an entity that uses the periodic inventory system is
illustrated in example 7.3.
Example 7.3
Rainbow Traders uses the periodic inventory system and, inter alia, had the following
balances at 30 June 20.6, the end of the financial year:
R
Inventory: 1 July 20.5 7 000
Cash purchases 24 000
Credit purchases 32 000
Cash sales 29 000
Credit sales 43 000
An inventory count on 30 June 20.6 revealed that there was inventory to the value of
R9 000 on hand.
Required
Open the general ledger with the balances given and record the entries necessary to
determine the gross profit in the books of Rainbow Traders.
Rainbow Traders
General journal J24
Month Day Details Fol Debit Credit
20.6 R R
Jun 30 Inventory GL6 9 000
Trading account GL31 9 000
Cost price of closing inventory on
hand brought into account
Trading account GL31 7 000
Inventory GL6 7 000
Closing entry
Trading account GL31 56 000
Purchases R(24 000 + 32 000) GL21 56 000
Closing entry
Sales R(29 000 + 43 000) GL22 72 000
Trading account GL31 72 000
Closing entry
The trading account must first be completed before the next journal entry can be made to
transfer the gross profit to the profit or loss account:c
Trading account GL31 18 000
Profit or loss account GL32 18 000
Transfer of the gross profit to the
profit or loss account
continued
Chapter 7: Closing-off, determining profit and preparing financial statements 143
General ledger
Dr Inventory 6 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.5 20.6
Jul 1 Balance b/d 7 000 Jun 30 Trading
20.6 account J24 7 000
Jun 30 Trading 30 Balance c/d 9 000
account J24 9 000
16 000 16 000
Jul 1 Balance b/d 9 000
Dr Purchases 21 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.6 20.6
Jun 30 Balance b/d 56 000 Jun 30 Trading
account J24 56 000
Dr Sales 22 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.6 20.6
Jun 30 Trading Jun 30 Balance b/d 72 000
account J24 72 000
Dr Trading account 31 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.6 20.6
Jun 30 Inventory J24 7 000 Jun 30 Inventory J24 9 000
Purchases J24 56 000 Sales J24 72 000
Profit or loss
(Gross
profit) c J24 18 000
81 000 81 000
Dr Profit or loss 32 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.6
Jun 30 Trading
account
(Gross
profit) c J24 18 000
c R81 000 (R9 000 + R72 000) – R63 000 (R7 000 + 56 000) = R18 000.
When a trading entity uses the periodic inventory system, a cost of sales account is
usually not maintained in the general ledger. The figure is, however, calculated on the
statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income.
144 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Example 7.4
Use the information in example 7.3. The following additional information should be
taken into account:
R
Import duties 5 000
Freight in 2 600
Freight out 500
Purchases returns 3 000
Settlement discount received 1 500
Assembling costs (of merchandise) 1 800
Required
Prepare the trading account of Rainbow Traders.
Solution
The additional information in this example should first be recorded in the general
journal. The posting to the trading account in the general ledger as follows:
Dr Trading account 31 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.6 20.6
Jun 30 Inventory J24 7 000 Jun 30 Inventory J24 9 000
Purchasesc J24 54 500 Sales J24 72 000
Import duties J24 5 000 Purchases
Freight in J24 2 600 returns J24 3 000
Assembling
costs J24 1 800
Profit or loss
(Gross profit) J24 13 100
84 000 84 000
Freight out does not form part of the cost of merchandise purchased and is closed off
to the profit or loss account.
7.3.2.3 Differences between the perpetual and periodic inventory systems
From a recording point of view, the main differences between the periodic and the
perpetual inventory systems are summarised in table 7.2.
146 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Table 7.2 Differences between the perpetual and periodic inventory systems
PERPETUAL SYSTEM PERIODIC SYSTEM
All merchandise purchased is debited to All merchandise purchased is debited to
the inventory account. the purchases account.
All purchasing expenses are debited to the Purchasing expenses are debited to a
inventory account. specific expense account.
Purchases returns are credited to the Purchases returns are credited to the
inventory account. purchases returns account.
A cost of sales account is maintained, thus The cost price of merchandise is not
updating the inventory account with sales. recorded at the time of sale.
Sales returns are recorded as sales returns. Sales returns are only recorded in the sales
Inventory and cost of sales must also be returns account.
updated.
At any point in time, the cost of inventory on Inventory must be counted periodically to
hand is known. determine the inventory on hand.
The gross profit can be determined for The gross profit can be determined only
every sale. after the cost of sales has been calculated.
Example 7.5
The following transactions were recorded in the accounting records of Sunshine
Traders (control accounts are in use):
20.4
Jan. 5 Purchase merchandise from ABC Traders for cash, R9 000.
9 Sold one-third of the merchandise purchased on 5 January on credit to
Multimedia at cost price plus 25%.
12 Purchase goods from EFJ on credit for R15 000.
14 Returned merchandise costing R1 500, to EFJ.
16 Sold goods for cash to XYZ Traders at cost price plus 25%. Selling price,
R4 500.
19 Returned merchandise from Multimedia, selling price R75.
Required
Analyse the transactions above, using the framework given below:
(a) The perpetual inventory system.
(b) The periodic inventory system.
GENERAL LEDGER ACCOUNTS
Date Account debited Account credited Amount
Chapter 7: Closing-off, determining profit and preparing financial statements 147
Suggested solution:
(a) Perpetual inventory system
GENERAL LEDGER ACCOUNTS
Date Account debited Account credited Amount
20.4
Jan 5 Inventory Bank 9 000
9 Trade receivables control Sales 3 750
Cost of sales Inventory 3 000
12 Inventory Trade payables control 15 000
14 Trade payables control Inventory 1 500
16 Bank Sales 4 500
Cost of sales Inventory 3 600
19 Sales returns Trade receivables control 75
Inventory Cost of sales 60
The following factors could be reasons for the difference between the mark-up
percentage and gross profit percentage:
l settlement discounts granted and received;
l the method used to calculate the cost of goods;
l loss, shrinkage, waste, pilferage;
l the accuracy of the physical inventory count; or
l the method used to calculate the value of the inventory on hand.
Example 7.6
The following balances appeared in the books of Cosmos Traders at 31 July 20.7, the
end of the financial year, before any adjustments were made:
Cosmos Traders
Trial balance as at 31 July 20.7
Fol Debit Credit
R R
Capital: M Fish 120 000
Drawings: M Fish 24 000
Equipment 80 000
Accumulated depreciation: Equipment (1 August 20.6) 8 000
Inventory (1 August 20.6) 13 300
Trade receivables control 54 200
Trade payables control 47 600
Bank 35 120
Sales 568 350
Sales returns 8 350
Purchases 321 290
Purchases returns 3 290
Settlement discount received 6 400
Freight in 8 650
Rental expense 19 500
Salaries 148 000
Communication expenses 13 450
Municipal expenses 12 640
Stationery 4 690
General expenses 10 450
753 640 753 640
Additional information:
1. Inventories at 31 July 20.7:
R
Merchandise 18 700
Stationery 810
2. Provide for R8 000 depreciation on equipment.
3. The telephone account of R1 280 for July 20.7 was received on 15 August 20.7.
4. Rental amounted to R1 500 per month.
Required
(a) Open the accounts in the general ledger of Cosmos Traders.
(b) Journalise the adjustments.
(c) Balance the accounts and prepare a post-adjustment trial balance.
(d) Journalise the closing entries and prepare a post-closing trial balance.
(e) Prepare the following financial statements of Cosmos Traders:
(i) the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income for the year
ended 31 July 20.7;
150 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
(ii) the statement of changes in equity for the year ended 31 July 20.7; and
(iii) the statement of financial position as at 31 July 20.7.
(f) Prepare the notes to the statement of financial position of Cosmos Traders for the
year ended 31 July 20.7.
Solution
Cosmos Traders
General ledger
Dr Capital: M Fish 1 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.7 20.7
Jul 31 Drawings d J12 24 000 Jul 31 Balance b/d 120 000
Balance c/d 125 450 Profit or loss d J12 29 450
149 450 149 450
Aug 1 Balance b/d 125 450
Dr Drawings: M Fish 2 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.7 20.7
Jul 31 Balance b/d 24 000 Jul 31 Capital d J12 24 000
Dr Equipment 3 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.7
Jul 31 Balance b/d 80 000
Dr Inventory 5 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.6 20.7
Aug 1 Balance b/d 13 300 Jul 31 Trading J12 13 300
20.7 account d
Jul 31 Trading Balance c/d 18 700
account c J12 18 700
32 000 32 000
Aug 1 Balance b/d 18 700
continued
Chapter 7: Closing-off, determining profit and preparing financial statements 151
Dr Bank 8 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.7
Jul 31 Balance b/d 35 120
Dr Sales 9 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.7 Sales returns 8 350 20.7
Jul 31 Trading Jul 31 Balance b/d 568 350
account d J12 560 000
Dr Sales returns 10 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.7 20.7
Jul 31 Balance b/d 8 350 Jul 31 Sales d J12 8 350
Dr Purchases 11 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.7 20.7 31 Purchase
returns 3 290
Jul 31 Balance b/d 321 290 Jul Settlement
discount
received d 6 400
Trading
account d J12 311 600
321 290 321 290
continued
152 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Dr Purchases returns 12 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.7 20.7
Jul 31 Purchases d J12 3 290 Jul 31 Balance b/d 3 290
Dr Freight in 14 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.7 20.7
Jul 31 Balance b/d 8 650 Jul 31 Trading
account d J12 8 650
Dr Rental expense 15 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.7 20.7
Jul 31 Balance b/d 19 500 Jul 31 Prepaid
expenses c J12 1 500
Profit or
loss d J12 18 000
19 500 19 500
Dr Salaries 16 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.7 20.7
Jul 31 Balance b/d 148 000 Jul 31 Profit or
loss d J12 148 000
Dr Communication expenses 17 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.7 20.7
Jul 31 Balance b/d 13 450 Jul 31 Profit or
Accrued loss d J12 14 730
expenses c J12 1 280
14 730 14 730
continued
Chapter 7: Closing-off, determining profit and preparing financial statements 153
Dr Municipal expenses 18 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.7 20.7
Jul 31 Balance b/d 12 640 Jul 31 Profit or
loss d J12 12 640
Dr Stationery 19 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.7 20.7
Jul 31 Balance b/d 4 690 Jul 31 Stationery
inventory c J12 810
Profit or
loss d J12 3 880
4 690 4 690
Dr General expenses 20 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.7 20.7
Jul 31 Balance b/d 10 450 Jul 31 Profit or
loss d J12 10 450
Dr Stationery inventory 21 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.7
Jul 31 Stationery c J12 810
Dr Depreciation 22 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.7 20.7
Jul 31 Accumulated Jul 31 Profit or
depreci- loss d J12 8 000
ation c J12 8 000
Dr Accrued expenses 23 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.7
Jul 31 Communication
expenses c J12 1 280
continued
154 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Dr Prepaid expenses 24 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.7
Jul 31 Rental
expense c J12 1 500
Dr Profit or loss 26 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.7 20.7
Jul 31 Rental expense J12 18 000 Jul 31 Trading
Salaries J12 148 000 account
Communication (gross profit) J12 245 150
expenses J12 14 730
Municipal
expenses J12 12 640
Stationery J12 3 880
General
expenses J12 10 450
Depreciation J12 8 000
Capital (profit/
total com-
prehensive
income) J12 29 450
245 150 245 150
continued
Chapter 7: Closing-off, determining profit and preparing financial statements 155
Cosmos Traders
General journal J12
Month Day Details Fol Debit Credit
20.7 R R
Jul 31 Stationery inventory GL21 810
Stationery GL19 810
Stationery on hand brought into
account
Depreciation GL22 8 000
Accumulated depreciation:
Equipment GL4 8 000
Depreciation on equipment for the
year
Communication expenses GL17 1 280
Accrued expenses GL23 1 280
Telephone account for July 20.7
brought into account
Prepaid expenses GL24 1 500
Rental expense e GL15 1 500
Rental prepaid
e Refer to the calculations after the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive
income.
156 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Cosmos Traders
Post-adjustment trial balance as at 31 July 20.7
Fol Debit Credit
R R
Capital: M Fish GL1 120 000
Drawings: M Fish GL2 24 000
Equipment GL3 80 000
Accumulated depreciation: Equipment GL4 16 000
Inventory (1 August 20.6) GL5 13 300
Trade receivables control GL6 54 200
Trade payables control GL7 47 600
Bank GL8 35 120
Sales GL9 568 350
Sales returns GL10 8 350
Purchases GL11 321 290
Purchases returns GL12 3 290
Settlement discount received GL13 6 400
Freight in GL14 8 650
Rental expense GL15 18 000
Salaries GL16 148 000
Communication expenses GL17 14 730
Municipal expenses GL18 12 640
Stationery GL19 3 880
General expenses GL20 10 450
Stationery inventory GL21 810
Depreciation GL22 8 000
Accrued expenses GL23 1 280
Prepaid expenses GL24 1 500
762 920 762 920
Closing inventory can only be recorded when the trading account is completed.
Because inventory is an asset account (a permanent account), the opening balance of
inventory remains in the books until the closing entries are recorded. The value of
closing inventory is then recorded with an adjusting entry and the opening balance on
the inventory account is closed off to the trading account.
Chapter 7: Closing-off, determining profit and preparing financial statements 157
Cosmos Traders
General journal J12
Month Day Details Fol Debit Credit
20.7 R R
Jul 31 Settlement discount received GL13 6 400
Purchases GL11 6 400
Closing entry
Inventory GL5 18 700
Trading account GL25 18 700
Cost price of closing inventory on
hand brought into account
Trading account GL25 333 550
Inventory GL5 13 300
Purchases GL11 311 600
Freight in GL14 8 650
Closing entry
Sales GL9 560 000
Trading account GL25 560 000
Closing entry
Trading account GL25 245 150
Profit or loss account GL26 245 150
Transfer of the gross profit to the profit
or loss account
Profit or loss GL26 215 700
Rental expense GL15 18 000
Salaries GL16 148 000
Communication expenses GL17 14 730
Municipal expenses GL18 12 640
Stationery GL19 3 880
General expenses GL20 10 450
Depreciation GL22 8 000
Closing entry
Profit or loss GL26 29 450
Capital GL1 29 450
Transfer of the profit/total
comprehensive income for the
year to the capital account
Capital GL1 24 000
Drawings GL2 24 000
Transfer of the balance on the
drawings account
158 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Cosmos Traders
Post-closing trial balance as at 31 July 20.7
Fol Debit Credit
R R
Capital: M Fish GL1 125 450
Equipment GL3 80 000
Accumulated depreciation: Equipment GL4 16 000
Inventory GL5 18 700
Trade receivables control GL6 54 200
Trade payables control GL7 47 600
Bank GL8 35 120
Stationery inventory GL21 810
Accrued expenses GL23 1 280
Prepaid expenses GL24 1 500
190 330 190 330
Cosmos Traders
Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income for the year ended
31 July 20.7
Notes R
Revenue c 2.5 560 000
Cost of sales (314 850)
Inventory (1 August 20.6) 13 300
Purchases d 311 600
Freight in 8 650
333 550
Inventory (31 July 20.7) (18 700)
Calculations:
c Revenue R
Sales 568 350
Sales returns (8 350)
560 000
Chapter 7: Closing-off, determining profit and preparing financial statements 159
Cosmos Traders
Statement of changes in equity for the year ended 31 July 20.7
R
Capital:
Balance as at 1 August 20.6 120 000
Profit/total comprehensive income for the year 29 450
Drawings (24 000)
Balance as at 31 July 20.7 125 450
Cosmos Traders
Statement of financial position as at 31 July 20.7
Notes R
ASSETS
Non-current assets 64 000
Property, plant and equipment 3 64 000
Current assets 110 330
Inventories h 2.3 19 510
Trade and other receivables 4 54 200
Prepayments 1 500
Cash and cash equivalents 4 35 120
Calculations:
h Inventories R
Merchandise 18 700
Stationery 810
19 510
Cosmos Traders
Notes for the year ended 31 July 20.7
1. Basis of presentation:
The annual financial statements have been prepared in accordance with generally
accepted accounting practice appropriate to the business of the entity. The annual
financial statements have been prepared on the historical cost basis.
2. Summary of significant accounting policies:
The annual financial statements incorporate the following significant accounting
policies, which are consistent with those applied in previous years, except where
otherwise stated:
2.1 Property, plant and equipment:
Property, plant and equipment are initially recognised at cost price.
Equipment is subsequently measured at historical cost less accumulated
depreciation and accumulated impairment losses.
Depreciation on equipment is written off at a rate deemed to be sufficient to
reduce the carrying amount of the asset over its estimated useful life to its
estimated residual value.
Depreciation is charged to profit or loss for the year.
2.2 Financial assets:
Cash and cash equivalents are classified as “Financial assets at fair value
through profit or loss”. Cash and cash equivalents consists of cash in bank.
2.3 Inventories:
Inventories are initially measured at cost and subsequently valued at the
lower of cost or net realisable value. Cost is calculated using the first-in, first-
out method. Net realisable value is the estimated selling price in the ordinary
course of business less any costs of completion and disposal.
2.4 Financial liabilities:
Financial liabilities are recognised when the entity becomes contractually
liable.
2.5 Revenue:
Revenue is measured at the fair value of the consideration received or
receivable. Revenue from the sale of goods consists of the total net invoiced
sales excluding the settlement discount granted. The revenue from sales is
recognised when ownership is transferred to the customer.
Chapter 7: Closing-off, determining profit and preparing financial statements 161
4. Financial assets: c
20.7
R
Current financial assets
Trade and other receivables: 54 200
Trade receivables control 54 200
Other financial assets
Financial assets at fair value through profit or loss:
Cash and cash equivalents: 35 120
Bank 35 120
5. Financial liabilities: c
20.7
R
Current financial liabilities
Trade and other payables: 48 880
Trade payables control 47 600
Accrued expenses: Communication expenses 1 280
7.4 Summary
The gross profit of a trading entity is calculated in a trading account. Gross profit is the
difference between sales and cost of sales. The closing procedures of a service entity
and a trading entity are closely related, except for the calculation of gross profit.
When a trading entity uses the perpetual inventory system, it maintains a cost of sales
account and inventory purchased is recorded in the inventory account. If the periodic
inventory system is used, inventory purchased is recorded in the purchases account
and cost of sales is calculated at the end of the financial year. The gross profit
calculated is transferred to the profit or loss account. The different income and
expense accounts of both service entities and trading entities are transferred to the
profit or loss account, when the profit/total comprehensive income or loss for the year
is determined. The profit/total comprehensive income or loss for the period for both
service entities and trading entities is transferred to the capital account of the owner.
162 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Financial statements are prepared separately from the ledger accounts and do not
form part of the double-entry system. Financial statements can be compiled whenever
the information is needed by management, while the closing off of accounts is done
only at the end of the financial year, after adjustments have been completed.
CHAPTER 8
Cash and cash equivalents
Contents
Page
Overview of cash and cash equivalents ................................................................. 165
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 165
8.2 Nature of cash and cash equivalents ........................................................... 166
8.3 Internal control over cash ............................................................................. 167
8.3.1 Nature of internal control over cash ................................................ 167
8.3.2 Internal control over cash receipts .................................................. 168
8.3.3 Internal control over cash payments ............................................... 168
8.4 The use of a bank account ........................................................................... 169
8.4.1 Opening of a bank account ............................................................. 169
8.4.2 Depositing of money........................................................................ 170
8.4.3 Issuing of cheques .......................................................................... 172
8.4.4 The bank statement ......................................................................... 172
8.4.5 Debit and credit memos .................................................................. 173
8.5 Reconciling the bank account with the bank statement ............................... 174
8.5.1 Reasons for differences in balances ............................................... 174
8.5.2 Reconciliation procedure ................................................................ 175
8.5.3 Bank reconciliations in following months......................................... 181
8.5.4 Cheques referred back to drawer and outdated cheques.............. 186
8.6 The petty cash journal .................................................................................. 191
8.6.1 Format of the petty cash journal ...................................................... 191
8.6.2 Posting from the petty cash journal ................................................. 192
8.7 The measurement and disclosure of cash in financial statements ............... 194
8.8 Revision example .......................................................................................... 195
8.9 Summary ....................................................................................................... 196
163
Chapter 8: Cash and cash equivalents 165
• Cash book
• General ledger
• Cash statement
• Cash receipts
• Cash payments Reconciliation of
• Petty cash the bank account
• Bank account
• Bank statement
Reporting
8.1 Introduction
Study objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
l disclose transactions with the bank on the bank statement;
l update the two cash journals of the entity whose books you are preparing;
l reconcile the balance of the bank account with the balance reflected on the
bank statement;
l prepare a petty cash journal; and
l show how cash and cash equivalents are disclosed on the statement of financial
position.
166 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
The processing of cash transactions, namely cash receipts and payments, has been
explained in detail in previous chapters. It was explained, for example, that when cash
is received, the asset “Bank” increases and the bank account is debited. When
cheques are issued or an EFT is made the asset “Bank” decreases and is therefore
credited. Cash receipts are recorded in the cash receipts journal (CRJ), while cash
payments are recorded in the cash payments journal (CPJ). The totals of these
journals are posted to the debit and credit sides respectively of the bank account in
the general ledger.
The purpose of this chapter is to explain what is included in cash and cash
equivalents, what entries may appear in the books of the bank regarding transactions
by the bank with the particular entity, how to reconcile the balance of the bank account
in the books of the entity with the balance according to the bank statement, that is, the
way it is reflected in the books of the bank. Lastly, we will explain how to prepare a
petty cash journal.
Entities must comply with inter alia the requirements of faithful representation,
prudence and fair presentation when it comes to cash and cash equivalents. This
means that entities, and in particular accountants, must ensure that the balances of
cash and cash equivalents, as they are disclosed on the statement of financial
position, are correct. If you cannot remember the contents of these requirements,
refresh your memory and study them in chapter 1. One way of ascertaining whether
the balance of the bank account is correct is to reconcile the balance as per the bank
account with the balance as per the books of the bank.
Cash includes coins, notes, cheques, postal orders, credit card vouchers and any
deposits on demand at financial institutions such as banks.
Cash equivalents are short-term, highly liquid investments which are readily
convertible into cash and subjected only to insignificant risks relating to the value
thereof.
Money market instruments, such as treasury bonds and bankers acceptances, are
examples of cash equivalents. It is not required of you to study these concepts at this
stage.
Liquidity indicates the availability of cash for payment of claims against the entity. Cash
and cash deposits are liquid because they are immediately available for payment. As
cash is the most liquid form of money, it is therefore the primary legal tender in the
economic system. By contrast, a fixed deposit which can only be withdrawn after
twelve months, is less liquid.
As it is the primary liquid legal tender, cash is the most active asset in an entity. All
expenses are eventually paid in cash (mainly by cheque or electronic transfer) and all
income is eventually received in cash. This implies that, after each cash receipt or
payment, the liquidity of the entity changes.
Chapter 8: Cash and cash equivalents 167
In every entity there is a constant stream of cash flowing in and flowing out. Whenever
the cash inflow exceeds the outflow, a cash surplus is created, which should be
invested if not needed for payment in the near future. Whenever cash outflow exceeds
the cash inflow, it may be necessary for the entity to withdraw available investments or
to borrow money to cover the shortage. Money that is invested earns interest and
interest must be paid on money that is borrowed. The rate of interest on borrowed
money is usually higher than the rate of interest on investments. It is therefore unwise
to borrow money when investments can be converted into cash.
The management of an entity must ensure that the entity constantly has sufficient cash
available to meet its obligations. At the same time, management must ensure that
maximum interest is earned on investments and that unnecessary loans and interest
on loans are limited to the minimum.
Because cash is highly liquid and cash instruments (notes and coins) are not individually
identifiable (except with great effort), the risk of loss through theft, fraud and other
causes is high. Management therefore also has a responsibility to ensure that effective
internal control measures over cash exist.
complied with. Paid cheques returned by the bank to the drawer after payment also
serve as proof of payment.
The principles of internal control in respect of cash payments are as follows:
Principle Application to payments
1. Determination of responsibility Only specific senior officials should be authorised
to sign cheques or authorise ETFs.
2. Allocation of duties The responsibility for the authorisation of payment
should be delegated to different persons (excluding
those with authority to sign cheques or authorise
EFTs) in charge of those who incur expenditure.
3. Documentation procedure Pre-numbered cheques or EFTs must be used and
all cheques or EFTs must be accounted for. All
cheques presented or EFTs authorised for payment
should be supported by documentation that
verifies the authorisation. Blank cheques should be
in safe-keeping, to which only authorised personnel
have access. In larger organisations, automatic
cheque-writing machines should be used.
4. Independent internal control All cheques or EFTs must be checked against
supporting documents before they are issued or
authorised. The bank balance should be reconciled
regularly.
5. Other controls After payment, supporting documents should be
marked as “Paid”.
This account is also used for payments by means of debit or stop orders or electronic
transfers.
The provision of credit facilities is a primary function of banks. In practice, banks
provide clients with a facility to borrow money by allowing payments in excess of cash
deposits. Such loans are called bank overdrafts. In granting overdraft facilities, a bank
agrees with the entity on a maximum facility (the maximum amount that can be
borrowed); the rate of interest that the bank will charge on the overdraft and, where
applicable, repayment conditions. Some banks may charge a penalty rate of interest
when this overdraft facility is misused, that is, when the overdraft is exceeded.
170 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
A bank overdraft is a “current” liability in the books of the entity, because it is likely that
the balance of the overdrawn bank account will change within the next twelve months.
As a matter of fact, this will happen after each cash transaction with the bank.
The use of a current account with a bank contributes materially to sound internal
control over cash. If all cash receipts are regularly deposited in total and all payments
(excluding petty cash payments) are made by EFT or cheque, the amount of cash on
hand on the premises of the entity is limited. The use of a current bank account
creates an added control measure, because a twofold record of transactions is kept –
in the records of the entity and in the records of the bank. These two accounts must
agree, or it must be possible to reconcile differences between their balances.
When the arrangements with a bank for the opening of a bank account are concluded
and proof signatures of persons authorised to operate the bank account have been
delivered to the bank, the bank will provide deposit slips and chequebooks to the
client. At this stage, please note that most entities are moving away from the use of
cheques and are using EFTs exclusively. As cheques are still used in some instances,
the use of cheques is still explained. The cheques are numbered in sequence and the
name, address and telephone number of the client is usually printed by the bank on
the cheques. Some banks also print the name and address of the client on the deposit
slips. The bank account number of the client and the identification number of the bank
are usually printed on cheques and deposit slips in machine-readable form to allow the
electronic processing of these documents.
Diagram 8.1
Note that the instruction is to Credit the particular bank account. A deposit into a bank
account means that the bank will debit its CRJ and credit the bank account of the
client. In other words, it also means that the bank owes the amount of the deposit to
the client. The entries in the books of the client are therefore the opposite of the same
entry in the books of the bank.
l Direct deposits by third parties into a bank account
Where clients are spread over a wide area, an entity can arrange with the clients to
deposit money due to the entity at any other branch of the bank. This is done because
the electronic transfer of money from one bank to another is much faster and more
economical than, for example, the client mailing a cheque or postal order.
At the bank where the deposit is made, the client completes a special deposit slip
which contains, apart from the date and amount of the deposit, the name and address
or other identification of the client and the purpose of the payment.
The amounts that are transferred in this manner from various branches to the bank
where the entity keeps its account are then credited in the books of the bank to the
account of the entity. Full particulars of all deposits are shown separately on the bank
statement of the entity. Some banks also send a copy of the deposit to the particular
client.
The bank statement (or, where applicable, the copy of the deposit slip) serves as the
source document in respect of all amounts deposited directly into the bank account for
the benefit of the entity. The CRJ is updated from the bank statement.
It is important that the party depositing the money furnishes full and accurate particulars
of the transaction on the deposit slip. Incomplete information on the deposit slip may
result in incomplete information in the bank statement, with the result that it will be
difficult to make correct entries in the books (such as the CRJ) and postings to the
entity’s ledger accounts.
172 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Cheques are usually pre-numbered and printed with counterfoils, with corresponding
serial numbers and which remain in the cheque book. The information entered on a
cheque is also entered on the counterfoil, which then serves as a source document to
prepare the CPJ. Some banks issue cheque books with a duplicating facility to their
clients; the duplicate then serves as the source document.
The format of bank statements and the symbols used differ from one bank to another.
A typical bank statement is illustrated in diagram 8.2.
Diagram 8.2
PLEASE NOTE: The bank will assume that the statement as rendered is correct unless
notice of any discrepancies in connection with entries is received within 14 days of delivery
hereof.
EXPLANATION OF ABBREVIATIONS:
SO = Stop order DO = Debit Order LF = Ledger fees EC = Error corrected
IN = Interest CB = Cheque book UN = Unpaid cheque BC = Bank charges
Items such as the “SO”, which is a stop order paid by the bank to the entity mentioned,
(in this case “Nico Shops”), should be updated in the CPJ (for amounts debited to the
bank statement). In the case of a debit order collected, it must be updated in the CRJ
(for amounts credited to the bank statement). The bank statement is the source
document for all items debited or credited by the bank that are not yet reflected in the
cash journals.
l CRJ
The amounts in the CRJ are compared with the amounts on the credit side of the bank
statement. Each amount in the bank column of the CRJ that corresponds to the amount
on the bank statement is marked with a distinct tick (9) in both the CRJ and the bank
statement. The same distinct tick can be used to mark the same amount on the bank
statement.
Example 8.1
On 1 May 20.0, Ben Smith starts a trading business, Smitties Traders. The CRJ for May
20.0 of Smitties Traders reflected the following (analysis columns are excluded since
they are not important for this exercise):
Smitties Traders
Cash receipts journal for May 20.0 CRJ5
Doc No Date Details Analysis Bank
R R
1 1 B Smith: Capital 10 000 10 000 9
2 7 Cash sales 1 450
3 14 Cash sales 1 350 2 800 9
4 21 Cash sales 900
5 24 R Charles: Rent 350 1 250 9
6 31 Cash sales 850 850
14 900
B 15
Having posted the bank column in the CRJ to the debit side of the bank account in the
general ledger (B 15), the bank account should have the following entry only:
General Ledger
Dr Bank B15 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.0
May 31 Total receipts CRJ5 14 900
176 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
The bank statement for May 20.0, received from the bank (Sand Bank) reflects the
following:
Sand Bank Limited
Registered Bank
Reg No 93/2571
VAT Reg No: 2600101432
Tel: (012) 555-5555
Fax: (012) 555-5556
Smitties Traders
P O Box 12345
PRETORIA
0001
It is obvious that the debit balance of the bank account (R14 900) differs from the
credit balance on the bank statement (R14 050). All the amounts in the credit column
of the statement, have been marked (9), but the deposit of R850 (31 May) in the CRJ
has not been marked. No changes to the CRJ need to be done for this month. The
reason is that this deposit will be received by the bank on 1 June and will appear on
the bank statement of June. In order to reconcile the two balances, the following bank
reconciliation is prepared. Since the bank will credit the account of the entity with the
deposit, the amount is shown in the credit column of the reconciliation. A separate
sheet of paper (or book), ruled in a similar manner to a general journal, is usually used
for this purpose.
Smitties Traders
Bank reconciliation statement at 31 May 20.0
Fol Debit Credit
R R
Debit (favourable) balance as per Bank Account (B15) 14 900
Credit outstanding deposit (deposited 01 Jun 20.0) 850
Credit (favourable) balance as per Bank Statement 14 050
14 900 14 900
l CPJ
The amounts in the CPJ are compared with the amounts on the debit side of the bank
statement. Each amount in the bank column of the CPJ that corresponds with the
amount on the bank statement is marked with a distinct mark (9). The same distinct
mark can be used to mark the same amount on the bank statement.
Chapter 8: Cash and cash equivalents 177
The CPJ for May 20.0 of Smitties Traders reflected the following transactions (bank
column only):
Smitties Traders
Cash payments journal for May 20.0 CPJ5
Doc no Date Details Bank
R
1 1 Municipality 1 000 9
2 7 ABC Stores 2 500 9
3 15 John’s Wholesalers 1 200
4 27 Cash: (Wages) 450 9
5 30 ABC Stores 350
6 Cash: (Wages) 450 9
5 950
B 15
Having posted the bank column in the CPJ to the credit side of the bank account in the
general ledger, the bank account should have the following entries:
General Ledger
Dr Bank B15 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.0 20.0
May 31 Total receipts CRJ5 14 900 May 31 Total payments CPJ5 5 950
Balance c/d 8 950
14 900 14 900
Jun 1 Balance b/d 8 950
178 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
The bank statement for May 20.0, received from the bank (Sand Bank), reflects the
following:
Sand Bank Limited
Registered Bank
Reg No 93/2571
VAT Reg No: 2600101432
Tel: (012) 555-5555
Fax: (012) 555-5556
Smitties Traders
P O Box 12345
PRETORIA
0001
The amounts in the “Fee” column and interest on the credit balance will be debited
and credited (for explanation purposes) in the discussion of the reconciliation for
June 20.0.
The debit balance of the bank account (R8 950) differs from the credit balance on the
bank statement (R9 650). All the amounts in the debit and credit column of the
statement have been marked (9), but the deposit of R850 (31 May) in the CRJ has not
been marked; nor have the two cheques (No 3 for R1 200 and No 5 for R350) in the
CPJ.
The CRJ or the CPJ need not be updated for May 20.0 as all the amounts in the debit
and credit columns of the bank statement have been marked. The deposit will be
received by the bank on 1 June and should appear on the bank statement for June,
while the two cheques were not presented to the bank for payment during May 20.0. In
order to reconcile the two balances as at 31 May 20.0, the following bank
reconciliation has to be prepared.
The balance on the bank account is a debit (favourable) balance and is therefore
shown on the debit side of the reconciliation. The balance on the bank statement is a
credit (favourable) balance (the bank owes the balance to the entity) and it is thus
shown on the credit side of the reconciliation. Since the bank will credit the bank
account of the entity with the deposit, the amount is shown in the credit column of the
reconciliation. The bank will debit the account of the entity as soon as the cheques are
paid; therefore the total of the outstanding cheques is shown in the debit column.
Chapter 8: Cash and cash equivalents 179
Smitties Traders
Bank reconciliation statement at 31 May 20.0
Fol Debit Credit
R R
Debit (favourable) balance as per Bank Account (B15) 8 950
Credit outstanding deposit (deposited 01 Jun 20.0) 850
Debit outstanding cheques: No 3 dd 15 May 20.0 R1 200
No 5 dd 30 May 20.0 R 350 1 550
Credit (favourable) balance as per Bank Statement 9 650
10 500 10 500
In the above example, we have only dealt with items in the cash journals that do or do
not appear on the bank statement. In the paragraphs that follow, items that may
appear on the bank statement, but not in the cash journals, will be dealt with.
l Bank charges
Some of the bank charges are shown on the previous bank statement (in the “Fee”
column). As the bank incurs costs to keep the bank accounts of its clients, these costs
are recovered from the clients. Usually these costs are accumulated by the bank
throughout the month and then debited in total to the account (deducted from a credit
balance or added to a debit balance) at the end of the month. This procedure may,
however, differ from one bank to another. The terms used by various banks may also
differ.
Bank charges include:
l charges for handling cash (that is, cash notes and coins) included in deposits;
l charges for paying a cheque on behalf of the entity;
l charges for paying a cheque in cash;
l charges for deposit and/or cheque books, interim or provisional bank statements
or balances supplied to the entity;
l government levies on debit transactions (a tax on debit transactions, imposed by
government);
l charges for guaranteeing the payment of a particular cheque (that is, when the
bank certifies that money is available in the bank and that the bank will pay the
amount stipulated on that particular cheque);
l service or ledger fees (that is, for keeping the ledger account in the books of the
bank); and
l charges for processing debit orders and/or stop orders.
All these bank charges should include VAT. The VAT portion must be debited to the
VAT input account if the entity is registered as a VAT vendor.
These charges are in effect collected from the bank account of the entity (reflected on
the statement) by the bank and paid to the same bank. Such charges must therefore
also be taken into account in the books of the entity.
There are several ways in which bank charges can be taken into account. In this
course, we will use the method whereby bank charges are regarded as amounts paid
180 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
and the total amount charged is merely entered as one of the last entries for the month
in the CPJ. The bank statement is the source document for the recording of this
transaction.
In the general ledger, bank charges will be debited and the bank account (via the total
payments in the CPJ) will be credited with the bank charges.
l Interest charged on debit bank balance
Interest on an overdrawn balance (debit balance on the statement), charged by the
bank and also debited to the bank statement, must never be included in bank charges.
Interest is a cost for using someone else’s (the bank’s) money and is therefore a
finance cost.
There are many reasons why banks charge interest on overdrawn (debit) balances or
pay interest on favourable (credit) bank balances. In the case of interest on a debit
balance (paid), the interest is regarded as a finance cost and is usually charged at a
much higher rate than that at which a favourable (credit) balance earns (receives)
interest.
To record the interest charged, the bank account in the general ledger is credited
(included in the bank column in the CPJ) and the account “Interest paid (on current
account)” is debited. The bank statement will be the source document.
l Stop orders and debit orders
A stop order is used where the entity instructs its bank to pay a certain amount on a
specific date to a specified person or business or into a certain bank account. The
amount does not change often and, if it must change, the entity will have to go to the
bank, cancel the current stop order and furnish the bank with a new stop order. This
method of payment is often used for the payment of rent, periodic contributions to a
church, club or charity and even for instalments on insurance policies. In such cases,
the paying entity pays the bank charges.
Many service providers use debit order facilities to collect monies owed to them. In
such cases, the entity gives permission to the particular service provider to collect the
money from its bank account. The service provider (such as a municipality, telephone
or insurance company) will need the permission of the entity to debit its bank account
with the amount due to it. In such cases, the amount to be paid can differ from one
month to the next. The service provider will use electronic devices to get the money
from the bank account of the entity. When the bank statement is received, the entity
must ascertain whether the amount collected from its bank account equals the amount
of the account received from the service provider. In this case, the receiving entity
pays the bank charges.
The amounts paid by either method are debited to the bank account (statement) in the
books of the bank, as they reduce a credit bank balance or increase an overdrawn
balance.
In order to bring the cash journals of the entity in line with the bank statement, an entry
or entries in the CPJ will be necessary. This will credit (reduce) the favourable balance
of the bank account and debit the type of expense (electricity and water or telephone)
paid in this manner.
Chapter 8: Cash and cash equivalents 181
l Direct deposits
Some clients of the entity may instruct their banks to pay monthly amounts into the
bank account (by means of a stop order) of the entity (for example, someone renting
offices). They may also prefer to pay amounts directly into the bank account
themselves. Such direct deposits into the bank account of the entity will be reflected
on the bank statement, where the deposit will increase a credit (favourable) balance in
the bank’s books or decrease a debit balance (an overdraft).
To update the books of the entity, an entry or entries in the CRJ will be necessary. This
will debit the bank account in the general ledger and credit the appropriate income or
trade receivables account.
Smitties Traders
Cash receipts journal for June 20.0 CRJ6
Doc No Date Details Analysis Bank
R R
– 1 Cash sales 900
– 8 Cash sales 1 700
– 15 Cash sales 1 200 3 800 9
– 23 Cash sales 1 100
– 27 Cash sales 2 100 3 200 9
– 30 Cash sales 2 000 2 000
R Charles: Rent 850 850
Sand Bank: Interest earned 50 50
9 900
B 15
Amounts in italics are amounts entered as a result of amounts being reflected on the
bank statement that are not yet reflected in the CRJ. This updates the CRJ.
The total of the bank column in the CRJ is posted to the debit side of the bank account
in the general ledger.
Smitties Traders
Cash payments journal for June 20.0 CPJ6
Doc No Date Details Bank
R
7 5 Municipality 700 9
8 7 John’s Wholesalers 1 500 9
9 9 ABC Stores 2 200 9
10 15 Cash: (Wages) 450 9
11 23 Telkom 200
12 30 Cash: (Wages) 450 9
XYX Insurance Company 500
Sand Bank: Bank charges 50
6 050
B 15
Amounts in italics are amounts entered as a result of amounts being reflected on the
bank statement that are not yet reflected in the CPJ. This updates the CPJ.
Chapter 8: Cash and cash equivalents 183
Having posted the total of the bank column in the CPJ to the credit side of the bank
account in the general ledger, the bank account should have the following entries:
General Ledger
Dr Bank B15 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.0 20.0
May 31 Total receipts CRJ5 14 900 May 31 Total payments CPJ5 5 950
Balance c/d 8 950
14 900 14 900
Jun 1 Balance b/d 8 950 Jun 30 Total payments CPJ6 6 050
30 Total receipts CRJ6 9 900 Balance c/d 12 800
18 850 18 850
Jul 1 Balance b/d 12 800
The bank statement for June 20.0 received from Sand Bank reflects the following
(amounts in curled brackets { }, square brackets [ ] or underlined are indicated thus for
explanation purposes):
Sand Bank Limited
Registered Bank
Reg No 93/2571
VAT Reg No: 2600101432
Tel: (012) 555-5555
Fax: (012) 555-5556
Smitties Traders
P O Box 12345
PRETORIA
0001
Findings: From the books of the bank (these must be updated in the books of the
entity):
(1) Four amounts in the debit column of the statement, being service fees for May
{R17}, service and administration fees {R13} and {R20} respectively for June (all
regarded as bank charges and totalling R50) and the insurance premium of R500,
have not been marked. These expenses reduce the balance of the bank account
of the entity; therefore, to update the books of the entity, the amounts of R50 and
R500 must be entered in the CPJ before the CPJ is finally totalled and posted to
the bank account in the entity’s books. The bank account will then be credited (the
R550 will be included in the total of the bank column of the CPJ) and the bank
charges and insurance accounts will be debited with R50 and R500 respectively.
Chapter 8: Cash and cash equivalents 185
(2) Two amounts in the credit column of the statement have not been marked, namely
the interest income [R50] and the direct deposit from R Charles [R850]. To update
the books of the entity, these amounts should be entered in the CRJ, before the
CRJ is finally totalled and posted to the bank account, in the books of the entity.
The bank account will then be debited (the R50 and the R850 will be included in
the total of the bank column of the CRJ) and the interest earned and the rent
income accounts credited with R50 and R850 respectively.
The above transactions correspond with the accounting equation. The asset, i.e. bank,
is credited with the amounts paid (the bank balance decreases) and the equity
decreases by the amount of the expenditure (R550). Bank is furthermore debited with
amounts received (the bank balance increases) and the equity increases by the
amount of the income (R50 + R850).
Findings: In the books of the entity the cash journals are now correct, although the
bank must still react, that is, the following items will appear in the bank reconciliation
for the month:
(1) One cheque (No 5 for R350) is still outstanding from the bank reconciliation of
May and must be included in the bank reconciliation for June, since the bank will
react (debit the bank account of the entity) when this cheque is presented to the
bank for payment.
(2) The deposit of R2 000 will be received by the bank during July and will appear on
the bank statement for July.
(3) One cheque, No 11 for R200, has not yet been presented to the bank for payment.
The bank will react (debit the bank account of the entity) when this cheque is
presented to the bank for payment.
At the end of June, the debit balance (favourable) of the bank account is R12 800,
while the credit balance (favourable) on the bank statement is R11 350. In order to
reconcile these two balances, the following bank reconciliation is prepared. Since the
bank will credit the account of the entity with the deposit in the next month, the amount
is shown in the credit column of the reconciliation. The bank will debit the account
when the cheques are paid; therefore the total of the outstanding cheques is shown in
the debit column.
Smitties Traders
Bank reconciliation statement at 30 June 20.0
Fol Debit Credit
R R
Debit (favourable) balance as per Bank Account (B15) 12 800
Credit outstanding deposit (deposited 01 Jul 20.0) 2 000
Debit outstanding cheques: No 5 dd 30 May 20.0 R350
No 11 dd 23 Jun 20.0 R200 550
Credit (favourable) balance as per Bank Statement 11 350
13 350 13 350
186 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
In all these cases, the original cheque referred to drawer, received back from the
bank, should be kept as proof of the “non-payment” of the transaction.
l Outdated cheques
A cheque is outdated when it is either post-dated, in which case no entries should be
made until the date of the cheque, or older than six months (such a cheque is also
referred to as “stale”). If the period of validity is stipulated on the face of the cheque,
as in, for example, “Valid for three months only”, a cheque older than three months will
be outdated.
• A post-dated cheque receipted erroneously and banked (a substantial penalty is
usually imposed by the bank for such a transaction) and returned by the bank
should be kept until the due date and should then be re-deposited. Remember, if
the date of the receipt is in one month and the due date of the cheque is in the next
(or a number of months later), this cheque should be included on the credit side of
the bank reconciliation until it is re-deposited (similar to deposits not yet made).
• When a post-dated cheque is received but not receipted, this should not be
included in the bank reconciliation.
• When a cheque, issued by the entity, becomes older than the validity period
(usually six months) and it has not been presented to the bank for payment, the
cheque (and settlement discount received) should be written back (reversed). This
means the opposite of the original entry should be made. At the time when the
cheque was issued, the creditor was debited and bank was credited. To write the
cheque back, the bank account must be debited and the creditor in the trade
payables account (and trade payables control account) must be credited. This is
done by entering the amount of the cheque and particulars of the creditor in the
CRJ to cancel the original entry in the CPJ. The sundry accounts column is used for
this purpose: the amount of the cheque is entered in the bank column as well as the
sundry accounts column. Any settlement discount received should be reversed by
means of a general journal entry: debit settlement discount received and credit the
creditor in the trade payables account (and trade payables control account) with the
amount of the settlement discount originally deducted.
Remember that the cheque written back must be excluded from the next bank
reconciliation.
l Cheques damaged or lost
It often happens that a cheque received or issued gets lost in the post or becomes so
damaged that the bank will not accept it as a legal document. Such cheques must be
replaced.
• If the entity issued the cheque: inform the bank, by stopping the payment thereof
and issue a new cheque to the person, business or creditor to whom the original
cheque was issued. Since the old cheque was not paid by the bank, no entries
regarding the amount of the new cheque are made. An entry referring to the number
and client will suffice, for example, “Cheque No 123 P Viljoen (Replaces cheque
No 100)”. No amount(s) should be entered in the CPJ. If cheque No 100 was
entered in the bank reconciliation of the previous month, a note about the
replacement will help when the bank reconciliation of the current month is prepared.
188 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
• If the entity received a cheque, but it is damaged: inform the drawer about the
situation, requesting a replacement of the cheque. In his books, he will do the same
as described above. A receipt must be issued only when the replacement cheque is
received. A note about the situation can be made on the account of the drawer to
prevent steps being taken against the drawer (the debtor of the entity).
Example 8.3
The bank reconciliation for June 20.0 and the CPJ, CRJ, bank account and bank
statement of Smitties Traders for July 20.0 reflect the following:
Smitties Traders
Bank reconciliation statement as at 30 June 20.0
Fol Debit Credit
R R
Debit (favourable) balance as per Bank Account (B15) 12 800
Credit outstanding deposit (deposited 01 Jul 20.0) 9 2 000
Debit unpaid cheques: No 5 {now 13} dd 1 Jul 20.0 R350 9
No 11 dd 23 Jun 20.0 R200 550
Credit (favourable) balance as per Bank Statement 11 350
13 350 13 350
Cheque No 5 is replaced by Cheque No 13
Smitties Traders
Cash receipts journal for July 20.0 CRJ7
Doc No Date Details Analysis Bank
R R
– 7 Cash sales 1 900
– 9 Cash sales 2 200
– 14 Cash sales 2 600 6 700 9
– 18 Cash sales 900
– 24 Cash sales 2 400 3 300 9
– 30 Cash sales 1 800 1 800
31 R Charles: Rent 850 850
Sand Bank: Interest Earned 80 80
12 730
B15
Amounts in italics are amounts entered as a result of the amounts reflected on the
bank statement, but not yet in the CRJ. This updates the CRJ.
Note: A cheque for R350 was received from R Rex for cash sales, but it is dated for
1 August 20.0. This amount is excluded from the cash sales of 30 July.
Chapter 8: Cash and cash equivalents 189
Smitties Traders
Cash payments journal for July 20.0 CPJ7
Doc No Date Details Bank
R
13 1 ABC Stores (Replace Cheque No 5) –
14 7 Municipality 900 9
15 8 John’s Wholesalers 2 500 9
16 15 ABC Stores 1 200 9
– S Swan (R/D cheque)* 200 9
17 Cash: (Wages) 450 9
18 25 Telkom 180
19 30 Cash: (Wages) 450 9
31 P Saxo (R/D cheque)* 300
XYX Insurance Company 500
Sand Bank: Bank charges 43
6 723
B 15
Note: Cheque No 20 is dated 15 August 20.0 and should only be recorded in the CPJ for
August 20.0.
* Since S Swan now owes the business R200 and P Saxo owes R300 (plus any settlement discount
granted on the cash sales to them), accounts in the trade receivables ledger should be opened for
them. These accounts must be debited with the R200 and R300 respectively (plus settlement discount
granted – if any – and interest may be charged). For the discount and/or interest, a general journal entry
will be necessary: debit S Swan and P Saxo (and the trade receivables control account), and credit
settlement discount granted and/or interest income (charged).
General Ledger
Dr Bank B15 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.0 20.0
May 31 Total receipts CRJ5 14 900 May 31 Total payments CPJ5 5 950
Balance c/d 8 950
14 900 14 900
Jun 1 Balance b/d 8 950 Jun 30 Total payments CPJ6 6 050
30 Total receipts CRJ6 9 900 Balance c/d 12 800
18 850 18 850
Jul 1 Balance b/d 12 800 Jul 31 Total payments CPJ7 6 723
31 Total receipts CRJ7 12 730 Balance c/d 18 807
25 530 25 530
Aug 1 Balance b/d 18 807
190 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
The bank statement for July 20.0, received from the Sand Bank, reflects the following
(again the brackets { }, [ ] and [ ] are for explanatory purposes only):
Smitties Traders
P O Box 12345
PRETORIA
0001
Smitties Traders
Bank reconciliation as at 31 July 20.0
Fol Debit Credit
R R
Debit (favourable) balance as per Bank Account (B15)* 18 807
Credit outstanding deposit (deposited 01 Aug 20.0) 1 800
Debit unpaid cheques: No 11 dd 23 Jun 20.0 R200
No 18 dd 25 Jul 20.0 R180 380
Credit (favourable) balance as per Bank Statement 17 387
19 187 19 187
* The opening balance of the bank account must be the same as the closing balance at the
end of the previous month.
Example 8.4
Assume that an amount of R500 is withdrawn from an ATM. This cash must be used as
a petty cash float. The petty cash float is reinstated on 20 July 20.0 according to the
imprest system.
Smitties Traders
Cash payments journal for July 20.0 CPJ9
Date Details Fol Bank Petty cash Other analysis columns
R R
1 Cash GL10 500 500
20 Cash GL10 470 470
If a column is not allocated for petty cash, the amounts can be allocated to the sundry
accounts column of the CPJ. The amounts paid are posted to the debit side of the
petty cash control account in the general ledger. Both the receipt of the float and the
restoring amount are recorded in the special subsidiary journal, i.e. the petty cash
journal. Columns are allocated in the petty cash journal for repetitive transactions. A
sundries column (with a column for particulars) is used for those transactions that do
not occur very often.
The cash on hand (which should be R30, i.e. the R500 received less the R470 paid)
and the payments (R470) were checked on 20 July. On the same date, an ATM
withdrawal was done to restore the float, bringing the cash on hand again back to
R500.
RECEIPTS
ECEIPTS
Date
Date Amount Date Details
tai Fol Tot
Total stage Wages Sundries Details
R R R
1 CPJ9 500 1 Wages 1 100 100
20 CPJ9 470 10 Stamps 2 80 80
Wages 3 100 100
15 Stamps 4 40 40
18 Wages 5 70 70
19 Advertisement 6 N9 80 80
B7 470
70 120 80
31 Cash on hand 500 500
970 970
70
1 Cash on 500 N 30 N 34
hand
Chapter 8: Cash and cash equivalents 193
194 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
All items in the sundries column are posted individually to the debit side of the relevant
accounts, for instance “Advertisements” (R80). The totals of all the other payment
analysis columns are posted to the debit side of the account concerned, for instance
“Postage” (R120) and “Wages” (R270). The total of all payments (R470) is posted to
the credit side of the petty cash control account (B7).
General Ledger
Dr Petty cash control B7 Cr
20.0 R 20.0 R
Jul 1 Bank CPJ9 500 Jul 31 Petty cash
payments PCJ7 470
20 Bank CPJ9 470 Balance c/d 500
970 970
Aug 1 Balance b/d 500
Dr Advertising N9 Cr
20.0 R
Jul 20 Petty cash PCJ7 80
Dr Postage N30 Cr
20.0 R
Jul 31 Petty cash PCJ7 120
Dr Wages N34 Cr
20.0 R
Jul 31 Petty cash PCJ7 270
Note that the error made by the bank is not corrected in the books of the entity, but is
shown in the reconciliation statement. The bank must be informed of the error and the
bank must correct it in its records.
8.9 Summary
Cash is one of the most important assets of an entity. If no cash is available, goods
and services rendered to the entity cannot be paid for. Cash is also very easily stolen.
It is therefore important for all entities to properly record and control cash. Cash should
be banked regularly in order to ensure that it is safeguarded. Payments should, as far
as practical, be made by means of cheques or electronically.
The bank will regularly submit bank statements to the entity, reflecting all transactions
of the bank with the entity. These bank statements must be reconciled at least once a
month with the bank account (as reflected in the books of the entity). In the case of
small, irregular payments, a petty cash imprest can be installed for this purpose.
This chapter has dealt with the treatment of cash receipts and payments through a
bank account only; reconciliation of a bank statement with the bank account only; petty
cash journals; and with the measurement and disclosure of cash in the financial
statements.
CHAPTER 9
Credit granted: Trade and other receivables
Contents
Page
Overview of credit granted: Trade and other receivables ...................................... 199
9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 199
9.2 Credit transactions and credit terms ............................................................ 200
9.2.1 Credit transactions .......................................................................... 200
9.2.2 Credit terms ..................................................................................... 200
9.3 Settlement discount granted ......................................................................... 200
9.3.1 Discount terms................................................................................. 200
9.3.2 Settlement discount granted and value-added tax ......................... 201
9.3.3 Allowance for settlement discount to be granted in future .............. 205
9.4 Measurement of trade and other receivables: Credit losses and
allowance for credit losses ........................................................................... 207
9.4.1 The necessity for measurement ...................................................... 207
9.4.2 Allowance for credit losses.............................................................. 208
9.4.3 Estimating allowance for credit losses ............................................ 209
9.5 Recording the allowance for credit losses ................................................... 209
9.5.1 Creation of the allowance ................................................................ 209
9.5.2 Increasing the allowance................................................................. 211
9.5.3 Decreasing the allowance ............................................................... 213
9.6 Writing off of actual credit losses .................................................................. 215
9.7 Recovery of credit losses already written off ................................................ 219
9.8 Value-added tax (VAT) and credit losses ..................................................... 220
9.8.1 VAT and credit losses written off ..................................................... 220
9.8.2 VAT and recovering credit losses already written off ...................... 221
9.9 Disclosure of trade and other receivables in the financial statements ......... 222
9.9.1 Disclosure in the financial statements ............................................. 222
9.9.2 Trade and other receivables with credit balances .......................... 222
9.10 Internal control measures regarding trade and other receivables ............... 223
9.11 Credit card sales and charges ..................................................................... 223
9.12 Trade and other receivables control account ............................................... 224
9.13 Revision examples ........................................................................................ 229
9.14 Summary ....................................................................................................... 230
197
Chapter 9: Credit granted: Trade and other receivables 199
• Credit transactions
• Settlement discount
• Credit losses
‘Trade and other receivables’
• VAT and credit losses
related transactions
Recording
= Internal control
Reporting
Disclosure:
• Trade and other receivables:
ƕ Debtors
ƕ Allowance for credit losses
ƕ Allowance for settlement discount
9.1 Introduction
Study objectives
The purpose of this chapter is to explain certain aspects of trade receivables
(debtors).
After studying this chapter you should be able to record transactions related to
trade receivables (debtors).
As was mentioned in chapter 8, entities must comply with, amongst other things, the
requirements regarding faithful representation, prudence and fair presentation. This
means that accountants must ensure that the balances of trade and other receivables
as disclosed on the statement of financial position are correct. Furthermore, trade and
other receivables must also comply with the requirements regarding assets.
200 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
the notation 1/20 n/30 means that although the credit term is 30 days, the buyer may
deduct 1% of the invoice amount if payment is made within 20 days of the date of the
invoice.
Take note of the difference between a settlement discount, which is dealt with here,
and a trade discount. The latter is a discount granted by a wholesaler or manufacturer
to retailers as a decrease on their list prices. For example, if the list price is R1 200
and a trade discount of R200 is negotiated, the net invoice price will be R1 000. The
settlement discount is taken on the latter amount. On the whole, a trade discount is not
recorded at all.
Example 9.1
A client purchases goods valued at R1 000 on credit. His credit term is 30 days. He is
entitled to subtract 1% discount if he pays the invoice within 20 days.
Date of invoice
Days Î 0 5 10 15 20
Discount term End of discount term
Days Î 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Credit term End of credit term
Thus, provided the client settles the account within the first 20 days, he may subtract
R10 (= 1% × R1 000) as discount and pay only R990.
The settlement discount allowed in the case of credit sales is known as the sales
discount or settlement discount granted. A settlement discount received on credit
purchases is the settlement discount received. The settlement discount is deducted
directly from sales or purchases on the statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income (in the trading section).
Never lose sight of the principal objective of accounting, namely the provision of
meaningful information to decision-makers. The sole objective for allowing settlement
discount is to recover debts as early as possible and, accordingly, to have cash
available as soon as possible.
Sun Products will receive only R1 150 – (1 150 × 5%) = R1 092.50 from Swart in full
settlement of the invoice.
The amount of the discount, i.e. R57.50, must still be split between settlement discount
granted and the VAT on the discount:
Settlement discount granted will be R57.50 × 100 ÷ 115 = R50 and the VAT will be
R7.50 (= R50 × 15%). This is usually reflected in two additional columns in the cash
receipts journal (CRJ), namely a VAT input column and the Settlement discount
granted column. At the same time, the amount shown in the trade receivables
column in the CRJ is changed to reflect the full amount to be credited to the debtor
(J Swart).
The sale and discount transactions as well as the relevant VAT will be recorded as
follows in the books of Sun Products:
General ledger
Dr Bank B10 Cr
R
20.1
May 31 Trade
receivables
control CRJ 5 1 092.50
* This amount will be included in the total amount received for the month.
Dr Sales N15 Cr
R
20.1
May 31 Trade
receivables SJ5 1 000
Example 9.3
On 20 May 20.1, goods to the value of R2 300 were sold on credit to J Flint (invoice
No 21). This transaction includes VAT at 15%. (The entry for the transaction in May is
recorded in the sales journal and the personal account of Flint and in the trade
receivables control account.)
Sales journal: May 20.1 SJ 5
Day Doc no Debtor Fol Sales VAT Trade
output receivables
R R R
20 21 J Flint DL1 2 000 300 2 300
Flint settles his account (receipt No 101) on 10 June. He receives a discount of 5%. A
cash receipts journal for June 20.1 is used.
The settlement discount is calculated as follows:
5% × R2 300 = R115
The VAT component included in this discount:
As the initial sales transaction included VAT, it is therefore included in the amount
owed by Flint:
R115 × 15 ÷ 115 = R15
Flint’s settlement and discount transactions can be recorded as follows in a general
journal format:
R R
20.1
Jun 20 Bank R(2 300 – 115) 2 185
Settlement discount granted R(115 – 15) 100
VAT input 15
J Flint (and Trade receivables control) 2 300
204 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
The same entry will be recorded as follows in a CRJ. Additional columns are used to
record the discount granted and the VAT input component of the discount. (Other
cash sales transactions are also included in the CRJ to make it more realistic.)
Cash receipts journal: June 20.1 CRJ 6
Settle-
Trade
Doc Cash VAT VAT ment
Day Details Fol Bank receiv-
no sales output input discount
ables
granted
R R R R R R
7 Cash sales 230 200 30
10 101 J Flint DL1 2 185 2 300 (15) (100)
14 Cash sales 805 700 105
20 Cash sales 345 300 45
25 Cash sales 1 035 900 135
4 600 2 100 315 2 300 (15) (100)
B 10 N1 B 14 B 12 B 13 N 10
Note:
1. Transactions are posted daily to the accounts of individual debtors in the trade
receivable ledger.
2. Totals of columns are posted monthly to the accounts in the general ledger.
3. The amounts in brackets in the totals are deducted when cross-casting the journal
(that is when the totals of the columns are added to result in the total of the Bank
column).
4. When payments are made by debtors at a later stage, the VAT will have been
recorded on the date of the sales. The receipt of the payment by the debtor there-
fore already includes the applicable VAT; therefore VAT should not be calculated
on the amount received again. The discount granted and accompanying VAT
portion on the discount will be recorded in the following month. This will thus be
included in the balance of the trade receivables brought down at the end of the
month of the sales.
Trade receivables ledger
J Flint DL1
Date Doc no Particulars Fol Debit Credit Balance
R R R
20.1
May 20 21 Sales SJ5 2 300 2 300
Jun 10 101 Receipt and discount CRJ6 2 300 0
General ledger
Dr Bank B10 Cr
R
20.1
Jun 30 Total receipts CRJ6 4 600
continued
Chapter 9: Credit granted: Trade and other receivables 205
Dr Sales N1 Cr
R
20.1
May 31 Trade
receivables SJ5 2 000
Jun 30 Bank CRJ6 2 100
The number and types of columns used in the CRJ are determined by the nature and
requirements of the entity and may differ from one entity to another.
The above transaction will be accounted for as follows (using the general journal for
explanation purposes):
Debit Credit
R R
20.1
15 Feb Trade receivables 1 600
Sales 1 600
Accounting for credit sale on
15 February 20.1
20.1
28 Feb Settlement discount granted (R1 600 × 0,1) 160
Allowance for settlement discount granted 160
Allowance for settlement discount expected
to granted in next financial year
The allowance for settlement discount to be granted in the next financial year should
be determined at year-end for all trade receivables (debtors).
Closing journal entries:
Debit Credit
R R
20.1
28 Feb Sales 160
Settlement discount granted 160
Closing transfer of settlement discount granted
20.1
28 Feb Sales (R1 600 – R160) 1 440
Trading account 1 440
Closing transfer of sales
BB Dealers
Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income for the year ended
28 February 20.1 (extract)
R
Revenue (R1 600 – R160) 1 440
BB Dealers
Statement of financial position at 28 February 20.1 (extract)
R
Current Assets
Trade and other receivables (R1 600 – R160)* 1 440
* Trade and other receivables balance (R1 600) – Allowance for settlement discount granted
(R160)
Chapter 9: Credit granted: Trade and other receivables 207
If the client decides to settle his outstanding account on 10 March 20.1, the entry will
be as follows (using the general journal for explanation purposes):
Debit Credit
R R
20.1
10 March Bank 1 440
Allowance for settlement discount granted 160
Trade receivables 1 600
Settlement of account
If the client decides to settle his outstanding account on 1 April 20.1, he will forfeit the
10% discount he was entitled to. The entries will be as follows (using the general
journal for explanation purposes):
Debit Credit
R R
20.1
15 March Allowance for settlement discount granted 160
Settlement discount granted forfeited 160
Write back expected settlement discount that
did not realise
20.1
1 April Bank 1 600
Trade receivables 1 600
Settlement of account
related sales or other revenue. Irrecoverable debts or credit losses are thus treated as
a separate item on the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income for
two reasons:
l They are not subtracted from sales because they specifically concern the credit
control department and have nothing to do with the performance of the sales
department.
l The credit control department must approve credit transactions after evaluating the
creditworthiness of the clients and take responsibility for the collection of debts
once the sales transactions have been completed. The effectiveness of the credit
control department (and not that of the sales department) largely determines the
degree to which credit losses are limited.
Furthermore, credit losses are treated as a separate item in order to provide meaningful
information to the different decision-makers. Although entities are well aware of the
danger of credit losses, they will be prepared to sell products on credit if the credit
losses can be kept within reasonable limits. Credit sales increase total sales and
therefore also profit, while credit losses reduce the profit. The increase in profits as a
result of credit sales usually outweighs the reduction in profit as a result of credit losses.
ABS STORES
DEBTORS AGE ANALYSIS SCHEDULE AS AT 31 DECEMBER 20.5
Period in arrears (months)
Total Current
Customer More
due balance 1 2 3
than 3
R R R R R R
J Flint 1 000 500 300 150 50 –
S Stone 1 800 200 100 400 500 600
R Naidoo 1 500 300 1 200 – – –
J Smith 700 – – – – 700
Others 95 000 14 000 29 400 12 450 22 450 16 700
Total 100 000 15 000 31 000 13 000 23 000 18 000
% of total 100 15 31 13 23 18
Competent staff will consider each debtor individually and decide on the basis of past
experience whether a particular debt is doubtful. Those balances that have been
overdue the longest will obviously be given the most attention. Based on this
evaluation, a list of doubtful debts will be compiled and its total will serve as the
allowance for credit losses for the year.
When closing the books at the end of the period, the debit balance on the credit
losses account is transferred (closed off) to the profit or loss account as a loss. This
balance will thus include the actual credit losses written off during the financial year as
well as the allowance for credit losses. The credit balance on the allowance for credit
losses account is a contra item to an asset account and is shown on the statement of
financial position as a reduction of the value of the asset, ‘trade and other receivables’.
An asset contra account is used instead of a direct credit to the trade receivables
210 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
account, because at the time of creating the allowance, the entity does not yet know
which customers will not pay. Furthermore, the balance of the trade receivables
control account must equal the total of all the balances of the individual debtor
accounts.
Example 9.5
On 31 May 20.1, the end of its first financial year, the trade receivables of Flint Traders
amounted to R60 800. The balance of the account of P Stone (R800, ignore VAT) must
still be written off. The business decides to create an allowance for credit losses to the
amount of R1 800.
The following presentation shows how the entry for the writing off of the credit loss and
the creation of the allowance is recorded in the general journal and eventually on the
statement of financial position of Flint Traders:
General journal J5
R R
20.1
May 31 Credit losses N25 800
P Stone (and trade receivables control) B10 800
Account written off as irrecoverable
Credit losses N25 1 800
Allowance for credit losses B12 1 800
Allowance for possible credit losses
created
General ledger
Dr Trade receivables control B10 Cr
R R
20.1 20.1
May 31 Balance b/d 60 800 May 31 Credit losses J5 800
Balance c/d 60 000
60 800 60 800
Jun 1 Balance b/d 60 000
In the closing process, the balance on the credit losses account (R800 + R1 800 =
R2 600) is transferred to the profit or loss account by means of a closing journal entry:
General journal: Closing entries J6
R R
20.1
May 31 Profit or loss account N30 2 600
Credit losses N25 2 600
Closing off of credit losses account
Current assets
Inventories XX
Trade and other receivables R(60 000 – 1 800) 58 200
Prepaid expenses X
Cash and cash equivalents XXX
l The existing allowance is written back in full and a new allowance is created. This
method is shown in example 9.6(2).
Example 9.6
On 31 May 20.2, i.e. a year later, the outstanding trade receivables of Flint Traders
increases to R70 000. The allowance for credit losses must be increased to R2 100.
The new allowance will now be R2 100 (= R1 800 + R300), which means that the
existing allowance is increased by R300. In this case, the entry will be recorded as
follows (assuming that no debts had to be written off as irrecoverable during the
financial year):
Example 9.6(1)
General journal: Adjustment of existing allowance J8
20.2 R R
May 31 Credit losses N25 300
Allowance for credit losses B12 300
Adjustment of allowance for credit losses
General ledger
Dr Trade receivables control B10 Cr
R
20.2
May 31 Balance b/d 70 000
The balance of R300 on the credit losses account is transferred to the profit or loss
account, while, on the statement of financial position, the trade and other receivables
Chapter 9: Credit granted: Trade and other receivables 213
will be shown at R67 900 (R70 000 less the new allowance for credit losses, i.e.
R2 100).
Example 9.6(2)
General journal:
Writing back the existing allowance and creating a new allowance J8
R R
20.2
May 31 Allowance for credit losses B12 1 800
Credit losses N25 1 800
Writing back of allowance at 31 May 20.1
Credit losses N25 2 100
Allowance for credit losses B12 2 100
New allowance for credit losses
Regardless of which of the two methods illustrated in examples 9.6(1) and 9.6(2) is
used, the same amount of doubtful debt will be transferred to the profit or loss account
in 20.2, namely R300 (method 1) and R300 (method 2, where R2 100 – R1 800 =
R300). The balance of the allowance for credit losses at the end of the year is also the
same for the two methods.
General ledger
Dr Trade receivables control B10 Cr
R
20.3
May 31 Balance b/d 65 000
continued
214 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
The credit balance on the credit losses account is transferred to the credit side of the
profit or loss account, while the trade and other receivables will be disclosed on the
statement of financial position as follows:
Presentation on the statement of financial position
Current assets
Inventories XX
Trade and other receivables R(65 000 – 1 950) 63 050
Cash and cash equivalents XXX
If the method by which the existing allowance is written back and the new allowance is
created is followed, the result will be the same. It will only result in an extra general
journal entry and the postings to the general ledger. The credit balance of R150
(= R2 100 – R1 950) on the credit losses account is transferred to the profit or loss
account (general journal, dr credit losses, cr profit or loss) and the amount at which
the trade and other receivables is shown on the statement of financial position is
exactly the same as in the case of the first method.
Chapter 9: Credit granted: Trade and other receivables 215
Example 9.8(1)
Credit losses must be charged against the allowance:
General journal J 10
R R
20.4
May 31 Allowance for credit losses B12 500
Trade receivables control B10 500
Writing off of the following debtors as
irrecoverable:
R
J Smit DL 3 300
P Swart DL 5 70
S Rowland DL 9 130
500
General ledger
Dr Trade receivables control B10 Cr
R R
20.3 20.4
Jun 1 Balance b/d 65 000 May 31 Bank CRJ5 907 500
20.4 Allowance for
May 31 Sales SJ5 900 000 credit losses J10 500
Balance c/d 57 000
965 000 965 000
20.4
Jun 1 Balance b/d 57 000
The total credit of R500, which is posted to the trade receivables control account, is
also posted from the above journal entry to the individual accounts of the relevant
debtors in the trade receivables ledger.
The next step is to adjust the allowance for credit losses to the “new” balance (R1 710)
of outstanding debtors. This means that the following calculation must be made:
R R
Allowance must be adjusted to: 1 710
Present balance of allowance: 1 950
Less: Credit losses written off 500 1 450
Amount to be adjusted (increase) 260
Chapter 9: Credit granted: Trade and other receivables 217
General journal J 11
R R
20.4
May 31 Credit losses N25 260
Allowance for credit losses B12 260
Adjusting of allowance for credit losses to
R1 710
General ledger
Dr Allowance for credit losses B12 Cr
R R
20.4 20.3
May 31 Trade J10 500 Jun 1 Balance b/d 1 950
receivables
Balance c/d 1 710 20.4
May 31 Credit losses J11 260
2 210 2 210
20.4
Jun 1 Balance b/d 1 710
Credit losses are written off against the allowance provided. From the particulars
above, it can be seen that debts that have proved to be irrecoverable originated
during a previous financial year. Since it would be inappropriate to write them off
against the income of the current year, the entry is made against the allowance which
is based on the outstanding debts of the previous year.
Example 9.8(2)
Writing off of the doubtful debts directly against the credit losses account. The same
particulars as those of example 9.8(1) are used.
218 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
General journal J 10
R R
20.4
May 31 Credit losses N25 500
Trade receivables control B10 500
Writing off of the following debtors as
irrecoverable:
R
J Smit DL 3 300
P Swart DL 5 70
S Rowland DL 9 130
500
General ledger
Dr Trade receivables control B10 Cr
R R
20.3 20.4
Jun 1 Balance b/d 65 000 May 31 Bank CRJ5 907 500
May 31 Sales SJ5 900 000 Credit losses J10 500
Balance c/d 57 000
965 000 965 000
20.4
Jun 1 Balance b/d 57 000
As was the case in examples 9.6(1) and (2), examples 9.8(1) and (2) show that it does
not matter which method is used: in either case the final debit to the profit or loss
account for credit losses is the same (R260), as is the amount at which the debt is
shown on the statement of financial position (i.e. R57 000 – R1 710 = R55 290).
In some entities, the direct writing off method is used exclusively: no allowance
account is created and the possible irrecoverable debts are not estimated. If this
method is used, the credit losses account will show only the actual losses resulting
from the irrecoverable amounts. The expense (doubtful debts) may furthermore be
recorded in a different accounting period from the one in which the debt originated.
This approach is not preferable, unless the losses arising from doubtful debts are not
material.
R R
20.4
Jun 30 Bank B5 300
Credit losses recovered N30 300
Credit losses, written off 31 May 20.4,
recovered from J Smit
Note that the credit losses recovered is credited to a distinct account and not to the
credit losses account, nor to the account of the former debtor.
It sometimes happens that the insolvent estate of a debtor pays only part of the
outstanding debt. This payment may be indicated as a percentage of the outstanding
amount or as a number of cents in the rand outstanding. If, for example, it is stated
that the insolvent estate of S Rowland (which owed R130 in the previous example)
pays 20% of the amount written off, it means that the estate pays 20 cents in each
rand he owed. The amount the entity will receive will then be R26 (= R130 × 20%).
Only the amount received is then recorded. Such cases may also occur even before
the outstanding balance of a debtor has been written off. In this case, the amount
received will be recorded in the CRJ and the new balance still outstanding will be
written off as a credit loss.
220 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Note that no entry is made in the VAT columns at this stage, since the VAT was
recorded during April when the sales transaction was recorded in the Sales Journal for
April.
To record the amount to be written off and other transactions:
General journal J9
R R
20.3
Apr/ Trade receivables control 345 000
May Sales 300 000
VAT output 45 000
Sales to debtors during April/May 20.3
(usually recorded in the sales journal)
20.3
May 31 VAT output 45 000
VAT control 45 000
Transfer of balance
20.3
Jun 25 VAT control 45 000
Bank 45 000
Payment made (usually recorded in
the CPJ)
20.3
Jul 15 Credit losses N25 35 000
VAT input B14 5 250
J Flint (and Trade receivables DL3/
control) B10 40 250
Credit losses, written off
From the last entry, it is obvious that there is now a debit amount of R5 250 on the VAT
input account. This account is set off against the VAT output amount in the VAT control
account. The amount of R5 250 will thus be “deducted” from the next amount to be
paid to SARS, because it has already been paid over to SARS (as part of the R45 000).
Example 9.11
Assume that an entity has 260 debtors’ accounts, as follows:
R
255 accounts with debit balances, in total amounting to 220 000
5 accounts with credit balances, in total amounting to 20 000
Net trade receivables balance (Trade receivables control account) 200 000
The entity should not show its trade receivables at R200 000, but at R220 000,
because the debtors with credit balances in fact represent a liability and should be
disclosed under current liabilities, as amounts received in advance (R20 000) on the
statement of financial position.
within 30 days), will be honoured by the buyer. In recent years, the tremendous
increase in the use of credit cards issued by financial institutions to their customers
has helped to simplify these transactions.
As a result, at least part of the sales in retail entities nowadays take place via credit
cards such as MasterCard or Visa cards, which are issued by banks. The banks bear
the costs of processing the information and collecting outstanding amounts and also
absorb any losses arising from credit losses.
For these services, banks charge entities a fee based on a percentage of the credit
card sales. The entity deposits the credit card debit notes with its bank which then
credits the entity’s bank account with the total amount of the debit notes deposited
less the credit card charge. Nowadays these transactions are electronically processed
immediately after the credit card has been swiped through a dedicated credit card
terminal. The entity will record the transactions as follows:
R R
XY Bank 300 000
Credit sales 300 000
Credit card debit notes deposited
Credit card charge 3 000
XY Bank 3 000
Fee charged on credit card sales
Credit card sales are also made to customers who present credit cards that are not
issued by a bank, such as American Express and Diners Club cards. In such cases,
the business will send the debit notes to the credit card company concerned and will
in turn receive an EFT (Electronic Funds Transfer) from that company for the net
amount (that is, the sales less any credit card charges). Here the credit card
companies are treated as ordinary debtors in the books of the entity:
R R
Credit card company 20 000
Credit sales 20 000
Sales per credit cards
Credit card charge 200
Credit card company 200
Fees charged on amounts claimed
The amount received from the credit card company (R19 800) will, of course, be
recorded in the CRJ and posted to the credit side of the account of the credit card
company.
subsidiary trade receivables ledgers with a trade receivables control account in the
general ledger.
Transactions are recorded in the books of first entry, that is, in the various journals
(CRJ, CPJ, SJ, PJ, SRJ, PRJ, Petty cash journal, and others). Transactions relating to
the individual debtors and creditors (in other words, personal accounts) are posted on
a daily basis to these accounts. At the end of the month, the totals of such transactions
are posted to the control account(s) when all the subsidiary journals have been
finalised.
The procedure can be summarised as follows:
Individual entries to be posted daily to the individual debtors accounts:
l Sales journal: Post to the debit side of the individual debtors accounts.
l Sales returns journal: Post to the credit side of the individual debtors accounts.
l Cash receipts journal: Post to the credit side of the individual debtors accounts.
l Cash payments journal: Post to the debit side of the individual debtors accounts
(this type of transaction seldom occurs and is used mainly to refund credit
balances to debtors).
l General journal: Post to the debit or credit side of the individual debtors accounts,
whatever is required in that journal.
Totals of columns in journals to be posted at the end of the month (or other period) to
the trade receivables control account:
l Sales journal: Total of trade receivables control column to the debit side of the
trade receivables control account (remember: individual accounts were also
debited).
l Sales returns journal: Total of trade receivables control column to the credit side of
the control account (remember: individual accounts were also credited).
l Cash receipts journal: Total of trade receivables control column to the credit side
of the control account (individual accounts were also credited).
l Cash payments journal: Total of trade receivables control column to the debit side
of the trade receivables control account. If no trade receivables control column
exists, post the individual transactions related to debtors in the sundry accounts
column.
l General journal: Post to the debit or credit side of the trade receivables control
account, whichever is related to trade receivables.
Some entities provide analysis columns in their general journals for trade receivables
and trade payables control accounts. Only those entries that affect trade receivables
must be posted to the individual debtors (daily) and the totals of the columns to the
trade receivables control account (monthly).
After all the accounts in all the ledgers have been balanced, the balance of the trade
receivables control account should correspond with the total of all the debit balances
of the individual debtors, less the total of all the credit balances of debtor accounts.
226 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Where this is not the case, an error was made during the process. Such errors may
include:
l mistakes in postings to the individual accounts in the subsidiary ledger or the
control account (such as a posting to the debit side of an account instead of to the
credit side or a transposing error where R359 was posted as R395 or R953);
l mistakes in the balancing off of accounts or in which a balance is brought down
incorrectly or to the wrong side of the account;
l errors in the totalling of one or more journals;
l mistakes in the calculation of the total amount outstanding of the individual debtor
accounts (list of debtor balances) or the omission of a balance;
l errors in the allocation of transactions in the journals, for example, an amount that
should be in the trade receivables column of the CRJ was posted to the individual
account, but was entered in the sales column of the CRJ; and
l omission of a posting, such as where an entry in a journal was not posted to the
ledger account(s).
Example 9.12 illustrates the way in which a trade receivables control account should
be prepared (VAT is 15%):
Example 9.12
On 1 April 20.1, the trade receivables ledger of Johns Trading revealed the following
balances:
Folio no R
DL 1 A Louw 900
DL 2 B Moloi 1 360
DL 3 C Singh 440
Total 2 700
Required
(a) Prepare the trade receivables control account for April 20.1 in the general ledger
of Johns Trading.
(b) Prepare the individual debtors’ accounts for April 20.1 in the trade receivables
ledger of Johns Trading.
(c) Prepare a list of balances of debtor accounts and ensure that it reconciles with the
balance of the trade receivables control account.
228 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Solution
(a) General ledger
Dr Trade receivables control B5 Cr
R R
20.1 20.1
Apr 1 Balance b/d 2 700 Apr 30 Sales returns SJ4 115,00
30 Sales SJ4 2 070 Bank and
Sundry journal discount CRJ4 2 817,50
debits J1 805 Sundry journal
credits J1 287,50
Balance c/d 2 355,00
5 575,00 5 575,00
May 1 Balance b/d 2 355,00
B Moloi DL 2
Date Details Fol Debit Credit Balance
R R R
20.1
Apr 1 Balance 1 360,00
2 Sales SJ4 920,00 2 880,00
3 Bank and discount CRJ4 800,00 1 480,00
8 Sales returns CRJ4 57,50 1 422,50
C Singh DL 3
Date Details Fol Debit Credit Balance
R R R
20.1
Apr 1 Balance 440,00
2 Sales SJ4 690,00 1 130,00
8 Sales returns SRJ4 57,50 1 072,50
14 Bank and discount CRJ4 657,50 415,00
15 Furniture J1 805,00 1 220,00
18 Furniture returns J1 287,50 932,50
Chapter 9: Credit granted: Trade and other receivables 229
Revision example 2
The financial records of Manatu Traders disclosed, among other things, the following
information in respect of April 20.0:
R
Balance of the trade receivables control account at 1 April 20.0 15 400
Totals of journals for the month:
Columns in the cash receipts journal:
Cash sales 200 000
Trade receivables control 63 400
Settlement discount granted 1 600
Columns in the cash payments journal:
Trade payables control 34 000
Settlement discount received 900
Trade receivables control (credit balance repaid) 1 400
Sales journal: Trade receivables control 65 000
Sales returns journal (all on credit sales) 400
General journal: Interest charged to debtors 300
Required
Prepare a trade receivables control account, properly balanced for April 20.0.
Solution
General ledger
Dr Trade receivables control B .. Cr
R R
20.0 20.0
Apr 1 Balance b/d 15 400 Apr 30 Sales returns SJ .. 400
30 Sales SJ .. 65 000 Bank and
Repayment CPJ .. 1 400 discount CRJ .. 63 400
.. Balance c/d 18 300
Interest J .. 300
82 100 82 100
May 1 Balance b/d 18 300
9.14 Summary
Trade receivables (debtors) are in many cases an important current asset of an entity.
Before credit can be granted to prospective clients, the owner of an entity should
decide on matters such as credit terms, discount granted and the actual writing off of
credit losses and allowing for doubtful debts. It is sound policy to allow for doubtful
debts and to adjust this amount annually, especially where outstanding trade
receivables are substantial. The creation and adjustment of such an allowance is
explained in this chapter.
Chapter 9: Credit granted: Trade and other receivables 231
Contents
Page
Overview of the inventory ........................................................................................ 235
10.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 236
10.2 The nature of inventory ................................................................................. 236
10.3 Measurement of inventory ............................................................................ 237
10.3.1 Physical inventory count .................................................................. 237
10.3.2 Cost of inventory .............................................................................. 238
10.3.3 Cost formulae to value inventory ..................................................... 239
10.3.4 Net realisable value (NRV) .............................................................. 241
10.4 Disclosure ..................................................................................................... 241
10.5 The importance of the correct valuation of inventory ................................... 243
10.6 Estimating the value of inventory .................................................................. 245
10.7 Summary ....................................................................................................... 247
233
Chapter 10: Inventory 235
Internal control/
Recording
10.1 Introduction
Study objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
l measure inventory;
l estimate the value of inventory; and
l disclose inventory in financial statements.
Assets have the potential to contribute directly or indirectly to the flow of cash and
cash equivalents to an entity. For this reason, unsold inventories form part of the
assets of an entity, and because they are usually sold or consumed within one year
they are classified as current assets. Hence, the unsold inventory disclosed on the
statement of financial position has a direct impact on reporting the solvency of an
entity. When inventory is sold, it becomes an expense in the period sold. The carrying
amount of the inventory sold is used to calculate the cost of sales. The inventory figure
thus has a direct impact on the profitability reported in the entity’s statement of profit or
loss and other comprehensive income. (Solvency and profitability are discussed in
Volume 2 in the chapter on the analysis and interpretation of financial statements.)
From this it is clear that the valuation of inventory should not be underestimated, as it
influences both the financial performance and the financial position of an entity.
In this chapter, specific attention is given to the nature, measurement and disclosure
of inventory. In chapter 7 the perpetual and periodic systems for keeping record of
inventory were explained. To summarise, when the perpetual inventory system is used,
inventory purchased is recorded in the inventory account. All costs incurred in
bringing the inventory to its current location and condition are also recorded in the
inventory account. Each time a sale is made, the inventory account is updated by
crediting the inventory account with the cost price of the sale and debiting the cost of
sales account. When the periodic inventory system is used, the cost of sales is
calculated at the end of the financial period. This is done by adding purchases and all
costs incurred in bringing the inventory to its current location and condition (specified
in separate accounts) to the opening value of inventory. The closing value of inventory,
which is determined after a physical inventory count, is then subtracted to calculate
cost of sales.
purchase transaction has been recorded, the inventory must be added to the closing
inventory, irrespective of whether it is physically on the premises. Likewise, if the sale
transaction has been recorded, the inventory concerned must not be added,
irrespective of whether the inventory is physically on the premises.
The applicable costs indicated in diagram 10.1 are added together to determine the
total value of inventory purchased. The cost of inventory calculated in this manner is
added to the opening value of inventory. The closing value of inventory is then
deducted to calculate the cost of sales. As the cost of inventory sold is recognised at
the same time as the income derived from the sale of the inventory, the cost of sales
must be deducted from sales to calculate the gross profit for the year. If these costs
are not included in the cost of inventory, they are classified as ordinary expenses and
form part of the calculation of the total comprehensive income for the year. This would
mean that the costs would not be matched with the income they produced.
If the entity is registered as a VAT vendor, the cost price of purchases is the amount
excluding VAT, as VAT may be reclaimed as input tax. If the entity is not registered as
a VAT vendor, the cost price of purchases should include VAT.
Chapter 10: Inventory 239
Example 10.1
SRC Traders commenced business on 1 April 20.6.
The following data for April 20.6 are available for inventory item A:
INVENTORY DATA: ITEM A
April 20.6
(a) Date purchased Purchases Unit price Cost of sales
Units R R
1 April 20.6 200 1,00 200
8 April 20.6 600 1,10 660
15 April 20.6 400 1,20 480
22 April 20.6 600 1,30 780
29 April 20.6 200 1,40 280
2 000 2 400
(b) Sales: 1–30 April 20.6: 1 200 units
(c) On hand: 30 April 20.6: 800 units
The weighted average cost is R2 400 ί 2 000 = R1,20. The cost of sales according to
the weighted average method is R1 440 (1 200 × R1,20) and the closing inventory is
R960 (800 × R1,20).
Criticism brought against the method is that the value of inventory is not determined by
using the current cost and that therefore the value of the inventory on the statement of
financial position does not reflect the latest replacement cost. In the above example,
the value of inventory at 30 April 20.6 is R1,20 per unit, while the latest replacement
cost is already R1,40 per unit.
(b) The first-in, first-out (FIFO) method
This method assumes, for cost calculation purposes, that the older inventory is usually
sold first. Using the same data as in the previous example, the cost of goods on hand
and the cost of goods sold are calculated as follows:
Example 10.2
Cost of
Cost of
Date Purchases Unit price Sales On hand goods on
sales
hand
Units R Units Units R R
01/04 200 1,00 200 200,00
08/04 600 1,10 600 660,00
15/04 400 1,20 400 480,00
22/04 600 1,30 600 780,00
29/04 200 1,40 200 280,00
1 340,00 1 060,00
Like the weighted average cost, the FIFO method of valuation measures the inventory
on hand at lower than replacement cost. Profits calculated in both cases could be
seen as artificial, existing only on paper. In example 10.2, the value of the closing
inventory is R1 060, while R1 120 (800 × R1,40) is needed to replace 800 units of item A.
Chapter 10: Inventory 241
The difference of R60 (R1 120 – R1 060) is referred to as inventory or paper profits,
because the profit is not available for distribution to the owner(s). It will have to be
retained in the business to replace inventory.
The FIFO and weighted average formulae will have different results when the gross
profit is calculated as illustrated by the following example in which a selling price of
R4,00 per unit is assumed:
Weighted
FIFO
average
R R
Sales (1 200 × R4,00) 4 800 4 800
Cost of sales (1 440) (1 340)
Gross profit 3 360 3 460
Irrespective of the cost formula chosen, it is important to apply the chosen procedure
consistently. Inconsistency in the valuation of inventory would render the comparison
of the operating results and the financial position of the entity worthless. If financial
reporting can be improved with another valuation method, the entity may change to
this method, but it must be fully disclosed in a note to the financial statements, in
which the nature and effect of the change is set out. However, the cost formula chosen
should not be changed frequently, especially if the goal is to report higher income.
10.3.4 Net realisable value (NRV)
Unsold inventory is measured at the lower of cost and net realisable value. The cost of
inventory comprises all costs of purchase, costs of conversion and other costs
incurred in bringing the inventory to its present location and condition. If there is a
possibility that inventory will not be realised at its calculated cost – because, for
example, the selling price of the inventory has declined or inventory has been
damaged or become partially or totally obsolete – the inventory is reflected on the
statement of financial position at its net realisable value.
The net realisable value of inventory is the estimated selling price in the normal course
of business, less the estimated cost required to sell the inventory. For financial
statements to be reliable, prudence must be exercised. Thus, if uncertainty exists
about the nature and extent of an element that is reflected in the financial statements
or various values for the element are possible, the element is measured at the value
that will have the most unfavourable effect on the equity of the entity. When the value
of the inventory declines during a particular year, the decline must be reflected item by
item on the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income of that year.
It is beyond the scope of this chapter to calculate net realisable value.
10.4 Disclosure
After the cost of the unsold inventory has been determined in accordance with the
chosen cost formula, the NRV principle is applied. The amount at which inventory is
valued for financial statement purposes is then known. Thereafter, it is disclosed in the
financial statements. Diagram 10.2 illustrates the effect of inventory on the statement of
profit or loss and other comprehensive income and statement of financial position.
242 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Diagram 10.2 The effect of inventory on the statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income and statement of financial position
→ Cost of inventory
available for sale
→
Purchases and Inventory balance at
purchasing costs end of period
during the period → to statement of
financial position
The way that inventory is disclosed on the statement of financial position or in notes to
the financial statements depends on the type of entity concerned. Inventory can
include the following:
l merchandise;
l consumables in a service entity, including maintenance spares;
l raw materials;
l work-in-progress;
l finished goods; and
l contracts-in-progress.
The accounting policy applied to the valuation of the inventory should be disclosed,
with an indication of which cost formula was used and whether the valuation was done
at cost or at net realisable value.
Example 10.3 Disclosure of inventory in the financial statements
BEADS SUPPLIERS
Shown under the accounting policy:
Inventories
Inventories are initially measured at cost and subsequently valued at the lower of cost or
net realisable value. The following cost formulae were applied:
Raw materials: First-in, first-out
Work-in-progress: Standard cost
Finished goods: Standard cost
Merchandise: Weighted average
Consumables: First-in, first-out
Excess and slow-moving inventory were identified and written off to their estimated net
realisable values.
continued
Chapter 10: Inventory 243
Shown under the notes to the financial statements after financial assets:
5. Inventories
20.2 20.1
Inventories consist of R ’m R ’m
Raw materials 720 660
Work-in-progress 140 130
Finished goods 960 900
Merchandise 480 350
Consumables 180 120
2 480 2 160
If the closing inventory for 20.2 was determined incorrectly and should have been
R120 000 instead of R180 000, the result would be as follows:
Notes 20.3 20.2
R R
Revenue 600 000 480 000
Cost of sales (260 000) (240 000)
Inventory (beginning of the period) 120 000 140 000
Purchases 360 000 220 000
480 000 360 000
Inventory (end of the period) (220 000) (120 000)
Gross profit 340 000 240 000
Distribution, administrative and other expenses (180 000) (150 000)
Profit/total comprehensive income for the year 160 000 90 000
Total profit/total comprehensive income for the two years with incorrect inventory
= R150 000 + 100 000 = R250 000.
Total profit/total comprehensive income for the two years with correct inventory
= R90 000 + 160 000 = R250 000.
Although the closing inventory for 20.2 and the opening inventory for 20.3 are
incorrect, the total profit for the two years is not affected. This fact does not lessen the
importance of an error in the inventory figure.
For example, according to the incorrect inventory, the gross profit percentage on sales
for 20.2 is:
300 000 100
× = 62.5%
480 000 1
With the correct inventory figure, it is
240 000 100
× = 50%
480 000 1
An incorrect inventory figure would lead to an incorrect analysis and interpretation of
information on the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income in each
of the financial years and may cause incorrect management decisions to be made.
Chapter 10: Inventory 245
The average gross profit percentage on sales over the past three years was 25%.
The average gross profit percentage on cost of sales over the past three years was 33 1/3%.
R
The following information is available for 20.4:
Inventory (1 January 20.4) 75 000
Purchases 750 000
Sales 600 000
Using the average gross profit percentage on sales, the estimated closing inventory is
calculated as follows:
Tulbach Enterprises
Partial statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income for the year
ended 31 December 20.4
Notes R % of sales R
Revenue 600 000) 100 600 000
Cost of sales (?) 75 (450 000) d
Inventory (1 January 20.4) 75 000 75 000
Purchases 750 000 750 000
Cost of goods available for sale 825 000 825 000
Estimated inventory
(31 December 20.4) (?) (375 000) e
Only one of these techniques is used to calculate the estimated closing inventory.
The calculation of cost of sales using either of these techniques is based on the
assumption that the gross profit percentage is essentially the same over the various
years. For this reason, the gross profit percentage can be applied in entities in which
the relationship between the cost of sales and sales is reasonably stable. It should be
noted that the figure obtained in this manner is an estimate of the value of the inventory
and not the actual value of inventory.
10.7 Summary
Inventory is an asset and must therefore fulfil the definition and recognition criteria
applicable to assets. By exercising prudence in the preparation of financial
statements, inventories are valued at the lower of the cost or the net realisable value.
All costs incurred in bringing the inventory to its current location and conditions are
part of the cost of inventory. By means of these costs, the cost of inventory is
accumulated to calculate. When inventory is sold, it becomes an expense that forms
part of the calculation of cost of sales; applying the accrual basis of accounting, it is
associated with the related income from the sales in the trading account.
CHAPTER 11
Property, plant and equipment
Contents
Page
Overview of property, plant and equipment ........................................................... 251
11.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 252
11.2 Nature of an asset ......................................................................................... 252
11.3 The classification of non-current assets ....................................................... 253
11.3.1 Tangible non-current assets ............................................................ 253
11.3.2 Intangible non-current assets .......................................................... 253
11.4 The historic cost price of non-current assets ............................................... 253
11.4.1 Land................................................................................................. 253
11.4.2 Manufactured and self-erected assets............................................ 254
11.4.3 Natural resources ............................................................................ 255
11.4.4 Intangible assets ............................................................................. 256
11.5 The treatment of costs incurred after the initial acquisition of the assets ..... 256
11.6 Recording the purchase of a non-current asset ........................................... 257
11.7 Decreases in value and depreciation of non-current assets ........................ 257
11.7.1 Word definitions ............................................................................... 257
11.7.2 The necessity of depreciation ......................................................... 258
11.7.3 The determination of depreciation................................................... 258
11.7.4 Recording of depreciation ............................................................... 260
11.7.5 Methods for the calculation of depreciation .................................... 260
11.7.5.1 The straight-line method ................................................. 260
11.7.5.2 Diminishing balance method .......................................... 261
11.7.5.3 Production unit method ................................................... 264
11.7.6 Reviewing depreciation rates .......................................................... 265
11.7.7 Depreciation on assets acquired in the course
of a financial period ......................................................................... 265
11.7.8 The treatment of land and buildings................................................ 265
11.8 Scrapping or disposal of non-current assets ............................................... 265
11.8.1 Introduction...................................................................................... 266
11.8.2 Scrapping an asset without disposal .............................................. 266
11.8.3 Sale of an asset ............................................................................... 268
11.8.4 Trading-in of assets ......................................................................... 271
11.9 Depreciation: Managerial and other considerations .................................... 273
11.9.1 Choice of depreciation method ....................................................... 273
11.9.2 Depreciation and income tax .......................................................... 274
249
250 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Page
11.10 Internal control over non-current assets ..................................................... 274
11.11 The disclosure of property, plant and equipment in the
financial statements .................................................................................... 277
11.12 Summary ..................................................................................................... 281
Chapter 11: Property, plant and equipment 251
11.1 Introduction
Study objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
l explain how the cost basis is applied in recording property, plant and
equipment in the books;
l explain the concept of depreciation;
l calculate periodic depreciation by means of different methods;
l describe the procedure for reviewing the periodic depreciation;
l distinguish between current expenses and capital expenditure and explain the
entries for both; and
l show how property, plant and equipment should be disclosed in the financial
statements of an entity.
The purpose of this chapter is to explain the accounting treatment of property, plant
and equipment. The principal issues in accounting for property, plant and equipment
are the recognition of the assets; the determination of their carrying amounts and the
depreciation charges to be recognised.
The largest group of non-current assets is that of physically tangible assets such as
land, buildings, machinery and vehicles. Intangible non-current assets include, for
example, patents, copyrights, trademarks and goodwill. In addition, there are non-
current financial assets, which will be explained in chapter 12.
11.4.1 Land
All expenses incurred in acquiring land and converting it to a condition suited to its
intended use, must be regarded as the cost of the land. Therefore all costs incurred
from the date of the purchase until it is ready for use form part of the cost of the land.
The cost of the land may therefore include the option cost; the purchase price; legal
fees and transfer duties; the registration of servitudes; the settlement of outstanding
costs (such as municipal rates) relating to the land; the cost of clearance and levelling;
and any cost involved in demolishing existing structures. In short, it includes all costs
incurred in acquiring possession, access and the right of disposal and in ensuring that
the land is in a usable condition.
If land is purchased for the purpose of erecting a building, all costs incurred up to the
commencement of excavations will be regarded as costs related to the land. Income
generated by the sale of material obtained from demolitions will serve to reduce the
cost price.
254 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Example 11.1
Assume that an entity acquires premises with an existing building at a cost of R150 000, with
the intention of erecting a factory on the site. According to the agreement of sale, the agent’s
commission of R5 000 is to be paid by the purchaser, over and above the purchase price of
R150 000. Transfer and other legal costs in connection with the transaction amount to
R10 000. Demolition costs will amount to R2 000, while scrap materials from the demolished
building will be sold for R500. The cost of excavating the site in preparation for the erection of
the new building amounts to R25 000. The entity raised a mortgage bond of R100 000 to
purchase the land, with bond costs amounting to R4 000.
The cost price of the site is R166 500, which is determined as follows:
R
Net purchase price 150 000
Add: Agent’s commission 5 000
Transfer and other legal costs 10 000
Net demolition costs (R2 000 – R500) 1 500
Total cost price 166 500
The excavation costs form part of the cost price of the building which is to be erected and not
of the site. The bond charges are a financing cost which is also not included in the cost price
of the land.
If land is purchased with the intention of using it for a specific purpose at a later date,
then all costs incurred during the holding period form part of the cost price and must
be capitalised.
Costs involved in landscaping the property, i.e. the layout of gardens and paths, are
capital costs which form part of the cost of the land. However, the initial outlay must be
distinguished from maintenance, which will be written off as an expense.
If several properties are bought at the same time for a single amount, the reasonable
market value of each property is used as the basis for calculating the proportional
allocation of the purchase price to each piece of land.
Land may be acquired without paying cash for it: it may be exchanged for another
asset, purchased by the issuing of shares or inherited. In such cases, the reasonable
market value of the other asset is taken as the purchase price of the land. Inherited
land must be recorded at reasonable market value, the credit being taken to a non-
distributable reserve account.
will include the contract price, plus all necessary additional expenses incurred to make
the building suitable for the entity’s needs. If the entity erects the building itself, the
cost price will include such expenses as labour, materials, professional fees payable
to architects and quantity surveyors and insurance payable during the erection period.
The cost price of machinery, equipment and vehicles includes all expenses relating to
the acquisition and preparation of these assets for use. The expenses include,
amongst others, the following:
l invoice price (less discount);
l transport and clearance costs; and
l installation costs.
Example 11.2
Assume that an entity purchases a vehicle for a cash price of R150 000 and receives a cash
discount of 10% on the purchase price. It then installs an air conditioner at a cost of R6 000
and a sound system to the value of R4 000. The total cost price of the vehicle will be
calculated as follows:
R
Net purchase price R [ 50 000 – (10% × 150 000) ] 135 000
Add: Air conditioner 6 000
Add: Sound system 4 000
Total purchase price 145 000
The depreciable amount is the cost of an asset, or other amount substituted for cost in
the financial statements, less its residual value. The residual value is that value of the
asset which may remain at the end of its useful life.
The useful life of an asset is either:
l the period of time over which an asset is expected to be used by the entity; or
l the number of production or similar units expected to be obtained from the asset
by the entity.
A depreciable asset is an asset which:
l is expected to be used during more than one accounting period;
l has a limited useful life (the period over which a depreciable asset is expected to
be used by an entity); and
l is held by an entity for use in the production or supply of goods or services, for
rental to others or for administrative purposes.
experience with similar assets. The present condition of the asset as well as the
entity’s policy regarding the replacement of assets will also be determining factors.
The useful life of an asset can be measured in terms of time (duration of the asset’s
estimated use), production (the total number of units an asset is expected to
produce), service (for example the distance travelled) or some other applicable
criterion.
It is usual to distinguish between the technical and economic life of a non-current
asset. The technical life is determined by factors relevant to the particular asset
and comes to an end when the asset can no longer provide the service for which it
was acquired. The economic life is determined by external factors such as
technological advancements (for instance, modernised production methods and
changing trends) and will terminate when, for example, the asset’s capacity
becomes uneconomical because of technological advancements.
As a result of rapid technological development, the economic life of an asset is
often shorter than its technical life. However, an asset whose economic life has
expired may be used for other purposes. The shorter of either the economic or the
technical life of an asset is regarded as the life of that asset. For our purposes “life”
will from now on be referred to as a comprehensive concept and no distinction will
be made between technical and economic life.
It should be clear by now that the following factors should be taken into
consideration in estimating the useful life of an asset:
• expected physical wear-and-tear;
• technological obsolescence; and
• legal, contractual or other restrictions on the use of the asset. These include the
due dates of applicable lease contracts.
The useful life of important depreciable assets should be reviewed regularly.
Depreciation rates for current and future periods should be adjusted if the
reviewed estimated useful life differs materially from the previous estimate.
l Estimated residual value: The residual value is the amount that the entity expects
to obtain for an asset at the end of its useful life, after deducting the expected
costs of disposal.
As was explained in paragraph 11.7.1, the depreciable amount of an asset is its
historical cost (or another value which has replaced historical cost) less the scrap
value of the asset.
The residual value of an asset is often insignificant and, when it is, should be
ignored in the determination of the depreciable amount. However, if the residual
value is expected to be material, it should be estimated at the date of acquisition of
the asset.
Of all the factors that play a role, the cost price is the only one that can be determined
with certainty. All other factors must be estimated by means of careful judgement,
based on experience, so that the depreciation determined is as realistic as possible.
260 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Assume that on 1 January 20.1 the cost price of a certain machine amounts to R16 700 and
that the useful life of the asset is estimated to be four years. The estimated trade-in value at
the end of the fourth year will be R700. Then the annual depreciation will be
16 700 – 700
= R4 000 per annum
4
Chapter 11: Property, plant and equipment 261
From this data, the following asset and depreciation schedule may be prepared for the
four years:
ASSET AND DEPRECIATION SCHEDULE: STRAIGHT-LINE METHOD
Date of Annual Accumulated Net carrying
Cost price
purchase depreciation depreciation amount
R R R R
1 Jan 20.1 16 700 – – 16 700
End year 1 16 700 4 000 4 000 12 700
End year 2 16 700 4 000 8 000 8 700
End year 3 16 700 4 000 12 000 4 700
End year 4 16 700 4 000 16 000 700
TOTAL DEPRECIATION: R16 000
Example 11.4
ASSET AND DEPRECIATION SCHEDULE: DIMINISHING BALANCE METHOD
Calculation Net
Date of Annual Accumulated
Cost price of carrying
purchase depreciation depreciation
depreciation amount
R R R R R
1 Jan 20.1 16 700 – – – 16 700
End year 1 16 700 50% × 16 700 8 350 8 350 8 350
End year 2 16 700 50% × 8 350 4 175 12 525 4 175
End year 3 16 700 50% × 4 175 2 088 14 613 2 087
End year 4 16 700 50% × 2 087 1 043 15 656 1 044
TOTAL DEPRECIATION: R15 656
The journal and ledger entries for the four years will be as follows:
General journal J1
Month Day Details Fol Debit Credit
R R
20.1 Dec 31 Depreciation: Machinery 8 350
Accumulated depreciation: Machinery 8 350
Provision for depreciation for the year
ended 31 December 20.1
31 Profit or loss 8 350
Depreciation: Machinery 8 350
Closing entry
20.2 Dec 31 Depreciation: Machinery 4 175
Accumulated depreciation: Machinery 4 175
Provision for depreciation for the year
ended 31 December 20.2
31 Profit or loss 4 175
Depreciation: Machinery 4 175
Closing entry
20.3 Dec 31 Depreciation: Machinery 2 088
Accumulated depreciation: Machinery 2 088
Provision for depreciation for the year
ended 31 December 20.3
31 Profit or loss 2 088
Depreciation: Machinery 2 088
Closing entry
continued
Chapter 11: Property, plant and equipment 263
continued
264 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Dr Depreciation: Machinery Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.1 20.1
Dec 31 Accumulated Dec 31
depreciation 8 350 Profit or loss 8 350
20.2 20.2
Dec 31 Accumulated Dec 31
depreciation 4 175 Profit or loss 4 175
20.3 20.3
Dec 31 Accumulated Dec 31
depreciation 2 088 Profit or loss 2 088
20.4 20.4
Dec 31 Accumulated Dec 31
depreciation 1 043 Profit or loss 1 043
16 700 – 700
= = R0,40 per unit
40 000
11.8.1 Introduction
If an entity wishes to dispose of an asset, it may demolish the asset, sell it outright or
trade it in as partial payment on the purchase of a new asset.
Regardless of the way in which the asset is disposed of, the relevant entries must be
recorded. This entails the following:
l recording the proceeds of the sale of the asset;
l updating the interim depreciation for part of the year which has elapsed (where
applicable) since the end of the last financial year;
l removal of both the cost of and accumulated depreciation on the asset (that is, the
carrying amount) from the books; and
l determining and recording any profit or loss resulting from the demolition or
alienation of the asset.
Balance Accumulated
(cost price) b/d 6 000 depreciation 6 000
6 000 6 000
continued
Chapter 11: Property, plant and equipment 267
Dr Accumulated depreciation Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
Asset Balance
(scrapping) 6 000 (total depr) 6 000
The cost price and accumulated depreciation relating to the asset are thus removed
entirely from the general ledger.
l If the asset has not been written off entirely
Example 11.8
The same particulars as those in example 11.7 are applicable, except that only R5 000
has been provided for depreciation to date. The scrapping of the asset therefore
causes a loss of R1 000, the position being as follows:
R
Original cost price of asset 6 000
Total depreciation provided 5 000
Carrying amount written off as a loss 1 000
The journal entry on scrapping of the asset is as follows:
General journal
Dr Accumulated depreciation Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
Asset Balance
(scrapping) 5 000 (total depr) b/d 5 000
continued
268 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Dr Vehicle realisation Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.5 20.5
Feb 28 Delivery Feb 28 Bank 25 000
vehicles (cost Accumulated
price) 80 000 depreciation 48 000
Loss on sale of
asset 7 000
80 000 80 000
traded in on the new machine. A trade-in value of R2 500 is received and the balance
of the purchase price of the new machine is paid in cash.
The transactions are recorded by means of the following journal entries:
General journal
Month Day Details Fol Debit Credit
R R
Machinery 20 000
Trade payables 20 000
New machine ACN purchased
Machinery realisation account 10 000
Machinery account 10 000
Transfer of original cost price of machine sold
to the realisation account
Accumulated depreciation: Machinery 8 000
Machinery realisation account 8 000
Transfer of accumulated depreciation on
machinery sold to the realisation account
Trade payables 17 500
Bank 17 500
Settlement of purchase price (usually
recorded in the CPJ)
Trade payables 2 500
Machinery realisation account 2 500
Trading-in of machine CNA
Machinery realisation account 500
Profit on trade-in of non-current asset 500
Transfer of profit on trade-in of machine CNA
The relevant ledger accounts will be as follows after the above journal entries have
been posted:
Dr Machine CNA Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
Balance b/d 10 000 Machinery
realisation
account 10 000
10 000 10 000
continued
Chapter 11: Property, plant and equipment 273
Dr Machinery realisation Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
Machine CNA Accumulated
(cost) 10 000 depreciation: 8 000
Profit on sale of Machine
non-current Trade payables 2 500
asset 500
10 500 10 500
Dr Trade payables Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
Machinery Machine ACN 20 000
realisation
account 2 500
Bank 17 500
20 000 20 000
Dr Machine ACN Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
Trade payables 20 000
Dr Bank Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
Trade payables 17 500
When an asset is traded in for less than its carrying amount, basically the same entries
are made. The only difference is that the trade-in results in a loss, not a profit.
The diminishing balance method is based on the assumption that an asset provides
more service during the first few years of its life and that the depreciation provided
according to this method results in a more equitable distribution of income and
expenditure. This method is also used to counteract the second disadvantage listed
above, namely that of rising repair costs in later years. Increased maintenance costs
are partially counteracted by calculating the annual depreciation on a decreasing
balance, the end result being a more proportional debit in respect of expenses.
Every entity will have to select the method most suited to its own particular
circumstances.
l The relevant legal documents, for example deeds, investment certificates, sales
contracts and other proofs of ownership, should be stored safely.
l All assets must be properly accounted for by means of control accounts,
supported by appropriate asset registers. In other words, the general ledger will
have a control account for each type of asset, while particulars of each asset are
detailed in the asset register. For example, separate control accounts will be kept
in the ledger for machinery and equipment, furniture and motor vehicles. In
addition, separate accounts are kept showing the accumulated depreciation on
each of these items. An asset register will also be kept for each type of asset.
The asset register should contain particulars of the purchase price, maintenance,
and depreciation of and repairs to, as well as a complete description of, the asset.
Example 11.12 shows the entries made in an asset register.
Example 11.12
Assume that an entity has only two types of machines, namely an X and a Y type, and
that the following particulars apply to the machines:
Date Type X Type Y
R R
20.3 Mar 11 Purchases 4 000
20.4 Mar 11 Purchases 6 000
20.4 Feb 28 Depreciation provided 400
20.5 Feb 28 Depreciation provided 400 600
20.6 Feb 28 Depreciation provided 400 600
continued
276 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
MIEM TRADING
Notes for the year ended 30 June 20.5
1. Basis of presentation
The annual financial statements have been prepared in accordance with
generally accepted accounting practices appropriate to the business of the
entity. The annual financial statements have been prepared on the historical
cost basis.
2. Summary of significant accounting policies
The annual financial statements incorporate the following significant
accounting policies which are consistent with those applied in previous years,
except where otherwise stated:
2.1 Property, plant and equipment
Property, plant and equipment is initially recognised at cost price. No
depreciation is written off on land and buildings. Vehicles, machinery and
furniture are subsequently measured at historical cost less accumulated
depreciation and accumulated impairment losses.
Depreciation on vehicles, machinery and furniture is written off at a rate
deemed to be sufficient to reduce the carrying amounts of the assets over
their estimated useful life to their estimated residual values. The
deprecation rates are as follows:
Vehicles – 20% per annum on the straight-line method;
Machinery – 20% per annum on the diminishing balance method and
Furniture – 10% on the straight-line method.
Depreciation is charged to profit or loss for the period. Gains or losses on
disposal are determined by comparing the proceeds with the carrying
amount of the asset. The net amount is included in the profit or loss for
the period.
280 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Carrying amount:
30 Jun 20.5 150 000 13 600 45 900 11 800 221 300
Land and buildings consist of Erf 7, Miemville, with buildings, purchased for
R150 000 in 20.0
Calculations:
Depreciation: R R
Furniture: R22 000 × 10% = 2 200
Total 2 200
Vehicles: Old R(60 000 – 18 000) × 20% = 8 400
Sold: R18 000 × 20% × 6/12 = 1 800
Total 10 200
Machinery: Old R(33 000 – 10 000) × 20% = 4 600
New R(30 000 – 0) × 20% × 5/12 = 2 500
Total 7 100
Disposal of vehicle:
R18 000 – (11 000 + 1 800) = 5 200
Chapter 11: Property, plant and equipment 281
11.12 Summary
Non-current assets are acquired with the purpose of using them to generate income.
Thus, the non-current assets as such are not acquired for the purpose of resale. They
must produce goods which in turn generate income or, stated differently, are used in
the business operations. Non-current assets may be classified as tangible or
intangible.
All expenses relating to the acquisition of the asset and its preparation for productive
use are considered to be part of the cost of the asset. The treatment of costs incurred
after the initial acquisition of the asset, the recording of those costs, as well as the
decrease in value and depreciation of non-current assets and the disclosure of
property, plant and equipment have also been dealt with in this chapter.
CHAPTER 12
Other non-current assets and financial assets
Contents
Page
12.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 285
12.2 Intangible assets ........................................................................................... 285
12.3 Financial instruments .................................................................................... 286
12.3.1 Categories of financial instruments ................................................. 287
12.3.1.1 Financial assets or financial liabilities ............................. 287
12.3.2 Measurement of financial assets ..................................................... 288
12.4 Recording and disclosure of other financial assets ..................................... 288
12.4.1 Investments in financial institutions ................................................. 289
12.4.2 Investments in shares ...................................................................... 291
12.4.2.1 Recording of an investment in shares .............................. 291
12.4.2.2 The adjustment of an investment in listed companies
to its fair value .................................................................. 292
12.5 Summary ....................................................................................................... 294
283
Chapter 12: Other non-current assets and financial assets 285
12.1 Introduction
Study objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
l explain and account for other non-current assets in an accounting context;
l explain and know what a financial instrument is; and
l explain and account for financial assets in an accounting context.
The purpose of this chapter is to explain other non-current assets and financial assets
and how they are dealt with in an accounting context. Most of the assets whose
accounting procedures have been discussed thus far have been of a material nature
and therefore tangible. Land, buildings, equipment and cash are examples of assets
that are tangible. However, it is not a requirement that an element of a financial
statement be tangible before it may be deemed an asset. Any item that has the
characteristics of an asset is included on the statement of financial position if it
satisfies the criteria for recognition as an asset.
The characteristics of all assets are that they must be under the control of the entity,
have originated from occurrences in the past and hold future economic benefits for the
entity. An entity that has built up an excellent reputation for outstanding workmanship
and superb service will probably be able to demonstrate that this reputation has all the
characteristics of an asset. Whether it should be included as an asset on the statement
of financial position will depend on whether it satisfies the criteria for recognition as an
asset. It will often be concluded that it is difficult to measure this reputation and that it
is therefore not possible to give recognition to it on the statement of financial position.
If, however, it has been acquired for a particular amount, there is no reason why it
should not be reflected as an asset. It usually appears as “goodwill” on the statement
of financial position.
Goodwill is, however, only one example of the assets that are known as “intangible
assets”. Development costs that are incurred during the period in which a new product
is being developed can also qualify as an asset. The same applies to a well-known
trade name: consider the well-known brands of cold drink that are familiar to people
across the world and bring in millions of rands for their manufacturers.
An entity shall assess whether the useful life of an intangible asset is finite or indefinite
and, if finite, the length of time or number of production or similar units constituting that
useful life. An intangible asset shall be regarded by the entity as having an indefinite
useful life when, based on an analysis of all of the relevant factors, there is no
foreseeable limit to the period over which the asset is expected to generate net cash
inflows for the entity.
Accounting for an intangible asset is based on its useful life. An intangible asset with a
finite useful life should be amortised (depreciated) on a systematic basis over the best
estimate of its useful life, while an intangible asset with an indefinite useful life is not.
The accounting entry for the amortisation of an intangible asset is as follows:
Dr Amortisation
Cr Accumulated amortisation
At the end of the financial period, the amortisation account is closed off to the profit or
loss account. The carrying amount of the intangible asset, which is the cost price less
accumulated amortisation, is shown as other intangible assets under non-current assets
on the statement of financial position.
Goodwill, on the other hand, must be tested for impairment and must be written off
accordingly. Goodwill is classified separately from other intangible assets under non-
current assets on the statement of financial position.
deliver its own equity instruments, the element can be classified as an equity
instrument. The three most common equity-type instruments are:
• ordinary shares;
• preference shares/convertible preference shares; and
• convertible debentures.
1 Fair value is defined as the amount for which an asset could be exchanged or a liability settled between
knowledgeable, willing parties in an arm’s length transaction.
288 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Investments in equity instruments are those financial assets that are designated as
available for sale or not classified as loans and receivables, held-to-maturity investments
or financial assets at fair value through profit or loss.
Investment in shares of an unlisted company is an example of an investment in an
equity instrument financial asset. Investment in unlisted companies is classified as
non-current since the intention is to hold such an investment over a longer term (more
than 12 months) but not until maturity.
Non-current assets and financial assets must be disclosed as follows on the statement
of financial position and in the notes to the financial statements:
Megan Stores
Statement of financial position as at 28 February 20.5 (Extract)
Notes R
ASSETS
Non-current assets xxx xxx
Property, plant and equipment 3 xxx xxx
Goodwill xx xxx
Other intangible assets xx xxx
Financial assets 4 xx xxx
Current assets xxx xxx
Inventories xx xxx
Trade and other receivables 4 xxx xxx
Prepayments x xxx
Other financial assets 4 xx xxx
Cash and cash equivalents 4 x xxx
Megan Stores
Notes for the year ended 28 February 20.5 (Extract)
4. Financial assets
20.3
Non-current financial assets R
Loans and receivables: Fixed deposit at AZ Bank at 9% p.a. callable at
…………… (date). xx xxx
Available for sale: Unlisted shares: 1 000 ordinary shares in BBC (Pty) Ltd xx xxx
Current financial assets
Trade and other receivables: xx xxx
Trade receivables control xx xxx
Allowance for credit losses (x xxx)
Other financial assets
Loans and receivables: Fixed deposit: AA Bank at 10% p.a. callable at
…………… (date) xx xxx
Financial assets at fair value through profit or loss: xx xxx
Held for trading: Listed shares: 10 000 ordinary shares in CCA Limited xx xxx
Cash and cash equivalents: xx xxx
Bank xx xxx
Morney Enterprises
Notes for the year ended 28 February 20.2 (Extract)
4. Financial assets
20.2
Non-current financial assets R
Loans and receivables: Fixed deposit at Heidi Bank at 10% p.a. callable at
28 February 20.4 10 000
If Morney Enterprises does not receive the interest in cash, but capitalises (reinvests) it
instead, a general journal entry like the following will be necessary:
Dr Fixed deposit in Heidi Bank (instead of Bank)
Cr Interest income
The amount shown on the statement of financial position would then be R11 000
(instead of R10 000) and the balance of the bank account would be R1 000 less.
Interest calculated on the R11 000 will then be on the compound interest rate method.
Chapter 12: Other non-current assets and financial assets 291
Example 12.2
On 1 October 20.7, Marcell CC buys 10 000 ordinary shares in Chaney Limited for
R25 000 and pays R300 in broker’s fees.
Marcell CC
General journal
Month Day Details Fol Debit Credit
20.7 R R
Oct 1 Investment in Chaney Limited 25 000
Investment expenses (transaction cost) 300
Bank 25 300
Purchase of 10 000 shares for R25 000
plus broker’s fees of R300
(usually recorded in the CPJ)
The gain on financial assets at fair value through profit or loss is shown as other
income in Marcell CC’s statement of comprehensive income for the year ended
30 September 20.8.
Chapter 12: Other non-current assets and financial assets 293
Marcell CC
Notes for the year ended 30 September 20.8 (Extract)
4. Financial assets
20.8
Current financial assets R
Other financial assets:
Financial assets at fair value through profit or loss:
Held for trading: Listed shares: 10 000 ordinary shares in Chaney Limited 27 300
The loss on financial assets at fair value through profit or loss is shown as distribution,
administrative and other expenses in Marcell CC’s statement of comprehensive
income for the year ended 30 September 20.9.
294 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Marcell CC
Notes for the year ended 30 September 20.9 (Extract)
4. Financial assets
20.8
Current financial assets R
Other financial assets:
Financial assets at fair value through profit or loss:
Held for trading: Listed shares: 10 000 ordinary shares in Chaney Limited 23 300
12.5 Summary
Most of the assets whose accounting procedures have been discussed thus far have a
common characteristic: they are all of a material nature and therefore tangible. The
value of tangible assets such as land and buildings and equipment can easily be
determined and recorded. In this chapter, it was explained that certain intangible
assets such as patents, brands and trademarks can also be included as assets on the
statement of financial position. Like property, plant and equipment, intangible assets
must be amortised (depreciated) over their useful life, which will usually not exceed
20 years.
An entity should recognise a financial asset or a financial liability in its statement of
financial position only when the entity becomes a party to the contractual provisions of
the financial instrument.
CHAPTER 13
Current liabilities
Contents
Page
Overview of current liabilities .................................................................................. 297
13.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 299
13.2 Recognition of current liabilities.................................................................. 299
13.3 Measurement of current liabilities ............................................................... 299
13.4 Disclosure of current liabilities .................................................................... 300
13.5 Trade payables and trade payables control account ................................ 300
13.5.1 The purchases journal ................................................................... 300
13.5.2 The purchases returns journal ....................................................... 301
13.6 Settlement discount received ..................................................................... 304
13.7 Other current liabilities ................................................................................ 305
13.7.1 Value-added tax (VAT) payable .................................................... 305
13.7.2 Current portion of long-term borrowings ....................................... 305
13.7.3 Accrued expenses (arrears or accumulated obligations) ............. 305
13.7.4 Provisions ...................................................................................... 306
13.8 Internal control measures regarding trade payables ................................. 306
13.9 Comprehensive example ............................................................................ 306
13.10 Summary ..................................................................................................... 310
295
Chapter 13: Current liabilities 297
Recognition/recording
Recorded when the recognition criteria are fulfilled
Recognition criteria:
• transaction that places the entity under an obligation to make a payment in the
future, a liability arises and it is recognised
• some obligations are not the result of transactions
• obligation should have resulted from a transaction that occurred in the past
continued
298 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Recording
Reporting
Disclosure:
• Trade and other payables
• Current portion of long-term liabilities
• Other current liabilities
Disclosure
Correct classification is important
Statement of financial
position
Measurement
• Historical cost
• Current cost
• Realisable value
• Current value
Chapter 13: Current liabilities 299
13.1 Introduction
Study objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to explain current liabilities in an
accounting context.
The purpose of this chapter is to explain how current liabilities are dealt with in
accounting. A liability is a claim which a party other than the owner has to the assets of
the entity (discussed in paragraph 1.4.3). Like any other liability, a current liability
represents a current obligation of an entity resulting from preceding events, the
payment of which is expected to lead to an outflow of resources from the entity. For the
obligation to be considered a current liability, the date on which it must be paid should
be within one year of the statement of financial position date or within the completion of
the normal operating cycle of the entity.
Notes R
EQUITY AND LIABILITIES
Total equity xx xxx
Total liabilities xx xxx
Non-current liabilities xx xxx
Long-term borrowings xx xxx
Current liabilities xx xxx
Trade and other payables xx xxx
Current portion of long-term borrowings xx xxx
Other current liabilities xx xxx
accounts in the trade payables ledger and to the trade payables control account, and
debited to the purchases (or inventory) account in the general ledger.
In other words, the invoice amounts are posted individually, on a daily basis, from the
PJ to the appropriate creditor accounts in the trade payables ledger. The total of the
trade payables column is credited to the trade payables control account at the end of
the applicable accounting period (usually a month). The total purchases for the period
is debited to either the purchases or the inventory account in the general ledger. The
double-entry system is thus maintained as follows:
Dr Purchases (or inventory) account (in the general ledger).
Cr Trade payables control account (in the general ledger).
Cr Individual creditor accounts (in the trade payables ledger).
If individual and control accounts are kept, it is important that the trade payables
control account is kept up to date and that the balance of the control account in the
general ledger is compared regularly with the total of the balances of the individual
accounts in the trade payables ledger(s). This ensures that all transactions relating to
the creditors have been recorded.
The following entries appeared in the journals of Dabisa Big Store for April 20.6:
Purchases journal: April 20.6 PJ10
Invoice Trade Pur-
Date Creditor Fol Sundries
no. payables chases
R R Details Fol R
7 Johnnies Wholesalers 101 J3 4 500 4 500
9 Cathy Suppliers 714 C6 5 000 5 000
16 Johnnies Wholesalers 136 J3 2 600 2 600
12 100 12 100
GL8 GL15
GL8 GL15
GL2 GL8
Required
(a) Prepare the trade payables control account for April 20.6 in the general ledger of
Dabisa Big Store.
(b) Prepare the individual creditors’ accounts for April 20.6 in the trade payables
ledger of Dabisa Big Store.
(c) Prepare a list of balances of creditors accounts, and ensure that it reconciles with
the balance of the trade payables control account.
Chapter 13: Current liabilities 303
Solution
(a) General ledger
Dr Trade payables control GL8 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.6 20.6
Apr 30 Purchases ret. PRJ4 400 Apr 1 Balance b/d 14 000
30 Bank CPJ7 13 000 30 Purchases PJ10 12 100
30 Balance c/d 12 700
26 100 26 100
20.6
May 1 Balance b/d 12 700
Dr Cathy Suppliers C6 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.6 20.6
Apl 5 Bank CPJ7 7 000 Apr 1 Balance b/d 8 000
30 Balance c/d 6 000 9 Purchases PJ10 5 000
13 000 13 000
20.6
May 1 Balance b/d 6 000
The list of the individual creditors balances, as at 30 April 20.6, adds up to R12 700,
which agrees with the balance of the trade payables control account of R12 700 on the
same date.
304 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Dr Settlement discount Cr
received
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.4 20.3
Feb 28 Purchases 40 May 26 Stefan
Suppliers 40
The settlement discount received account is debited and the purchases account is
credited by means of a closing general journal entry. The entry closes the nominal
account called settlement discount received and recognises the income with a credit
to the purchases account.
Chapter 13: Current liabilities 305
R R
20.3
Feb 28 Telephone 2 150
Water and electricity 3 500
Accrued expenses 5 650
Accrued expenses at the end of the
financial year
306 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
When the obligations are paid, they are debited to the expenditure accounts in the
usual way.
13.7.4 Provisions
Provisions are obligations of which the precise amount will only be known at a later
date. The immediate accounting problem is to estimate the amount of the obligation.
An example of an estimated obligation of this nature is the guarantee that a dealer
gives on a product he sells. He has an obligation for the duration of the guarantee. The
amount of the guarantee is not known. It should be estimated on the basis of past
experience and, at the time of the sale, debited to an expenditure (or a product
guarantee cost) account. The corresponding credit should be credited to the provision
for product guarantee account. Most types of guarantee are valid for twelve months or
less; therefore the provision is a current liability.
On 1 May 20.4 the trade payables ledger of Esther Fashions revealed the following
balances:
Fol no Creditor Amount
R
D2 Danelle Boutique 800
D4 Danie Creations 300
M7 Michelle Warehouse 1 000
N8 Nadine Fashions 500
2 600
The following entries appeared in the journals of Esther Fashions for May 20.4:
Purchases journal: May 20.4 PJ11
Trade
Invoice VAT Men’s Ladies’
Date Creditor Fol payable Sundries
no input clothing clothing
s
R R R R Details Fol R
7 Nadine Fashions 1234 N8 345 45 100 200
9 Michelle Warehouse 258 M7 690 90 450 150
12 Danie Creations 654 D4 115 15 Packing
material GL84 100
16 Danelle Boutique 3698 D2 460 60 50 350
22 Michelle Warehouse 289 M7 1 035 135 300 600
2 645 345 900 1 300 100
R R R R Details Fol R
9 Nadine Fashions 34 N8 69 9 60
24 Michelle Warehouse 86 M7 115 15 80 20
184 24 80 80
R R R R R R Fol Details
116 2 Michelle
Warehouse M7 943 1 000 7 50
117 6 Danelle Boutique D2 400 400
118 8 Nadine Fashions N8 200 200
119 15 Danie Creations D4 300 300
120 17 Ben’s Garage 150 150 GL20 Petrol
121 23 Dolly Computers 115 15 100 GL29 Computer
repairs
122 31 Cash 860 860 GL75 Wages
2 968 1 900 15 (7) (50) 1110
Required
(a) Prepare the trade payables control account for May 20.4 in the general ledger of
Esther Fashions.
(b) Prepare the individual creditors’ accounts for May 20.4 in the trade payables
ledger of Esther Fashions.
(c) Prepare a list of balances of creditors accounts and ensure that it reconciles with
the balance of the trade payables control account.
Solution
(a) General ledger
Dr Trade payables control GL14 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.4 20.4
May 31 Purchases ret. PRJ9 184 May 1 Balance* b/d 2 600
31 Bank CPJ14 1 900 31 Purchases PJ11 2 645
31 Balance c/d 3 161
5 245 5 245
20.4
Jun 1 Balance b/d 3 161
* If it is assumed that the balance of the trade payables control account was reconciled on
30 April 20.4 with the total of balances of the individual creditors accounts, this total will be
the same as the balance of the trade payables control account on 1 May 20.4.
Chapter 13: Current liabilities 309
Dr Danie Creations D4 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.4 20.4
May 15 Bank CPJ14 300 May 1 Balance b/d 300
31 Balance c/d 115 12 Purchases PJ11 115
415 415
20.4
Jun 1 Balance b/d 115
Dr Michelle Warehouse M7 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.4 20.4
May 2 Bank CPJ14 1 000 May 1 Balance b/d 1 000
24 Purchases ret. PRJ9 115 9 Purchases PJ11 690
31 Balance c/d 1 610 22 Purchases PJ11 1 035
2 725 2 725
20.4
Jun 1 Balance b/d 1 610
Dr Nadine Fashions N8 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.4 20.4
May 9 Purchases ret. PRJ9 69 May 1 Balance b/d 500
8 Bank CPJ14 200 7 Purchases PJ11 345
31 Balance c/d 576
845 845
20.4
Jun 1 Balance b/d 576
310 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
R
D2 Danelle Boutique 860
D4 Danie Creations 115
M7 Michelle Warehouse 1 610
N8 Nadine Fashions 576
3 161
The list of the individual creditors’ balances as at 31 May 20.4 adds up to R3 161,
which agrees with the balance of the trade payables control account of R3 161 on the
same date.
13.10 Summary
An item should fulfil the definition of and the recognition criteria for a liability before it is
included on the statement of financial position. In this sense, liabilities are not
necessarily the same as legal liabilities. For example, although no obligation exists at
the statement of financial position date in respect of the fulfilment of guarantee claims
whose terms have expired, the entity will include the obligation in its statement of
financial position if it is standard practice to pay such claims in order to protect its
reputation.
Current liabilities are usually liabilities that should be paid within one year of the
statement of financial position date.
CHAPTER 14
Non-current liabilities
Contents
Page
Overview of non-current liabilities ........................................................................... 313
14.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 313
14.2 The nature of non-current liabilities .............................................................. 313
14.3 Borrowings and mortgages .......................................................................... 314
14.4 Debentures ................................................................................................... 319
14.5 Summary ....................................................................................................... 321
311
Chapter 14: Non-current liabilities 313
Reporting
Disclosure:
• Statement of financial position: Only the amount of the indebtedness
• Note to the financial statement:
– Categories of financial instruments
– Interest rates
– Due dates
– Instalment amounts
– Security
14.1 Introduction
Study objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to account for non-current liabilities.
order to sell it and redeem the loan from the proceeds. For example, in the case of a
mortgage, the property of the entity is the security over which the mortgage is held.
Various types of long-term borrowings are to be found in practice, the most important
being ordinary long-term loans, debentures and instalment sale agreements.
In general, long-term borrowings are included in the financial statements of entities at
the redeemable amount. The necessary details of their general nature, interest rate,
dates of repayments and final payment date are shown in the financial liability note to
the financial statements. Furthermore, whether any obligation of the entity is secured
by a specific asset should be indicated, while the obligation and the encumbered
asset should also be mentioned. If there are several long-term obligations, the details
of each liability must be specified in the financial liability note.
(b) Show the following general ledger accounts in the books of Sipho Trading for the
year ended 31 December 20.3, properly balanced:
– land and buildings;
– mortgage; and
– interest on mortgage.
(c) Show how the above information would be reflected in Sipho Trading’s financial
statements as at 31 December 20.3.
(a) Sipho Trading
General journal J10
Month Day Details Fol Debit Credit
R R
20.3
Jan 2 Land and buildings at cost GL4 640 000
Mortgage GL7 640 000
80% of purchase price of land and
buildings (80% × R800 000)
Land and buildings at cost GL4 160 000
Bank 160 000
20% of purchase price paid cash
(20% × R800 000) (usually recorded
in the CPJ)
Dec 31 Mortgage GL7 128 000
Interest on mortgage GL9 64 000
Bank 192 000
Payment of first instalment plus 10%
interest (10% × R640 000) (usually
recorded in the CPJ)
Profit or loss 64 000
Interest on mortgage GL9 64 000
Closing entry
continued
316 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Dr Mortgage GL7 Cr
Month Day Details Fol R Month Day Details Fol R
20.3 20.3
Dec 31 Bank J10 128 000 Jan 2 Land and
31 Balance c/d 512 000 buildings J10 640 000
640 000 640 000
20.4
Jan 1 Balance b/d 512 000
Note R
Revenue 8 xxx xxx
Cost of sales (xxx xxx)
Inventory (1 January 20.3) xx xxx
Purchases xxx xxx
Carriage on purchases xx xxx
xxx xxx
Inventory (31 December 20.3) (xx xxx)
Gross profit xxx xxx
Other income xx xxx
Interest income: Loans and receivables: Fixed deposit xxx
Rent received xxx
xxx xxx
Distribution, administrative and other expenses (xxx xxx)
Advertising costs x xxx
Carriage on sales xx xxx
Entertainment costs x xxx
Salaries to employees xxx xxx
Telephone expenses xx xxx
Depreciation 3 xx xxx
Finance costs (xx xxx)
Interest on mortgage 64 000
Interest on bank overdraft x xxx
Sipho Trading
Statement of financial position as at 31 December 20.3
Notes R
ASSETS
Non-current assets xxx xxx
Property, plant and equipment 3 xxx xxx
Financial assets 4 xxx xxx
Current assets xxx xxx
Inventories xx xxx
Trade and other receivables xx xxx
Cash and cash equivalents x xxx
Sipho Trading
Notes for the year ended 31 December 20.3
1. Basis of presentation
The annual financial statements have been prepared in accordance with generally
accepted accounting practice appropriate to the business of the entity. The annual
financial statements have been prepared on the historical cost basis.
2. Summary of significant accounting policies
The annual financial statements incorporate the following significant accounting
policies which are consistent with those applied in previous years, except where
otherwise stated:
2.1 Property, plant and equipment
Property, plant and equipment are initially recognised at cost price.
Equipment is subsequently measured at historical cost, less accumulated
depreciation and accumulated impairment losses.
Depreciation on equipment is written off at a rate deemed to be sufficient to
reduce the carrying amount of the assets over their estimated useful life to
their estimated residual value. The depreciation rates are as follows:
Equipment: x % per annum according to the straight-line method;
318 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Land and buildings on Erf 747, Star Park, Pretoria, with a carrying amount of
R800 000, have been pledged as security for the mortgage in favour of XX Bank.
Chapter 14: Non-current liabilities 319
4. Financial assets
20.3
R
Non-current financial assets
Loans and receivables: Fixed deposit at XX Bank at x % p.a. callable
at 31 December 20.x xx xxx
Current financial assets
Trade and other receivables: xx xxx
Trade receivables control xx xxx
Allowance for credit losses (x xxx)
5. Financial liabilities
20.3
R
Non-current financial liabilities
Long-term borrowings: 384 000
Mortgage: The mortgage was acquired from AC Bank on 2 January
20.3 at an interest rate of 10% per annum. The loan is
repayable in annual instalments at R128 000 per year, with
the first instalment due on 31 December 20.3. This loan is
secured by a bond over land and buildings.
Long-term borrowings 512 000
Current portion of loan (128 000)
Non-current portion 384 000
Current financial liabilities
Trade and other payables: xx xxx
Trade payables control xx xxx
Current portion of long-term borrowings 128 000
Other financial liabilities
Financial liabilities at fair value through profit or loss xx xxx
Bank overdraft xx xxx
14.4 Debentures
Debentures, like shares, are a way of obtaining long-term capital for investment in an
entity. Whereas shares are classified as owners’ equity, debentures are mostly non-
current liabilities. Debentures are generally divided into units – usually R100 per
debenture. Debentures are subject to contractually stated conditions. They are usually
secured and interest is paid on them periodically. The capital sum is normally repaid
after the expiry of the due date.
Debentures differ from ordinary liabilities in that the borrower offers the debentures for
sale to the public in terms of a debenture deed and with a trustee who protects the
interest of the debenture holders. Debentures differ from share capital in the following
respects: they do not ensure that their holder has a vote; they have a fixed interest
obligation; and they are redeemable at a certain price and in a certain way. In terms of
the law, a debenture is a debt of a company which is owed to the debenture holder on
the conditions stated in the debenture deed.
320 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Details of the type of debenture, the date and price at which the debenture is
redeemable, the interest rate, and the security provided for the debenture must be
stated in the financial statements.
Recording of the issue of debentures falls outside the scope of this book.
The interest due on debentures and the debentures themselves are disclosed as
follows on the statement of financial position and notes to the financial statements:
Henklea Wholesalers
Statement of financial position as at 31 December 20.3
Note R
ASSETS
Non-current assets xxx xxx
Property, plant and equipment 3 xxx xxx
Financial assets xxx xxx
Current assets xxx xxx
Inventories xx xxx
Trade and other receivables xx xxx
Prepaid expenses xx xxx
Cash and cash equivalents x xxx
Henklea Wholesalers
Notes for the year ended 31 December 20.3
5. Financial liabilities
20.3
R
Non-current financial liabilities
Long-term borrowings: 2 500 000
Debentures: 25 000 R100 debentures at 12% interest per annum
payable annually on the outstanding debentures. The
debentures are redeemable at par on 2 January 20.8.
The debentures are secured by a mortgage over land
and buildings in favour of the trustee for the debenture-
holders. 2 500 000
14.5 Summary
An item must fulfil the definition of and the recognition criteria for non-current liabilities
before it can be included as a non-current liability on the statement of financial
position. A financial instrument can be defined as any contract that results in a
financial asset for one entity and a financial liability or equity instrument for another.
The non-current liabilities discussed in this chapter can all be classified as financial
liabilities, since there is a contracted obligation to deliver cash or another financial
asset to another entity.
Long-term loans, mortgages and debentures that must be paid more than one year
after the statement of financial position date are examples of non-current liabilities.
CHAPTER 15
Financial statements of a sole proprietorship
Contents
Page
Overview of the financial statements of a sole proprietorship ................................ 325
15.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 325
15.2 Purpose and composition of financial statements ........................................ 326
15.3 Overall considerations .................................................................................. 326
15.3.1 The going concern assumption ....................................................... 326
15.3.2 Relevance ........................................................................................ 326
15.3.3 Faithful representation ..................................................................... 327
15.3.4 Comparability .................................................................................. 327
15.3.5 Verifiability ....................................................................................... 327
15.3.6 Timeliness ........................................................................................ 327
15.3.7 Understandability ............................................................................ 327
15.3.8 Cost constraints ............................................................................... 327
15.4 Structure and content ................................................................................... 328
15.4.1 Introduction and identification of the financial statements .............. 328
15.4.2 Statement of financial position......................................................... 328
15.4.3 Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income ......... 330
15.4.4 Statement of changes in equity ....................................................... 331
15.4.5 Notes ............................................................................................... 331
15.5 Comprehensive example .............................................................................. 332
15.6 Summary ....................................................................................................... 337
323
Chapter 15: Financial statements of a sole proprietorship 325
15.1 Introduction
Study objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to compile the financial statements of
a sole proprietorship in accordance with International Financial Reporting Standards
(IFRSs).
Although the format in which financial statements are presented has been mentioned
repeatedly thus far, the aim thereof was usually to illustrate a specific facet of the
financial statements.
This chapter focuses on the structure and content of general financial statements, not
on the financial statements of specialised institutions such as banks and similar
institutions. Certain underlying terms in respect of financial statements, most of which
you are already familiar with, are discussed and summarised in this chapter.
The words that are used are intended for entities that have a profit motive. The words
will therefore have to be adapted for other entities. In this chapter we will concentrate
on the financial statements of a sole proprietorship. A sole proprietorship (or sole trader)
is the simplest form of business ownership and is often managed by the owner himself.
There is no legislation prescribing how a sole proprietorship should be established,
other than the requirement that a trade licence be obtained in certain cases.
326 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
15.3.2 Relevance
Financial information is relevant when it is capable of making a difference in decisions.
It should thus have predictive and/or confirmatory value.
An entity-specific aspect of relevance is materiality. Generally, an item is considered
material if its non-disclosure would change the opinion of a user of the financial
statements about those statements. (See paragraph 1.14.1 for a more detailed
explanation.)
Chapter 15: Financial statements of a sole proprietorship 327
15.3.4 Comparability
Information is more useful if it can be compared with similar information from other
similar entities, or compared for the same entity, over time. These comparisons enable
tendencies and trends to be determined and could be valuable in decision-making
There should also be consistency in the way in which similar items are dealt with in
financial statements both within each accounting period and from one period to the
next. The implication of this requirement is, among other things, that the presentation
and classification of items in the financial statements of one period to the following
should be the same.
15.3.5 Verifiability
When we say that something is verifiable we mean that different analysts and
independent observers would reach consensus that a particular depiction is a faithful
representation. The information presented can thus prove to represent the status of the
entity or issue faithfully.
15.3.6 Timeliness
Good decision-making depends not only on the quality of information but also on the
availability of that information. Financial information must therefore be available on or
before the agreed deadlines.
15.3.7 Understandability
Although financial reports are prepared for users from a relatively broad range of
backgrounds, it is assumed that most users have a reasonable knowledge of business
and economic activities. Information, even that relating to more complex issues, must
be processed and presented in such a way that it is understandable but never
incomplete or potentially misleading.
The following items should, for the purpose of this book, appear separately on the
statement of financial position:
l property, plant and equipment;
l intangible assets;
l financial assets;
l inventories;
l trade and other receivables;
l cash and cash equivalents;
l trade and other payables; and
l financial liabilities.
The above-mentioned items do not constitute a comprehensive list. Additional items
can be added if necessary and descriptions adapted to suit the activities of the entity.
If the amount of an item is not material, it is aggregated with other similar items and
declared separately in the notes to the statement of financial position.
The following is an example of the layout of a statement of financial position:
Example 15.1
Francois Enterprises
Statement of financial position as at 28 February 20.5
ASSETS Notes R
Non-current assets xxx xxx
Property, plant and equipment 2 xxx xxx
Financial assets 3 xxx xxx
Notes R
Revenue 2.5 xxx xxx
Cost of sales (xxx xxx)
Inventory (1 March 20.4) xx xxx
Purchases xxx xxx
Carriage on purchases xx xxx
xxx xxx
Inventory (28 February 20.5) (xx xxx)
xxx xxx
Distribution, administrative and other expenses (xxx xxx)
Carriage on sales xx xxx
Credit losses x xxx
Entertainment x xxx
Salaries to employees xxx xxx
Telephone xx xxx
Stationery consumed x xxx
Remuneration: Accounting officer xx xxx
Depreciation 3 xx xxx
Finance costs (xx xxx)
Interest on long-term loan xx xxx
Interest on bank overdraft x xxx
It is not intended that the above layout should be applied rigidly. Additional items can
be added, if necessary. Definitions are also not rigid, but can be adapted to suit the
activities of the entity.
Chapter 15: Financial statements of a sole proprietorship 331
15.4.5 Notes
The notes to the financial statements provide additional information on the items that
appear in the financial statements. The notes present information about the basis of
the preparation of the financial statements and about the specific accounting policies
used. They disclose the information required by IFRSs (International Financial
Reporting Standards) that is not presented on the face of the statement of financial
position, statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income, statement of
changes in equity or statement of cash flows. They also provide additional information
which is not presented on the face of those statements but which is relevant to an
understanding of them. Notes must, as far as practicable, be presented in a
systematic manner. Each item on the face of the financial statements must be cross-
referenced to related information in the notes.
Notes concerning the accounting policy that the entity followed in the compilation of
the financial statements – including, among other things, the measurement basis (or
bases) and other accounting policies used that are relevant to an understanding of the
financial statements – are always required.
332 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Additional information:
1. Inventory on 28 February 20.4 amounted to R83 000.
2. No property, plant or equipment was purchased during the year.
3. The long-term borrowing is from Sun Bank and is repayable in four equal annual
payments, with the first payment on 28 February 20.5. The interest rate is 10% per
annum and is secured by a personal guarantee of the owner.
4. The owner deposited an additional amount of R5 000 during the year.
Chapter 15: Financial statements of a sole proprietorship 333
Note R
Revenue 765 000
Cost of sales (388 000)
Inventory (1 March 20.3) 72 000
Purchases 390 000
Carriage on purchases 9 000
471 000
Inventory (28 February 20.5) (83 000)
382 000
Distribution, administrative and other expenses (321 280)
Accounting fees 14 000
Advertising 10 500
Bank charges 2 800
Cleaning materials 1 800
Credit losses 3 400
Delivery charges 14 800
Depreciation 2 11 000
Entertainment 3 000
Insurance 14 800
Printing and stationery 4 300
Rent paid 72 000
Repairs and maintenance 3 880
Salaries and wages 144 000
Telephone 12 900
Vehicle expenses 8 100
Finance costs (6 720)
Interest on bank overdraft 2 900
Interest on long-term borrowing 3 820
Jackson Stores
Statement of changes in equity for the year ended 28 February 20.4
Total
equity
R
Balance as at 1 March 20.3 R(50 000 – 5 000) 45 000
Profit/Total comprehensive income for the year 54 000
Additional investment 5 000
Drawings (12 500)
Balance as at 28 February 20.4 91 500
Jackson Stores
Statement of financial position as at 28 February 20.4
Notes R
ASSETS
Non-current assets 83 000
Property, plant and equipment 3 33 000
Financial assets 4 50 000
Jackson Stores
Notes for the year ended 28 February 20.4
1. Basis of presentation
The annual financial statements have been prepared in accordance with generally
accepted accounting practice appropriate to the business of the entity. The annual
financial statements have been prepared on the historical cost basis.
2. Summary of significant accounting policies
The annual financial statements incorporate the following significant accounting
policies, which are consistent with those applied in previous years, except where
otherwise stated.
2.1 Property, plant and equipment
Property, plant and equipment are initially recognised at cost price. Machinery
and vehicles are subsequently measured at historical cost, less accumulated
depreciation and accumulated impairment losses.
Depreciation on machinery and vehicles is written off at a rate deemed to be
sufficient to reduce the carrying amount of the assets over their estimated
useful life to their estimated residual value. The depreciation rates are as
follows:
Machinery: 20% per annum according to the straight-line method.
Vehicles: 20% per annum according to the straight-line method.
Depreciation is charged to profit or loss for the period. Gains or losses on
disposal are determined by comparing the proceeds with the carrying amount
of the asset. The net amount is included in profit or loss for the period.
2.2 Financial assets
Financial assets are recognised in the entity’s statement of financial position
when the entity becomes a party to the contractual provisions of an instrument.
Financial instruments are initially measured at cost, which is fair value plus
transaction costs, except for financial assets at fair value through profit or
loss, which is measured at cost, transaction costs excluded.
The entity classifies its financial assets in the following categories: at fair value
through profit or loss; held-to-maturity; loans and receivables; and investments
in equity instruments. The entity’s classification depends on the purpose for
which the entity acquired the financial assets.
2.3 Inventories
Inventories are initially measured at cost and subsequently valued at the
lower of cost or net realisable value. Cost is calculated using the first-in, first-
out method. Net realisable value is the estimated selling price in the ordinary
course of business, less any costs of completion and disposal.
2.4 Financial liabilities
Financial liabilities are recognised in the entity’s statement of financial position
when the entity becomes a party to the contractual provisions of the instrument.
The classification depends on the purpose for which the financial liabilities
were obtained.
336 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
2.5 Revenue
Revenue is measured at the fair value of the consideration received or
receivable. Revenue from the sale of goods consists of the total net invoiced
sales, excluding value-added tax (VAT) and settlement discount granted. The
revenue from sales is recognised when the risk and rewards of ownership is
transferred to the customer.
3. Property, plant and equipment
Machinery Vehicles Total
R R R
Carrying amount: 1 March 20.3 28 000 16 000 44 000
Cost 35 000 20 000 55 000
Accumulated depreciation (7 000) (4 000) (11 000)
Depreciation for the year (7 000) (4 000) (11 000)
Carrying amount: 28 Feb 20.4 21 000 12 000 33 000
Cost 35 000 20 000 55 000
Accumulated depreciation (14 000) (8 000) (22 000)
4. Financial assets
20.4
Non-current financial assets R
Loans and receivables: Fixed deposit at AAA Bank at 10% p.a. callable
at 28 February 20.6 50 000
Current financial assets
Trade and other receivables: 53 200
Trade receivables control 56 000
Allowance for credit losses (2 800)
5. Financial liabilities
20.4
Non-current financial liabilities R
Long-term borrowings: 28 650
The mortgage was acquired from Sun Bank on 1 March 20.3 at an
interest rate of 10% per annum. The loan is repayable in four equal
annual instalments with the first instalment due on 28 February 20.5.
This loan is secured by a personal guarantee of the owner.
Long-term borrowings 38 200
Current portion of borrowings (9 550)
Current financial liabilities
Trade and other payables: 63 000
Trade payables control 63 000
Short-term borrowings 9 550
Current portion of long-term borrowings 9 550
Other financial liabilities
Financial liabilities at fair value through profit or loss 26 500
Bank overdraft 26 500
Chapter 15: Financial statements of a sole proprietorship 337
15.6 Summary
The financial statements of a sole proprietor consist of a statement of profit or loss and
other comprehensive income, a statement of changes in equity, a statement of financial
position and the accompanying notes. These financial statements must be compiled in
accordance with the accrual basis of accounting; they should be consistent and provide
a fair presentation of the financial position and financial performance of the entity.
CHAPTER 16
Non-profit entities
Contents
Page
Overview of non-profit entities ................................................................................ 341
16.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 342
16.2 Organisational and control characteristics of non-profit entities .................. 342
16.3 Sources of income for non-profit entities ...................................................... 343
16.3.1 Entrance fees................................................................................... 344
16.3.2 Membership fees ............................................................................. 344
16.3.3 Income from tuck shops, bars and restaurants............................... 347
16.3.4 Donations and bequests ................................................................. 348
16.3.5 Special funds ................................................................................... 348
16.3.5.1 Expendable fund ............................................................. 348
16.3.5.2 Non-expendable fund ..................................................... 352
16.3.5.3 The difference between the accumulated fund and
special funds ................................................................... 354
16.4 Financial reporting by non-profit entities ...................................................... 354
16.4.1 Statement of receipts and payments............................................... 354
16.4.2 Statement of income and expenditure ............................................ 355
16.4.3 Statement of changes in equity and the statement of
financial position .............................................................................. 355
16.5 Comprehensive example .............................................................................. 361
16.6 Summary ....................................................................................................... 367
339
Chapter 16: Non-profit entities 341
Financial reporting
16.1 Introduction
Study objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to prepare:
l statements of receipts and payments;
l membership fees accounts;
l fund accounts;
l trading statements;
l statements of income and expenditure;
l statements of changes in equity; and
l statements of financial position of non-profit entities.
The sole purpose of non-profit entities is to provide a service to the community. Non-
profit entities vary from small informal social clubs to sport clubs, churches, educational
institutions, government bodies and professional societies. The members are not the
owners of the entity and are not entitled to any distribution during the year or on
termination of the activities of the entity. The constitution of an entity of this nature
usually contains a clause providing that if the entity should be dissolved, its
accumulated net asset value must be transferred to another entity with similar
objectives.
Although these entities are not founded for financial gain, the term “non-profit” does
not mean they may not trade or make a profit; it means that surpluses should be used
for the benefit of the members of these entities. A non-profit entity can also, in
accordance with the Companies Act, register as a non-profit company. The main
objective of such a company would be to promote religion, art, science, charity,
education, recreation, cultural, social activities, communal or group interests. Payment
of dividends from the profits of a non-profit company is not allowed, because income
and profits must be used to promote the company’s objectives.
Non-profit entities must apply to SARS to be exempted from income tax. They must,
however, register for VAT purposes if their income (taxable supplies) exceeds or will
exceed R1 000 000 per annum and may register for VAT purposes if their income is
less than R1 000 000, but R50 000 or more per annum.
In this chapter, specific attention is given to the organisation and control of non-profit
entities, their sources of income and how information is disclosed in their financial
statements.
In smaller entities, the treasurer is likely to keep record of the cash transactions in a
statement of receipts and payments instead of using more sophisticated accounting
systems. A single-entry system is applied when the statements of receipts and
payments is the only accounting record kept. The only control is to reconcile the
deposits and payments with the bank statement to ensure that all cash receipts and
payments were recorded.
If the double-entry system is used, the normal accounting procedures are followed
with the accrual basis as underlying assumption. This means that depreciation and
adjustments are taken into account, a trial balance can be extracted and financial
statements can be compiled.
Each entity usually adopts the accounting system that best suits the requirements of
the institution or the people for whom the financial statements are drafted. For this
reason, the financial statements of an informal social club usually differ from the
statements of a university, which would be subject to more comprehensive control
systems and would have to disclose more information to enhance the usefulness of the
financial statements. However, in principle, there is no difference between the
accounts of a non-profit entity and a trading entity.
The sources of income and how they affect the funds section of the accounting
equation will be discussed in more detail in the following paragraphs.
344 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Dr Entrance fees Cr
R R
20.2 20.2
Dec 31 Accumulated fund 1 600 Jan 2 Bank 1 600
Dr Accumulated fund Cr
R R
20.2
Dec 31 Entrance fees 1 600
Example 16.2
The 16 members of the Checkmate Chess Club agreed to pay R40 membership fees
per month. At 31 December 20.2, the end of the financial year, the fees of 2 members
have been outstanding for 3 months and 5 members have already paid their fees for
January 20.3. One of the members whose fees were outstanding paid his fees in
January 20.3. The other member had a disagreement with some of the members and
joined another club. His fees were written off as irrecoverable on 30 June 20.3. In
January 20.3, 5 new members joined the club and paid their entrance fees of R100
each. At the end of December 20.3, 7 members were in arrears with their membership
fees for December 20.3 and 4 members had already paid their fees for January 20.4.
The ledger entries to record the membership fees received from January 20.2 to
December 20.2 are as follows:
Dr Bank Cr
R R
20.2
Jan 2 Entrance fees 1 600
Dec 31 Membership fees c 7 640
Calculations:
c Total number of members for 20.2 = 16
Details Calculation Received In arrears
R
16 – 2 paid in full 14 × 40 × 12 6 720
2 were in arrears for 3 months 2 × 40 × 9 720 2 × 40 × 3 = R240
5 paid in advance for 20.3 5 × 40 × 1 200
7 640
Dr Membership fees Cr
R R
20.2 20.2
Dec 31 Income received in Dec 31 Bank 7 640
advance 200 Accrued income 240
Income and
expenditure 7 680
7 880 7 880
continued
346 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
The accrued income and income received in advance accounts must be closed off
against the membership fees account at the beginning of the next financial year, to
ensure that the membership fees account for the following financial year reflects the
correct income for that year. The entries are as follows:
Dr Accrued income (membership fees) Cr
R R
20.2 20.3
Dec 31 Membership fees 240 Jan 1 Membership fees 240
The ledger entries to record the membership fees received from January 20.3 to
December 20.3 are as follows:
Dr Bank Cr
R R
20.3
Jan 2 Entrance fees 500
Dec 31 Membership fees c 9 400
Calculations:
c Total number of members for 20.3: 16 – 1 + 5 = 20
R
1 paid arrears of 3 months 1 × 40 × 3 120
20 – 7 paid in full 13 × 40 × 12 6 240
7 paid for 11 months 7 × 40 × 11 3 080 7 × 40 × 1 = R280
4 paid in advance 4 × 40 × 1 160
Received during December 20.2 (200)
9 400
continued
Chapter 16: Non-profit entities 347
Dr Membership fees Cr
R R
20.3 20.3
Jan 1 Accrued income 240 Jan 1 Income received in
Dec 31 Income received in advance 200
advance 160 Jun 30 Credit losses 120
Income and Dec 31 Bank 9 400
expenditure 9 600 Accrued income 280
10 000 10 000
The entries at 31 December 20.3 and 1 January 20.4 in the accrued income (or
accrued membership fees) and income received in advance (or membership fees
received in advance) accounts are as follows:
Dr Accrued income (membership fees) Cr
R R
20.3 20.4
Dec 31 Membership fees 280 Jan 1 Membership fees 280
Dr Membership fees Cr
R R
20.4 20.4
Jan 1 Accrued income 280 Jan 1 Income received in
advance 160
Example 16.3
On 1 July 20.2, the Chequer company donated R100 000 to the Checkmate Chess
Club on the express condition that the money be invested until enough is available to
purchase a suitable property on which to build a clubhouse and that the clubhouse be
named after the company. On the same date, a fixed deposit was made for a year at
Kings Bank at 10% interest per annum payable at the end of the year. On 30 June
20.3, the money was reinvested for another year at the same interest rate.
Chapter 16: Non-profit entities 349
On 15 June 20.4, an offer of R80 000 was made on a property. A building plan was
approved by the municipality. Tenders were acquired and Knight Builders, who
tendered to complete the building for R40 000, was appointed. On 30 June 20.4, the
property was purchased from Queens Properties, and the builders started working on
2 July 20.4. The building was completed in November 20.4, but, owing to small
changes in the plans, the total building costs amounted to R45 000. This amount was
paid by the club.
The financial year end of Checkmate Chess Club is 31 December.
The general ledger entries to record the transactions that pertain to the establishment
of the Chequer Special Fund are as follows:
Dr Bank Cr
R R
20.2 20.2
Jul 1 Special fund: Chequer Jul 1 Fixed deposit: Kings Bank 100 000
Fund 100 000
20.3 20.3
Jun 30 Special fund: Chequer Jun 30 Fixed deposit: Kings Bank 10 000
Fund (interest on fixed
deposit) 10 000
20.4 20.4
Jun 30 Special fund: Chequer Jun 30 Land and buildings
Fund (interest on fixed (Queens Properties) 80 000
deposit) 11 000 Nov 30 Land and buildings
Fixed deposit: Kings Bank 110 000 (Knight Builders) 45 000
continued
350 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Dr Accumulated fund Cr
R 20.4 R
Nov 30 Special fund: Chequer
Fund 121 000
NB: The entries in the accounts are not necessarily the only entries to date. Only the
entries that pertain to the special fund established to build a clubhouse are
reflected.
Chapter 16: Non-profit entities 351
The fund and investment will be reflected as follows on the statements of financial
position as at 31 December 20.2, 20.3 and 20.4:
Checkmate Chess Club
Statement of financial position as at 31 December 20.2
Notes R
ASSETS
Non-current assets
Financial assets: Loans and receivables: Chequer Fund:
Fixed deposit at 10% per annum at Kings Bank 100 000
Current assets
Trade and other receivables 5 000
Total assets
Total liabilities
Total funds and liabilities
Notes R
ASSETS
Non-current assets
Financial assets: Loans and receivables: Chequer Fund:
Fixed deposit at 10% per annum at Kings Bank 110 000
Current assets
Trade and other receivables 5 500
Total assets
Total liabilities
Total funds and liabilities
352 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Note R
ASSETS
Non-current assets
Property, plant and equipment 3 125 000
Total assets
10% interest per annum. The interest is calculated at the end of the year and is
received annually on 1 April. One member took part in a competition during October
20.2 in Bishops Town and his total expenses amounted to R1 450. The surplus interest
was invested on 1 April 20.3 at 10% interest per annum.
The financial year-end of Checkmate Chess Club is 31 December.
The general ledger entries to record the transactions that pertain to the establishment
of the Castle special fund are as follows:
Dr Bank Cr
20.2 R 20.2 R
Apr 1 Special fund: Castle Fund 20 000 Apr 1 Fixed deposit: Kings Bank 20 000
Oct 31 Special fund: Castle Fund
(competition expenses) 1 450
20.3 20.3
Apr 1 Special fund: Castle Fund Apr 1 Fixed deposit: Kings Bank
(interest on fixed deposit) 2 000 (surplus interest invested) 550
20.2 R R 20.2 R R
Oct 31 Bank 1 450 Apr 1 Bank (donation) 20 000
Dec 31 Balance c/d 50 20 000 Dec 31 Accrued income 1 500
1 500 20 000 1 500 20 000
20.3 20.3
Jan 1 Accrued income 1 500 Jan 1 Balance b/d 50 20 000
Apr 1 Bank (interest
income) 2 000
20.2 R R
Apr 1 Bank 20 000
20.3
Apr 1 Bank 550
20 550
354 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
16.3.5.3 The difference between the accumulated fund and special funds
The funds of non-profit entities consist of two types of funds, namely, the accumulated
fund and special funds, which can be summarised as follows:
Diagram 16.1
FUNDS
Accumulated Special
fund fund
bar facilities. The lapa was completed at the end of September 20.4. These facilities
are available for private functions at R1 000 per day, on condition that the bar supplies
any liquor needs. The lapa was let 25 times until the end of April 20.5.
Other cash receipts from 1 May 20.4 until 30 April 20.5:
R
Membership fees ......................................................................... 28 400
Bar cash sales ............................................................................. 167 460
Bar debtors .................................................................................. 48 230
Sale of old tennis balls ................................................................. 350
The following payments were made from 1 May 20.4 until 30 April 20.5:
R
Caretaker’s salary ........................................................................ 19 200
Rent deposit ................................................................................. 1 500
Rent expense ............................................................................... 19 500
Building costs of lapa .................................................................. 25 500
Wages for bar personnel ............................................................. 36 000
Payments to bar creditors ............................................................ 86 450
Glassware purchased .................................................................. 50 630
Furniture and fittings .................................................................... 27 800
General expenses ........................................................................ 4 870
Painting of tennis courts............................................................... 2 150
Tennis court nets purchased on 1 May 20.4 ............................... 7 200
Repairs to club house on 1 June 20.4 ......................................... 3 890
Tennis balls .................................................................................. 2 950
Water and electricity .................................................................... 5 810
Additional information:
1. Ten new members joined the club during the year.
2. Membership fees in arrears amounted to R700 at April 20.5, while fourteen
members paid their fees for May 20.5. R300 of the membership fees in arrears is
considered irrecoverable and must be written off.
3. Bar inventory at 30 April 20.5 amounted to R14 280.
4. Glassware was valued at R45 200 at 30 April 20.5.
5. Furniture and fittings must be depreciated at 15% per annum on the diminishing-
balance method. Furniture to the value of R5 000 was purchased on 1 May 20.4,
while the other furniture and fittings were purchased on 1 September 20.4.
6. The tennis court nets must be depreciated at 33 1/3% per annum on the cost price.
7. Bar creditors amounted to R2 670 at 30 April 20.5.
8. Members’ bar accounts amounted to R3 740 at 30 April 20.5.
Required
Prepare the following for the Action Tennis Club:
(a) The statement of receipts and payments for the year ended 30 April 20.5.
(b) The trading statement of the club’s bar for the year ended 30 April 20.5.
Chapter 16: Non-profit entities 357
(c) The membership fees account in the general ledger properly balanced at 30 April
20.5.
(d) The statement of income and expenditure for the year ended 30 April 20.5.
(e) The statement of changes in equity for the year ended 30 April 20.5.
(f) The statement of financial position as at 30 April 20.5.
(g) Show only the note on property, plant and equipment.
Solution
(a) Action Tennis Club
Statement of receipts and payments for the year ended 30 April 20.5
R
Receipts 296 940
Entrance fees R(250 × 30) 7 500
Membership fees 28 400
Donation for lapa 20 000
Letting income from lapa 25 000
Bar cash sales 167 460
Bar debtors 48 230
Sale of old tennis balls 350
Payments (293 450)
Caretaker’s salary 19 200
Rent deposit 1 500
Rent expense 19 500
Building costs of lapa 25 500
Wages for bar personnel 36 000
Payments to bar creditors 86 450
Glassware purchased 50 630
Furniture and fittings 27 800
General expenses 4 870
Painting of tennis courts 2 150
Tennis court nets 7 200
Repairs to club house 3 890
Tennis balls 2 950
Water and electricity 5 810
R
Income 161 640
Membership fees 27 700
Lapa letting income 25 000
Income from bar 108 590
Gross profit 144 590
Wages (36 000)
Sale of old tennis balls 350
Expenses (68 030)
Salaries 19 200
Rent expense R(1 500 × 12) 18 000
General expenses 4 870
Painting of tennis courts 2 150
Repairs to club house 3 890
Tennis balls 2 950
Water and electricity 5 810
Credit losses 300
Depreciation c 10 860
Calculations:
c Depreciation
R
Furniture and fittings:
R5 000 × 15% × 12/12 750
R(27 800 – 5 000) = R22 800 × 15% × 8/12 2 280
3 030
Glassware
R(50 630 – 45 200) 5 430
Tennis court nets
R7 200 × 33 1/3% × 12/12 2 400
10 860
Chapter 16: Non-profit entities 359
Additional information:
1. The Bursary Fund was established on 1 December 20.2 when C Moody donated
R50 000 on the express condition that the income from the fund may only be used
for bursaries. The money was invested on the same date at 9% interest per
362 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
annum, calculated on the last day of each year, at AZ Bank. At a meeting held on
15 July 20.2, the board of the college decided to award the interest to be earned
on the Bursary Fund in the current financial year to two students who performed
well in their first semester. The students who qualified for the bursaries were
informed of the decision and that their accounts would be credited with R2 250
each on 30 November 20.3.
2. The Library Fund was established on 1 December 20.2 when D Campbell
donated R20 000 on the express condition that only the income from the fund be
used to purchase books for the library. The money was invested on the same date
at 9% interest per annum, calculated on the last day of each financial year, with
AZ Bank. Books to the value of R20 480 were purchased on 1 February 20.3 and
to the value of R13 200 on 1 June 20.3. The interest earned on the investment was
used to pay for books purchased on 30 November 20.3.
3. On 30 November 20.3, the tuck shop inventory amounted to R2 740.
4. Depreciation must be provided for as follows:
Library books – 15% per annum on cost
Equipment – 20% per annum on the diminished balance
Vehicles – 20% per annum on the diminished balance
Required
Prepare the following for Knowledge College:
(a) The trading statement of the tuck shop for the year ended 30 November 20.3.
(b) The Moody and Campbell special fund accounts in the general ledger properly
balanced at 30 November 20.3.
(c) The statement of income and expenditure for the year ended 30 November 20.3.
(d) The statement of changes in equity for the year ended 30 November 20.3.
(e) The statement of financial position as at 30 November 20.3.
Solution
(a) Knowledge College
Tuck shop: Trading statement for the year ended 30 November 20.3
R
Revenue 125 500
Cost of sales (57 450)
Inventory (1 December 20.2) 2 350
Purchases 57 840
60 190
Inventory (30 November 20.3) (2 740)
R R R R
20.3 20.2
Nov 30 Trade receivables 4 500 Dec 1 Bank (donation) 50 000
Balance c/d 50 000 20.3
Nov 30 Bank (interest
income) 4 500
4 500 50 000 4 500 50 000
20.3
Dec 1 Balance b/d 50 000
R R R R
20.3 20.2
Nov 30 Accumulated fund c 1 800 Dec 1 Bank (donation) 20 000
Balance c/d 20 000 20.3
Nov 30 Bank (interest
income) 1 800
1 800 20 000 1 800 20 000
20.3
Dec 1 Balance b/d 20 000
c Books purchased
364 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
R
Income 1 594 590
Lecture fees 1 554 400
Income from tuck shop 38 190
Gross profit 68 050
Wages (29 860)
Donation received 2 000
Expenses (1 538 106)
Salaries 955 630
Printing and stationery 35 460
Administration costs 12 740
Water and electricity 126 440
Rent expense 240 000
Vehicle repairs and fuel 15 420
General expenses 24 560
Insurance 15 680
Telephone 17 350
Depreciation c 94 826
Calculations:
c Depreciation
Library books R
R258 640 × 15% 38 796
R20 480 × 15% × 10/12 2 560
R13 200 × 15% × 6/12 990
42 346
No depreciation is written off on the books purchased on
30/11/20.3.
Equipment
R(260 000 – 93 600) × 20% 33 280
Vehicles
R(150 000 – 54 000) × 20% 19 200
94 826
Chapter 16: Non-profit entities 365
Notes R
ASSETS
Non-current assets 457 649
Property, plant and equipment 3 387 649
Financial assets 4 70 000
Knowledge College
Notes for the year ended 30 November 20.3
1. Basis of presentation
The annual financial statements have been prepared in accordance with
International Financial Reporting Standards appropriate to the business of the
entity. The annual financial statements have been prepared on the historical cost
basis.
366 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Depreciation for the year (42 346) (33 280) (19 200) (94 826)
Carrying amount at 30 November 20.3 177 729 133 120 76 800 387 649
Cost 294 120 260 000 150 000 704 120
Accumulated depreciation (116 391) (126 880) (73 200) (316 471)
4. Financial assets
20.3
R
Non-current financial assets
Loans and receivables: 70 000
Campbell Library Fund – Fixed deposit at AZ Bank at 9% p.a. 20 000
Moody Bursary Fund – Fixed deposit at AZ Bank at 9% p.a. 50 000
Current financial assets
Trade and other receivables:
Trade receivables control 83 190
Other financial assets
Financial assets at fair value through profit or loss:
Cash and cash equivalents: 50 430
Bank 50 430
16.6 Summary
The main purpose of non-profit entities is to render a service to their members or the
community. Membership, not ownership, is usually acquired through the payment of
an entrance fee and annual subscriptions. Other forms of income may be from
donations, fund-raising projects, bequests and government subsidies. They can also
generate income by trading or borrow funds from financial institutions. A non-profit
entity has either a surplus or a deficit for a financial year. The surpluses generated by
the entity may, however, not be distributed amongst the members, but must be
applied for the benefit of the members. If there is a surplus of income over
expenditure, the surplus will be transferred to the accumulated fund account.
When funds are needed for a specific purpose, a special fund can be established. If
the fund and the income from it are intended for a specific purpose, it is referred to as
an expendable fund. When only the income from a special fund is set aside for a
368 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Contents
Page
17.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 371
17.2 Calculation of estimated profit or loss from incomplete records .................. 371
17.3 Preparation of accounts from incomplete records ....................................... 376
17.4 Comprehensive example .............................................................................. 379
17.5 Conversion to a double-entry system ........................................................... 384
17.6 Summary ....................................................................................................... 384
369
Chapter 17: Incomplete records 371
17.1 Introduction
Study objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
l calculate the profit or loss from incomplete records; and
l prepare the final accounts.
When accounting transactions have not been recorded according to the double-entry
system, the records are incomplete. Sometimes, the owners or management of small
businesses, non-profit organisations and occasionally even larger firms know very little
about basic accounting and either keep no records at all or keep some records on a
single-entry basis. Incomplete records also occur when financial data has been lost,
stolen or destroyed by fire. A thorough knowledge of the accounting concepts taught
up to now is necessary to calculate profit or loss and to prepare accounts from
incomplete records.
Where there are no ledger accounts, the value of all the assets and liabilities can be
determined in the following ways:
l By referring to the original purchase contracts, the cost price of non-current assets
can be determined. When calculating the value of non-current assets at the end of
a period, start with the amount determined for the beginning of the period. Any
additional assets bought during the period must be added to this amount and
disposals must be subtracted. The value thus determined will be the value of the
non-current assets at the end of the period.
l One can use invoices, credit notes, debit notes and receipts to establish the
amount that debtors owe the business. These documents must be carefully
scrutinised to ascertain all amounts owing by debtors. Any settlement discount
granted and credit losses must also be included.
372 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
l By counting the cash on hand and referring to the bank statements, bank deposit
books and EFT summaries, cash and cash equivalents can be determined.
l By consulting the original agreements of non-current liabilities one can find out the
details. Any repayments made or new loans incurred must be taken into account
when determining these liabilities.
l One can determine amounts owing to creditors by referring to invoices, credit
notes, debit notes, EFT summaries and other documentation. These amounts
should be compared to the monthly statements received from creditors to verify
correctness.
The profit or loss for the period can be calculated by subtracting the equity at the
beginning of the period from the equity at the end of the period. Adjustments must
then be made for any income or expenditure not yet accounted for and for drawings or
additional capital contributions made by the owner(s). The following formula can be
used:
Equity at the end of the period (before adjustments)
minus
equity at the beginning of the period
plus
income not yet accounted for
minus
expenses not yet accounted for
plus
drawings
minus
additional capital contributions
equals
estimated net profit or loss for period.
For obvious reasons, this method of calculating profit or loss is not very satisfactory
and must only be used where inadequate accounting data is available. It is, however,
used by SARS to determine the income of taxpayers who have not kept proper
records.
Example 17.1
On 1 March 20.1, J John started a small business, Julian’s Jams. On the same day, he
deposited R50 000 into the business bank account. He also contributed a delivery
vehicle valued at R35 000.
Chapter 17: Incomplete records 373
J John did not keep proper records for the year and asks you to help him determine
his profit or loss. After thorough investigation of the assets and liabilities for the year
ended 28 February 20.2, you find the following:
R
Delivery vehicle 35 000
Furniture and equipment 15 000
Inventory 12 500
Debtors 3 200
Bank 26 700
Creditors 1 700
Additional information:
(a) Depreciation must be provided for as follows:
R
Delivery vehicle 7 000
Furniture and equipment 625
(b) J John took R2 000 per month for own use.
Required
Calculate the profit or loss of Julian’s Jams for the year ended 28 February 20.2.
Solution
Step 1 Prepare a statement of assets and liabilities for the beginning of the financial
period.
Julian’s Jams
Statement of assets and liabilities as at 1 March 20.1
R
Assets
Delivery vehicle 35 000
Bank 50 000
Total assets 85 000
Liabilities –
Total liabilities –
Julian’s Jams
Statement of assets and liabilities as at 28 February 20.2
R
Assets
Delivery vehicle 35 000
Furniture and equipment 15 000
Inventory 12 500
Debtors 3 200
Bank 26 700
Step 4 Calculate the equity, before adjustments, as at the end of the period.
Equity = Assets – Liabilities
= R92 400 – R1 700
= R90 700
Step 5 Calculate the estimated profit or loss for the financial period.
R
Equity as at 28 February 20.2 (before adjustments) 90 700
Equity as at 1 March 20.1 (85 000)
5 700
Adjustments: Depreciation R(7 000 + 625) (7 625)
Drawings R(2 000 × 12) 24 000
Estimated profit for the year 22 075
Example 17.2
L Lennon is running a small business from home. He knows nothing about bookkeep-
ing and just uses a notebook to record amounts payable and amounts receivable. He
asks for your assistance in calculating his profit for the year. After thorough
investigation, you establish the following:
Balances:
30 April 1 May
20.1 20.0
R R
Loan: Y Yoko 30 000 30 000
Equipment 40 000 40 000
Inventory 21 500 18 700
Debtors 5 000 6 100
Bank (favourable) 3 900 2 400
Creditors 6 600 7 300
Chapter 17: Incomplete records 375
Additional information:
1. The telephone account of R220 for April 20.1 has not yet been taken into account.
2. Interest of 14% per annum payable on the loan from Y Yoko has not yet been
taken into account.
3. The equipment must be depreciated by R10 000 for the year.
4. During the year, L Lennon took R36 000 for own use.
Required
Calculate the profit or loss of L Lennon for the year ended 30 April 20.1.
Solution
L Lennon
Statement of assets and liabilities as at 1 May 20.0
Assets R
Equipment 40 000
Inventory 18 700
Debtors 6 100
Bank 2 400
Total assets 67 200
Liabilities
Loan: Y Yoko 30 000
Creditors 7 300
Total liabilities 37 300
L Lennon
Statement of assets and liabilities as at 30 April 20.1
Assets R
Equipment 40 000
Inventory 21 500
Debtors 5 000
Bank 3 900
Total assets 70 400
Liabilities
Loan: Y Yoko 30 000
Creditors 6 600
Total liabilities 36 600
R
Equity as at 30 April 20.1 (before adjustments) 33 800
Equity as at 1 May 20.0 (29 900)
3 900
Adjustments: Telephone expense (220)
Adjustments: Interest expense (R30 000 × 14%) (4 200)
Adjustments: Depreciation (10 000)
Adjustments: Drawings 36 000
Estimated profit for the year 25 480
* Balancing figure
Similarly, the money actually received from debtors during the financial period can be
used to ascertain the sales figure.
We can now calculate the sales for the period:
Dr Total debtors Cr
R R
20.0 20.1
Feb 1 Balances b/d Jan 31 Bank 30 800
Debtors 14 500 Balances c/d
Debtors 12 900
20.1
Jan 31 Sales* 29 200
43 700 43 700
20.1
Feb Balances b/d
Debtors 12 900
* Balancing figure
Step 5
It seldom, if ever, occurs that the total inflow and total outflow of cash are equal to the
total income and total expenses of the current financial period. There are non-cash
transactions, for example credit losses, depreciation, settlement discount granted and
received, accruals and prepayments at the end of a financial period. The actual
income or expenditure that must be shown on the statement of financial performance
will therefore have to be calculated. The following example will explain the procedure.
378 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Example 17.4
R Ringo runs a small business in the shopping centre near his home. The following
information relates to the year ended 30 April 20.1:
R
Rent paid 22 000
Interest received 1 375
You ascertain that the rent payable for the period amounted to R2 000 per month, for
the full year.
R Ringo informs you that interest income of R375, payable on 30 April 20.1, has not yet
been received. You also discover that interest income of R250, received on 4 May
20.0, was for the previous financial period.
The rent expense to be shown on the statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income is calculated as follows:
Dr Rent expense Cr
R R
20.1 20.1
Apr 30 Bank 22 000 Apr 30 Profit or loss 24 000
Accrued
expenses 2 000
24 000 24 000
The balance of R24 000 on the rent expense account is the total rent expense for the
financial year ended 30 April 20.1. This is the amount that must be debited in the profit
or loss account and shown as an expense on the statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income.
The interest income to be shown on the statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income is calculated as follows:
Dr Interest income Cr
R R
20.0 20.1
May 1 Accrued income 250 Apr 30 Bank 1 375
20.1 Accrued income 375
Apr 30 Profit or loss 1 500
1 750 1 750
The balance of R1 500 on the interest income account is the amount that must be
credited in the profit or loss account and must be shown as an income on the
statement of financial performance.
Step 6
Post all the other items to the ledger accounts and prepare a trial balance.
Step 7
Prepare the financial statements.
Chapter 17: Incomplete records 379
Solution
Pattie’s Pastries
Statement of assets and liabilities as at 1 October 20.0
R
Assets
Equipment 15 500
Shop-fittings 23 000
Inventory 8 500
Debtors 3 150
Bank 4 300
Total assets 54 450
Liabilities
Creditors 17 300
Total liabilities 17 300
Dr Bank Cr
R R
20 20.1
Oct 1 Balance b/d 4 300 Sep 30 Creditors 13 290
20.1 Insurance 800
Sep 30 Cash sales 48 670 Rent expense 19 800
Debtors 7 700 Municipal
Balance c/d 580 expenses 5 090
Telephone
expense 2 710
Sundry expenses 4 560
Drawings 15 000
61 250 61 250
Oct 1 Balance b/d 580
Dr Total debtors Cr
R R
20 20.1
Oct 1 Balances b/d Sep 30 Bank 7 700
Debtors 3 150 Balances c/d
Debtors 3 100
Sep 30 Credit sales* 7 650
10 800 10 800
Oct 1 Balances b/d
Debtors 3 100
Dr Total creditors Cr
R R
20.1 20
Sep 30 Bank 13 290 Oct 1 Balance b/d 17 300
Balance c/d 14 300 20.1
Sep 30 Purchases* 10 290
27 590 27 590
Oct 1 Balance b/d 14 300
* Balancing figure
Dr Insurance Cr
R R
20.1 20.1
Sep 30 Bank 800 Sep 30 Prepaid
expenses 200
Profit or loss 600
800 800
Calculation:
Insurance for 12 months (1 January – 31 December 20.1) = R800
Insurance per month R800/12 = R66,67
∴ insurance for 9 months (1 January – 30 September 20.1) = R600
Dr Rent expense Cr
R R
20.1 20.1
Sep 30 Bank 19 800 Sep 30 Profit or loss 21 600
Accrued
expenses 1 800
21 600 21 600
R R
Capital 37 150
Drawings 15 000
Equipment 15 500
Shop-fittings 23 000
Accumulated depreciation: Equipment 3 100
Accumulated depreciation: Shop-fittings 5 750
Debtors control 3 100
Creditors control 14 300
Inventory – 1 October 20.0 8 500
Bank overdraft 580
Prepaid expense 200
Accrued expense 1 800
Sales R(48 670 + 7 650) 56 320
Purchases 10 290
Insurance 600
Rent expense 21 600
Municipal expenses 5 090
Telephone expense 2 710
Sundry expenses 4 560
Depreciation 8 850
119 000 119 000
R
Revenue 56 320
Cost of sales (9 690)
Inventory: 1 October 20.0 8 500
Purchases 10 290
18 790
Inventory: 30 September 20.1 (9 100)
Gross profit 46 630
Distribution, administrative and other expenses (43 410)
Insurance 600
Rent expense 21 600
Municipal expenses 5 090
Telephone expense 2 710
Sundry expenses 4 560
Depreciation 8 850
17.6 Summary
Incomplete records occur when transactions have not been recorded using the
double-entry system. If the double-entry system has not been used, the profit or loss
for a period can be calculated using the BAE. It is also possible to prepare accounts
from incomplete records and then to prepare financial statements based on these
accounts.
Index
Page Page
A Assets (continued)
Accounting scrapping or disposal ........................... 265
balancing an account ............................. 61 trading-in ............................................... 271
basic accounting equation ...................... 27 Auditing Profession Act 26 of 2005 .............. 6
cycle ...................................................... 130
B
definition .............................................. 4, 13
developments ............................................ 5 Balancing an account ................................. 61
domains ................................................... 14 trial balance ............................................. 65
function ...................................................... 6 Bank accounts .................................. 169–172
history .................................................... 5–6 balances ........................................ 174, 180
process.................................................... 13 credit memos......................................... 173
study of ...................................................... 5 debit memos .......................................... 173
tax liabilities ............................................. 97 interest ................................................... 180
Accounts opening of ............................................. 169
balancing................................................. 61 Bank charges ............................................ 179
incomplete records ............................... 369 Bank reconciliations.......................... 181–185
Accrued expenses.................................... 123 Bank statements ............................... 172–173
Accrued income ....................................... 119 Basic accounting equation ................... 27, 47
Adjustments effect of transactions on .......................... 47
consumables ......................................... 116 Borrowings ................................................ 314
credit losses .......................................... 118
C
purpose of ............................................. 112
recording ............................................... 114 Cash and cash equivalents ...................... 163
Allowances........................................ 144, 209 definition ................................................ 166
Assembling costs ..................................... 144 internal control ............................... 167–169
Asset accounts ........................................... 55 measurement and disclosure ................ 194
Assets ......................................................... 11 Cash equivalents ........................................ 12
affect of transactions ............................... 53 Cash flows .................................................. 12
classification .......................................... 253 Cash payments journal ............................... 82
costs incurred after acquisition ..... 256–257 Cash receipts journal .................................. 75
current ..................................................... 24 Cheques ................................................... 172
definition .......................................... 24, 285 damaged ............................................... 187
in financial statements ..................... 11, 277 lost ......................................................... 187
intangible ....................................... 253, 285 outdated ................................................ 187
internal control ....................................... 274 petty cash .............................................. 191
measurement......................................... 288 referred to drawer (dishonoured) .......... 186
natural resources................................... 255 Closing entries .................................. 130, 137
nature of ................................................ 252 Closing inventory ...................................... 145
non-current .............................................. 24 Closing-off procedures
sale of .................................................... 268 service entity ......................................... 130
385
386 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Page Page
Closing-off procedures (continued) Depreciation (continued)
trading entity.......................................... 137 definitions .............................................. 257
Column headings........................................ 76 income tax ............................................. 274
Comparability land and buildings................................. 265
financial information ................................ 16 methods ................................................. 273
Consumable inventory on hand ................ 116 necessity of ........................................... 258
Cost of sales ............................................. 137 recording of ........................................... 260
Costs Discounts .................................................. 144
assembling ............................................ 144 settlement ..............................200, 205, 304
current ..................................................... 18 tax liability .............................................. 201
historical .................................................. 18 terms ...................................................... 200
mark-up ................................................. 139 Dishonoured cheques .............................. 186
transport ................................................ 144 Double-entry system ........................... 27, 384
Credit
cards ..................................................... 223 E
debtors .................................................. 222 Electronic data transfer............................. 172
terms...................................................... 200 Entities
transactions ........................................... 200 definition ............................................ 7, 130
Credit journals............................................. 87
Equity .......................................................... 11
Credit losses
affect of transactions ............................... 54
allowance for ......................................... 208
definition .................................................. 26
measurement of debtors ....................... 207
influence of loss....................................... 37
recording of ........................................... 209
influence of profit ..................................... 37
recovery of............................................. 219
statement of changes .................... 135, 331
tax liability .............................................. 220
Equity accounts .......................................... 55
writing off ............................................... 215
Equity statements ....................................... 11
Creditors, internal control ......................... 306
Errors
Creditors control account ......................... 300
not revealed by trial balance ................... 66
Current bank accounts ............................. 169
revealed by trial balance ......................... 66
Current liabilities
accrued expenses................................. 305 tracing errors ........................................... 67
disclosure .............................................. 300 Estimated profit or loss ............................. 371
long-term borrowings ............................ 305 Expense accounts ...................................... 56
measurement......................................... 299 Expenses
recognition............................................. 299 accrued ......................................... 123, 305
VAT payable .......................................... 305 definition .................................................. 36
prepaid .................................................. 123
D
F
Debentures ............................................... 319
Debit orders .............................................. 180 Financial accounting................................... 14
Debtors Financial assets
control account...................................... 224 categories .............................................. 287
credit balance ....................................... 222 definitions .............................................. 288
disclosure in financial statements ......... 222 measurement......................................... 288
internal control of ................................... 223 recording and disclosure of .................. 288
measurement of..................................... 207 Financial information ........................... 4, 8, 14
Deposits .................................... 170–171, 181 comparability ........................................... 16
Depreciation ............................................. 114 relevance ............................................... 326
calculation of ......................................... 260 users of ...................................................... 9
Index 387
Page Page
Financial instruments Intangible assets............................... 253, 256
categories.............................................. 287 Interest .............................................. 180, 181
definitions .............................................. 286 International Accounting Standards
equity instrument ................................... 286 Board....................................................... 4
financial liability ..................................... 287 Inventory
investments ........................................... 289 cost of ............................................ 238, 240
Financial performance .................... 10, 35–43 disclosure .............................................. 241
Financial period .......................................... 24 first in, first out ....................................... 239
Financial position .................... 11, 28–32, 136 measurement of..................................... 237
Financial statements nature of ................................................ 236
assets .............................................. 11, 277 systems ...................................88, 138, 141
cash ...................................................... 194 valuing ........................................... 239, 245
characteristics ................................... 15–17 Investments ....................................... 289, 291
disclosure of debtors............................. 222
elements of .......................... 17–19, 24, 328 L
financial position........ 11, 29, 136, 328, 355 Land .......................................................... 253
information in ................................... 16, 326 depreciation .......................................... 265
objectives .................................... 10, 15, 24 Ledger accounts......................................... 54
quality of ............................................ 15–16 Legal ownership ....................................... 252
relevance of ..................................... 15, 326 Liabilities ..................................................... 25
timeliness......................................... 17, 327 affect of transactions ......................... 53, 54
trading entity, of..................................... 148 Liability accounts ........................................ 55
Financial statements of sole proprietors Liquidity .................................................... 166
notes ...................................................... 331 Loss accounts........................................... 131
purpose and composition ..................... 326 Losses
statement of changes in equity ............. 331
definition .................................................. 36
statement of financial position ............... 328
estimated loss ....................................... 371
statement of profit or loss ...................... 330
measurement of debtors ....................... 207
First in, first out.......................................... 240
statement of ............................................. 38
Folio columns .............................................. 78
M
G
Management accounting ............................ 14
General journal ........................................... 93
Mark-up ............................................. 139, 147
General ledger ...................................... 54, 74
Membership
Going concern
non-profit entities ................................... 344
assumption ...................................... 14, 326
Mortgages ................................................. 314
Gross profit ............................................... 147
N
I
Import duties ............................................. 144 Natural resources ..................................... 255
Imprest system ......................................... 191 Net realisable value .................................. 241
Income Nominal accounts ..................................... 131
accounts .................................................. 56 Non-cash transactions ................................ 77
accrued ......................................... 119, 344 Non-current assets ...................253, 254, 283
definition .................................................. 36 depreciation .......................................... 258
received in advance ...................... 119, 121 internal control ....................................... 274
statement of profit or loss ...................... 330 purchase of ........................................... 253
Incomplete records................................... 371 Non-current liabilities .......................... 26, 311
Input tax ...................................................... 96 Non-expendable funds ............................. 352
388 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Page Page
Non-profit entities Sales journal
characteristics ....................................... 342 design of .................................................. 91
financial reporting.................................. 354 objective of .............................................. 91
income, sources of ................ 344, 347, 348 Sales returns journal ................................... 91
membership .......................................... 344 Scrapping of assets .................................. 265
Service entity
O
closing procedure ................................. 130
Output tax ................................................... 97 profit or loss account ............................. 131
Ownership
statement of changes in equity ............. 135
legal ....................................................... 252
statement of financial position ............... 136
P statement of profit or loss and other
Periodic inventory system ........... 88, 141, 145 comprehensive income...................... 134
Perpetual inventory system......... 88, 138, 145 Services
Petty cash ................................................. 191 definition .................................................. 95
cheques................................................. 191 Settlement discounts ..................89, 144, 304
imprest system ...................................... 191 Shares ....................................................... 291
Petty cash journal ............................. 191–192 adjustments ........................................... 292
Posting ........................................................ 74 Source documents................................ 54, 74
Prepaid expenses ..................................... 123 South African Institute of Chartered
Profit Accountants ............................................ 4
accounts ................................................ 131 Statement of assets and liabilities ............ 373
definition .................................................. 10 Statement of cash flows .............................. 13
determination......................................... 137 Statement of changes in equity ..11, 135, 355
estimated profit...................................... 371 Statement of financial position ............ 11, 135
gross...................................................... 147 Statement of income and expenditure...... 355
influence on equities ............................... 37 Statement of profit or loss ............... 10, 38–40
statement of ................................. 10, 36–40 Stop orders ............................................... 180
Property, plant and equipment Subsidiary journals
see also assets .............................. 249–251 design and use of.................................... 74
Provisions.................................................. 306 purpose of ............................................... 74
Purchases account ................................... 141 Supply
Purchases journal ............................... 87, 300 definition .................................................. 95
design of.................................................. 88
objective .................................................. 87 T
Purchases returns journal ........... 89, 144, 301 Tax liabilities .......................96, 201, 220, 305
R accounting procedures ........................... 97
depreciation .......................................... 274
Recognition of current liabilities ............... 299
Taxable supplies
Reconciliation
definition .................................................. 95
procedure .............................................. 175
Temporary accounts ................................. 131
statements ............................................. 174
Recovery of credit losses ......................... 219 Timeliness ................................................... 17
Residual value .......................................... 259 Trade discounts .......................................... 88
Revenue Trading entity
examples of ............................................. 36 closing procedure ................................. 137
cost of sales .......................................... 137
S financial statements............................... 148
Sales gross profit percentage ......................... 147
of assets ........................................ 268, 270 statement of changes in equity ............. 135
cost of .................................................... 137 statement of financial position ............... 136
Index 389
Page Page
Transport costs ......................................... 144 V
Trial balance ............................................... 65 Value ........................................................... 18
errors ................................................. 66–67 Value-Added Tax Act 89 of 1991................ 94
post-adjustment..................................... 126 VAT .............................94, 201, 220, 221, 305
Transactions Vendor
asset accounts ........................................ 53 definition .................................................. 95
effect on basic accounting W
equation ............................................... 47 Writing off
ledger accounts ...................................... 54 credit losses .................................. 118, 215
recording of ....................................... 47–61 recovery of losses ................................. 219