Material property data for

engineering materials

Mike Ashby

Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge

5th edition, October 2021

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 Physical constants in SI units
Physical constant Value in SI units
Absolute zero temperature -273.2 0C
Acceleration due to gravity, g 9.807 m/s2
Avogadro’s number, NA 6.022x1023 -
Base of natural logarithms, e 2.718 -
Boltzmann’s constant, k 1.381x10-23 J/K
Faraday’s constant k 9.648x104 C/mol
Gas constant, 8.314 J/mol-K
Permeability of vacuum, μo 1.257x10-6 H/m
Permittivity of vacuum, ɛo 8.854x10-12 F/m
Planck’s constant, h 6.626x10-34 J/s
Velocity of light in vacuum, c 2.998x108 m/s
Volume of perfect gas at STP 22.41x10-3 m3/mol

Conversion of units, general

Quantity Imperial Unit SI Unit
Angle, θ 1 rad 57.300
Density, ρ 1 lb/ft3 16.03 kg/m3
Diffusion coefficient, D 1cm3/s 1.0 x 10-4m2/s
Energy, U See inside back cover
Force, F 1 kgf 9.807 N
1 lbf 4.448 N
1 dyne 1.0 x 10-5N
Length, l 1 ft 304.8 mm
1 inch 25.40 mm
1Å 0.1 nm
Mass, M 1 tonne 1000 kg
1 short ton 908 kg
1 long ton 1107 kg
1 lb mass 0.454 kg
Power, P See inside back cover
Stress, σ See inside back cover
Specific heat, Cp 1 cal/gal.0C 4.188 kJ/kg.0C
Btu/0F 4.187 kg/kg.0C
Stress intensity, K1c 1 ksi √in 1.10 MN/m3/2
Surface energy γ 1 erg/cm2 1 mJ/m2
Temperature, T 10F 0.556 K
Thermal conductivity λ 1 cal/s.cm.0C 418.8 W/m.0C
1 Btu/h.ft.0F 1.731 W/m.0C
Volume, V 1 Imperial gall 4.546 x 10-3m3
1 US gall 3.785 x 10-3m3
Viscosity, η 1 poise 0.1 N.s/m2
1 lb ft.s 0.1517 N.s/m2

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Table of Contents

Table A1. Material names and applications................................................................ 3

Table A2. Density and Price........................................................................................ 6
Table A3. Young’s modulus and yield strength........................................................... 9
Table A4. Tensile strength and Fracture toughness.................................................... 12
Table A5. Melting Temperature, Glass temperature, and specific heat...................... 15
Table A6. Thermal conductivity and thermal expansion............................................ 18

Data for engineering materials

This booklet lists the names and typical applications common engineering materials, together with data
for their properties.

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Table A1. Material names and applications

Polymers Applications
Elastomers
Butyl Rubber Tires, seals, anti-vibration mountings, electrical insulation, tubing
Ethylene-vinyl-acetate EVA Bags, films, packaging, gloves, insulation, running shoes
Isoprene IR Tyres, inner tubes, insulation, tubing, shoes
Natural Rubber NR Gloves, tyres, electrical insulation, tubing
Polychloroprene (Neoprene) CR Wetsuits, O-rings and seals, footwear
Polyurethane Elastomers el-PU Packaging, hoses, adhesives, fabric coating
Silicone Elastomers Electrical insulation, electronic encapsulation, medical implants
Thermoplastics
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene ABS Communication appliances, automotive interiors, luggage, toys,
boats
Cellulose Polymers CA Tool and cutlery handles, decorative trim, pens
Ionomer I Packaging, golf balls, blister packs, bottles
Polyamides (Nylons) PA Gears, bearings; plumbing, packaging, bottles, fabrics, textiles, ropes
Polycarbonate PC Safety goggles, shields, helmets; light fittings, medical components
Polyetheretherketone PEEK Electrical connectors, racing car parts, fiber composites
Polyethylene PE Packaging, bags, squeeze tubes, toys, artificial joints
Polyethylene terephthalate PET Blow molded bottles, film, audio/video tape, sails
Polymethyl methacrylate PMMA Aircraft windows, lenses, reflectors, lights, compact discs
Polyoxymethylene (Acetal) POM Zips, domestic and appliance parts, handles
Polypropylene PP Ropes, garden furniture, pipes, kettles, electrical insulation, Astroturf
Polystyrene PS Toys, packaging, cutlery, audio cassette/CD cases
Polyurethane Thermoplastics tp-PU Cushioning, seating, shoe soles, hoses, car bumpers, insulation
Polyvinylchloride PVC Pipes, gutters, window frames, packaging
Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) PTFE Non-stick coatings, bearings, skis, electrical insulation, tape

Thermosets
Epoxies EP Adhesives, fiber composites, electronic encapsulation
Phenolics PHEN Electrical plugs, sockets, cookware, handles, adhesives
Polyester PEST Furniture, boats, sports goods

Polymer Foams
Flexible Polymer Foam Packaging, buoyancy, cushioning, sponges, sleeping mats
Rigid Polymer Foam Thermal insulation, sandwich panels, packaging, buoyancy

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 Metals Applications
Ferrous metals
Cast Irons Automotive parts, engine blocks, machine tool structural parts, lathe beds

High Carbon Steels Cutting tools, springs, bearings, cranks, shafts, railway track

Medium Carbon Steels General mechanical engineering (tools, bearings, gears, shafts, bearings)

Low Carbon Steels Steel structures (“mild steel”) – bridges, oil rigs, ships; reinforcement for concrete;
automotive parts, car body panels; galvanized sheet; packaging (cans, drums)
Low Alloy Steels Springs, tools, ball bearings, automotive parts (gears connecting rods etc)

Stainless Steels Transport, chemical and food processing plant, nuclear plant, domestic ware (cutlery,
washing machines, stoves), surgical implements, pipes, pressure vessels, liquid gas
containers
Non-ferrous metals
Aluminum alloys
Casting alloys Automotive parts (cylinder blocks), domestic appliances (irons)
Non-heat-treatable alloys Electrical conductors, heat exchangers, foil, tubes, saucepans, beverage cans,
lightweight ships, architectural panels
Heat-treatable alloys Aerospace engineering, automotive bodies and panels, lightweight structures and ships
Copper alloys Electrical conductors and wire, electronic circuit boards, heat exchangers, boilers,
cookware, coinage, sculptures
Lead alloys Roof and wall cladding, solder, X-ray shielding, battery electrodes
Magnesium alloys Automotive castings, wheels, general lightweight castings for transport, nuclear fuel
containers; principal alloying addition to aluminum alloys
Nickel alloys Gas turbines and jet engines, thermocouples, coinage; alloying addition to austenitic
stainless steels
Titanium alloys Aircraft turbine blades; general structural aerospace applications; biomedical implants.

Zinc alloys Die castings (automotive, domestic appliances, toys, handles); coating on galvanized
steel

Natural materials Applications

Bamboo Building, scaffolding, paper, ropes, baskets, furniture
Cork Corks and bungs, seals, floats, packaging, flooring
Leather Shoes, clothing, bags, drive-belts

Wood Construction, flooring, doors, furniture, packaging, sports goods

Composites Applications
Aluminum/Silicon Carbide Automotive parts, sports goods
CFRP Lightweight structural parts (aerospace, bike frames, sports goods, boat hulls and oars,
springs)
GFRP Boat hulls, automotive parts, chemical plant

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 Ceramics Applications
Glasses
Borosilicate Glass Ovenware, laboratory ware, headlights

Glass Ceramic Cookware, lasers, telescope mirrors

Silica Glass High performance windows, crucibles, high temperature applications

Soda-Lime Glass Windows, bottles, tubing, light bulbs, pottery glazes

Technical
Alumina Cutting tools, spark plugs, microcircuit substrates, valves

Aluminum Nitride Microcircuit substrates and heat sinks

Boron Carbide Lightweight armor, nozzles, dies, precision tool parts

Silicon Microcircuits, semiconductors, precision instruments, IR windows, MEMS

Silicon Carbide High temperature equipment, abrasive polishing grits, bearings, armor

Silicon Nitride Bearings, cutting tools, dies, engine parts

Tungsten Carbide Cutting tools, drills, abrasives

Non-technical
Brick Buildings
Concrete General civil engineering construction

Stone Buildings, architecture, sculpture

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Table A2. Density and Price

Polymers Density (kg/m3) Price (US$/kg)

Elastomers Butyl rubber (IIR) 900 - 920 3.9 - 4.5
Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) 950 - 960 2.3 - 2.5
Natural rubber 920 - 930 3.5 - 3.9
Polychloroprene (Neoprene) 1,200 - 1,300 5.3 - 5.9
Polyisoprene rubber 930 - 940 3.2 - 3.6
Polyurethane 1,000 - 1,300 4.1 - 4.6
Silicone elastomers 1,300 - 1,800 11 - 13

Thermoplastics Acrylonitrile butadiene 1,000 - 1,200 2.4 - 2.7

styrene (ABS)
Cellulose polymers (CA) 980 - 1,300 4.1 - 4.5
Ionomer (I) 930 - 960 3.2 - 4.2
Polyamides (Nylons, PA) 1,100 4.1 - 4.5
Polycarbonate (PC) 1,100 - 1,200 4.6 - 5.1
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) 1,300 94 - 100
Polyethylene (PE) 940 - 960 2.1 - 2.3
Polyethylene terephthalate 1,300 - 1,400 2.1 - 2.3
(PET)
Polymethyl methacrylate 1,200 2.7 - 3
(Acrylic, PMMA)
Polyoxymethylene (Acetal, 1,400 3 - 3.3
POM)
Polypropylene (PP) 890 - 910 2.1 - 2.4
Polystyrene (PS) 1,000 - 1,100 2.8 - 3.5
Polytetrafluoroethylene 2,100 - 2,200 15 - 17
(Teflon, PTFE)
Polyurethane (tpPUR) 1,100 - 1,200 4.1 - 4.6
Polyvinylchloride (tpPVC) 1,300 - 1,600 2 - 2.2

Thermosets Epoxies 1,100 - 1,400 2.2 - 2.5

Phenolics 1,200 - 1,300 1.7 - 1.9
Polyester 1,000 - 1,400 3.8 - 4.3

Foams Flexible Polymer Foam (LD) 38 - 70 2.6 - 2.9

Flexible Polymer Foam (MD) 70 - 120 2.8 - 3.1
Rigid Polymer Foam (HD) 170 - 470 15 - 17
Rigid Polymer Foam (LD) 36 - 70 15 - 17

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 Metals Density (kg/m3) Price (US$/kg)
Ferrous metals Cast iron, ductile (nodular) 7,100 - 7,300 0.54 - 0.6
Cast iron, gray 7,100 - 7,300 0.45 - 0.5
High carbon steel 7,800 - 7,900 0.52 - 0.58
Low alloy steel 7,800 - 7,900 0.56 - 0.62
Low carbon steel 7,800 - 7,900 0.52 - 0.58
Medium carbon steel 7,800 - 7,900 0.52 - 0.58
Stainless steel 7,600 - 8,100 5.9 - 6.5

Non-ferrous Aluminum alloys 2,500 - 2,900 2.1 - 2.3

Copper alloys 8,900 7.1 - 7.8
Lead alloys 10,000 – 11,000 6.9 - 7.6
Magnesium alloys 1,700 – 2,000 3.1 - 3.4
Nickel alloys 8,800 – 9,000 17 - 19
Silver 10,000 – 10,100 650 - 710
Tin 7,300 23 - 25
Titanium alloys 4,400 - 4,800 22 - 25
Tungsten alloys 10,800 – 20,000 51 - 57
Zinc alloys 5000 - 7000 2.4 - 2.6

Natural Density (kg/m3) Price (US$/kg)

Cork 120 - 240 2.7 - 13
Paper and cardboard 480 - 860 0.99 - 1.2
Wood, typical across grain 660 - 800 0.66 - 0.73
Wood, typical along grain 600 - 800 0.66 - 0.73

Composites Density (kg/m3) Price (US$/kg)

CFRP, epoxy matrix (isotropic) 1,500 - 1,600 37 - 42

GFRP, epoxy matrix (isotropic) 1,800 – 2,000 24 - 34

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 Ceramics
Glasses Borosilicate glass 2,200 - 2,300 4.5 - 7.5
Silica glass 2,200 6.2 - 10
Soda-lime glass 2,400 - 2,500 1.4 - 1.7

Technical ceramics Alumina 3,800 - 400 18 - 27

Aluminum nitride 3,300 100 - 170
Silicon 2,300 - 2,400 9.1 - 15
Silicon carbide 3,100 - 3,200 15 - 21
Tungsten carbides 10,500 – 10,600 19 - 29

Non-technical ceramics Brick 1,600 - 2,100 0.62 - 1.7

Concrete 2,300 - 2,600 0.04 – 0.06
Stone 2,000 - 2,600 0.41 - 0.62

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Table A3. Young’s modulus and yield strength

Polymers Young’s modulus (GPa) Yield strength (MPa)

Elastomers Butyl rubber (IIR) 0.001 – 0.002 2-3
Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) 0.01 – 0.04 12 - 18
Natural rubber 0.0015 – 0.0025 20 - 30
Polychloroprene (Neoprene) 0.0007 – 0.002 3.4 - 24
Polyisoprene rubber 0.0014 – 0.004 20 - 25
Polyurethane 0.002 – 0.030 25 - 51
Silicone elastomers 0.005 – 0.022 2.4 - 5.5

Thermoplastics Acrylonitrile butadiene 1.1 - 2.9 19 - 51

styrene (ABS)
Cellulose polymers (CA) 1.6 - 2 25 - 45
Ionomer (I) 0.2 - 0.42 8.3 - 16
Polyamides (Nylons, PA) 2.6 - 3.2 50 - 95
Polycarbonate (PC) 2 - 2.4 59 - 70
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) 3.8 - 4 65 - 95
Polyethylene (PE) 0.62 - 0.9 18 - 29
Polyethylene terephthalate 2.8 - 4.1 57 - 62
(PET)
Polymethyl methacrylate 2.2 - 3.8 54 - 72
(Acrylic, PMMA)
Polyoxymethylene (Acetal, 2.5 - 5 49 - 72
POM)
Polypropylene (PP) 0.9 - 1.6 21 - 37
Polystyrene (PS) 1.2 - 2.6 29 - 56
Polytetrafluoroethylene 0.4 - 0.55 15 - 25
(Teflon, PTFE)
Polyurethane (tpPUR) 1.3 - 2.1 40 - 54
Polyvinylchloride (tpPVC) 2.1 - 4.1 35 - 52

Thermosets Epoxies 2.4 - 3.1 36 - 72

Phenolics 2.8 - 4.8 28 - 50
Polyester 2.1 - 4.4 33 - 40

Foams Flexible Polymer Foam (LD) 0.001 – 0.003 0.02 - 0.3

Flexible Polymer Foam (MD) 0.004 – 0.012 0.048 - 0.7
Rigid Polymer Foam (HD) 0.2 - 0.48 0.8 - 12
Rigid Polymer Foam (LD) 0.023 – 0.080 0.3 - 1.7

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 Metals Young’s modulus (GPa) Yield strength (MPa)
Ferrous metals Cast iron, ductile (nodular) 170 - 180 250 - 680
Cast iron, gray 80 - 140 140 - 420
High carbon steel 200 - 220 400 - 1,200
Low alloy steel 210 - 220 400 - 1,500
Low carbon steel 200 - 220 250 - 400
Medium carbon steel 200 - 220 310 - 900
Stainless steel 190 - 210 170 - 100

Non-ferrous Aluminum alloys 68 - 82 30 - 500

Copper alloys 110 - 150 30 - 500
Lead alloys 13 - 15 8 - 14
Magnesium alloys 42 - 47 70 - 400
Nickel alloys 190 - 220 70 - 1,100
Silver 69 - 73 190 - 300
Tin 41 - 45 7 - 15
Titanium alloys 90 - 120 250 - 1,200
Tungsten alloys 310 - 380 530 - 800
Zinc alloys 68 - 95 80 - 450

Natural Young’s modulus (GPa) Yield strength (MPa)

Cork 0.013 – 0.050 0.3 – 1.5
Paper and cardboard 3 – 8.9 15 - 34
Wood, typical across grain 0.5 - 3 2-6
Wood, typical along grain 6 - 20 30 - 70

Composites Young’s modulus (GPa) Yield strength (MPa)

CFRP, epoxy matrix (isotropic) 69 - 150 550 - 1,100

GFRP, epoxy matrix (isotropic) 15 - 28 110 - 190

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 Ceramics Young’s modulus (GPa) Yield strength (MPa)
Glasses Borosilicate glass 61 - 64 22 - 32
Silica glass 68 - 74 45 - 160
Soda-lime glass 68 - 72 30 - 35

Technical ceramics Alumina 340 - 390 350 - 590

Aluminum nitride 300 - 350 300 - 350

Silicon 140 - 160 160 - 180
Silicon carbide 400 - 460 400 - 610
Tungsten carbides 630 - 700 340 - 550

Non-technical ceramics Brick 15 - 30 5 - 14

Concrete 15 - 25 1-3
Stone 20 - 60 2 - 25

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Table A4. Tensile strength and Fracture toughness

Polymers Tensile strength (MPa) Fracture toughness (MPa.m1/2)

Elastomers Butyl rubber (IIR) 5 - 10 0.07 - 0.1

Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) 16 - 20 0.5 - 0.7
Natural rubber 22 - 32 0.15 - 0.25
Polychloroprene (Neoprene) 3.4 - 24 0.1 - 0.3
Polyisoprene rubber 20 - 25 0.077 - 0.1
Polyurethane 25 - 51 0.2 - 0.4
Silicone elastomers 2.4 - 5.5 0.033 - 0.5

Thermoplastics Acrylonitrile butadiene 28 - 55 1.2 - 4.3

styrene (ABS)
Cellulose polymers (CA) 25 - 50 1 - 2.5
Ionomer (I) 17 - 37 1.1 - 3.4
Polyamides (Nylons, PA) 90 - 170 2.2 - 5.6
Polycarbonate (PC) 60 - 72 2.1 - 4.6
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) 70 - 100 2.7 - 4.3
Polyethylene (PE) 21 - 45 1.4 - 1.7
Polyethylene terephthalate 48 - 72 4.5 - 5.5
(PET)
Polymethyl methacrylate 48 - 80 0.7 - 1.6
(Acrylic, PMMA)
Polyoxymethylene (Acetal, 60 - 90 1.7 - 4.2
POM)
Polypropylene (PP) 28 - 41 3 - 4.5
Polystyrene (PS) 36 - 57 0.7 - 1.1
Polytetrafluoroethylene 20 - 30 1.3 - 1.8
(Teflon, PTFE)
Polyurethane (tpPUR) 31 - 62 1.8 - 5
Polyvinylchloride (tpPVC) 41 - 65 1.5 - 5.1

Thermosets Epoxies 45 - 90 0.4 - 2.2

Phenolics 35 - 62 0.79 - 1.2
Polyester 41 - 90 1.1 - 1.7

Foams Flexible Polymer Foam (LD) 0.24 - 2.4 0.015 – 0.05

Flexible Polymer Foam (MD) 0.43 - 3 0.03 – 0.09
Rigid Polymer Foam (HD) 1.2 - 12 0.024 - 0.09
Rigid Polymer Foam (LD) 0.45 - 2.3 0.002 – 0.02

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 Metals Tensile strength (MPa) Fracture toughness (MPa.m1/2)

Ferrous metals Cast iron, ductile (nodular) 410 - 830 22 - 54

Cast iron, gray 140 - 450 10 - 24
High carbon steel 550 - 1,600 27 - 92
Low alloy steel 550 - 1,800 14 - 200
Low carbon steel 350 - 580 41 - 82
Medium carbon steel 410 - 1,200 12 - 92
Stainless steel 480 - 2,200 62 - 150

Non-ferrous Aluminum alloys 58 - 550 22 - 35

Copper alloys 100 - 550 30 - 90
Lead alloys 12 - 20 5 - 15
Magnesium alloys 190 - 480 12 - 18
Nickel alloys 350 - 1,200 80 - 110
Silver 260 - 340 40 - 60
Tin 11 - 18 15 - 30
Titanium alloys 300 - 1,600 14 - 120
Tungsten alloys 720 - 300 50 - 60
Zinc alloys 140 - 520 10 - 100

Natural Tensile strength (MPa) Fracture toughness (MPa.m1/2)

Cork 0.5 - 2.5 50e-3 - 0.1

Paper and cardboard 23 - 51 6 - 10
Wood, typical across grain 4-9 0.5 - 0.8
Wood, typical along grain 60 - 100 5-9

Composites Tensile strength (MPa) Fracture toughness (MPa.m1/2)

CFRP, epoxy matrix (isotropic) 550 – 1,100 6.1 - 20

GFRP, epoxy matrix (isotropic) 140 - 240 7 - 23

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 Ceramics Tensile strength (MPa) Fracture toughness (MPa.m1/2)

Glasses Borosilicate glass 22 - 32 0.5 - 0.7

Silica glass 45 - 160 0.6 - 0.8
Soda-lime glass 31 - 35 0.55 - 0.7

Technical ceramics Alumina 350 - 590 3.3 - 4.8

Aluminum nitride 300 - 350 2.5 - 3.4

Silicon 160 - 180 0.83 - 0.94
Silicon carbide 400 - 610 3 - 5.6
Tungsten carbides 370 - 550 2 - 3.8

Non-technical ceramics Brick 5 - 14 1-2

Concrete 1 - 1.5 0.35 - 0.45
Stone 2 - 25 0.7 - 1.4

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Table A5. Melting Temperature, Glass temperature, and specific heat

Polymers Tm or Tg (0C) Specific Heat (J/kg.0C)

Elastomers Butyl rubber (IIR) -73 - -63 1,800 - 2,500
Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) -73 - -23 2,000 - 2,200
Natural rubber -78 - -63 1,800 - 2,500
Polychloroprene (Neoprene) -48 - -43 2,000 - 2,200
Polyisoprene rubber -83 - -78 1,800 - 2,500
Polyurethane -73 - -23 1,700 – 1,800
Silicone elastomers -120 - -73 1,100 - 1,300

Thermoplastics Acrylonitrile butadiene 88 - 130 1,400 - 1,900

styrene (ABS)
Cellulose polymers (CA) -9 - 110 1,400 - 1,700
Ionomer (I) 30 - 64 1,800 - 1,900
Polyamides (Nylons, PA) 44 - 56 1,600 - 1,700
Polycarbonate (PC) 140 - 200 1,500 - 1,600
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) 140 - 200 1,400 - 1,500
Polyethylene (PE) 120 - 130 1,800 - 1,900
Polyethylene terephthalate 68 - 80 1,400 - 1,500
(PET)
Polymethyl methacrylate 85 - 160 1,500 - 1,600
(Acrylic, PMMA)
Polyoxymethylene (Acetal, 160 - 180 1,400
POM)
Polypropylene (PP) 150 - 170 1,900 - 200
Polystyrene (PS) 74 - 110 1,700 - 1,800
Polytetrafluoroethylene 110 - 120 100 - 1,100
(Teflon, PTFE)
Polyurethane (tpPUR) 60 - 90 1,600
Polyvinylchloride (tpPVC) 75 - 100 1,400

Thermosets Epoxies 67 - 170 1,500 - 200

Phenolics 170 - 270 1,500
Polyester 150 - 210 1,500 - 1,600

Foams Flexible Polymer Foam (LD) -110 - -13 1,800 - 2,300

Flexible Polymer Foam (MD) -110 - -13 1,800 - 2,300
Rigid Polymer Foam (HD) 67 - 170 1000 - 1,900
Rigid Polymer Foam (LD) 67 - 170 1,100 - 1,900

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 Metals Tm or Tg (0C) Specific Heat (J/kg.0C)
Ferrous metals Cast iron, ductile (nodular) 1,100 - 1,200 460 - 500
Cast iron, gray 1,100 - 1,400 430 - 500
High carbon steel 1,300 - 1,500 440 - 510
Low alloy steel 1,400 - 1,500 410 - 530
Low carbon steel 1,470 - 1500 460 - 510
Medium carbon steel 1,400 - 1,500 440 - 520
Stainless steel 1,350 - 1,400 450 - 530

Non-ferrous Aluminum alloys 470 - 680 860 - 990

Copper alloys 980 - 1,100 370 - 390
Lead alloys 320 - 330 120 - 150
Magnesium alloys 450 - 650 960 - 1,100
Nickel alloys 1,400 - 1,500 450 - 460
Silver 960 - 970 230 - 240
Tin 230 220 - 230
Titanium alloys 1,500 - 1,700 520 - 600
Tungsten alloys 3,200 - 3,400 130 - 140
Zinc alloys 370 - 490 410 - 540

Natural Tm or Tg (0C) Specific Heat (J/kg.0C)

Cork
Paper and cardboard 47 - 67 1,300 - 1,400
Wood, typical across grain 77 - 100 1,700
Wood, typical along grain 77 - 100 1,700

Composites Tm or Tg (0C) Specific Heat (J/kg.0C)

CFRP, epoxy matrix (isotropic) 550 – 1,100 6.1 - 20

GFRP, epoxy matrix (isotropic) 140 - 240 7 - 23

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 Ceramics Tm or Tg (0C) Specific Heat (J/kg.0C)
Glasses Borosilicate glass 450 - 600 760 - 800
Silica glass 960 – 1,600 680 - 730
Soda-lime glass 440 - 590 850 - 950

Technical ceramics Alumina 200 - 2,100 790 - 820

Aluminum nitride 2,400 - 2,500 780 - 820

Silicon 1,400 670 - 720
Silicon carbide 2,200 - 2,500 660 - 800
Tungsten carbides 2,800 - 2,900 180 - 290

Non-technical ceramics Brick 930 - 1,200 750 - 850

Concrete 930 - 1,200 840 - 1,100
Stone 1,200 - 1,400 840 - 920

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Table A6. Thermal conductivity and thermal expansion

Polymers T-conductivity (W/m/K) T-expansion (10-6/C)

Elastomers Butyl rubber (IIR) 0.08 - 0.1 120 - 300
Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) 0.3 - 0.4 160 - 190
Natural rubber 0.1 - 0.14 150 - 450
Polychloroprene (Neoprene) 0.1 - 0.12 580 - 610
Polyisoprene rubber 0.08 - 0.14 150 - 450
Polyurethane 0.28 - 0.3 150 - 170
Silicone elastomers 0.3 - 1 250 - 300

Thermoplastics Acrylonitrile butadiene 0.19 - 0.34 85 - 230

styrene (ABS)
Cellulose polymers (CA) 0.13 - 0.3 150 - 300
Ionomer (I) 0.24 - 0.28 180 - 310
Polyamides (Nylons, PA) 0.23 - 0.25 140 - 150
Polycarbonate (PC) 0.19 - 0.22 120 - 140
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) 0.24 - 0.26 72 - 190
Polyethylene (PE) 0.4 - 0.44 130 - 200
Polyethylene terephthalate 0.14 - 0.15 110 - 120
(PET)
Polymethyl methacrylate 0.084 - 0.25 72 - 160
(Acrylic, PMMA)
Polyoxymethylene (Acetal, 0.22 - 0.35 76 - 200
POM)
Polypropylene (PP) 0.11 - 0.17 120 - 180
Polystyrene (PS) 0.12 - 0.13 90 - 150
Polytetrafluoroethylene 0.24 - 0.26 130 - 220
(Teflon, PTFE)
Polyurethane (tpPUR) 0.23 - 0.24 90 - 140
Polyvinylchloride (tpPVC) 0.15 - 0.29 100 - 150

Thermosets Epoxies 0.18 - 0.5 58 - 120

Phenolics 0.14 - 0.15 120
Polyester 0.29 - 0.3 99 - 180

Foams Flexible Polymer Foam (LD) -110 - -13 1,800 - 2,300

Flexible Polymer Foam (MD) -110 - -13 1,800 - 2,300
Rigid Polymer Foam (HD) 67 - 170 1000 - 1,900
Rigid Polymer Foam (LD) 67 - 170 1,100 - 1,900

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 Metals T-conductivity (W/m/K) T-expansion (10-6/C)
Ferrous metals Cast iron, ductile (nodular) 29 - 44 10 - 13
Cast iron, gray 40 - 72 11 - 13
High carbon steel 47 - 53 11 - 14
Low alloy steel 34 - 55 11 - 14
Low carbon steel 49 - 54 12 - 13
Medium carbon steel 45 - 55 10 - 14
Stainless steel 12 - 24 13 - 20

Non-ferrous Aluminum alloys 76 - 240 21 - 24

Copper alloys 160 - 390 17 - 18
Lead alloys 22 - 36 18 - 32
Magnesium alloys 50 - 160 25 - 28
Nickel alloys 67 - 91 12 - 14
Silver 420 20
Tin 60 - 62 23 - 24
Titanium alloys 7 - 14 7.9 - 11
Tungsten alloys 100 - 140 4 - 5.6
Zinc alloys 100 - 140 23 - 28

Natural T-conductivity (W/m/K) T-expansion (10-6/C)

Cork 35e-3 - 48e-3 130 - 230
Paper and cardboard 60e-3 - 0.17 5 - 20
Wood, typical across grain 0.15 - 0.19 32 - 43
Wood, typical along grain 0.31 - 0.38 2 - 11

Composites T-conductivity (W/m/K) T-expansion (10-6/C)

CFRP, epoxy matrix (isotropic) 1.3 - 2.6 1-4

GFRP, epoxy matrix (isotropic) 0.4 - 0.55 8.6 - 33

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 Ceramics T-conductivity (W/m/K) T-expansion (10-6/C)

Glasses Borosilicate glass 1 - 1.3 3.2 - 4

Silica glass 1.4 - 1.5 0.55 - 0.75
Soda-lime glass 2,400 - 2,500 1.4 - 1.7

Technical ceramics Alumina 26 - 39 7 - 7.9

Aluminum nitride 140 - 200 4.9 - 5.5

Silicon 140 - 150 2 - 3.2
Silicon carbide 80 - 130 4 - 4.8
Tungsten carbides 55 - 88 5.2 - 7.1

Non-technical ceramics Brick 0.46 - 0.73 5-8

Concrete 0.8 - 2.4 6 - 13
Stone 5.4 - 6 3.7 - 6.3

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Table A7. Electrical resistivity and dielectric constant

Polymers Resistivity (µohm.cm) Dielectric constant (-)

Elastomers Butyl rubber (IIR) 1 x1015 - 10 x1015 2.8 - 3.2
Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) 3.2 x1021 - 10 x1021 2.9 - 3
Natural rubber 1 x1015 - 10 x1015 3 - 4.5
Polychloroprene (Neoprene) 10 x1018 - 100 x1021 6.7 - 8
Polyisoprene rubber 1 x1015 - 10 x1015 2.5 - 3
Polyurethane 1 x1018 - 10 x1021 5-9
Silicone elastomers 32 x1018 - 10 x1021 2.9 - 4

Thermoplastics Acrylonitrile butadiene 3.3 x1021 - 30 x1021 2.8 - 3.2

styrene (ABS)
Cellulose polymers (CA) 100 x1015 - 450 x1018 3-5
Ionomer (I) 3.3 x1021 - 30 x1021 2.2 - 2.4
Polyamides (Nylons, PA) 15 x1018 - 140 x1018 3.7 - 3.9
Polycarbonate (PC) 100 x1018 - 1 x1021 3.1 - 3.3
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) 3.3 x1021 - 30 x1021 3.1 - 3.3
Polyethylene (PE) 33 x1021 - 3 x1024 2.2 - 2.4
Polyethylene terephthalate 330 x1018 - 3 x1021 3.5 - 3.7
(PET)
Polymethyl methacrylate 330 x1021 - 3e x1024 3.2 - 3.4
(Acrylic, PMMA)
Polyoxymethylene (Acetal, 330 x1018 - 3 x1021 3.6 - 4
POM)
Polypropylene (PP) 33 x1021 - 300 x1021 2.1 - 2.3
Polystyrene (PS) 10 x1024 - 1 x1024 3 - 3.2
Polytetrafluoroethylene 330 x1021 - 3 x1024 2.1 - 2.2
(Teflon, PTFE)
Polyurethane (tpPUR) 3.3 x1018 - 30 x1018 6.6 - 7.1
Polyvinylchloride (tpPVC) 100 x1018 - 10 x1021 3.1 - 4.4

Thermosets Epoxies 100 x1018 - 6 x1021 3.4 - 5.7

Phenolics 3.3 x1018 - 30 x1018 4-6
Polyester 3.3 x1018 - 30 x1018 2.8 - 3.3

Foams Flexible Polymer Foam (LD) 100 x1018 - 100 x1021 1.1 - 1.2
Flexible Polymer Foam (MD) 100 x1018 - 100 x1021 1.2 - 1.3
Rigid Polymer Foam (HD) 10 x1015 - 100 x1018 1.2 - 1.5
Rigid Polymer Foam (LD) 100 x1015 - 1 x1021 1 - 1.1

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 Metals T-conductivity (W/m/K) T-expansion (10-6/C)
Ferrous metals Cast iron, ductile (nodular) 49 - 56
Cast iron, gray 62 - 86
High carbon steel 17 - 20
Low alloy steel 15 - 35
Low carbon steel 15 - 20
Medium carbon steel 15 - 22
Stainless steel 64 - 110

Non-ferrous Aluminum alloys 3.8 - 6

Copper alloys 1.7 - 5
Lead alloys 15 - 22
Magnesium alloys 5.5 - 15
Nickel alloys 8 - 10
Silver 1.7 - 1.8
Tin 10 - 12
Titanium alloys 100 - 170
Tungsten alloys 10 - 14
Zinc alloys 5.4 - 7.2

Natural T-conductivity (W/m/K) T-expansion (10-6/C)

Cork 1x109 - 100x109 6-8
Paper and cardboard 210 x10 - 700 x10
12 12
2.5 - 6
Wood, typical across grain 60 x1012 - 200 x1012 5-6
Wood, typical along grain 10 x10 - 1 x10
12 15
5-6

Composites T-conductivity (W/m/K) T-expansion (10-6/C)

CFRP, epoxy matrix (isotropic) 170x103 - 950x103

GFRP, epoxy matrix (isotropic) 2.4 x1021 - 19 x1021 4.9 - 5.2

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 Ceramics T-conductivity (W/m/K) T-expansion (10-6/C)

Glasses Borosilicate glass 3.2 x1021 - 32 x1021 4.7 - 6

Silica glass 100 x1021 - 1 x1027 3.7 - 3.9
Soda-lime glass 790 x1015 - 7.9 x1018 7 - 7.6

Technical ceramics Alumina 100 x1018 - 10 x1021 6.5 - 6.8

Aluminum nitride 10 x1018- 1 x1021 8.3 - 9.3

Silicon 1 x106 - 1 x1012 11 - 12
Silicon carbide 1 x109- 1 x1012 6.3 - 9
Tungsten carbides 20 – 100

Non-technical ceramics Brick 100 x1012 - 30 x1015 7 - 10

Concrete 1.9 x1012 - 19 x1012 8 - 12
Stone 10 x10 - 100 x10
9 12
6-9

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Table A8. Piezoelectric, pyroelectric, and ferroelectric materials

Ferroelectric Materials Dielectric constant (-) Breakdown potential (MV/m)

Barium titanate 3,400 4.2
PLZT 2,500 12
PZT, hard 1,300 11
PZT, soft 2,700 11

Piezo charge coefficient d33 Piezo voltage coefficient g33

Piezoelectric materials
(pC/N) or (pm/V) (mV.m/N)
Barium titanate 82 - 190 12 - 17
Bismuth titanate 12 - 25 10 - 17
PZT, hard 70 - 350 14 - 54
PZT, soft 400 - 950 14 - 54
Lithium niobate 21 - 32 19 - 28

Lithium tantalate 6 - 8.1 17 - 26

Quartz, device grade 2 - 2.6 47 - 71

Pyroelectric coefficient (µC/ Ferroelectric Curie

Pyroelectric materials
m2.K) temperature (0C)
Barium titanate 120 - 140 110 - 400
Bismuth titanate 650 - 820 87 - 100
PZT, hard 190 - 370 200 - 460
PZT, soft 190 - 370 200 - 460
Lithium niobate 1,100 – 1,200 83 - 95
Lithium tantalate 600 - 660 210 - 250

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Table A9. Magnetic, magnetostrictive, and magnetocaloric materials

Hard magnetic Remanent induction Max. energy product

Coercive force (A/m)
materials (T) (MJ/m3)
Alnico 0.52 - 1.4 3,600 – 6,300 9,600 - 60,000
Ferrites, hard 0.2 - 0.46 13,000 – 35,000 6,400 – 41,000
Neodymium iron boron 0.98 - 1.5 60,000 – 1,100,000 190,000 – 180,000
Samarium cobalt 0.78 - 1.2 33,000 – 82,000 110,000 – 250,000

Soft magnetic Saturation induction

Coercive force (A/m) Max permeability (-)
materials (T)
Amorphous iron alloys 1.4 - 1.8 1.4 - 5.5 35,000 – 60,000

Ferrites, soft 0.22 - 0.45 2.4 - 32 850 – 15,000

Nickel-iron (45%) 1.5 - 1.6 2.4 - 8 60,000 - 180,000
Nickel-iron (75%) 0.77 - 1.1 0.3 - 4 150,000 - 1,000,000
Silicon iron 2 - 2.1 24 - 44 7,700 - 19,000

Saturation
Magnetostrictive
magnetostriction Coercive force (A/m) Curie temperature (C)
materials
(µstrain)
Galfenol 200 - 300 720 - 880 620

Terfenol-D 1,400 - 2,000 5,400 - 6,400 680

Magnetocaloric Adiabatic temp change Entropy change (0-2T) Operating temperature

materials (0-2T) (0C) (J/kg.C) (C)
Iron-rhenium 7.6 - 9.2 12 - 15 30 - 60
Gadolinium 5.7 - 5.8 4.5 -5.5 0 - 40
Manganese arsenide 4.1 - 4.7 24 -32 -50 - 50

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Table A10. Embodied energy, carbon footprint, and water demand

Polymers Energy Carbon Water

(MJ/kg) (kg/kg) (L/kg)
Elastomers Butyl rubber (IIR) 110 - 120 6.3 - 7 64 - 190
Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) 75 - 83 2 - 2.2 2.7 - 2.9
Natural rubber 64 - 71 2 - 2.2 15,000 - 20,000
Polychloroprene (Neoprene) 61 - 68 1.6 - 1.8 130 - 380
Polyisoprene rubber 99 - 110 5.1 - 5.7 140 - 150
Polyurethane 83 - 92 3.5 - 3.9 94 - 100
Silicone elastomers 120 - 130 7.6 - 8.3 190 - 570

Thermoplastics Acrylonitrile butadiene 90 - 100 3.6 - 4 170 - 190

styrene (ABS)
Cellulose polymers (CA) 85 - 94 3.6 - 4 230 - 250
Ionomer (I) 100 - 110 4 - 4.4 270 - 300
Polyamides (Nylons, PA) 120 - 130 7.6 - 8.4 180 - 190
Polycarbonate (PC) 100 - 110 5.7 - 6.4 170 - 180
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) 280 - 310 22 - 24 530 – 1,600
Polyethylene (PE) 77 - 85 2.6 - 2.9 55 - 61
Polyethylene terephthalate 81 - 90 3.8 - 4.2 130 - 140
(PET)
Polymethyl methacrylate 110 - 120 6.5 - 7.1 72 - 80
(Acrylic, PMMA)
Polyoxymethylene (Acetal, 85 - 94 3.9 - 4.3 140 - 410
POM)
Polypropylene (PP) 76 - 84 3 - 3.3 37 - 41
Polystyrene (PS) 92 - 100 3.6 - 4 130 - 150
Polytetrafluoroethylene 110 - 120 5.7 - 6.3 430 - 480
(Teflon, PTFE)
Polyurethane (tpPUR) 83 - 92 3.5 - 3.9 94 - 100
Polyvinylchloride (tpPVC) 55 - 61 2.4 - 2.6 200 - 220

Thermosets Epoxies 130 - 140 6.8 - 7.6 27 - 29

Phenolics 75 - 83 3.4 - 3.8 49 - 54
Polyester 68 - 75 2.8 - 3.1 190 - 210

Foams Flexible Polymer Foam (LD) 100 - 110 4.3 - 4.7 220 - 240
Flexible Polymer Foam (MD) 100 - 110 3.4 - 3.8 170 - 180
Rigid Polymer Foam (HD) 97 - 110 3.7 - 4.1 440 - 480
Rigid Polymer Foam (LD) 97 - 110 3.7 - 4.1 440 - 480

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 Metals Energy Carbon Water
(MJ/kg) (kg/kg) (L/kg)
Ferrous metals Cast iron, ductile (nodular) 18 - 22 1.7 - 1.8 43 - 47
Cast iron, gray 17 - 21 1.7 - 1.8 42 - 46
High carbon steel 25 - 28 1.7 - 1.9 44 - 48
Low alloy steel 29 - 32 1.9 - 2.1 48 - 53
Low carbon steel 25 - 28 1.7 - 1.9 43 - 48
Medium carbon steel 25 - 28 1.7 - 1.9 44 - 48
Stainless steel 80 - 89 4.7 - 5.2 130 - 140

Non-ferrous Aluminum alloys 200 - 220 12 - 13 1,100 – 1,300

Copper alloys 57 - 63 3.5 - 3.9 290 - 320
Lead alloys 66 - 73 4.2 - 4.6 2,400 – 2,700
Magnesium alloys 290 - 320 34 - 37 930 – 1,000
Nickel alloys 160 - 180 11 - 12 220 - 250
Silver 1,400 - 1,600 95 - 110 1,200 – 3,500
Tin 220 - 240 13 - 14 10,000 - 12,000
Titanium alloys 650 - 720 44 - 49 190 - 210
Tungsten alloys 510 - 560 33 - 36 150 - 160
Zinc alloys 57 - 63 3.9 - 4.3 400 - 440

Natural Energy Carbon Water

(MJ/kg) (kg/kg) (L/kg)
Paper and cardboard 49 - 54 1.1 - 1.2 1,600 – 1,800
Wood, typical across grain 9.8 - 11 0.84 - 0.93 670 - 740
Wood, typical along grain 9.8 - 11 0.84 - 0.93 670 - 740

Energy Carbon Water

Composites
(MJ/kg) (kg/kg) (L/kg)
CFRP, epoxy matrix (isotropic) 450 - 500 33 - 36 1,300 – 1,500

GFRP, epoxy matrix (isotropic) 150 - 170 9.5 - 11 150 - 170

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 Ceramics Energy Carbon Water
(MJ/kg) (kg/kg) (L/kg)
Glasses Borosilicate glass 27 - 30 1.7 - 1.8 14 - 16
Silica glass 37 - 41 2.2 - 2.4 1.3 - 1.5
Soda-lime glass 10 - 11 0.72 - 0.8 14 - 15

Technical ceramics Alumina 50 - 55 2.7 - 3 54 - 60

Aluminum nitride 220 - 240 12 - 13 230 - 260

Silicon 57 - 63 3.8 - 4.2 23 - 26
Silicon carbide 70 - 78 6.2 - 6.9 34 - 100
Tungsten carbides 82 - 91 4.4 - 4.9 48 - 140

Non-technical Brick 2.2 - 5 0.21 - 0.23 23 - 26

ceramics Concrete 1 - 1.3 0.09 - 0.1 34 - 100
Stone 0.4 - 0.6 0.027 - 0.03 41 - 120

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A11. Ways of checking and estimating data

The value of a database of material properties depends on its precision and its completeness – in short,
on its quality. One way of maintaining or enhancing its quality is to subject its contents to validating
procedures. The property range-checks and dimensionless correlations described below provide powerful
tools for doing this. The same procedures fill a second function: that of providing estimates for missing
data, essential when no direct measurements are available.
Property ranges. Each property of a given class of materials has a characteristic range. A convenient way
of presenting the information is as a table in which a low (L) and a high (H) value are stored, identified by
the material family and class. An example listing Young’s modulus, E, is shown in Table A11, in which EL
is the lower limit and EH the upper one.
All properties have characteristic ranges like these. The range becomes narrower if the classes
are made more restrictive. For purposes of checking and estimation, described in a moment, it is helpful
to break down the family of metals into classes of cast irons, steels, aluminum alloys, magnesium alloys,
titanium alloys, copper alloys and so on. Similar subdivisions for polymers (thermoplastics, thermosets,
elastomers) and for ceramics and glasses (engineering ceramics, whiteware, silicate glasses, minerals)
increases resolution here also.
Table A11. Ranges of Young’s modulus E for broad material classes

Material Class EL (GPa) EH (GPa)

All Solids 0.00001 1000
Classes of Solid
Metals: ferrous 70 220
Metals: non-ferrous 4.6 570
Technical ceramics* 91 1000
Glasses 47 83
Polymers: thermoplastic 0.1 4.1
Polymers: thermosets 2.5 10
Polymers: elastomers 0.0005 0.1
Polymeric foams 0.00001 2
Composites: metal-matrix 81 180
Composites: polymer-matrix 2.5 240
Woods: parallel to grain 1.8 34
Woods: perpendicular to grain 0.1 18

*Technical ceramics are dense, monolithic ceramics such as SiC, Al2O3, ZrO2, etc.

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Correlations between material properties. Materials that are stiff have high melting points. Solids
with low densities have high specific heats. Metals with high thermal conductivities have high electrical
conductivities. These rules-of-thumb describe correlations between two or more material properties
that can be expressed more quantitatively as limits for the values of dimensionless property groups.
They take the form:

A1

Or
A2

(or larger groupings) where P1, P2, P3 are material properties, n and m are powers (usually -1, -1/2, +1/2 or
+1), and CL and CH are dimensionless constants – the lower and upper limits between which the values
of the property-group lies. The correlations exert tight constraints on the data, giving the “patterns” of
property envelopes that appear on the material selection charts. An example is the relationship between
expansion coefficient, α (units: K-1), and the melting point, Tm (units: K) or, for amorphous materials, the
glass temperature Tg:

A3a

A3b

a correlation with the form of equation (A1). Values for the dimensionless limits CL and CH for this group
are listed in Table A1 for a number of material classes. The values span a factor to 2 to 10 rather than
the factor 10 to 100 of the property ranges. There are many such correlations. They form the basis
of a hierarchical data-checking and estimating scheme (one used in preparing the charts in this book),
described next.
Table A12. Limits for the group αTm and αTg for broad material classes*

Correlation* CL < αTm< CH CL (x 10-3) CH (x 10-3)

All Solids 0.1 56
Classes of Solid
Metals: ferrous 13 27
Metals: non-ferrous 2 21
Technical ceramics* 6 24
Glasses 0.3 3
Polymers: thermoplastic 18 35
Polymers: thermosets 11 41
Polymers: elastomers 35 56
Polymeric foams 16 37
Composites: metal-matrix 10 20
*For amorphous solids
Composites: polymer-matrix 0.1 10 the melting point Tm is
Woods: parallel to grain 2 4 replaced by the glass
Woods: perpendicular to grain 6 17 temperature Tg.

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Data checking. Data checks proceed in three steps. Each datum is first associated with a material class,
or, at a higher level of checking, with a sub-class. This identifies the values of the property range and
correlation limits against which it will be checked. The datum is then compared with the range-limits L
and H for that class and property. If it lies within the range-limits, it is accepted; if it does not, it is flagged
for checking.
Why bother with such low-level stuff? Because it provides a sanity-check. The commonest error
in handbooks and other compilations of material or process properties is that of a value that is expressed
in the wrong units, or is, for less obvious reasons, in error by one or more orders of magnitude (slipped
decimal point, for instance). Range checks catch errors of this sort. If a demonstration of this is needed,
it can be found by applying them to the contents of almost any standard reference data-books; none
among those we have tried has passed without errors. In the third step, each of the dimensionless groups
of properties like that of Table A12 is formed in turn, and compared with the range bracketed by the
limits CL and CH. If the value lies within its correlation limits, it is accepted; if not, it is checked. Correlation
checks are more discerning than range checks and catch subtler errors, allowing the quality of data to be
enhanced further.

Data estimation. The relationships have another, equally useful, function. There remain gaps in our
knowledge of material properties. The fracture toughness of many materials has not yet been measured,
nor has the electric breakdown potential; even moduli are not always known. The absence of a datum
for a material would falsely eliminate it from a screening exercise that used that property, even though
the material might be a viable candidate. This difficulty is avoided by using the correlation and range
limits to estimate a value for the missing datum, adding a flag to alert the user that it is an estimate.
In estimating property values, the procedure used for checking is reversed: the dimensionless
groups are used first because they are the more accurate. They can be surprisingly good. As an example,
consider estimating the expansion coefficient, α, of polycarbonate from its glass temperature Tg. Inverting
equation (A3b) gives the estimation rule:

A4

Inserting values of CL and CH from Table A12, and the value Tg= 420 K for a particular sample of polycarbonate
gives the mean estimate
A5

The reported value for polycarbonate is

A6
The estimate is within 9% of the mean of the measured values, perfectly adequate for screening purposes.
That it is an estimate must not be forgotten, however: if thermal expansion is crucial to the design, better
data or direct measurements are essential.
Only when the potential of the correlations is exhausted are the property ranges invoked. They
provide a crude first-estimate of the value of the missing property, far less accurate than that of the
correlations, but still useful in providing guide-values for screening.

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Further reading.

Ashby M.F., (1998) “Checks and estimates for material properties” Cambridge University Engineering
Department, Proc Roy Soc A 454, 1301 – 1321. (This and the next reference detail the data-checking and
estimation methods, listing the correlations.)

Bassetti, D. Brechet, Y. and Ashby, M.F. (1998) “Estimates for material properties: the method of multiple
correlations” Proc Roy Soc A 454, 13023 – 1336. (This and the previous reference detail the data-checking
and estimation methods, with examples.)

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 Conversion of units--stress and pressure

To → MPa dyn/cm2 lb/in2 kgf/mm2 bar long ton/in2

From ↓ Multiply by
MPa 1 107 1.45 x 102 0.102 10 6.48 x 10-2

dyn/cm2 10-7 1 1.45 x 10-5 1.02 x 10-8 10-6 6.48 x 10-9

lb/in2 6.89 x 10-3 6.89 x 104 1 7.03 x 10-4 6.89 x 10-2 4.46 x 10-4
kgf/mm2 9.81 9.81 x 107 1.42 x 103 1 98.1 63.5 x 10-2
bar 0.10 106 14.48 1.02 x 10-2 1 6.48 x 10-3

long ton/in2 15.44 1.54 x 108 2.24 x 103 1.54 1.54 x 102 1

Conversion of units – energy*

To → MJ kWhr kcal Btu ft lbf toe

From ↓ Multiply by
MJ 1 0.278 239 948 0.738 x 106 23.8 x 10-6

kWhr 3.6 1 860 3.41 x 103 2.66 x 106 85.7 x 10-6

kcal 4.18 x 10-3 1.16 x 10-3 1 3.97 3.09 x 103 99.5 x 10-9

Btu 1.06 x 10-3 0.293 x 10-3 0.252 1 0.778 x 103 25.2 x 10-9

ft lbf 1.36 x 10-6 0.378 x 10-6 0.324 x 10-3 1.29 x 10-3 1 32.4 x 10-12
toe 41.9 x 103 11.6 x 103 10 x 106 39.7 x 106 30.8 x 109 1

*MJ = megajoules; kWhr = kilowatt hour; kcal = kilocalorie; Btu = British thermal unit; ft lbf = foot-pound force; toe = tonnes oil equivalent.

Conversion of units – power*

To → kW (kJ/s) kcal/s hp ft lbf/s Btu/h

From ↓ Multiply by
kW (kJ/s) 1 4.18 1.34 735 4.47 x 104
kcal/s 0.239 1 0.321 176 1.07 x 104
hp 0.746 3.12 1 550 3.35 x 104
ft lbf/s 1.36 x 10-3 5.68 x 10-3 1.82 x 10-3 1
Btu/h 2.24 x 10-5 9.33 x 10-5 3.0 x 10-5 1
*kW = kilowatt; kcal/s = kilocalories per second; hp = horse power; ft lb/s = foot-pounds/second; Btu/h = British thermal units/hour

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© 2021 ANSYS, Inc. All rights reserved.
© 2018 Mike Ashby

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