PARTS OF SPEECH

Words are divided into different kinds or classes, called Parts of Speech, according
to their use; that is, according to the work they do in a sentence. The parts of
speech are eight in number:
1. Noun.
2. Adjective.
3. Pronoun.
4. Verb.
5. Adverb.
6. Preposition.
7. Conjunction.
8. Interjection.
THE NOUN:
A Noun is a word used as the name of a person, place, or thing.
Akbar was a great King.
Kolkata is on the Hooghly.
The rose smells sweet.
KINDS OF NOUNS
1- Common Noun: A Common Noun is a name given in common to every
person or thing of the same class or kind.
[Common here means shared by all.]
2- Proper Noun: A Proper Noun is the name of some particular person or place,
[Proper means one's own. Hence a Proper Name is a person's own name.]
* Proper Nouns are always written with a capital letter at the beginning.
*Proper Nouns are sometimes used as Common Nouns; as,
3- Collective Noun: A Collective Noun is the name of a number (or collection) of
persons or things taken together and spoken of as one whole; as,
Crowd, mob, team, flock, herd, army, fleet, jury, family, nation, parliament,
committee.
A fleet = a collection of ships or vessels.
An army = a collection of soldiers.
A crowd = a collection of people.
The French army was defeated at Waterloo.
The jury found the prisoner guilty.
4- Abstract Noun: An Abstract Noun is usually the name of a quality, action, or
state considered apart from the object to which it belongs; as.
Quality - Goodness, kindness, whiteness, darkness, hardness, brightness, honesty,
wisdom, bravery.
Action - Laughter, theft, movement, judgment, hatred.
State - Childhood, boyhood, youth, slavery, sleep, sickness, death, poverty.
The names of the Arts and Science (e.g., grammar, music, chemistry, etc.) are also
Abstract Nouns.
 Another classification of nouns is whether they are “countable” or
“uncountable”.
Countable nouns are the names of objects, people, etc. that we can count,
e.g., book, pen, apple, boy, sister, doctor, horse.
Uncountable nouns are the names of things which we cannot count,
e.g., milk, oil, sugar, gold, honesty. They mainly denote substances and abstract
things.
The Adjective
An Adjective is a word used to add something to the meaning of a noun; as,
He is a brave boy.
There are twenty boys in this class.
A word used with a noun to describe or point out, the person, animal, place or
thing which the noun names, or to tell the number or quantity, is called an
Adjective.
Kinds of Adjectives
Adjectives may be divided into the following classes:-
1- Adjectives of Quality (or Descriptive Adjective) : This shows the kind or
quality of a person or thing; as,
He is an honest man.
The foolish old crow tried to sing.
Adjectives of Quality answer the question: Of what kind ?
2- Adjectives of Quantity: This shows how much of a thing is meant as,
I ate some rice.
He showed much patience.
You have no sense.
Adjectives of Quantity answer the question: How much?
3- Adjectives of Number (or Numeral Adjectives): This shows show how many
persons or things are meant, or in what order a person or thing stands; as,
The hand has five fingers.
Few cats like cold water.
The Pronoun
A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; as,
John is absent, because he is ill.
The book are where you left them.

Kinds of Noun
1. Personal pronouns
Personal pronouns refer to a specific person or thing. Their form changes to
indicate a person, number, gender, or case.

 Subjective personal pronouns are pronouns that act as the subject of a

sentence. If you are learning English as a second language, remember that
the subjective personal pronouns are I, you, she, he, it, you, and they. For
example: 
o "I walked directly to the party."
o "You showed up late; she was annoyed."
o "He thought you had forgotten; we know you were just behind."

 Objective personal pronouns are pronouns that act as the object of a

sentence. If you are learning English as a second language, remember that
the objective personal pronouns are me, you, her, him, it, us, you, and them.
For example:
o "The police officer told my brother and me to slow down."
o "He pointed to the pedestrians and said to be careful of them."
o "The police officer said there are a lot of speedy motorists like us."

 Possessive personal pronouns are pronouns that show possession. They

define a person (or a number of people) who owns a particular object. If you
are learning English as a second language, remember that the possessive
personal pronouns are mine, yours, hers, his, its, ours, and theirs. For
example:
o "Is this book yours or his?"
o "All the books are mine."
o "Nobody's house has as many books as theirs, not even ours."
2. Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns point to and identify a noun or a
pronoun. This and these refer to things that are nearby in space or time,
while that and those refer to things that are farther away in space or further away
in time. For example:

 "This is the dress I will wear; that is the one I wore yesterday."

 "That is not true."
 "Please pay for those."

3. Relative pronouns
Relative pronouns are used to link one phrase or clause to another phrase or clause.
The relative pronouns are who, whom, that, and which. The
compounds whoever, whomever, and whichever are also commonly used relative
pronouns. For example:

 "Whoever added the bill made a mistake."

 "The bill, which included all our meals, was larger than expected."
 "The waiter who served us doesn't know how to add."

4. Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns refer back to the subject of the clause or sentence.
The reflexive pronouns used in writing English
are myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselve
s. For example:

 "She baked a cake for herself."

 "We decided to eat it ourselves."
 "We heard her say, 'They should be ashamed of themselves.'"
 The Verb
A Verb is a word used to express an action or state; as

The girl wrote a letter to her cousin.

Kolkata is a big city.
Iron and copper are useful metals.
Kinds of Verb
Action Verbs
Action verbs express action by describing the behavior of a person, place or
thing. They may describe physical or mental actions.

John thinks about moving to Alaska every day.

The truck driver  honks his horn when vehicles swerve into his path.

Linking Verbs
Linking verbs link the subject (noun phrase) of the sentence with the rest of the
sentence. Many linking verbs are forms of “to be.” Let’s take a look at some
examples:

James is a nice person.

The new cat could be a calico.

The Adverb
An Adverb is a word used to add something to the meaning of a verb, an adjective,
or another adverb; as,
He worked the sum quickly.
This flower is very beautiful.
She pronounced the word quite correctly.

Kinds of Adverb
1. Adverbs of Time/Frequency (When?)
Adverbs of time/frequency indicate time or frequency of the action in the
sentence. They answer the question ‘when/how frequently is the action
performed?’.
Always, never, often, eventually, now, frequently, occasionally, once, forever,
seldom, before, Sunday, Monday, 10 AM, 12 PM, etc. are common adverbs of
time/frequency.
Example:
o I went to school a little late  yesterday .
o He always gets a good result.
o I will leave Monday.
o He smokes occasionally .

2. Adverbs of Place/Direction (Where?)

Adverbs of place/direction that indicate place/direction of the action in the
sentence. They answer the question ‘ where is the action performed?’.
Across, over, under, in, out, through, backward, there, around, here, sideways,
upstairs, in the park, in the field, in that place, etc. are some common adverbs of
place/direction.
Example:
o I went through the jungle .
o He plays in the field.
o Alex is going to school .
o He is staying at my home.

Adverbs of Degree (How Much?)

 Adverbs that express the importance/degree/level of the action in the sentence are
called adverbs of degree. They answer the question ‘how much is the action
performed?’.
Completely, nearly, entirely, less, mildly, most, thoroughly, somewhat, excessively,
much, etc. are common adverbs of degree.
Example:
o She completely forgot about her anniversary.
o I read the newspaper thoroughly .
o I am so excited about the new job.
o Robin hardly studies

3. Adverbs of Manner (How?)

Adverbs that express the manner/approach/process of the action in the sentence are
called adverbs of manner. They answer the question ‘how is the action
performed?’.
Beautifully, equally, thankfully, carefully, handily, quickly, coldly, hotly,
resentfully, earnestly, nicely, tirelessly, etc. are common adverbs of manner. These
adverbs usually end in ly.
Example:
o Let's divide the prizes equally.
o Please, handle the camera carefully .
o Mike is walking slowly.
o He is running fast.
o
The Preposition
A Preposition is a word used with a noun or a pronoun to show how the person or
thing denoted by the noun or pronoun stands in relation to something else; as,
There is a cow in the garden.
The girl is fond of music.
A fair little girl sat under a tree.
Types of Preposition
1- Prepositions of Time:
Prepositions of time show the relationship of time between the nouns to the other
parts of a sentence.
On, at, in, from, to, for, since, ago, before, till/until, by, etc. are the most common
preposition of time.
Example:
o He started working at 10 AM.
o The company called meeting on 25 October .
o There is a holiday in December.
o He has been ill since Monday .

2- Prepositions of Place and Direction:

Prepositions of place show the relationship of place between the nouns to the
other parts of a sentence.
On, at, in, by, from, to, towards, up, down, across, between, among, through, in
front of, behind, above, over, under, below, etc. are the most common prepositions
of place/direction.
Example:
o He is at home.
o He came from England.
o The police broke into the house .
o I live across the river.

3- Prepositions of Agents or Things:

Prepositions of agents or things indicate a casual relationship between nouns and
other parts of the sentence.
Of, for, by, with, about, etc. are the most used and common prepositions of agents
or things.
 Example:
o This article is about smartphones .
o Most of the guests  have already left.
o I will always be here for you.
o He is playing with his brothers .

4- Phrasal Prepositions:
A phrasal preposition is not a prepositional phrase, but they are a combination of
two or more words which functions as a preposition.
Along with, apart from, because of, by means of, according to, in front of,
contrary to, in spite of, on account of, in reference to, in addition to, in regard
to, instead of, on top of, out of, with regard to, etc. are the most common phrasal
prepositions.
Example:
o They along with their children went to Atlanta.
o According to the new rules, you are not right.
o In spite of being a good player, he was not selected.
o I’m going out of  the city.
o
The Conjunction
A Conjunction is a word used to join words or sentences; as,
Rama and Hari are cousins.
Two and two make four.
I ran fast, but missed the train.

Types of Conjunction
1. Coordinating Conjunctions:
The job of a coordinating conjunction is to join two words, phrases, or
independent clauses, which are parallel in structure. There are seven coordinating
conjunctions which are by far the most common conjunctions:  and, but, for, nor,
or, so, yet.
Example:
o We went to the stadium and enjoyed the cricket match.
o Do you want an ice cream or chocolate?
o Go away and never come back.

2. Correlative Conjunctions:
A correlative conjunction uses a set of words in a parallel sentence structure to
show a contrast or to compare the equal parts of a sentence. The words of
correlative conjunctions have a special connection between them.
The correlative conjunctions are not only - but also, either- or, neither - nor,
both - and, not - but, whether - or.
Example:
o Neither  Alex nor Robin can play baseball.
o I want both ice cream and
o He ate not only the ice cream but also  the chocolate.

3. Subordinating Conjunctions:
A subordinating conjunction joins elements of an unparalleled sentence
structure. These elements are usually a dependent clause and an independent
clause.
Most commonly used subordinating conjunctions are:
 After, how, then, when, although, if, that, where, as, in order that, though, which,
as much as, inasmuch as, unless, while, because, provided, until, who/whom,
before, since, what, whoever/whomever.
Example:
o Before we left home, I had had my breakfast.
o Provided  they come, we can start class Tuesday.
o When he was washing my car, I went to the store.
Interjection
An Interjection is a word which expresses some sudden feeling; as,
Hurrah! We have won the game. Alas! She is dead.