III.

VARIOUS LITERATURE: LITERATURE of ASIA (Continuation) Poetry

Singaporean literature in English started with the Straits-born Chinese community in the
At the end of the discussion, student should be able to: colonial era; it is unclear which was the first work of literature in English published in
Singapore, but there is evidence of Singapore literature published as early as the 1830s.
a. Recognize the right from wrong, identify one’s and demonstrate a deep respect for The first notable Singaporean work of poetry in English is possibly Teo Poh Leng's F.M.S.R.
self and for others: This modernist poem was published in 1937 in London under the pseudonym of Francis P.
Ng. This was followed by Wang Gungwu's Pulse in 1950.
b. Compare and contrast Ramayana and Mahabharata; and
With the independence of Singapore in 1965, a new wave of Singapore writing
c. Apply critical thinking though the analysis of literature texts emerged, led by Edwin Thumboo, Arthur Yap, Robert Yeo, Goh Poh Seng, Lee Tzu Pheng,
Chandran Nair and Kirpal Singh. It is telling that many critical essays on Singapore literature
A. DISCUSSION: name Thumboo's generation, rightly or wrongly, as the first generation of Singapore writers.
3. SINGAPORE Poetry is the predominant mode of expression; it has a small but respectable following since
The literature of Singapore comprises a independence, and most published works of Singapore writing in English have been in
collection of literary works by Singaporeans. It poetry.
is written chiefly in the country's four official languages:
English, Malay, Standard Mandarin and Tamil. There were varying levels of activity in succeeding decades, with poets in the late
1980s and early 1990s including Simon Tay, Leong Liew Geok, Koh Buck Song, Angeline
While Singaporean literary works may be Yap, Heng Siok Tian and Ho Poh Fun. In the late 1990s, poetry in English in Singapore
considered as also belonging to the literature of their found a new momentum with a whole new generation of poets born around or after 1965
specific languages, the literature of Singapore is now actively writing and publishing, not only in Singapore but also internationally. Since the
viewed as a distinct body of literature portraying various late-1990s, local small presses such as firstfruits, Ethos Books and Math Paper Press have
aspects of Singapore society and forms a significant been actively promoting the works of this new wave of poets. Some of the more notable
part of the culture of Singapore. Literature in all four official languages has been translated include Boey Kim Cheng, Yong Shu Hoong, Alvin Pang, Cyril Wong, Felix Cheong, Toh
and showcased in publications such as the literary journal Singa, that was published in the Hsien Min, Grace Chia, Topaz Winters, Pooja Nansi and Alfian bin Sa'at (also a playwright).
1980s and 1990s with editors including Edwin Thumboo and Koh Buck Song, as well as in The poetry of this younger generation is often politically aware, transnational and
multilingual anthologies such as Rhythms: A Singaporean Millennial Anthology Of Poetry cosmopolitan, yet frequently presents their intensely focused, self-questioning and highly
(2000), in which the poems were all translated three times each into the three languages. A individualised perspectives of Singaporean life, society and culture. Some poets have been
number of Singaporean writers such as Tan Swie Hian and Kuo Pao Kun have contributed labeled confessional for their personalised writing, often dealing with intimate issues such as
work in more than one language. However, such cross-linguistic fertilisation is becoming sexuality.
increasingly rare and it is now increasingly thought that Singapore has four sub-literatures
instead of one. Verse anthologies have collected and captured various aspects of life in Singapore,
from the 1970s onwards, including a few anthologies under the ASEAN series for the
Business Times (Singapore) has written that writers in Singapore can also be "highly literature of Southeast Asia. For example, the coffeetable book Singapore: Places, Poems,
experimental", and quoting the poet, Cyril Wong, literature in the country "doesn't Paintings (1993, edited by Koh Buck Song) featured poems, paintings and reminiscences
necessarily mean writing that's on the page. It can be writing that is performed or even about 30 significant places ranging from Chinatown to Bukit Timah Nature Reserve, and had
writing that is translated into video or images or photographs...including writings that are an exhibition at the National Museum along with paintings from the book. From Boys To
less tangible. Writings that are expressed through other mediums. Singaporean literature Men: A Literary Anthology Of National Service In Singapore (2002, edited by Koh Buck
has even begun to make its mark on the international stage, with Sonny Liew's graphic Song and Umej Bhatia) examined the meaning of military duty. Reflecting On The Merlion
novel The Art of Charlie Chan Hock Chye winning three Eisner Awards and the Pingprisen (2009, edited by Edwin Thumboo and Yeow Kai Chai) brought together about 40 poems
for Best International Comic in 2017. about the national tourism symbol. The most authoritative anthology to date is, arguably,
Literature
Writing Singapore: An Historical Anthology Of Singapore Literature (2009) edited by Angelia 1. Han May is the pseudonym of Joan Hon who is better known for her non-fiction books.
Poon, Philip Holden and Shirley Geok-lin Lim, and published by NUS Press. Her science-fiction romance Star Sapphire (1985) won a High Commendation Award
from the Book Development Council of Singapore in 1986, the same year when she was
Children also awarded a Commendation prize for her better-known book Relatively Speaking on
Children's literature in Singapore has gained momentum in recent years due to increased her family and childhood memories.
interest in the genre generated by the First Time Writers and Illustrators Initiative which
discovered acclaimed writers such as Adeline Foo (The Diary of Amos Lee), Jin Pyn (The 2. Rex Shelley hails from an earlier colonial generation, although he began publishing only
Elephant and the Tree), Don Bosco (Thor the Greatest), Hidayah Amin ( The Mango Tree), in the early 1990s. A Eurasian, his first novel The Shrimp People (1991) examines the
Edmund Lim (Where's Grandma) and Emily Lim (Prince Bear and Pauper Bear). Jessie regional Eurasian community and their experience in Singapore. The book won a
Wee, one of the pioneers of children's literature, rereleased her popular Mooty Mouse series National Book Prize. His three other novels, People of the Pear Tree (1993), Island in
with Marshall Cavendish in 2009. According to the National Library Board, other prominent the Centre (1995) and River of Roses (1998) all examine similar themes of the Eurasian
and prolific children's authors include Patricia Maria Tan, Chia Hearn Chek, Ho MinFong community in the Southeast Asia region. He has won the S.E.A. Write Award in 2007.
and Bessie Chua.
3. Haresh Sharma is a playwright who has written more than fifty plays that have been
Drama staged all over the world, including Singapore, Melbourne, Glasgow, Birmingham, Cairo
Drama in English found expression in Goh Poh Seng, who was also a notable poet and and London.[4] In May 2010, his highly acclaimed play Those Who Can't, Teach was
novelist, in Robert Yeo, author of six plays, and in Kuo Pao Kun, who also wrote in Chinese, published in book form by the independent publisher Epigram Books.
sometimes translating his works into English. The late Kuo was a vital force in the local
theatre renaissance in the 1980s and 1990s. He was the artistic director of The Substation 4. Su-Chen Christine Lim's works consider varied themes surrounding issues of gender,
for many years. Some of his plays, like The Coffin is Too Big for the Hole (1984) and Lao Jiu immigration and orthodoxy. In 1993, her novel, Fistful of Colours, was awarded the first
(1990), have been now considered classics. Stella Kon gained international fame with her Singapore Literature Prize. Her other novels take up the relationship between the
now-famous play Emily of Emerald Hill. About an ageing Peranakan matriarch, it has been Malays and Chinese immigrants in colonial Malaya, and the issue of land (A Bit of
produced in Scotland, Malaysia and Australia. The sole character has been played by men Earth).
as well as women. More recent plays have tended to revolve mostly around social issues,
especially causes such as gay rights. A few plays by writers such as Tan Tarn How have 5. Gopal Baratham, a neurosurgeon, started as a short story writer and later wrote
ventured successfully into the realm of political satire, but their audiences and critical politically charged works like A Candle or the Sun (1991) and Sayang (1991), which
reception remain limited. courted some controversy when they were first published.

Fiction 6. Jean Tay is an economist-turned-playwright. Her play Everything but the Brain won the
Fiction writing in English did not start in earnest until after independence. Short stories Best Original Script at The Straits Times' Life! Theatre Awards in 2006. Two of her plays,
flourished as a literary form, the novel arrived much later. Goh Poh Seng remains a pioneer Everything but the Brain and Boom, were published in book form by the Singapore-
in writing novels well before many of the later generation, with titles like If We Dream Too based independent publisher Epigram Books.
Long (1972) – widely recognised as the first true Singaporean novel – and A Dance of
Moths (1995). 7. Augustine Goh Sin Tub who began his writing career writing in Malay, burst on the
Beginning as a short story writer, Penang-born Catherine Lim has been Singapore's most literary scene after his retirement with more than a dozen books of short stories, most of
widely read author, thanks partly to her first two books of short stories, Little Ironies: Stories which were founded on his own personal history, thus making them part fiction and part
of Singapore (1978) and Or Else, The Lightning God and Other Stories (1980). These two non-fiction. Works like One Singapore and its two sequels One Singapore 2 and One
books were incorporated as texts for the GCE 'O' Levels. Lim's themes of Asian male Singapore 3 have found fans among the different strata of Singapore society and well
chauvinistic gender-dominance mark her as a distant cousin to Asian-American writers such acclaimed by all.
as Amy Tan. She has also been writing novels, such as The Bondmaid (1998) and Around this time, younger writers emerged. Claire Tham and Ovidia Yu wrote short
Following the Wrong God Home (2001), and publishing them to an international audience stories, while playwright Stella Kon put forth her lesser-known science-fiction novel,
since the late 1990s. Eston (1995). Of the younger generation, Philip Jeyaretnam has shown promise but has
 not published a new novel since Abraham's Promise (1995). His first two books, First Yes, Madam, can make a living. So so. What to do. Must work hard if wants to success in
Loves (1987) and Raffles Place Ragtime (1988), were bestsellers in Singapore. Singapore. People like us, no education, no capital for business, we must sweat to earn
money for wife and children.
8. Kelvin Tan, a musician and playwright, has been sporadically in sight, publishing the
works All Broken Up and Dancing (1992) and the Nethe(r);R (2001). Colin Cheong can Yes. Madam, quite big family–eight children, six sons, two daughters. Big family! Ha! ha!
perhaps lay claim to being one of Singapore's most prolific contemporary authors, No good, Madam. In those days, where got Family Planning in Singapore? People born
releasing three novels, one novella, two short story collections, and dozens of non- many, many children, every year, one child. Is no good at all. Today is much better. Two
fictional works thus far. He won the Singapore Literature Prize in 1996 for his travel children, three children, enough, stop. Our government say stop.
diary-like novel Tangerine. Daren Shiau's Heartland (1999) traces an eighteen-year-old's
rites of passage from junior college through to enlistment and thereafter. The novel has Lucky for me, all my children big now. Four of my sons working–one a businessman, two
been selected to be a set text at secondary school level. clerks, one a teacher in Primary school, one in National Service, one still schooling, in
Secondary Two. My eldest daughter, she is twenty plus, stay at home, help the mother. No,
9. Hwee Hwee Tan graduated with a First Class Honours from the University of East not married yet–very shy, and her health not so good, but a good, obedient girl. My other
Anglia, and a Masters from Oxford University. She grew up in Singapore and in the girl–Oh, Madam! very hard for father when daughter is no good and go against her parents.
Netherlands, and her cosmopolitan experience can be readily seen in her novels. Her Very sad, like punishment from God
snazzy, humorous prose can be read in Foreign Bodies (1997) and Mammon Inc.
(2001), both published by Penguin Books. Simon Tay, currently the chairperson of Today, young people not like us when we are young. We obey. Our parents say
Singapore Institute of International Affairs and a former nominated Member of don’t do this, we never do. Otherwise, the cane. My father cane me, I was big enough to be
Parliament, has a short story collection and a novel under his belt. These are Stand married, and still, got caning. My father he was very strict, and that is good thing for parents
Alone (1991) and City of Small Blessings (2009). to be strict. If not, young boys and girls become very useless. Do not want to study, but run
A newer wave of playwrights have emerged included Faith Ng, Joel Tan, Lucas Ho, away, and go to night clubs and take drugs and make love. You agree with me. Madam?
Nabilah Said, Helmi Yusof and Nur Sabrina Dzulkifli Today, young people they are very trouble to their parents. Madam, you see this young
people over there, outside the coffee- house? See what I mean, Madam? They are only
10. Sonny Liew, a comic artist/illustrator, won three Eisner Awards in 2017 for Best schoolboys and school girls, but they act like big shots, spending money, smoking, wearing
Writer/Artist, Best U.S. Edition of International Material - Asia, and Best Publication latest fashion, and making love. Ah Madam, I know, I know! As taxi man, I know them and
Design, for his graphic novel "The Art of Charlie Chan Hock Chye", which also won the their habits. Madam, you are a teacher, you say? You know or not that young schoolgirls,
Singapore Literature Prize in 2016. "The Art of Charlie Chan Hock Chye". fifteen, sixteen years old, they go to school in the morning in their uniforms and then after
The late 2010s saw a trend of young Singaporean female novelists bringing out school, they don’t go home, they have clothes in their schoolbag, and they go to public
novels with international publishing houses based in London and New York. These lavatory or hotel and change into these clothes, and they put make-up on their face. Their
novelists include Sharlene Teo, Kirstin Chen, Balli Kaur Jaswal, Clarissa Goenawan, parents never know. They tell their Mum got school meeting, got sports and games, this,
Rachel Heng, Thea Lim, Amanda Lee Koe, and Jing-Jing Lee. that, but they really come out and play the fool. Ah, Madam, I see you surprise, but I know, I
know all their tricks. I take them about in my taxi. They usual is wait in bowling alley or
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singaporean_literature coffee house or hotel, and they walk up, and friend, friend, the European and American
tourists, and this is how they make fun and also extra money.
Task 7: Reading
The Taxi Man's Story by Catherine Lim Madam, you believe or not when I tell you how much money they got? I say! Last
night, Madam, this young girl, very pretty and made-up, and wear sexy dress, she told me
Very good, Madam. Sure, will take you there in plenty good time for your meeting, Madam. take her to Orchid Mansions–this place famous, Madam, fourth floor flat–and she open her
This way better, less traffic, less car jams. Half hour should make it, Madam, so not to worry. purse to pay me, and I say! all American notes–ten dollar notes all, and she pull one out and
say keep change! as she has no time already. Madam, I tell you this, every month, I got
What is it you say, Madam? Yes, yes, ha, ha, been taxi man for twenty years now, more money from these young girls and their American and European boyfriends in my taxi,
Madam. Long time ago, Singapore not like this–so crowded so busy. Last time more
peaceful, not so much taxi men, or so much cars and buses.
more than I get from other people who bargain and say don’t want go by meter and wait go to school, and I tell her mother always check, check in everything she do, and her
even for ten cents change. friends–what sort of people they are…What, Madam? Oh, so sorry, Madam, cannot wait for
you to finish your meeting. Must go off, please to excuse me. In a hurry, Madam. Must go off
Phui!! Some of them really make me mad. But these young girls and their boyfriends to Hotel Elroy–there plenty people to pick up. So very sorry, Madam, and thank you very
don’t bargain, they just pay, pay, and they make love in taxi so much they don’t know if you much.
go round and round and charge them by meter! I tell you, Madam, some of them don’t care
how much they spend on taxi. It is like this: after 1p.m. taxi fare double, and I prefer working Source: http://emiljohnmila.blogspot.com/2014/02/the-taxi-mans-story-by-catherine-lim.html
this time, because naturally, much more money. I go and wait outside Elroy Hotel or Tung
Court or Orchid Mansions, and such enough, Madam, will have plenty business. Last Task 8:
Saturday, Madam, no joking, on one day alone I make nearly one hundred and fifty dollars!
Some of it for services. Some of tourists don’t know where, so I tell them and take them 1. What is the irony of the story?
there, and that’s extra money. Ah Madam, if I tell you all, no end to the story. But I will tell 2. What is the theme raised in the story?
you this, Madam. If you have young daughter and she say Mummy I got meeting today in 3. What is the main conflict arose in the story that happening in our society now? Cite and
school and will not come home, you must not say, Yes, yes, but you must go and ask her Explain.
where and why and who, and you find out. Today young people not to trust, like young
people in many years ago. Oh, Madam, I tell you because I myself have a daughter–oh,
Madam, a daughter I love very much, and she is so good and study hard. And I see her 4. CHINA
report cards and her teacher write’ Good work’ and ‘Excellent’ so on, so on. Oh, Madam,
she my favourite child, and I ask her what she want to be after left school, and she says go HISTORY OF CHINESE LITERATURE
to University. None of my other children could go to University, but this one, she is very
smart and intelligent–no boasting, Madam–her teachers write ‘Good’ and ‘Excellent’, and so Writing in China dates back to the hieroglyphs that were used in the Shang Dynasty
on, so on, In her report cards. of 1700 – 1050 BC. Chinese literature is a vast subject that spans thousands of years. One
of the interesting things about Chinese literature is that much of the serious literature was
She study at home, and help the mother, but sometimes a little lazy, and she say composed using a formal written language that is called Classical Chinese. The best
teacher want her to go back to school to do extra work, extra coaching, in her weak subject, literature of the Yuan Dynasty era and the four novels that are considered the greatest
which is maths, Madam. So I let her stay back in school and day after day she come home classics are important exceptions. However, even during the Qing Dynasty of two hundred
in evening, then she do her studies and go to sleep. Then one day, oh Madam, it make me years ago, most writers composed in a literary stream that extended back about 2,400
so angry even now–one day, I in my taxi driving, driving along and hey!I see a girl looking years. They studied very ancient writings in more or less the original written language. This
like my Lay Choo, with other girls and some Europeans outside a coffee-house but I think, it large breadth of time with so many writers living in the various eras and countries makes
cannot be Lay Choo, how can, Lay Choo is in school, and this girl is all dressed up and
Chinese literature complex. Chinese literary works include fiction, philosophical and
make-up, and very bold in her behaviour, and this is not like my daughter at all. Then they
go inside the coffee-house, and my heart is very, very–how you describe it, Madam, My religious works, poetry, and scientific writings. The dynastic eras frame the history of
heart is very ‘susah hati’ and I say to myself, I will watch that Lay Choo and see her monkey Chinese literature and are examined one by one. The grammar of the written Classical
tricks. The very next day she is there again I stop my taxi, Madam, and I am so angry. I rush Language is different than the spoken languages of the past two thousand years.
up to this wicked daughter and I catch her by the shoulders and neck, and slap her and she
This written language was used by people of many different ethnic groups and
scream, but I don’t care. Then I drag her to my taxi and drive all the way home, and at home
countries during the Zhou, Qin and Han eras spanning 1050 BC to 220 AD. After the Han
I thrash the stupid food and I beat her and slap her till like hell. My wife and some neighbors
they pull me away, and I think if they not pull me away, I sure to kill that girl. I lock her up in Dynasty, the written language evolved as the spoken languages changed, but most writers
her room for three days, and I ashamed to tell her teacher, so I just tell the teacher that Lay still based their compositions on Classical Chinese. However, this written language wasn’t
Choo is sick, so please to excuse her. Oh, Madam, how you feel in my place? Make herself the vernacular language even two thousand years ago. The empires and groups of
so cheap, when her father drive taxi all day to save money for her University. What is it, kingdoms of all these eras were composed of people speaking many different native
Madam? Yes, yes, everything okay now, thank you. She cannot leave the house except to languages. If Europe had a literary history like China’s, it would be as if most European
writers until the 20th century always tried to write in ancient Classical Greek that became a this period to Chinese literature were the prose works of the Confucian Classics and the
dead language more than two millennia ago. Taoist writings, and preserved poems and songs.
The first dynasty for which there is historical record and archaeological evidence is At the end of the Zhou Dynasty era that is called the Warring States Period, of the surviving
the Shang Dynasty. It was a small empire in northern central China. No documents from that few big states in the land, the Qin Dynasty became the most powerful.
country survive, but there are archaeological finds of hieroglyphic writing on bronze wares
The Qin Dynasty had big armies and conquered the others. Once the Qin emperor had
and oracle bones. The hieroglyphic writing system later evolved into ideographic and partly-
control, he wanted to keep it, and they squelched any opposition to his authority. In the
phonetic Chinese characters.
conquered territories, there were teachers of many different doctrines and religions. A
The Zhou Dynasty was contemporaneous with the Shang Dynasty, and then they big philosophical and religious school then was called Mohism. They were particularly
conquered the Shang Dynasty. Their dynasty lasted for about 800 years, but for most of the attacked by the Qin Dynasty, and little is known about it.
time, their original territory was broken up into dozens of competing kingdoms, and these
An early form of Buddhism was also established in China at that time, but their temples and
finally coalesced into several big and warring kingdoms by the end of the Zhou era.
literature were destroyed and even less is known about them. The emperor wanted to
The great literary works of philosophy and religion that became the basis for reduce the One Hundred Schools of Thought to one that he approved. He ordered the
Chinese religious and social belief stem from what is called the Spring and Autumn Period destruction of most books all over the empire. He even killed many Confucian
(770-476) and the Warring States Period (475-221). Taoism, Confucian literature, and philosophers and teachers. He allowed books on scientific subjects like medicine or
other prominent religious and philosophical schools all emerged during these two periods. agriculture to survive. So the “Book Burning and Burial of Scholars” was a literary disaster.
The Chinese call this simultaneous emergence of religions and philosophies the On the other hand, the Qin Dynasty standardized the written Classical Language. It is
“One Hundred Schools of Thought.” Perhaps so many philosophers could write said that a minister of the Qin emperor named Li Si introduced a writing system that later
simultaneously because they lived in small kingdoms that supported them. developed into modern Chinese writing. Standardization was meant to help control the
society. The standardized writing system also helped people all over the country to
In Chinese history, the dominant rulers generally squelch or discourage philosophical
communicate more clearly.
expression that contradict their own, so when there were several small powers, different
schools of thought could survive in the land at the same time. The Qin Emperor favored a philosophical school that was called Legalism. This philosophy
of course justified the strong control of the emperor and maintained that everyone should
The major literary achievements of the Confucian Classics, early Taoist writings, and
obey him. It is thought that Li Si taught that human nature was naturally selfish and that a
other important prose works originated in the late Spring and Autumn Period and the strong emperor government with strict laws was needed for social order.
Warring States Period of the Zhou Dynasty era. These literary works deeply shaped
Chinese philosophy and religion. Li Si’s writings on politics and law and his propagation of this school much influenced the
political thinking in the Han Dynasty and later eras. Legalism texts and the standardization
Confucius is said to have edited a history of the Spring and Autumn Period called the
of writing were the Qin Dynasty era’s literary contributions.
Spring and Autumn Annals that shapes Chinese thinking about its history.
A former peasant leader overthrew the Qin Empire. The Han Dynasty era lasted for 400
There were hundreds of philosophers and writers who wrote conflicting
years. At the beginning of the era, Confucianism was revived. Confucian texts were
documents, and there was discussion and communication. What we know of the literature of
rewritten and republished. Confucianism was mixed with the Legalism philosophy of Li Si.
this period was mainly preserved after the Qin Dynasty’s book burning and from a few
The resulting ideology was the official ideology of the Han Dynasty and influenced political
recent archeological finds of records.
thinking afterwards. The era’s major contributions were historical texts and scientific works.
Probably most of the philosophical and religious works of that time were destroyed. If
Sima Qian wrote Historical Records that is a major history concerning the overall history of
there were great fictional books created, they have been lost. So the main contributions of China from before the Shang Dynasty until the Han Dynasty. The book’s prose was
considered a model for writers in succeeding dynastic eras. Another important historical text empire was continuously attacked by nomadic tribes and countries around them. Their
concerned the Han Dynasty itself. northern territory was invaded, and they were forced to move their capital to southern China.
Some scientific texts were also thought to be important for their times, thought it doesn’t So the era is divided into two eras called the Northern Song (960-1127) and Southern Song
seem that the information was widely known or well known afterwards. (1127-1279) eras.
The Han Dynasty era was one of the two main hotspot eras for scientific and technical One of the era’s technological accomplishments was the invention of movable type about
advance. But printing wasn’t available for wide publication of the information. During the turn of 2nd millennia during the Northern Song period. This helped to spread knowledge
the Eastern Han Dynasty towards the end of the Han era, the influence of the philosophy of since printed material could be published more quickly and cheaply.
the Confucian Classics that hindered scientific progress was waning. So people were more
Travel literature in which authors wrote about their trips and about various destinations
free to pursue invention.
became popular perhaps because the texts could be cheaply bought. The Confucian
Cai Lun (50–121) of the imperial court is said to be the first person in the world to create Classics were codified and used as test material for the entrance examination into the elite
writing paper, and this was important for written communication at the end of the empire. bureaucracy, advanced scientific texts and atlases were published, and important poems
Finery forges were used in steel making. Two or three mathematical texts showing were written.
advanced mathematics for the times were written.
The Confucian Classics were important in China’s history because from the Song
The Han Empire disintegrated into warring kingdoms similar to what happened during the Dynasty onwards, they were the texts people needed to know in order to pass an
Warring States Period before the Qin Dynasty. For several hundred years, dynasties and examination for the bureaucracy of China. These Confucian Classics were the Five
kingdoms rose and fell in various places, and the next big and long-lasting dynastic empire Classics that were thought to have been penned by Confucius and the Four Books that
is called the Tang Dynasty. were thought to contain Confucius-related material but were compiled during the Southern
Song era. The Four Books and Five Classics were basically memorized by those who did
The Tang Dynasty had a big empire that benefited from trade with the west along the
the best on the exams.
Silk Road, battled with the Tibetan Empire, and experienced the growing influence of
organized Buddhist religions. This era’s main contribution to Chinese literature was in the In this way, Confucianism, as codified during the Song era, became the dominant
poetry of Dufu, Li Bai and many other poets. Dufu and Li Bai are often thought of as China’s political philosophy of the several empires until modern times.
greatest poets. Li Bai (701–762) was one of the greatest romantic poets of ancient China.
Since the bureaucrats all studied the same works on social behavior and philosophy, this
He wrote at least a thousand poems on a variety of subjects from political matters to natural
promoted unity and the normalization of behavior throughout each empire and during
scenery. Du Fu (712-770 AD) also wrote more than a thousand poems. He is thought of as
dynastic changes. The scholar-bureaucrats had a common base of understanding, and they
one of the greatest realist poets of China. His poems reflect the hard realities of war, dying
passed on these ideas to the people under them. Those who passed the difficult exams
people living next to rich rulers, and primitive rural life. He was an official in the Tang capital
were highly respected even if they didn’t receive a ruling post. High education in this
of Chang An, and he was captured when the capital was attacked. He took refuge in
system was thought to produce nobility.
Chengdu that is a city in Sichuan Province. It is thought that he lived in a simple hut where
he wrote many of his best realist poems. Perhaps more than 1,400 of his poems survive, The Five Classics and Four Books were written in the written Classical Language.
and his poetry is still read and appreciated by modern Chinese people.
The Five Classics include: The Book of Changes, The Classic of Poetry, The Record of
The next dynasty is called the Song Dynasty. It was weaker than the Tang Dynasty, but the Rites that was a recreation of the original Classic of Rites of Confucius that was lost in the
imperial government officials made remarkable scientific and technical advances. Qin book purge, The Classic of History, and The Spring and Autumn Annals that was mainly
a historical record of Confucius' native state of Lu.
Military technology greatly advanced. They traded little with the west due to the presence of
warring Muslim states on the old trade routes. There wasn’t territorial expansion, but the
The Four Books include: The Analects of The moon rounds the red mansion
Confucius that is a book of pithy sayings
Stoops to silk-pad doors
attributed to Confucius and recorded by his
disciples; Mencius that is a collection of Shines upon the sleepless
political dialogues attributed to Mencius;
The Doctrine of the Mean; and The Great Bearing no grudge
Learning that is a book about education, Why does the moon tend to be full when people are apart?
self-cultivation and the Dao. For foreigners
who want a taste of this Confucian The Mongols were nomadic people who herded cattle north of the Tang Empire and
philosophy, reading the Analects of wandered over a large area fighting on horseback. They believed that they might be able to
Confucius is a good introduction since the conquer the world. They easily conquered Persia far to the west.
statements are usually simple and like common sense.
It was a big empire with high technology, a big population and a big army. Then they
Another period of scientific progress and technical invention was the Song era. Song decided to try to conquer all the countries around them.
technicians seemed to have made a lot of advancements in mechanical engineering. They
They attacked the Tang Dynasty, the Dali Kingdom in Yunnan, and much of Asia, and they
made advanced contraptions out of gears, pulleys and wheels. These were used to make
formed the biggest empire in the history of the earth until then. They conquered Russia, a
big clocks, a mechanical odometer on animal drawn carts that marked land distance by
part of eastern Europe and a part of the Middle East.
making noise after traveling a certain distance, and other advanced instruments. The Song
technicians also invented many uses gunpowder including rockets, explosives and big guns. In China, the Mongols established the very rich Yuan Dynasty. In their camps, the Mongols
The imperial court officials did remarkable scientific research in many areas of mechanics were entertained by shadow puppet plays in which a lamp cast the shadows of little
and science. Shen Kuo (1031–1095) and Su Song (1020–1101) both wrote scientific figurines and puppets on a screen or sheet. In the Yuan Dynasty, puppet drama continued
treatises about their research and about different fields. to entertain the rich dynastic courts in vernacular language.
Shen is said to have discovered the concepts of true north and magnetic declination Dramatic operatic theaters with human actors speaking in vernacular language was a
towards the North Pole. He also described the magnetic needle compass. If Chinese favorite form of entertainment as well, and some of China’s best dramatic scripts were
sailors knew about this work, they could have sailed long distances more accurately. This written then. Also two of the four novels that are generally considered China’s best literary
knowledge would predate European discovery. He did advanced astronomical research for classics were written in vernacular language then. So though the Yuan Empire wasn’t ruled
his time. by Chinese, it was an era of some historically renowned dramatic playwrights and novelists
who wrote in vernacular language.
Su Song wrote a treatise called the Bencao Tujing with information on medicine, botany and
zoology. He also was the author of a large celestial atlas of five different star maps, and he It is thought that the operatic style of the shadow puppet dramas that entertained the courts
also made land atlases. Su Song was famous for his hydraulic-powered astronomical clock influenced the development of the operatic theater style of the Yuan Dynasty.
tower. Su's clock tower is said to have had an endless power-transmitting chain drive that he
described in a text on clock design and astronomy that was published in 1092. If this is so, it The Yuan rulers were fabulously wealthy according to historical accounts. They had a vast
may be the first time such a device was used in the world. When the Southern Song Empire empire and control of trade in Eurasia. For the royal courts or the rich people, refined music,
was conquered by the Mongols, these inventions and the astronomical knowledge may have sound effects and talented singers were employed for shadow plays.
been forgotten. The Yuan “Zaju” style of opera was similar to their shadow plays. Perhaps the playwrights
Another contribution to the literature of China was the poetry of the Song era. A Southern adopted the plots and the features. There were exciting plots, elaborate costumes,
Song poet named Lu is thought to have written almost 10,000 poems. Su Tungpo is refined music and singing, action, and dance that the Mongols enjoyed. The music of the
regarded as a great poet of the Northern Song era. Here is a stanza he wrote: Zaju operas was called Yuan Qu (元曲 Yuan Music). The language used wasn’t the
Classical Language but the vernacular language, so that the theater might be enjoyed by contribution. The Journey to the West is based on the historical journey of a Buddhist to
everyone. After the Yuan Dynasty, the operatic style developed into the Painted Faces style India during the Tang era to learn Buddhist teachings and bring back scriptures and
of Chinese opera that was popular until modern times. information. In 1629, Xuanzang (602 - 664) left Chang'an in 629 and arrived back in
Chang'an in 646. Mythical tales about this journey including the character of an intelligent
Guan Hanqing is regarded as one of the best playwrights of the times. He
monkey began to be circulated long before the book was written. The author drew on known
wrote Midsummer Snow that was one of the most popular drama pieces. It is a tragedy
tales. Journey to the West is thought to have been published anonymously by Wu Cheng'en
about an unjustly accused woman who received justice after her death.
in the 16th century though scholars have doubt about the authorship. The trend in that era
The Romance of the Western Chamber was written by Wang Shifu. It is considered one of was for people to write in Classical Chinese and imitate the literature of the Tang Dynasty
the best romantic dramas ever written in China. and Han Dynasty. However, this book was written in the vernacular. Perhaps because
there was a lack of accurate geographical knowledge available to the author, much of the
Novels were another outstanding achievement of the Yuan era. The novelists influenced the geographical landscape of the story is inaccurate. However, the “Flaming Mountains” that
future development of the genre. Two novels are still widely read now and are generally are near Turpan in Xinjiang are mentioned. Perhaps the author meant to poke fun at
considered two of the four greatest novels in Chinese literature. These are Water Chinese religion because a monkey is said to have defeated a whole army led by Taoist
Margin and The Romance of the Three Kingdoms. gods, and only the Buddha’s intervention stopped the monkey.
The Romance of the Three Kingdoms was written in vernacular language by Luo Guan The book describes India as a land of gross sin and immorality, and the monk was
Zhong. It is historical fiction about the end of the Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms commissioned by Buddha to help India. The characters in the book are well known to
Period. The Three Kingdoms Period was between the Han and Tang eras. Special Chinese children, and they often appear in martial arts movies and cartoons.
emphasis is laid on the two famous historical rulers Liu Bei and Cao Cao who were
antagonists. It is a long novel with 800,000 words. The Manchus invaded the Ming Empire from the north and established the last dynasty
called the Qing Dynasty. The Manchus were not Chinese, but they retained the Neo-
Water Margin is about the lives and ideals of a group of characters who fought against the Confucian governing system of the Song and Ming eras.
corrupt Northern Song Dynasty that the Mongols conquered. It is said it was written in
vernacular language by Shi Nai An, but scholars debate about the authorship. Many The Qing Dynasty came under increasing attack from both internal rebellions and foreign
scholars think that the first 70 chapters were written by Shi Nai An and that the last 30 countries. In the 19th century, foreign literature and the West became better known. In the
chapters were written by Luo Guan Zhong who was also the author of The Romance of the middle of this era, the last of China’s four great classic novels was written called Dream of
Three Kingdoms. the Red Chamber and near the end of the era, modernistic literature developed.

The Chinese rebelled against the Mongols, and the Ming Dynasty era began about 1368. The Dream of the Red Chamber also has an uncertain authorship. Like the other three great
The Mongols and the Ming government still sometimes fought. Because of this and the classic novels, it was written in a vernacular language – the Mandarin language that was the
presence of Muslim countries in between, trade with the west was reduced to the pre-Yuan language of the Qing capital. It is probably mostly composed by Cao Xueqin (about 1715-
level. 1763) in the middle 1700s, and the first printing of the book was in the late 1700s.

The Ming initially were interested in exploration, and Muslims whose ancestors arrived It is thought that Cao did not live to see the first printing. It is thought that another person or
during the Yuan Dynasty and who were familiar with seagoing trade were employed to make other people contributed the ending of the story since the original ending of the story was
long voyages to the Indian Ocean, the Middle East and perhaps Africa. Then they became lost. The book has a lot of textual problems, and there are different versions. In a preface to
isolationist. a printed version in 1792, two editors claimed to have put together an ending based on the
author's working manuscripts that they had bought from a street vendor.
It is interesting that a book that is one of the four great classics called Journey to the
West about a monk going to India was written during this time of isolation. Maybe the At the end of the Qing Dynasty era, the dynastic rulers came under increasing pressure both
thought of travel to the lands in the west was appealing then. Novels were the era’s main from foreign attacks and internal rebellions. Educated Chinese had easier access to
foreign literature, and they were more influenced by Western culture. Students started
to travel abroad to study, and schools built by missionaries educated tens of thousands of the Tao or the Way, the chun-tzu or the gentleman, Li or ritual, Te or virtue, and Jen or
students. There was a general sense of crisis, and intellectuals started translating foreign goodness. There are additional terms in the work, but these comprise the core concepts.
works on science, politics, and literature. These were popular, and the culture started to Taken together they form the backbone of Confucian ideals.
change. Some writers produced fiction more like Western fiction.
The Tao, or the Way, refers to a literal path or road. In the context of the work it refers to the
Sun Yat-sen led a revolution that marked the end of Chinese dynasties in which a clan rules manner in which anything is done; a method or doctrine. Confucius speaks often about
an empire. Of course, the big change of Chinese society that happened with the change of the Tao under Heaven, meaning a good way or path to achieving morally superior ends.
government led to a change in literature. This could include self-conduct or how a kingdom is ruled.
It became westernized, and the Classical Language wasn’t used. The national government Jen is most often translated as "goodness" or "humanity". The gentleman, or chunt-tzu,
wanted women to have more of an equal status in society, and women writers and scholars possesses this quality. Its translation is a bit difficult to represent exactly in English, but the
were taken more seriously. There was a lot of politically oriented literature printed. text provides a good deal of context when discussing the gentleman and goodness. It is
Scholars had access to foreign literature, and many students studied abroad. Until about helpful not to simply think of the term as meaning "goodness" but also to see how its
1923, there was a New Culture Movement. Writers generally wanted to lead the way in juxtaposition with the other terms forms a greater picture of how Confucius defined
transforming China into a modern industrialized country and replacing Confucian life-style goodness and other positive human qualities. For example, words like "altruistic" or
with a westernized one. "humane" are useful in understanding this term.
Under the national government, there was some freedom of expression, and lots of views Te corresponds most closely to the word "virtue", although you may encounter some
and styles of literature were popular. China came under attack from Japan. After the disagreement among scholars regarding this translation. A better definition, some scholars
Communist victory, only literature approved by the government was allowed. say, is to think of it as "character" or "prestige", an attribute that would have been desirable
in a human being.
Source: com/travelguide/culture/history-of-chinese-literature.htm
The gentleman or chun-tzu is the central term in The Analects and the other terms are
TASK 9: generally used in reference to this persona. For this reason it is difficult to summarize the
gentleman easily, but considering the term in the light of the other ideas in the text is helpful.
The Analects of Confucius Summary The gentleman is one who follows the Way and acts according to a system of morals and
The Analects of Confucius is an anthology beliefs that are not common amongst other individuals. The use of the term "gentleman" to
of brief passages that present the words describe the chun-tzu is itself problematic, as it can conjure images related to an aristocratic
of Confucius and his disciples, describe existence. Some scholars see a similarity between the term and Nietzsche's concept of
Confucius as a man, and recount some of the Ubermensch, although there is dispute over this idea as well. A "superior man" is
the events of his life. The another suggested translation of the term. Taken in consideration with the other terms
Analects includes twenty books, each presented, a more complete concept of the chun-tzu emerges.
generally featuring a series of chapters Li, or ritual, is another core concept in the text. Although the work does not go into great
that encompass quotes from Confucius, detail on what ritual traditions actually entailed, their importance is presented as paramount
which were compiled by his disciples after in the cultivation of te and an understanding of the Tao. The general principles of conduct
his death. comprise much of what this term encompasses. Here, moral initiatives outweigh pure
Book I serves as a general introduction to historical knowledge. In other words, practicing what we might call good manners and
the various disciples in the work. Book II conducting oneself in a moral and fair affectation were considered characteristic of a
deals largely with issues of governance. Books III and IV are seen as the core texts, gentleman. An appropriate attitude was also necessary: one of reverence and respect for
outlining Confucius's ideology. Much of the work concerns itself with the concept of
one's elders and for rites and cultural norms that had been handed down by past
generations.
Also important to consider in reading The Analects is the historical context in which
Confucius lived and the events that surrounded his struggle to spread his doctrine. During
the Sixth century, powerful warlords and families gained control of the state of Lu, gradually
undermining and marginalizing the ducal house. Consequently, the normal structure and
function of government and social rituals were altered, much to the dismay of Confucius.
Confucius sought a revival of the Chou traditions that once had been the norm in Lu. He
saw these ways as legitimately bettering society. The term li fits best in understanding the
Chou traditions that Confucius so eagerly wished to reinstate.
Eventually, Confucius and his disciples sought an audience with various leaders in Lu to
help bring these traditions back. Confucius's plan failed, however, and he left Lu after
becoming convinced that the sort of rulers he needed to enlist to his side were not present
there. So began a long period of traveling around to neighboring states seeking out such a
ruler. Some of this period is captured in the text. Confucius eventually returned to Lu upon
the invitation of Jan Ch'iu and lived out his days teaching young men about the Chou
traditions. However, he was not able to set up a state based on the teachings he held so
dear.