Chapter 5

Physical States of Matter

QI, Why do mountaineers carry with them pressure cooker?

OR

How does pressure cooker help in proper cooking of food?

OR

Why pressure cooker saves time in the kitchen?

Ans: Pressure cooker is equipped with a valve that controls the pressure inside

the pot. This valve generally exerts a pressure of 2 atm. Therefore, the valve does
not allow water vapors to escape until the pressure inside the pot reaches 2
atm. Because vapor pressure of water becomes 2 atm when the temperature
reaches 120 °C. So, water boils at 120 °C in a pressure cooker. That is why
mountaineers carry with them pressure cooker to cook the food quickly.

Q2. Food cooked in ordinary kettles at higher altitude remains semi cooked
why?

Ans: When the pressure of atmosphere is 1 atm or 101.325 kPa water boils at 100
°C at sea level. This is because at this temperature vapor pressure of water is 1
atm or 101 325 kPa. At Mount Everest at about 8850 m above sea level
atmospheric pressure is only 34 kPa. So, water boils at this height above sea
level. When its vapor pressure is 34 kPa at 70 °C. So, water boils at 70 °C. That is
why food cooked in ordinary kettles at higher altitude remains semi-cooked.

Q3. Freeze-dried foods are light-weight and can be conveniently

reconstituted by adding water. How?
Ans: Freeze-drying is a dehydration process typically used to preserve a
perishable material or make the material more convenient fortransport. Freeze
drying works by freezing the material and then reducing the surrounding
pressure to allow the frozen water In the material to sublimate directly from the
solid phase to the gas phase.

Q4. How does diffusion differ from effusion?

OR

Compare diffusion and effusion of gases. Draw diagram keeping in view their
molecular motions.

Ans: Difference between diffusion and effusion:

Diffusion Effusion

li. This movement of molecules from a I. The escape of gas molecules

higher concentration to a lower through the hole one after the other
concentration Is called diffusion. without collision is called effusion.

ii. In Diffusion the spontaneous flow of ii. The reality is that molecules of the
molecules from a region of higher gas are constantly colliding with the
concentration to a region of lower walls of the walls of the vessel. When
concentration. they reach the walls and find a hole in
it then they pass through the hole.

iii. Diffusion takes place in all iii. Effusion takes place through a hole
directions. of molecular size.

iv. Example: The smell of rose or a iv. Example: Escape of gas molecules
scent spread due to diffusion. from punctured tyre.
 IviCiipinjt <if jm* miihiviitai IhriHijgh u hull*

Q5. Define pressure. What are the units of pressure? Convert 1 atm into kPa?

Ans: Pressure:

Force exerted by a gas on unit area of a container is called its pressure. All
gases exert pressure. At any point a gas exerts an equal pressure in all directions

1 atmosphere (1 atm):

At sea level at 0°C the atmospheric pressure is 760 trim of Hg or 760 tonr
This pressure is referred as one atmosphere.

So, 1 atm = 760mm Hg

= 760 torr

SI unit of pressure:

The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa) which is very small unit, so that
kilopascal (kPa) is used for atmospheric pressure under ordinary conditions,

posco I:

One pascal equals force of one Newton exerted on an area of one

square meter

1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 x 105 Pa

Q6. Why gases are compressible?

Ans: Compressibility of gases:

Gases are highly compressible. This is due to the presence of large empty
spaces between the gas molecules. On applying pressure distances between
the gas molecules decrease,, therefore, its volume decreases.

Q7. What do you know about mobility of gases?

Ans: Mobility of gases:

Gas can flow and can be transported through pipes over long distances
but It can also leak more rapidly out of small hole. This is due to tendency of a
gas to expand and till the entire available space.

Q8. Briefly describe the density of gases?

Ans: Density of gases:

Gases have relatively low densities under normal conditions, This is

because the molecules are much farther apart in the gas. When a gas is cooled
its density increases because its volume decreases.

For example, density of oxygen at 20°C is 1.4 g/dm3 and at 0 °C is 1.5 g/dm3

Q9. Describe the effect on the volume of a gas by a change in pressure and
temperature?

Ans: Effect on the volume of a gas by a change in pressure and temperature:

According to the kinetic molecular theory, gas molecules are in constant

random motion. They move in straight line until they collide with another
molecule or the walls of the container. The pressure o gas exerts in a container is
due to the force exerted on the walls of the container.

The average kinetic energy of gas molecules is directly proportional to the Kelvin
temperature. (K.E * T)

Note: The average kinetic energy of a collision when a gas molecule collides
with the wall of □ container will not change when the pressure decreases at
constant temperature.

Effect of pressure change on the volume of a gas:

There are large empty spaces between the molecules. On increasing

pressure on the gas, the distance between molecules decreases. So, the volume
of the gas decreases

Figure shows what happens to volume of a gas, when pressure over the gas is
increased at constant temperature.

Larger Volume Smaller Volume

Larger Pressure Higher Volume

Effect of pressure change on the volume of a gas

Effect of temperature change on the volume of a gas:

On the other hand, when pressure of the gas is kept constant and
temperature is increased, the average kinetic energy of gas molecules
increases. So, the molecules of the gas hit the wall of container more frequently
and energetically. This increases internal pressure. As a result, volume of the gas
increases to restore constant pressure.
 V increases untill
Speed and collision frequency: Ps*i ■
Pfl« > Palm

Effect of temperature change on thE volume of a gas

Society, Technology and Science

Scientists use the power of reasoning to explain their observation. For

instance, when a balloon is filled with air, it expands. A scientist would explain it
by saying that air molecules are free to move inside their container. There is no
attractive or repulsive force between the molecules. As a result, gas expands
until it takes the shape of its container. Therefore, air expands to fill the interior of
the balloon evenly.

Q10. H ow a sa m pie of a gas can be c haracterized by varia bles?

Ans: A sample of a gas can be characterized by four variables:

1. Pressure (P)
2. Volume (V)
3. Temperature (T)
4. The number of moles of gas (n)

Qll, Define gas laws?

Ans: The relationship that expresses the influence of one variable on another
with the two variable constants are called gas laws

Do you know?

Earth's atmosphere consists of gases that provide the oxygen and pressure
necessary to support life as we know it. Atmospheric gases moderate
temperature extremes and one of them (ozone) shields living things on the
surface from harmful ultraviolet radiations in contrast the moon has no
atmosphere.

Seal needle's tip with alfa. What happens when its piston is moved from position
A to B?

Ans; There are large empty spaces between the air molecules. On increasing

pressure on the air, the distance between molecules decreases. So, the volume
of the air decreases.
QI3. State and explain Boyle's law.

Ans: Boyle’s Law:

Boyle's law states that the volume of a fixed amount of a gas at a given
temperature is inversely proportional to the applied pressure.

Mathematical form of Boyle’s law:

1
pa -
v

1
p=v

VxP= constatnt

This means product of volume and pressure must be constant if inverse

relationship exists between them.

Experimental verification of Boyle’s law:

Relationship between volume and pressure at constant temperature

Experiment No. Pressure (atm) Volume (dm3) V x P (dm3.atm)

1. 0.500 4.00 2.00

2, 1.00 2,00 2,00

3. 2.00 1.00 2.00

4. 4.00 0.500 2.00

Table clearly shows that the product of volume and pressure is constant.

Therefore, we can write V x P = constant

This means the volume of a given moss of a gas at constant temperature is
inversely proportional to the pressure on the gas. This relationship is known as
Boyle s Law.

Society, Technology and Science

In early 1600s, Galileo argued that suction pumps were able to draw
water from a well because of the force of vacuum inside the pump. After
Galileo's death the Italian mathematician and physicist IE. Torricelli proposed
another explanation. He suggested that the air in the atmosphere has weight.
The force of atmosphere pushing down on the surface of water drives the water
into the suction pump when it is evacuated in 1946. Torricelli invented a device
called barometer. He measured atmospheric pressure by the barometer andl
found that at sea level and 0°C, the atmospheric pressure is 760mm Hg Torricelli's
work soon caught the attention of British scientist Robert Boyle. He modified
barometric tube into a J-shaped tube. By adding mercury to the open end of
the tube, he trapped a small volume of air in the sealed end. He studied what
happened to the volume of the air as he added more mercury to the open
end. Boyle's from the studies discovered the pressure-volume relationship. J-tube
was further modified and another device known as manometer was developed
that can measure the pressure of any gas. This means instrumentation improves
as science progresses

Q14. Example 5.1: Accounting for pressure-volume changes in a gas using

Boyle’s Law.

Ethene is used as an aesthetic gas. The pressure on 2.5dm3 of ethene

changes from 1.05 to 2.10 atm. The volume of ethene becomes 1.25dm3 if the
temperature remains constant Explain this change using Boyle's law.
An$: Problem Solving Strategy:

1. According to the Boyle's law product of pressure and volume Is constant

at any two sets of conditions.

2. Calculate P x V for the two sets of condition and compare.

Solution:

Pi x Vi before change = 1,05 x atm x 2.5 dm3

= 2.625 atm. dm3

P? x Vs after change - 2.1 atm x 1.25 dm;i

= 2.625 atm. dm3

P1V1 = P2V2

Thus, the calculated result agrees with the pressure-volume relationship

according to the Boyle's Law.

Note: Relationship Pi Vi = P2V2 can be used to determine any variable

knowing the other three

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5.1

1, A student obtained following data in an experiment at 20°C.

P(atm) v(dmr*)

0.350 0.707

0.551 0.450

0.762 0.325

0.951 0.261
 1.210 0.205

Explain pressure volume relationship using this data and the Boyle's Law.

Solution: Problem Solving Strategy:

1. According to the Boyle's law, product of pressure and volume is constant

at any two sets of conditions

2. Calculate P x V for the two sets of condition and compare.

Pi xV, before change = 0.350 x atm x 0.707 dm3

= 0.247 atm. dm3

P> x V> after change = 0.551 atm x 0.450 dm3

= 0.247 atm. dm3

P3XV3 after change = 0.762 atm x 0,325 dm3

= 0 247 atm. dm3

P4 x V4 after change = 0.951 atm x 0.261 dm3

= 0.247 atm. dm3

Ps x V5 after change = 1.210 atm x 0.205 dm3

= 0.247 atm, dm3

Pi Vi = P2V2 = P3V3 = P4V4-P5V5

Thus, the calculated result agrees with the pressure-volume relationship

according to the Boyle's law.

1. Ammonia gas is used as refrigerant 0.474 atm. Pressure is required to change

2000 cm3 sample of ammonia initially at 1.0 atm. To 4.22 dm3 at constant
temperature. Show that this data satisfies boyle’s law.

Solution:
Problem Solving Strategy:

1. According to the boyle’s low, product of pressure and volume is constant

at any two sets of conditions.
2. Calculate Px v for the two sets of condition and compare.

P i x V i before change— 0.474 atm x 2000 dm3

= 0.948 atm. dm:$

P? x V2 after change = 1 atm x 4.22 dm3

= 4.22 atm. dm3

PtVi * P2V2

Thus, the calculated result does not agree with the pressure-volume
relationship according to the Boyle's Law.

QI 5. Briefly explain the Charles's law.

Ans: Charles's law:

The law states that the volume of given mass of a gas varies directly with
absolute temperature at constant pressure.

Mathematical form of Charles's law:

VaT

V=constantxT

Y=constant

This relationship is known as the Charles's Law.

( HonfnrJ
 Table: Volume-Temperature relationship

Sr. No. Volume (dm3) Temperature(K) V

T

1. 1.00 273 0.0037

2. 1.37 373 0.0037

3. 1.73 473 0.0037

4. 2.10 573 0.0037

V
Since ratio of y is constant,

— =constant
T

V = Txconstant

VaT

QI 6. Example 5,2: Accounting for temperature-volume changes in a gas using

Charles’s Law:

Table shows data of volume of a gas and its temperature for the given moss of a
gos at 900 mm Hg.

Table.1: Temperature-volume data for a gas at 900 mmHg

Temperature (°C) Volume (cm3)

0 107.9
 5 109.7

10 111.7

15 113.6

20 115.5

Explain volume-temperature relationship using Charles's Law.

Ans: Problem Solving Strategy:

1. According to the Charles’s law,, ratio of volume to absolute temperature is

constant for any set of conditions.

2. Convert °C temperature to Kelvin temperature by adding 273.

3. Find V/T for each set of conditions and compare

Solution:

Table 1. can be expanded into another table 2

Table.2: Temperature-volume relationship

Temperature (°C) Volume (cm3) Temperature (K) V

T

0 107.9 273 107 9

=039532
273

5 109.7 278
'^-°.3948

10 111.7 283
'^=0.3W
 15 113.6 288 1 13,6 = 0.3944
288

20 115.5 293 115’5 = 0.3942

293

The ratio V/T is fairly constant Thus, volume of the gas varies directly with the

absolute temperature as stated by the Charles's law.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5.2

1. A chemist obtained data shown in table in an experiment at 1 atm.

Table: Temperature-volume data of a gas at 1 atm.

Temperature (°C) Volume (cm3)

25 1 17.5

30 1 19.4

35 121.3

40 123.2

Explain volume-temperature relationship using Charles’s law.

Solution:

Problem Solving Strategy:

1. According to the Charles's law, ratio of volume to absolute temperature is

constant for any set of conditions.
2. Convert °C temperature to Kelvin temperature by adding 273 3.
3. Find V/T for each set of conditions and compare
 Table: Temperalure-volume relationship

Temperature (aC) Volume (cm3) Temperature V

(K) T

25 117,5 298 117'5.039

298

30 119.4 303 m<039

303

35 121.3 308
308

40 123.2 313
'C2 =0.39
313

The ratio V/T = 0.39 is fairly constant. Thus, volume of the gas varies directly with
the absolute temperature as stated by the Charles's law

2. A bacterial culture isolated from sewage produces 36.4 cm5 of methane (CPU)
gas at 27 °C and 760mm Hg. This gas occupies 33.124 cm3 at 0 °C and same
pressure. Explain volume-temperature relationship from this data.

Solution:

Problem Solving Strategy:

1. According to the Charles's law, ratio of volume to absolute temperature is

constant for any set of conditions.
2. Convert °C temperature to Kelvin temperature by adding 273.
3. Find V for each set of conditions and compare.
T

Table: Temperature-volume relationship

Temperature (°C) Volume (cm) Temperature (K) V

T
 27 36.4 300'
— = 0.1
300

O 33.124 273 33.124 = 0]

273

The ratio V/T = 0.1 is fairly constant Thus, volume of the gas varies directly with
the absolute temperature as stated by the Charles's law.

4. A perfect elastic balloon filled with helium gas has a volume of 1.25x103 dm3
at 1.00 atm and 25 °C on ascending to a certain altitude where temperature
is 15 °C the volume at ballaan becomes 1.208 x 103 dm3. Show that this data
satisfies the Charles's law.

Solution:

Problem Solving Strategy:

1. According to the Charles's law, ratio of volume to absolute temperature is

constant for any set of conditions.
2. Convert °C temperature to Kelvin temperature by adding 273.
3. Find for V each set of conditions and compare.
T

Table: Temperature-volume relationship

Temperature {CC) Volume (dm3) Temperature (KJ V

T

25 1.25 x 1CP 298 '.MxlO’,

298

15 1.208X103 288
288
The ratio V/T = 4.19 is fairly constant. Thus, volume of the gas varies directly with
the absolute temperature as stated by the Charles's law.

QI 7. Explain the term evaporation. Is evaporation a cooling process?

Ans: Evaporation:

Conversion of a liquid to a gas or vapor at al temperatures is called

vaporization or evaporation.

Explanation:

Place some liquid such as ether or acetone in on open

container and observe. You will notice that the volume of the
liquid gradually decreases and finally no more of the liquid is
left. This is because liquids constantly change into gas or vapors even when the
temperature Is Hess than the boiling point of a liquid.

In evaporation, some molecules in the liquid break away and enter the
gos or vapor state.

Evaporation is the cooling process:

Only those molecules which have greater kinetic energy than average
can break away from the surface. This means the molecules with the highest
kinetic energy escope first. The molecules in the liquid have a lower average
kinetic energy than the molecules that have escaped. Therefore, liquid's
temperature will decrease. Therefore, evaporation is a cooling process.

QI 8. Name the factors that affect the rate of evaporation.

Ans: i. Strength of Intermolecular forces:

 Stronger the intermol ecu I ar force lower will be the rate of evaporation
and vice versa.

ii. Temperature:

Increase in temperature increases the rate of evaporation and vice versa.

HI. Surface area:

Larger the surface area, higher is the rate of evaporation and vice versa.

QI 9. Does evaporation take place at all temperatures?

Ans: The molecules whose kinetic energies are greater than the average
kinetic energy of the molecules, escape from the surface of the liquid, if
temperature of the liquid is increased, rate of evaporation also increases.
Anyhow evaporation take place at all temperatures and only the rate differs.

Self-Assessment Exercise 5.3

Give reason;

1. When you put nail polish remover on your palm, you feel a sensation of
coldness.

Ans: The chemical nail polish remover (usually acetone) is very volatile, it
evaporates very quickly. To change from a liquid state, to a gaseous state takes
energy. The warmth of your palm supplies the energy. The flow of heat is from
your palm and into the liquid. This removes heat from your palm and has the
sensation of being cool.

2, Wet clothes dry quickly in summer than in winter.

Ans: At higher temperature, mere molecules of a liquid are moving with high
velocities. Thus, more molecules escape from its surface. Thus, evaporation is
faster than at low temperature. That is why wet cloth dr/ quickly in the winter.

Q20. Explain the term Vapour Pressure. On what factor it depends?

Ans: Vapour pressure:

The pressure exerted by the vapours of a liquid in equilibrium with its liquid is
called vapour pressure.

Explanation:

In a closed container no molecules can escape into the

outside air, when a partially filled container is sealed. Some of the
liquid molecules vapourize. As the time passes, the number of molecules
changing Into vapours increases. Some of these molecules because of their
random motions will collide with the liquid surface. Such molecules are
recaptured by the molecules at the surface of the liquid. This process is called
condensation. These two opposing processes will continue. After some time, the
number of molecules evaporating will become equal to the number of
molecules condensing. At this stage equilibrium is established between the liquid
and its vapours.

evaporation
Liquid - vapours
condensation

At equilibrium liquid continues to evaporate and condense but at equal rates qt

equilibrium the space above the liquid is saturated with vapours.

Q21, Describe the effect of temperature on vapour pressure?

Ans: Effect of temperature on vapour pressure:

Table shows vapour pressures of some liquids at various temperatures*

Table: Vapour pressures of some liquids at various temperatures.

Vapour Pressure (kPa) of Several Subslances at Various Temperatures

o°c 20aC 40cC 60°C B0°C 100°C

Water 0.61 2.33 7.37 19.92 47.34 101.33

Ethanol 1.63 5.85 18.04 47.02 108.34 225.75

Diethyl ether 24.70 58.96 122.80 230.65 399.65 647.87

We will find that the vapour pressure of liquids changes with temperature. This is
because an increase in temperature of a liquid increases the kinetic energy of
the molecules. As a result, more of the molecules will have minimum kinetic
energy needed to escape the surface of the liquid.

Q22. Does vapour pressure depend upon the nature of a liquid?

Ans: Yes, vapour pressure depend upon the nature of a liquid. The vapour
pressure of a liquid decreases when inter molecular forces increases.

Q23. Explain the term boiling point.

Ans: Boiling point:

The temperature at which vapour pressure of a liquid becomes equal to

the external or atmospheric pressure is called boiling point.

Explanation:
 Vapour pressure of the liquid keeps on increasing with the increase in
temperature. At a certain temperature, the vapour pressure of the liquid
becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure or external pressure. At this stage
liquid starts boiling Bubbles of vapours from throughout the liquid, rise to surface
and escape into the air. Figure shows the variation in vapour pressures of four
liquids with temperature. It also indicates the boiling points of these liquids.

Temperature ( °C)
Variation in vapour pressures with temperature for some liquids

Note:

Remember that a liquid boil when its vapour pressure becomes equal to
the atmospheric pressure i.e., 760mmHg or 101.325 kPa at sea level.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5.4

Look at figure and predict the boiling points of the four liquids at normal
atmospheric pressure.
 20 40 60 80 100 120
Temperature (°C)
Variation in vapour pressures with temperature for some liquids

Solution:

Name of Liquid Boiling point

Chloroform 40 aC

Ethanol 80 °C

Water 100 °C

Ethanoic Acid 120°C

Q24. Does boiling point depend upon external pressure?

Ans: Yes,r boiling point depends upon external pressure. The boiling point of a
liquid decreases with the decrease in external pressure.
Q25. How do you compare boiling and evaporation?

Ans: Comparison between boiling and evaporation:

Boiling Evaporation

i. It takes place at a fixed temperature i. It happens of any temperature.

e.g, boiling of water is 100°C.

il It happens throughout the bulk of ii. It only takes place at the surface of

liquid. the liquid.

■ii. Bubbles are formed. iii. No bubbles are produced.

iv. It is a quick process. iv. It is slow process.

v. It is affected at the altitude. v. It is not affected by altitude.

Q.26 Explain the effect of external pressure on boiling point

Ans: Effect of external pressure on boiling point

Liquids boil when their vapour pressure is equal to the pressure exerted on
the liquid by its surroundings. The normal boiling point of water is 100 °C. In the
mountains the atmospheric pressure is less than 1 atm, so water boils below 100
°C. In a pressure cooker at 2 atm, water does not boill until the temperature
reaches 120 °C.
 M
rt
Sealevel
variation in boiling1 of water

Q27. Why water boils at 70 °C on the top ot Mount Everest and at 120 °C in a
pressure cooker?

Ans: When the pressure of atmosphere is 1 am or 101,325 kPa water boils at 100
°C at sea level. This 1s because at this temperature vapour pressure of water is 1 *
atm or 101.325 kPa. At Mount Everest at about 8850m above sea level pressure is
only 34kPa, So, water boils at this height above sea level, when its vapour
pressure is 34kPa at 70 °C, So, water boils at 70 °C.

Pressure cooker is equipped with a valve that controls the pressure inside
the pot. This valve generally exerts a pressure of 2 atm. Therefore, the valve does
not allow water vapours to escape until the pressure inside the pot reaches 2
atm. Because vapour pressure of water becomes 2 atm when the temperature
reaches 120 °C. So, water bolls at 120 °C in a pressure cooker.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5.5

1. The boiling point of water on the top of Mount Everest is 70 °C, while at Murree
98 °C. Explain this difference.

Ans: When the pressure of atmosphere is 1 am or 101.325 kPa water boils at 100
°C at sea level. This is because at this temperature vapour pressure of water is 1
atm or 101.325 kPa. At Mount Everest at about 8850 m above sea level
atmospheric pressure is only 34 kPa. So, water boils at this height above sea level
when its vapour pressure is 34 kPa at 70 °C. So, water boils at 70 °C.

2. If you try to cook an egg in boiling water while camping at an elevation of 0.5
km in the mountain, you will find that it takes longer than it does at home.
Explain why?

Ans: When the pressure of atmosphere is atm or 101.325 kPa water boils at 100
°C at sea level. This is because at this temperature vapour pressure of water is 1
atm or 101.325 kPa. At elevation of 0.5 km on the mountain above sea level
atmospheric pressure becomes low. So, water boils at this height above sea
level, when its vapour pressure is low at low temperature. That is why egg takes
longer time to cook than it does at home.

ACTIVITY 5.1

ACTIVITY 5.1: Determining boiling point of an organic liquid:

Perform this activity in the laboratory:

You will need:

• Bunsen burner, stand, wire gauze, stirrer, thread, fusion tube, capillary
tube, beaker, thermometer and match box.

* An organic liquid such as acetone.

Carry out the following:

1. Place small amount of liquid in the fusion tube and tie it with thermometer
with thread such that the ends of fusion tube and thermometer are equal.
2. Place a long capillary tube in the fusion tube.
3. Place the beaker containing water on the stand.
4. Suspend thermometer along with fusion tube in water.
5. Heat the beaker and stir water with the stirrer*
6. Continue heating and stirring until bubbles start rising form the lower end of
the capillary tube,
7. See the temperature on the thermometer. This is the boiling point of the
liquid.

Ortermtnation of point ol in torrid

Q28. Define distillation?

Ans: Distillation:

A process called distillation is used to purify liquids. Distillation is the process

in which a liquid is heated to vapourize it and the vapours are cooled to
condense them back to the liquid in a different container.

Activity 5.2

Activity 5.2: Carrying out distillation process

Perform this activity in the laboratory:

You will need:

• A round bottom flask with side arm, thermometer, a glass condenser, a

conical flask.
* Tripod stand, plastic tubes, stand, Bunsen burner,

• Aqueous solution of NaCI.

Carry out the following:

1. Place NaCI solution in the round bottom flask and place it on the tripod
stand.

2. Fix thermometer on the mouth of the flask.

Air CQHdcnier

Distillation apparatus

3. Connect one end of condenser with the round bottom and other end with
the conical flask See figure for the assembly.
4. Connect lower side arm ot condenser with the plastic tube to the water tap
5. Connect upper side arm with another plastic tube to drain circulating water
6. Heat NaCI solution and open tap so that water circulates through the

condenser.
7. Observe what happens.
Q29. Write the typical properties of solid state?

Ans: Typical properties:

Unlike the liquids, the particles in solids are not free to

move. In solids particles are closely packed together and have
fixed positions. They can only vibrate about their fixed positions. Solid, therefore,,
are incompressible and do not flow.

Q30. Describe general characteristics of solids.

Ans: Some characteristics properties of solid are:

L Definite Shape:

The particles of a solid substance are held together in a definite and fixed
pattern. They are unable to move pass one another. There are strong forces of
attraction between them. There is an ordered arrangement of particles in three
dimensions which is called a lattice.

IL Compressibility:

Solids are nearly incompressible. The compressibility of solids is about 10°

times that of the gases. The particles of the solid material may be atoms, ions or
molecules. They have to and fro motion of their fixed positions.

HL Effect of Heat:

During heating, the particles of a solid start vibrating with greater

frequency. This makes the molecules a little bit apart from each other. In this
way, the volumes of solid increase. So, we say that solids expand on heating, A
stage reaches when the particles leave their fixed positions and start moving in
the form of a liquid state,

iv. Melting Point:

 When a solid is being heated, the temperature goes up. The kinetic
energy of the particles increases. Eventually there to and fro motion is enough to
leave their positions in the lattice. The lattice breaks into smaller clumps of
particles. These clumps can move past each other. Fig. (5.9). It needs energy to
break up the lattice into clumps. So. further increase of temperature breaks the
Clumps into individual particles. The entire energy is used up to make the
particles of a solid to leave their fixed patterns. That is why the temperature does
not rise further until the melting has finished.

The temperature at which a solid substance is converted into a liquid is called

melting point of the substance.

v. Diffusion;

The rate of diffusion ot solids is very slow as compared to liquids ar gases

the reason is that the constituent particles in solids are closely packed. There is
very little space to permit the movement of the particles

vi. Density:

Solids have very high mass-to-volume ratio as compared to liquids and

gases. Their densities are much higher than those ot gases. Anyhow, the density
at a solid is not far away from its liquid state.

Q31. Why solids have definite shapes but liquids do not?

Ans; The particles of a solid substance are held together in a definite and fixed
pattern. They are unable to move pass one another. There are strong forces of
attraction between them.

On the other hand, liquids have intermediate force of attraction between

solid and gases. Liquids have definite volume but they have shape of container.
Hence the liquid state lies between the gaseous and the solid states. Liquids do
not have definite shape but definite volume.
 Forces of attraction between the molecules are small. The molecules are
loosely held.

Q32. Briefly explain the term melting and freezing?

Ans: Melting paint:

The temperature at which a solid turn into a liquid is called melting point

The particles in a solid vibrate about fixed positions. When you heat a solid
its particles vibrate more rapidly. This is because their kinetic energy increases on
heating When its temperature is raised to a level at which the vibrations of the
particles become so intense that the particles start leaving fixed positions. Thus,
arrangement of particles within the solid breaks down. Eventually the solid melts.

Freezing point:

On cooling the liquid freezes. Thus, freezing of a liquid is the reverse of

melting. The temperature at which a liquid change into the solid is called
freezing point.

Note: The melting and freezing of a substance occurs at the same temperature.
At this temperature, the liquid and solid substances are in equilibrium with
each other.

malting
Solid Liquid
freezing

The melting point of a solid depends on the strength of attractive forces

that hold particles together in the fixed positions

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5.6

Sodium chloride, an ionic compound, has a high melting point ot 801 flC.
Whereas molecular solid such as ice has relatively low melting point of 0°C,
Explain this difference.

Ans: Sodium chloride (NaCI), an ionic solid, has very strong electrostatic forces
between sodium and chloride ions and thus has got a very high melting point
(001 °C).

Contrary to this the ice whose molecules are attracting each other by weak van
der Waal's forces, melts at a very low temperature 0°C.

Q33. Explain the process ot sublimation?

Ans: Sublimation:

Some solids on heating change to vapours without passing through the

liquid state. This process is called sublimation.

Examples:

Substances like iodine, benzoic acid, ammonium chloride etc. sublime

Figure shows sublimation of violet-black crystals of iodine.

Society, Technology and Science

Freeze-dried foods are light-weight and conveniently re-constituted by

adding water. When salt is applied on meat it draws out considerable amount
of water from the meat. After this meat is frozen and placed in a chamber
attached to a vacuum pump. By lowering the pressure below the vapour
pressure of ice, the ice crystals sublimate and the meat is dried without the loss
of its flavor. Dried meat needs no refrigerator because bacteria such as
salmonella which cause food poisoning cannot grow on salt and in the absence
of moisture. Thus, curing with the salt helps preserve meat.
 ACTIVITY 5.3

Activity 5.3: Determining melting point of organic solids

You will need:

• Beaker, thermometer, capillary tube, Bunsen burner, glass rod and wire
gauze.

• Organic solid such as naphthalene.

Carry aut the following:

1. Close one end of the capillar/ tube by heating

2. Fill one third of this capillary tube with small amount of powdered
naphthalene

3. Attach this capillary tube with the thermometer with the thread

4. Suspend thermometer along with capillar/ tube in a beaker containing

water

5. Heat beaker slowly with constant stirring water

6. Note the temperature when the naphthalene in the capillary tube just
starts melting. This is melting point of the naphthalene Figure shows
schematic assembly for determining melting point of the solid.

Determination of melting point of a solid

 ACTIVITY 5,4

Activity 5.4: Carrying out sublimation ot air freshener

Perform this activity in the laboratory.

You will need:

• Small pieces of solid air-freshener.

• A shallow container.
• Two clean plastic cups.
• Hot water and ice.
• Cardboard strips.

Carry out the following:

1„ Place some pieces of solid air-freshener in one of the cups.

2. Bend the cardboard strips and place over the rim of the cup containing air
freshener pieces.
3. Place the other cup inside the first cup. It should not touch the pieces of the
air freshener. Adjust the cardboards if necessary. This assembly is your
sublimate,
4. Fill the upper Cup with pieces of ice cubes.
5. Fill the shallow container about one third with the hot water,
6. Carefully place sublimate in hot water. Observe what happens

Note: you can perform this activity with naphthalene as well.

Q34. Give the characteristics of crystalline solids. Give examples.

Ans: Crystalline Solids:

 Property Crystalline solids

(i) Definition The solids in which atoms, molecules or ions are arranged in
a regular repeating three-dimensional well-ordered pattern
are called as crystalline solids.

00 Geometry These solids show characteristic geometrical shapes.

(iii) Melting These solids melt sharply at their melting points Crystalline
solids have sharp melting points.

(iv) Order These solids have perfect order.

(v) Examples Sodium chloride (NaCi), silver nitrate (AgNOs) are best
examples of crystalline solids.

Q35. Give the characteristics of amorphous solids. Give examples.

Ans: Amorphous Solids:

Property Amorphous solids

(i) Definition Amorphous solids are those in which atoms, ions or

molecules are not arranged in a definite pattern, rather
these are randomly arranged.

(H) Geometry Geometry These solids generally appear in lump or fine

powder form

(iii) Melting Amorphous solids do not melt. They simply soften on

heating, and gradually begin to flow on further heating.
These solids are therefore, considered as super cooled
liquids.
 (M Order Order in amorphous solids, perfect order is absent.

(v) Examples Some typical amorphous materials are plastics, glass,

rubber, lamp-black, pitch etc.

Q36. Write the names of different type of solids?

Ans: Types of solids:

A solid consists of an array of particles which may be atoms,, ions or

molecules. These particles are held together by strong attractive forces
between them. The strength of force that exists between the particles of a solid
determines the melting point of the solid.

We can recognize solids into two major groups based on their

macroscopic appearance. This is based on the arrangement of particles of the
solid.

L Crystalline solid ii. Amorphous solid

Crystalline solid:

Na+ ■

Sodium chloride crystal

 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5.7

1. Quartz is the crystalline farm of silicon dioxide (SiO2). It is a hard brittle and
colorless solid. When quartz is heated above its melting point (about 1600°C)
and cooled rapidly, an amorphous solid called quartz glass results. Figure
shows two-dimensional representation of quartz glass and quartz crystal.
Identify each? Give reasons.

Two-dimensional representation of quartz glass and quartz crystal

Ans: "Figure (a)" represent quartz crystal because atoms are arranged in a
regular repeating three-dimensional well-ordered pattern,

"Figure (b)" represent quartz glass because atoms are not arranged in a
definite pattern, rather these are randomly arranged.

2. Differentiate between amorphous and crystalline solids by writing appropriate

sentences in the empty boxes.
Q37. What is allotropy? Give examples by drawing their crystal structures.

Ans; Allotropes:

The different forms of on element in the same physical state ond phase
are called allotropic form or allotropes.

Some elements con exist in two or more different anrange nrients of atoms
Figure shows three different arrangements of carbon atoms.
 A
*

A
(a) (b) (c)
Arrangements of carbon atom* in
(a) Diamond (b) G repute (c) Sucky baII

Diamond:

n diamond each carbon atom is bonded to four others, creating a rigid

compact array. This makes diamond the hardest known substance.

Structure of diamond crystals.

Graphite:

In graphite carbon atoms are arranged in layers of hexagonal arrays.

Weak bonds exist between the layers that allow them to slide over one another.
This makes graphite soft.
Bucky Balls:

In Bucky ball, 60 carbon atoms form □ hollow sphere Carbon atom are
arranged in pentagons and hexagons just like a soccer ball.

Note:

Diamond, graphite and Bucky balls are called allotropes of carbon,

because all are made of carbon atoms and all are solids.

Q38. Explain the allotropic form of phosphorus?

Ans: Allotropic form of phosphorus:

Non-metal phosphorus is found in two common allotropic forms, known as

white phosphorus and red phosphorus.

White phosphorus:

The white phosphorus consists of tetra atomic molecules, P, that are not
bonded to each other.

Red phosphorus:

Whereas in red phosphorus, P. molecules are bonded to one another in

long chains.
 (a) <b>
(a) white phosphorus (b) red phosphorus

Q39. Briefly explain the allotropic form of sulphur?

Ans: Allotropic form of sulphur:

Sulphur consists of molecules that contain eight atoms, S, Sulphur also

exists in several crystalline and an amorphous form. Rhombic and monoclinic
forms are its important crystalline allotropes. Plastic sulphur is the amorphous
form.

<u>
CryStulHinv ultotropvs of sulphur
(it) rfiooil>tcT (h) monoclinic or prismatic.

Q40. Give comparison of the properties of diamond and graphite?

Ans: Comparison of the properties of Diamond and Graphite:

 Comparison of the properties of Diamond and Graphite

Property Diamond Graphite

Density 3.5 g cm-3 2.2 cm3

Colour Colorless Grey

Hardness The hardest naturally Soft and lubricating

occurring substance
known.

Electrical Conductivity Non-conductor Good conductor

Q41. Explain the comparison of physical states of matter?

Ans; Comparison of physical states of matter:

We can differentiate the three states of matter with regard to

intermol ecu I ar forces present between their particles.

There are no attractive forces between the molecules of a gas. So,

molecules can freely move in all directions. A gas has no definite shape and
volume.

But significant attractive forces exist between the molecules of a liquid.

These forces keep molecules together. However, these forces co n't hold
molecules in fixed positions. So, molecules in liquid con slide post one another.
Because of this a liquid has definite volume but no definite shape.

whereas in solids strong attractive forces exist between particles. These

forces are strong enough to hold particles in fixed positions. As a result, a solid
has a definite shape as well as definite volume.
Q42. Compare three states of matter i.e„ gas, liquid and solid keeping in view
their: (a) Shape (b) Compressibility (c) Density (d) Intermol ecu la r forces

Ans: Comparison Between the Three States of Matter on the Basis of Particle
Model:

Property Solids Liquids Gases

(a) Shape Solids possess Liquids do not Gases do not

have a definite
definite shape. have definite
shape.
shape.

(b) Compressibility Solids are least It is slightly more Gases are

compressible. It is than in solids. highly
due to the small compressible.
empty space
between their
molecules.

(c) Density The density of The density of They have least

solid is high. liquid is led than value of
those of solids. densities.

(d) Intermolecular Forces Mutual forces of Forces of Forces of

Attraction attraction attraction
between the between the between
molecules are molecules are molecules are
maximum. small. negligible.

Self-Assessment Exercise 5.8

Copy and moke comparison of physical states of matter by writing appropriate

sentences in the empty boxes.
 Key Points

Diffusion:

• Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a higher to lower

concentration.

Effusion:
* The escape of gas molecules through a hole one after the other without
collisions is called effusion.

Pressure:

* Force exerted by a gas on unit area of a container is called its pressure,

pascal:

• The SI unit of pressure is pascal. One pascal is the force of one newton
exerted on an area of one square meter.

Compressibility of gases:

* Compressibility of gases is due to the presence of large empty spaces

between the gas molecules

• Gases have tendency to expand and fill the entire available space.

Boyle's law:

• Boyle's law states that the volume of a fixed amount of a gas at a given
temperature is inversely proportional to the applied pressure.

Charles’s law:

* Charles's law states that the given volume of a gas varies directly with
absolute temperature at constant pressure.

Vaporization or evaporation:

* Conversion of a liquid to vapours is called vaporization or evaporation.

Vapour pressure

• The pressure exerted by vapours of a liquid in equilibrium with its liquid is

called vapour pressure.

• A liquid boil when its vapour pressure is equal to the external pressure.
Distillation;
* Distillation is the process in which a liquid is heated to vapourize it end the
vapour is cooled to condense It back to the liquid in a different container.

Melting point:

* Melting point is the temperature at which a solid turn into a liquid.

Sublimation:

* Sublimation is the process in which a solid change into vapours without

passing through the liquid state with or without heating.

A crystalline solid:

* A crystalline solid is made up of orderly, repeating three-dimensional

arrangement of particles.

Allotropes:

* The different forms of an element in the same physical state and phase
are called allotropes.

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