ORIENTAL PHILOSOPHY

-Brahma as the ultimate and transcendental Reality

-The knowledge of the Brahma is transmitted thru the sages
-Indian Philosophy refers to the accumulated wisdom which has its origin or heritage
in India
- Indian Philosophy should not be equated with Hinduism because there are claims or
aetheistic claims which is opposed to the basic tents of Hindu Religion

- Hindu religion is initially called the "Ariaderm"

- It is called the Vedic Way of Life which is named after their Sacared Scripture

The Meaning of the Indian Philosophy

- Drish which means to see or way of seeing
- unlike western phiosophy which is on specualtion indian Philosophy focuses on
Experience
- The perspective to attain the Truth (seer, seekers of Truth)
- The origin of the Indian Philosophy is the search for the questions of life.
- The stages of Life based on tradition (Ashram System)
1. Brahmacarya- is the student must live in the hermitage of the teacher
2. Garhasthya- the child is now grown up and have to pay the 3 debts-- the forefathers
(lineage), the teacher, and to the gods
3. Vanprasthya- the forest dweller, one can retire to the forest with his wife and reflect on
the fundamental questions of life
4. Sannyasa- the total surrender of everything and remain absorb in the quest of the ultimate
reality
(3 and 4 are optional especially for women)

-The Division in our Society is only caused with once profession and not by birth,
the creator made man equal but not similar. Every individual is born with attribute
and nature which determines his actions and profession
- If one abandons his "verna" he disturbs the peace in the society. It is better to
do one’s own duty badly than that of another well.

Is Indian Philosophy similar to Religion?

- Philosophy and Religion began as one in India they have different routes but they
did not oppose each other. Religion is to instill devotion in the hearts of man
and the aim of Philosophy is to understand the ultimate reality. They have one end
which is liberation. Religion purifies man while Philosophy perfects a persons understanding
It is the quest of the ultimate that ties Philosophy and Religion.

Religion proposes philosophic monotheism and Philosophy offers a monisthic view

which came from the UPANISHADS: One creater and One Reality.

The classical system of Indian Philosophy is divided into two:

1. Nastika- does not accepts the authority of the Vedas

- Carvaka
- Buddhism
- Jainism
2. Astika- does accept the Vedas
-Nyaya
-Vaisesika
-Samkhya
-Yoga
-Purva Mimamsa
-Uttara Mimamsa

What are the knowledge stored in the Vedas?

- Veda means knowledge
- Vedas is an ancient text full of knowledge
- Nothing is much known about the Vedic Culture
- The truth (eternal cosmic truths) of the Vedas are revealed thru the Seer
who are tasked to pass on the knowledge
- The seers do not belong to a particular class or belong to a particular time
- oral teachings and were compiled
- It was a ritual-based religion
- The purpose of the sacrifices is to maintain cosmic order

Indian Literature: Sruti and Smrti (Shuti)

- Sruti means "what is heard and Smrti means "what is composed or remembered"
- Vedas are Sruti because they consist of revealed knowledge which was handed
down from the gurus to their student orally.

The Vedic Literature is divided into four parts:

1. Mantras/Samhitas- is a hymn address to a god or a goddess. The collection

mantras are called Samhitas.
Four kinds: where compiled for the smooth performance of rituals
a. Rgveda /ragvey/--the most important Samhitas all contents of the
other Samhitas is only an extension of the ragveda
b. Samveda /samvey/-- is the songbook of the Samhitas
c. Yajurveda /yajurvey/-- is a combination prose and poetry
and consist of the sacrificial formula related to the
performance of sacrifices
d. Atharvaveda /atarvavey/-- is the latest addition to the cannon
has a dual aspect holy and unholy. Has songs and prayers
for the healing of diseases and long life. Also have philosophical hymns.

2. Brahmanas-is the starting point of the Indian Philosophy. Without the knowledge
Brahmanas one cannot understand Indian Religion and Philosophy. Each Samhitas contains
one or more Brahmanas. It is an elaboration of the complicated ritualism of the Vedas.
It portrays the significance and importance of the performance of the rituals and
the way they are performed.

3. Aranyakas- means "a text composed or read in the calmness in the forest". Gives a
a preliminary training to those who aspire spiritual knowledge and want relief from
the cycle of life and death. This marks the transition from ritualism to philosophical
thinking.

4. Upanisads- the concluding portion of the Aranyakas. It signifies knowledge which

loosens completely the bondage of the world from the seeker and lead it to the
ultimate reality which is the Brahman.

(The mantra and the brahmans are called the KARMAKANDA of the Vedas as they both deal
with ritualistic performance. The aranyakas and the upanisads are called the
Jnyanakanda of the Vedas as they are the portions that concern with knowledge.)

Sutras- these are considered as the connecting link between the Vedic and Post Vedic
Period. It provides information of the social, economic and religous aspect of the
Indian Culture. The significant works of the Sutra Literature are called /VEDANGAS/.

Division of Vedangas:
a. Siksa or Phonetics
b. Kalpa or Ritual Instruction
c. Vyakarana or Grammar
d. Nirukta or Etymology
e. Chhanda or Poetic Meters
f. Jyotish or Astrology and Astronomy

- The reading of the Sutras helps or makes the understanding of the Vedas clear, easy
and fruit bearing.

-The Ancient Seers arranged the whole Vedic Literature with the 4 Stages of Life.
-What can we infer from this:

-A gradual transition from the naturalistic nad anthromorphic polytheism through

monotheism to monism

-What does this mean?

The pre-UPANISHADIC Philosophers by observing nature was able to establish the principle
of causality and believed in the existence which is associated to each of these
phenomenon, without giving it form. But later where given an anthromorphic form. Then
lead to the monotheistic explanation of the cosmos, that there must be a God that created all
other gods. Which led ultimately to the Brahman (infinite, eternal, unitary principle)
which is the ultimate reality.

The Vedic Culture

- The caste system did not yet exist during their time, what they had was the varna which was
used to differentiate between Aryan and Non-Aryans
- Purusha Sukta was added in the Rigveda in the later stage
- The Caste System was existence when the Aryans settled in the Punjab.
Religious Life
- Worshipper of Nature: the Sun, the Sky and the Earth
1. Varuna- considered as the Chief of Gods, the God of Sky. In charge of the right, the
truth and the guardian of moral laws
2. Indra- the Warrior God, who helps worshippers in their battles against their foes
3. Savitri/Savita- the Sun God
- Aryan believe in One Supreme God, they worshipped various manifestation of Supreme Being
—Henotheism
- Yajnas or Offering of Sacrifices
- They do not have a no priestly class every householder was a priest who lighted the sacrificial
fire in his own home and chanted the hymns. The Aryans were generally optimistic and hence
sadder aspect of life have not been given much importance in their religion.
-They believed in the existence of the soul and its transmigration. They had the concept of
Yama and Heaven which can only be achieved through sacrifices and worships of the Gods.
-The king is expected to rule according to the law of Dharma—the way of righteousness.
The Four Castes
1. Brahmanas-occupied the highest position in the social organization
2. Kshatriyas- where the upholers of the kshatra, the law
3. Vaishyas- engaged in agriculture, trade, crafts and cattle breeding
4. Sudras were to serve other three classes

Religious Life in the later Vedic Period

1. Emergence of New Gods
2. Dominance of Priestly class
3. The Doctrine of Karma, Moksha, and the transmigration of Soul
4. Asceticism

-Indian Philosophy (Darshana, view or direct experience) is divided int two pure reason and
practice.
-Ordthodox (Astika) Acknowledge Veda
Are listed in the order of complexity Vedanta as the highest Truth.
a. Nyaya (Realism)
b. Vaisesika (Pluralism)
c. Samkhya (Rationalism)
d. Yoga (Practicism)
e. Purva Mimamsa (Ritualism)
f. Vedanta/Uttara Mimamsa (Inquirism)
-Heterdox (Nastika)
a. Charvaka (Materialism)
b. Jainism (Restrainism)
c. Buddhism (Nominalism)

Common theme that they deal about

1. Liberation from Suffering—How to get rid of Suffering
2. Individual Soul—Who am I, Why I am here and where am I going?
3. Creation of the World and our relationship with everything else
 4. Inquiry on the existence and nature of God—What is truth?

-All Darshana uses Sutra Literature: Rules

1. Consisting of minimum number of letters
2. Without doubt as regards to the meaning
3. Must contain the essence of the subject
4. Reflects all aspects of the same
-The knower of Sutra is called a /sutravit/
-How do they prove the validity of Sutras?
1. Direct Perception
2. Indirect Cognition
a. Inference
b. Comparison/Analogy
c. Testimony/Word
d. Postulation/Presumption
e. Non-perception/Non-Existence

A. Nyaya Philosophy (Realism, Rules, Inquiry, Reasoning)

a. Means Rules, Methods, Judgment or Justice
b. The School of Logics which is the foundation for all Indian Philosophies
c. Founded by Sage Gautama
-16 Things for Studying Reality
1. Objects of the True Knowledge (Prameyas)- must be known for liberation
2. Valid Scource of Knowledge (Pramana)- how to know them truly and
correctly
3. Doubt 10. Arguments to discover truth
4. Aim 11. To argue to win
5. Examples 12. Destructive Criticism
6. Doctrine 13. Apparent, but not valid reason
7. Constituent 14. Unfair Reply
8. Logic 15. False Analogy
9. Conclusions 16. Ground of defeat

1. Object of Knowledge
a. Soul j. Results
b. Suffering k. Rebirth
c. Freedom from Suffering l. Mental defects
 d. The Body
e. The Five Senses
f. The Object of the Senses
g. Cognition
h. Mind
i. Activity
2. Ways to Validate Knowledge
a. Valid Sources
i. Direct Perception
ii. Inference
iii. Comparison
iv. Testimony
b. Invalid Sources
i. Memory
ii. Doubt
iii. Erroneous Perception
iv. Hypothetical Argument

B. Vaisesika Philosophy /baysheshika/- School of Atomistic Pluralism

a. It studies Vishesha or uniqueness as an aspect of reality
b. Famous for Atomic Theory Principles and Pluralistic Realism
c. Founded by: Sage Kanada

- 7 Categories of Reality to be Known

o Substance
o Quality
o Action
o Generality
o Uniqueness
o Inherence
o Nonexistence

- 9 Substance
o Earth
o Water
o Fire
o Air
o Space
o Time
o Direction
o Soul
o Mind

- 24 Qualities
o Color
o Taste
o Smell
 o Touch
o Sound
o Number
o Uniqueness

- The Atomic Theory of Visheshika

o Atoms are the small part of the universe, modern science the movement of the atoms
are governed by the mechanical laws, however Visheshkia atoms are governed by the
supreme order based on the individual souls karma

- Nyaya and Vaisesika Philosophy Differences

o Nyaya maintains that all of reality is comprehended by 16 Categories but Vaisesika
only recognizes 7 of the reality
o Nyaya accepts four independent sources of Knowledge but Vaisesika accepts only
first two—direct perception and inference
o Nyaya dives more on logical side, Vaisesika uses the logic to dive deeper on atomic
level to find the uniqueness

- The Creation of the World

o The world is a product of physical atoms, substance, and nonphysical entities
 Five Elements- Earth, Water, Fire, Air, and Space
 Non-Physical- Time, Direction, Mind, and Soul
o It is God (Ishvara), created the world
o Creation simply means ordering of the eternal substance, which are coexistent with
God, to form into a moral world shaped according to the karmas of the individual
souls.

- About the Creator

o God as the ultimate cause of Creation, Maintenance, and Destruction of the World.
These three stages are cyclic in nature and happens on the Will of God.

- About the Individual Soul

o Individual souls are infinite in number. They are eternal and indestructible.
Consciousness is not intrinsic to them but an attribute due to the association with
the mind, which is considered atomic in size.
o The individual souls themselves are all pervading and gets all its experiences when
its mind is related to the outside world through the sense organs.

- About Liberation from Suffering

o Ignorance is the cause of suffering
o Liberation is only possible by acquiring true knowledge
o True knowledge is experience and acquired by threefold practices
 Listening and Understanding Spiritual Knowledge
 Reflecting on gained knowledge and establishing the firmness in mind
 Meditating on the soul based on the reflections

SAMKHYA AND YOGA (School of Rational Dualism Practice)

 C. Samkhya Philosophy
a. The foundation of Yoga Philosophy
b. Means knowledge, literally number
c. It is said to be the mother of – Mathematics, Ayurveda and Yoga
d. Founder: Sage Kaplia /kapila/

- Smakhya Dualistic Theory (Two Main Object to known)

o Consciousness (Purusa) /pursha/
 Is like the known pure consciousness which is like the energy (Ultimate
Truth)
o Unconscious Principle- Nature (Prakriti) /pukrati/
 Is everything that we can see and feel in this creation which is primordial
matter and the creative potential of the Purusa
 Cannot exist without Purusa
 The root cause of entire universe is Prakriti
 Three components—light, activity, inertia (/trigona/)
 When in equilibrium nature remains unmanifested
 When it is disturbed nature comes in manifestation
 How does the equilibrium get disturbed? (When Purusa comes in
contact with the Prakriti)—Mother and Father Analogy
 Gives rise to Intellect (Mahat/Buddhi) and from intellect flows the I-
ness (Ahankara) and the Mind (Manas)

- Practical Teaching
o Mind turn one’s bliss into misery by its projection. So, Samkhya emphasizes to
polishing the mind to filter the right knowledge
o Discourages external rituals because people perform without understanding of its
significance.
o Reminds to examine one’s thinking process to purify and develop proper attitude
towards objects of the senses to minimize the attachment and aversions
o Advises to not run away from the world but have perfect mental control to stay in
control during ups and downs of life.

- The Theory of Causation

o The effect pre-existed in the cause before manifestation
o The main logic behind this theory is that something can never be produced out of
nothing. So, the original cause of everything is seen as Prakriti

Yoga Philosophy (the School of Practice)

- Comes from the word “yuj” which means to yoke, or to concentrate or to unite
- Founded by: Sage Patanjali

- The Main Focus:

o Mind (Nature, Stages, Overcoming the Modification)—pains and pleasure are

modifications of the mind.
 o Obstacles to Yoga (Impediments and Affliction)
o Systematic Yoga Practice (Methods, Steps, and Stages)
o Attainment of the highest goal (Kaivalya)

- The Three main Objects to be known:

o Supreme-Consciousness (Ishvara)—God
o Consciousness (Purusha)—Individual Soul
o Unconscious Principle (Prakriti)—Nature
- The Eight Limbs Path (Ashtanga Yoga)
o Five Restrains (Yama)
o Five Observance (Niyama)
o Posture (Asana)
o Control of Vital Force (Pranayama)
o Withdrawal of Senses (Pratyahara)
o Concentration (Dharana)
o Meditation (Dhyana)
o Total Absorption (Samadhi)
(The last three observance: zeal study and surrender to God is called KRIYA YOGA)
(The First five which are external practices is called HATHA YOGA)
(The last three are internal practices which is called SAMYAMA YOGA)

- Yoga Philosophy on the Creator

o The God is referred as Isvara
o The concept of God, gives hope to human beings, the who is perfect, eternal, all
pervading, free from all Karmas. It is your personal God.
o When Individual Soul (Purusha) becomes free from all Samskaras, then becomes a
liberate soul and merges into God-consciousness
o When ignorance is dissolved, duality drops and the perfect union of individual soul
happens with supreme soul. Thus, individual soul become fully liberated from
sufferings
o The existence of Isvara can be known only through the scriptures

- The Differences of Samkhya and Yoga Philosophy

o Yoga accepts three realities—Purusha, Prakriti, and Ishvara but Samkhya does not
accept God
 Samkhya—if the existence of law of Karma is assumed, then the role of God is
unnecessary. If God enforces the consequences of actions, then law of Karma
is unnecessary
 If God enforces the consequences, then either God is egoistic or altruistic. If
so, God won’t desire to create a world full of suffering
 There is no proof of the existence of God which can be validated using the
valid source of knowledge
o Samkhya primarily emphasizes on knowledge enquiring the nature of truth, but
Yoga primarily emphasizes on the practices and disciplines to control the
modification of mind.
 o Yoga uses Samkhya as foundation but also borrows knowledge from the other
sources such as Vedanta

- Similarity
o Both accepts three valid sources of knowledge—Direct perception, inference, and
testimony
o Both accepts the dualist theory of Purusha and Prakriti
o Both accepts that ignorance is the cause of suffering
o Both emphasizes polishing and controlling the mind
o Both uses rational and practical approach
- The Creation of the World:
o The root cause of the entire universe is Prakriti not Purusha
o It is a journey of Consciousness (Purusha) into the matter (Prakriti)
o Unmanifest Prakriti is the limitless potential consisting of three fundamental forces
called the Guna--Sattva, Rajas, Tamas--in the equilibrium.
o The effective contact between the Purusha and the Prakrit disturbs the balance of the
Gunas in Prakriti and sets in motion the process of evolution, and creation of the
world

- The Individual Soul

o The individual soul is consciousness, and that is his very essence
o Soul is eternal, ever pure, ever detached and all pervading
o There are innumerable souls, as many as the living beings

- The Liberation from Suffering

o Due to ignorance, Individual soul (purusa) forget his real nature, gets involved with
evolutes of Prakriti and suffers
o How and when Purusa got into this mess of suffering can never be answered, except
by stating that it is beginning-less (anadi) but has an end (santa)
o Since ignorance (aviveka) is responsible for this bondage, liberation can come only
from right knowledge
o The right knowledge is attained by following the Eigth Limbs of Yoga wherein the
individual soul (purusa) is the object of meditation.

- The Practices
o Study and understand the Philosophy and scriptures
o Reflect on the gained knowledge
o Pracrtice Ashtanga Yoga with consistency, reverence and nonattachment for
longtime.

“YOGA IS THE PRACTICE OF SAMKHYA PHILOSOPHY”

Mimamsa and Vedanta Philosophy (Ritualism and Enquiry)—The Latter was

written by the student of the Author of Mimamsa

- Mimamsa Philosophy (School of Ritualism)

 o Mimamsa means “revered duties” or “critical investigation
o It is known for the philosophical theories on the nature of Right Action (Dharma) as
per Vedas only. Main focus is on Karma, some of these rituals are also used in Tantra
o Authored: Sage Jamini

- Mimamsa Philosophy Basics

o It covers the two sections of Vedas named—Brahmas and Samhitas, which deals with
Right Action
o Mimamsa is also known as Purva Mimamsa/ Karma Mimamsa because it deals
with ritual actions and worship
o This school is basically the analysis of sound and mantra leading to rituals. Thus,
provides rule for the interpretation of the Vedas, and philosophical justification for
the observance of Vedic Rituals
o It reconciles the different directive given in different text for the same ritual. It
applies to house-holders.
o Mimamsa Philosophy did not accept the existence of God, all the names of the gods
are just for names sake. The power of the gods was in the mantras and perform the
rituals and gain it through the mantras.

- The Main teachings of Mimamsa Philosophy

o Self-Action
o Non-attachment
o Self-control and Self discipline
o Psychophysical well being
o Social Awareness
o Sense of Equality
o Unity within Diversity
o Selectiveness
o Seeing eternity in the non-eternal

- Mimamsa the Creation of the World

o Mimamsa is silent about how it was created, who created and its process
o Mimamsa believes in the reality of the world, with all the countless object, and the
living being with sense-organs
o The souls reside temporarily to reap the effects of their actions (karma), good or
bad, and various objects of the world serve as the fruits to be suffered or enjoyed.

- About the Creator

o Mimamsa system says all the materials that make up the physical world are eternally
existing
o Since the karmas of the souls impel these materials in the process of creation, there
is no need to accept any God as the agent of creation
o It states that names of Gods in Vedas are just for the name-sake
o The actual power of the mantras is the power of the Gods
o However, one of the sub-schools of this system accept the concept of personal God
(Isvara)

- About the Individual Soul

 o There are infinite number of souls. They are eternal but undergo transmigration due
to their karmas (good or bad deeds) in a real world
o The soul has no consciousness of its own. Consciousness rises in it due to association
with the mind, the sense-organs and the sense-objects. This is proved by the absence
of consciousness in the deep-sleep state.
o When a person performs the Karma, subtle form resides in his soul and will give its
fruit after death. Each person must perform daily and occasional duties for the
purification of the soul and moral improvement.

- Liberation and Suffering

o Mimasa says that our past Karmas are the cause of our suffering, and Karma is also
the way to get rid of suffering when performed skillfully
o By performance of daily (Nitya) and occasionally (naimittika) rituals. It will bring
purity of mind which will help the mind to do selfless action skillfully without
attachment
o If suffering due to the Sins committed unwillingly, it can be offset by the
performance of the various expiatory rites
o In present, by not performing desire-motivated action will not cause suffering and
rebirth. Past actions that has caused this birth is exhausted by experience in this life.

- Mimamsa Practices
o All the Vedic duties and rituals
o Daily duties, ceremonial and rituals of Hindus
o The legal matter such as inheritance, property rights, adoption etc. has close
relationship with Indian Law.

Vedanta Philosophy (School of Enquiry-of the Absolute Truth) Dualism to Non-

Dualism—the pinnacle of Indian Philosophy.

- Vedanta Philosophy
o Vedanta means “end of knowledge
o Vedanta clarify and reconcile the apparent contradictions in the teachings of
Upanishads
o Author: Sage Badarayana
o The purpose is to make the interpretation of the Brahmas and the Upanishads

- Basics
o Brahma Sutra primarily deals about Brahman (God, the Absolute). It provides
coherent philosophy about Brahman for the apparently conflicting statements in the
Upanisads
o Brahma Sutra is also known as the Vedanta Sutra, Uttara Mimamsa
o Brahma Sutra in this text is so iconic, that different master interpreted it differently
which created over several sub-schools.

- Three Schools
o Advaita /adwet/ (Monism/Non-Duality)—Sankara
  Brahma Sutra (logical text)
 10 Major Upanishads
 Bhagvad Gati (practical text)
o Visistadvaita /vivishadwet/ (Qualified Monism/Non-Duality)—Ramanuja
o Dvaita /dwet/ (Dualism/Duality)—Madhva

- Vedanta Key Terms

o Sankara recognizes a unity in multiplicity, identity between individual and pure
consciousness, and the experienced world as having no existence apart form the
Rahmann.
 Brahman—Supreme Consciousness without any attributes, Nigruna
Brahman
 Maya—Inherent power of Brahman to veil itself, appears to be real, but
ultimately not real. In cosmic sense ignorance is called Maya.
 Ishavara—Brahman with attribute of Maya who rules the world (Personal
God)
 Atman—Pure consciousness or Soul/Spirit—inherent essence of all being
 Jivatman—Pure consciousness associated with Maya
 Theory of Causation—Sankara accepts the theory of causation but defines
differently thank Samkhya. His theory us knows as VIVARTAVADA: an effect
is merely illusory appearance of reality that is the cause
 Prana—the vibrations of Prana is at the root of the entire universe and is the
prime cause of all events occurring in creation. Prena is not different that
Maya but us the osmic life force, breath of the ultimate reality.
 The Four Stages of Self Realization (Mahavakyas)
 Brahman alone is real and the Universe is unreal
 There is only one Brahman without a second
 The self is Brahman or I am Brahman
 The entire universe is Brahman

- Vedanta on Creation
o Vedanta schools hold that without the guidance of conscious principle, unconscious
matter could not produce this world, which adheres to certain rules and laws. It
discards the theory of creation of Nyaya, Vaisesika, Samkhya, and Yoga
o It says Brahman is both the material and the efficient cause for this world. From
Brahman this world came into existence, in whom it inheres and to whom it return
at the end of a cycle of creation
o Brahman evolves himself into ether, air, fire, water, earth, and other by Will and
associated with every stage of the creation up to the last
o Since it is Brahman that ahs evolved into this world, this world is non-different from
than Brahman

- Vedanta on Creator
o Vedanta Schools agrees on the existence of God. But it says that the existence of God
cannot be proved or known by reasoning and logic alone
o God’s Existence can be established only through the direct experience or by
testimony. Reasoning ism however, necessary to justify fath, and to understand the
real teaching and to remove all doubts.
o Mainly two names are used for God:
 Brahman- impersonal and transcendent aspect of the Supreme
  Isvara- the ultimate reality that rules the world, represented as personal God.

- The individual Souls

o The individual souls are also Brahman
o The self is hidden behind the fives sheaths comprising three bodies
 Five Sheathes- Physical, Energy, Mental, Wisdom, and Bliss
 Three Bodies- Gross, Subtle, and Casual
o Human Life
 Made of Soul, Mind, Prana, Body
 Atman with ignorance (Maya) is called Jivatman
 Jiva is subject to suffer or enjoy according to the law of Karma

- Liberation and Suffering

o Pain and Pleasure, the jivas receives according to their karmas
o In Vedanta, liberation means to cast away the veil of ignorance and realize one’s
essence through Yoga
o The Knowledge and/or experience of Brahman, leads to freedom from suffering and
transmigration (Moksha)
o Vedanta provides a systematic method of spiritual practice which helps to gain
release from self-created imaginary bondage of suffering.

- Practice
o Listening and Understanding Spiritual Knowledge (Sarvana)
 Focus on understanding the essential nature of the self
o Reflecting on gained knowledge and establishing the firmness of mind (Manana)
 Repeatedly analyzing the concept
o Contemplate and Meditate on the Self (Nididhyasana)
 Applying the truth in daily life and must maintain a life-style in which true
consciousness is maintained
OM is the bow, Individual Self is the arrow, and Brahman is the target, so one should shoot
carefully, so that one should get fully absorbed in the Brahman-Consciousness.

NASTIKA SCHOOLS
Charvaka School
o The Materialist School—does not believes in anything that is immaterial
o Most ridiculed school
o Three Philosophical Issues of Indian Philosophy
 The Law of Karma—as long as the person is alive he performs action, and
these actions are either good or bad. In order, to reap the fruits of his actions
of his present or past life the person has to again take birth in order to enjoy
the pleasure or suffering which is due to his past wrong doings.
 The cycle of birth and death
 Liberation and release from the cycle of birth and death
o It is only the Charvaka that is not concern with these problems
 Rejecting the concept of soul, after life, and liberation
o Did not have any successor
- The Origin
o Its origin is uncertain, the name Charvaka—regarding as eastern epicureanism or
hedonism
o Emerged as a protest movement against the extreme ritualism and dogmatism of the
priestly class and to the doctrines which are no use to the normal man
o The History of the Indian Materialism: four stages of development
 Stage of Opposition—knowledge in all forms and the authority of the vedas is
called to situation
 Stage of Hedonism—the system got some structure perception is recognized
as the source of knowledge and nature as a self-sustaining entity. The theory
of body was accepted. Eat, Drink, Merry for tomorrow we may die.
 Spiritualism is added, the self is associated the sense organs and the organs
of thought, probability and inference was accepted in the limited sense
 THE BIRTH OF NASTIKA PHILOSOPHY

- The Charvaka School—Main Concepts

o The main tenets of the system are conceived thru the compilation of commentaries
and rejection of the materialist philosophy of the school
o Earth, water, fire, and air are the only elements
o The organisms, sense organs and the objects are the result of different combination
of these four elements, which includes consciousness.
o The physical body endowed with consciousness is called Purusa, the Soul.
o The jivas or the empirical selves perish just as the bubbles over water perish
o There is no other world and there does not exist anyone in any other world
o Death itself is liberation
o Material welfare and the gratification of one’s usual day to day desires are the two
aims of life.

- The Epistemology
o Perception is the only source of knowledge
 Rejects the principle of causality
 Inductive and deductive reasoning
- Charvaka Metaphyics
o There are nothing beyond the four elements.
o There is no heaven, no final liberation, nor any soul in another world.
o Why not offer his own father?
- Charvaka Ethics
o They are hedonist
o “Eat, drink, and be merry”
NEGATIVE TAKE ON THE VEDAS AND THE PRIESTLY CASTE
- There four goals of men in the Vedas:
o Dharma—regulating principle guide the individual how to live a moralistic life
o Arta—how to live a comfortable life
o Ghana—satisfaction of desires
o Moksha—liberation from the cycle of birth and death

Jainism Origin
 o Shraman Culture one of the Indian Culture
o Was founded by Mahavira the last of the 24 Thirthankars
o Teaching were group into 12 books which are called the Sutrangas
o The sacred text is called Agamas
o Jainism is founded on the teaching of Jin, and the practitioner of Jainism are called
Jain.
o Jain religion does not believe in worshipping an individual. It worships the real
qualities of a soul who has attained the state of ‘Jin’ i.e., who has destroyed the veils
of Karmas on knowledge, intuition and power of soul

- Jainism Philosophy
o The Jain system, like the Buddhist, is non-theistic. It does not acknowledge the
existence of creator of God. Another important feature is that it is pluralistic system.
The souls are many, infinite in number. Moksha is not absorption into the supreme
but the attainment of a perfect, luminous and blissed soul which is without body and
without actions.
o The religious philosophy of Jainism teaches that there are nine truths or realities
(Nav-tattva) They are: (1) soul (jiva) (2) non-soul (ajiva) (3) merit (punya) (4) sin or
demerit (papa) (5) influx of Karma (asrava) (6) stoppage of karmic matter (Samvara)
(7) bondage (bandha) (8) shedding of karmic matter (nirjara) and (9) liberation
(moksha)

- Nine Realities
o Jiva (soul)- the principle of Jiva is a conscious substance which is different in
different individuals. Th number of Jivas (souls) are infinite. The soul is not only the
enjoyer of the fruits of karma, but also the actor, deeply engaged in worldly affairs
and responsible for his act, good or bad. It transmigrates and takes successive births
accor=ding to the nature of stock of its deed. It can attain emancipation (moksha)
from the cycle of birth and death by freeing itself from all that is non-soul (ajiva), by
destroying accumulated karmas and by stopping further influx into it.

o Ajiva (non-soul)- ajiva is the opposite of jiva comprising of dharma, adharma,

akash, pudgala and kala substances, of these, the first three (medium of motion,
medium of rest, space). The fourth substance is responsible for the qualities of
touch, taste, coulour, and smell. Time is atomic in dimension and the kala atoms
pervade the whole cosmic space.

o Punya (merit)- Punya is the consequence of good and religious deed.

o Papa (sin or demerit)- it is called sin or evil, is a major factor in the bondage of jiva.
Injury to and killing of living beings is a heinous sin and results in terrible
punishments

o Asrava (influx of karma)- Asrava denotes the inflow of karmic matter by the soul.
Just as water flows into a boat through a hole, so the karmic matter flows through
asrava into the soul. The nature of activity is Shubha (meritorious) or ashuba
(demeritorious). The principle “like causes produce like results” is accepted as a
determining feature of the Jain doctrine of karma
 o Samrava (Stoppage of Karmic Matter)- samvara means stopping, controlling or
ceasing of inflow of karmic matter into the soul, smavara is affected through self-
control (gupti), restrained movement (samti), virtues (dharma), contemplation
(anupreksha), conquest of hardships and monastic conduct.

o Bandha (bondage)- bandha is the union of jiva with pudgala (matter) or soul with
non-soul particles. The matter is determined by five causes, namely wrong belief,
attachment, carelessness, passions, and activity.

o Nirjara (Shedding the Karmic Matter)- nirjara means shedding off, drying up or
destruction. Nirjara is to destroy and burnup accumulated karma.

Take the example of Tank. By stopping the inflow of water into the tank, we arrest
the increase of water in the tank. That is samvara, but there I already some water in
the tank. In order to dry up this water, it may be exposed to the heat of the sun for
some time. This is nirjara.

o Moksha (Liberation)- Moksha is the supreme stage of spiritual attainment when all
causes of bondage having been uprooted, the soul is freed from karmic matter. It is a
stage of peace. Moksha is attained through right faith, right knowledge, and right
conduct.
 For the perfecti0n of right conduct, five kinds of vows are recommended:
 Non Violence
 Truthfulness
 Non Stealing
 Chastity
 No Greed
- Karma Philosophy
o Karma means “that which is being done”
o The whole universe is packed with fine karmic particles. But when these particles get
attracted to the soul and stick to it and bind it through its activity, then only they are
designated by the term karma
 Dravya karma- physical karma
 Bhava karma- internal or mental karma
o The soul is the doer of both of these karmas. They are mutually related as cause and
effect, just as a seed and a tree.
 Cause of Bondage
 First the soul is attracted to the soul then bound by it through the
activity of mind, speech and body. (asrava)
 The binding of the karmic particles with the soul is due to the
unwholesome inclination, faith, or conviction, non-restrain, lethargy,
and passion. (mithyatva)
 Philosophy of Rebirth
 The series of soul’s birth has no beginning, it always has its reference
to its previous birth.
As per belied of Jain religion emancipation is defined as, “Just as the oil mill is operated to
separate from the sesamum seeds, churning is undertaken to separate ghee from butter milk,
and fire is used to separate ore from metal, so also the soul attains emancipation penance
through and self-control.”
- Jain Ethics
o Non-Violence: the Jain have laid great emphasis on Ahinsa Vrata. The doctrine of
Ahinsa (Non-Violence) is a cardinal principle of Jain Religion. It is so central in Jain
faith that it may be called the beginning and the end of Jain Religion.

o Non-Possession: a person perpetrates violence due to the desire to possess. This is

the central principle of the Jain Philosophy

o Anekantavad: the philosophy that believes that reality can be examined in several
standpoints and all can be equally true.

BUDDHISM

Life of the Buddha

1.1 Born around 563 B.C. in Kapilavastu

1.2 Family name: Gautama. Given name: Siddhartha

1.3 Father:Suddhodana, prince of Sakya clan. Mother dreamed of the

future Buddha entering her womb shaped as a while elephant with
flowers blooming.

1.4 A sage foretold he would be a wanderer or a great king; he would be a

wanderer when he will witness 4 signs
````
1.5 Childhood: in seclusion, in luxury, protected by father from learning of the
sorrows and frustrations of the outside world.

1.6 One day, Siddhartha got away from the palace, chanced upon 4 men: old man,
leper, corpse, beggar-monk. Puzzled, decided to look for the meaning of life.

1.7 Became a wandering ascetic for 6 to 7 years, sought hermits and sages.Tried
ascetic denial of body demands, almost starved to death, convinced it was not the
right path.
1.8 Sat under a tree, illumination under the Bodhi Tree.

1.9 Journeyed to the sacred city of Benares, at Sarnath before Benares, preached first
sermon, gathered disciples. For 40 years, proclaimed message

1.10 80 years old, passed away

1.11 “Buddha”: The enlightened one. Other names: Sakyamuni: prophetic sage of the
Sakyas. “Tathagata”: perfect one, “he who has fully come through.”

Personality

2.1 combination of rich and responsive human sympathy, patience, strength, gentleness,
good will.

2.2 sharp intelligence, independent inquiry, practical

“Believe in nothing because a wise man said it,

Believe in nothing because it is generally held
Believe in nothing because it is written
Believe in nothing because it is said to be divine
Believe in nothing because someone else believe it
But believe only what you yourself judge to be true.”

Background of Buddhism: Hinduism

3.1 Problem: transcending illusory existence

3.2 Solution: union with Brahman

3.3 Brahman: origin and end of all things. “Sat-chit-ananda”: source and embodiment
of Reality, Knowledge and Bliss.

3.4 Atman: the Self or Soul

3.5 Moksa: release or liberation by identity of Atman and Brahman.

3.6 Jivatman: soul, not identified with Brahman

3.7 Samsara: continued transmigration of soul in ocean of births and rebirths

determined by law of

3.8 Karma: the principle that good choices, earnest efforts, good deeds build good
character while bad choices, inertia and evil deeds build bad character.

3.9 Dharma: “the way that man should follow in order to fulfill his true nature and
carry out his moral and social responsibilities.

The Human Situation in Buddha’s Time

4.1 War between princes and clans

4.2 rigid caste system

4.3 Vedas taught as collection of authoritative texts rather than living truths to be
tested.

4.4 Emphasis on rites and ceremonies

4.5 Many competing dogmas

4.6 Religion straying people away from poignant practical needs, not leading them to
true fulfillment and happiness.

Sources: Pali-Canon: 3 Pitakas (baskets)

5.1 Viraya Pitaka: Discipline basket

5.2 Dhamma Pitaka: Discourse Basket

5.3 Abhidhamma: ‘Exposition Basket” where schism between Theravada (Hinayana)
and Mahayana Buddhism began. Theravadas view Buddha’s thoughts only as
propositional knowledge, while Mahayanists considered writings as sacred.

Development of Buddhism

6.1 Asoka, the first Buddhist emperor

6.2 declined in India, moved to Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, China, Japan.

6.3 Branched out into:

1. Hinayana (“small vehicle”) or Theravada (“Doctrine of the Fathers” “Way of the

Elders) Buddhism

2. Mahayana (“larger vehicle”) Buddhism

Four Noble Truths

7.1 Life is Dukkha

7.1.2 ”an axle that is off center in a wheel”

7.1.3 misery, pain that seeps at the depths of human existence

7.1.4 Buddha, not pessimistic, because there is also joy in this life, but this joy is
superficial.

7.1.5 Life’s dislocation:

1. Trauma of birth
2. Pathology of sickness
 3. Morbidity of decrepitude
4. Phobia of death
5. To be tied to what one abhors
6. To be separated from what one loves

7.1.6 five skandas (body. Senses, ideas, feelings, consciousness) are all painful.

7.1.7 Buddha looking for the solution to the hazards of existence

7.1.8 Major hazards of existence: birth, decay, death, and uncertainty with regards to
the things of the world.

7.2. Cause of life’s dislocation is Tanha

7.2.1 Tanha is desire for one’s own private fulfillment at the expense of other forms of
life.

7.2.2 Cycle of becoming caused by craving and grasping or clinging.

7.2.3 Craving leads not only to suffering here and now but also to further suffering in
the future, in form of rebirth.

7.3. Cure lies in overcoming craving and attachment

7.4. The way to eliminate craving and clinging is the eightfold path.

Eightfold path

8.1. Right view (knowledge, faith)

8.1.1 To understand the true doctrine, that life is suffering, there is a cause to suffering,
there is an end to suffering, and there is a means to end the suffering.

8.2. Right thought (aspiration)

8.2.1 making up our hearts to what we really want

8.2.2 to have a clear perception of the true doctrine and free oneself from lust, ill will
and cruelty.

8.3. Right speech

8.3.1 watching our speech

8.3.2 speech towards charity

8.3.3 avoiding and abstaining from telling a lie

8.3.4 speak the truth

8.3.5 avoid tale-bearing, harsh language and vain talk.

8.4. Right action (behavior)

8.4.1 Do not kill

8.4.2 Do not steal

8.4.3 Do not lie

8.4.4 Do not be unchaste

8.4.5 Do not drink intoxicants

8.5. Right living

8.5.1 to gain livelihood by right means

8.5.2 Do not be engaged in such occupations as butcher, person-peddler, slave dealer,

armament-maker, prostitution.

8.6. Right effort

8.6.1 to strive to avoid the arising of evil.

8.6.2 will power and timing

8.6.3 maintain meritorious conditions that have already arisen.

8.7. Right mindfulness (attentiveness)

8.7.1 alertness, self-knowledge

8.7.2 to be clearly conscious and attentive to objects of contemplation.

8.7.3 Separating authentic and abiding from trivia

8.8. Right concentration

8.8.1 fixation of mind on a single object.

8.8.2 similar to raja yoga.

 Right view, right thought and right speech—rational

 Right action, right living, and right effort –volitional
 Right mindfulness and right concentration—emotional
8.9 eightfold path is ethical Middle Path. Two extremes ruled out: life of pleasure
and life of mortification: both unworthy, unreal.

Doctrine of Dependent Origination

9.1 Patticasamutpada or pratityasamutpada

9.2 Central teaching of the Buddha: Nothing in this world that does not come within
realm of causal laws Causality explains the arising and passing away of things.

Q: why is there suffering?

A: because we are born.
Q; why are we born?
A: because there is a will to be born.
Q; why should there be a will to be born?
A: because we cling to objects of this world.
Q: why do we cling to objects of this world?
A: because we crave to enjoy objects of this world.
Q: Why do we crave to enjoy objects of this world?
A: because of sense experience.
Q; why do we have sense experience?
A: because of the six sense organs (6th is the mind)
Q: Why do we have the 6 sense organs?
A: because of the psychological organism.
Q: why do we have psychological organism?
A: because of initial consciousness of the embryo.
Q: Why do we have this consciousness?
A: because of impressions of karma.
Q: why do we have these impressions?
A: because of ignorance.

9.3 Root cause of all suffering is ignorance.

9.4 Way to destroy ignorance is knowledge of the truth, of impermanence of things in

this world.
Doctrine of Momentariness

10.1 Anicca doctrine, corollary to dependent origination.

10.2 A thing arises depending upon cause, so when cause is removed, thing ceases to be,
thus momentary.

10.3 All things subject to destruction.

10.4 Everything in this world is relative, impermanent, thus momentary.

Doctrine of Karma

11.1 Implied in causation is karma

11.2 Behavior of man (karma) is determined by 3 factors

1) external stimuli,
2) conscious motives
3) unconscious motives

11.2.1 Conscious motives: greed or attachment. hate or aversion, and confusion.

11.2.2 Unconscious motives: desire to perpetuate life, desire to avoid death.

11.2.3 Unconscious motives result from mistaken understanding of nature of human
existence.

11.3While behavior is conditioned by causes, it is followed by consequences.

11.4Karma is the correlation between action and consequence.

11.5This is not deterministic: depending on the nature of karma and the circumstances
in which the action is committed, there would be appropriate consequences.
Rebirth or Transmigration

12.1 Corollary to doctrine of karma.

12.2 One undergoes cycle of birth & death.

12.3 One who is ignorant of the fact that things are impermanent will cling to the
things of this world, leading to suffering.

12.4 Suffering is death.

12.4.1 Death is not the separation of body and soul but the end of a certain aspect of life
and the beginning of another.

12.5 Birth-death cycle (samsara) is based on ignorance.

12.6 Ignorance is destroyed by knowledge

12.7 Knowledge is attained by moral purification, moral purification by the Middle

Path.

12.8 Human personality analyzed in 2 ways:

1) Six elements: earth, water, fire, air, space and consciousness

2) 5 aggregates: material form, feeling, perception, dispositions, and consciousness.

12.9 3 factors necessary for birth of a being:

1. Coitus of parents
2. Mother in the proper season to conceive
3. Presence of gandhabba.
12.9.1 1&2 produce a gabbha, fetus, a psychophysical personality, which becomes
complete only when influenced by a surviving consciousness, represented by
gandhabba.

12.10 For the person who has attained enlightenment, has eliminated craving for
existence, this consciousness finds no support in a new psychophysical
personality, and thus he is not reborn.

Doctrine of Nonsubstantiality

13.1 Anatta: atta means atman, anatta thus means “no self”

13.2 Buddha denied soul or self as a spiritual substance but believed in rebirth (like
flame being passed from candle to candle)

13.3 Denial of identity in nonsubstantiality does imply denial of continuity.

Nirvana

14.1Nirvana is the goal of the 8-fold path, the godhead of Buddhism.

14.2 Means cessation of suffering, “to bow out,” “to extinguish”

14.3 Incomprehensible, unutterable

14.4 Boundless life itself.

14.5 Misinterpreted as annihilation of one’s soul or the soul’s eternal existence.

14.6 Ineffable, one can only describe its qualities, not its essence. E.g. peace, freedom,
bliss, purity. E.g. emptiness, non-being (not zero but expansion, boundless being)

14.7 Dependent origination from point of view of relativity is samsara, but from point
of view of reality is Nirvana.

14.8 Beyond logic. All things hang between reality and nothingness: neither absolutely
real nor absolutely unreal. Between 2 extremes: middle path.

14.9 2 basic concepts of Nirvana:

1) Nirvana with a substrate left

 attainable in this life, the arhat experiences impressions of senses but detached,
unmoved by them, feels at peace in the midst of distraction & confusion
.
 Understands nature of things: impermanence (anicca),
unsatisfactoriness (dukkha), nonsubstantiality (anatta)

2) Nirvana without substrate

 State of dead arhat

 5 aggregates (matter, feelings, perception, disposition,

consciousness) disappear.

 Neither “will to be reborn” nor “will not to be reborn” No rebirth

Theravada (Hinayana) and Mahayana Buddhism

Theravada (Hinayana) Mahayana

1.person as individual 1. person with others

2, emancipation by self-effort 2. person needs others

3. key virtue: wisdom 3. key virtue: compassion

4. religion, full time (monks) 4. relevant to life (lay)

5. ideal:arhat (sage who has attained 5. ideal: bodhisattva: enlightened

 deliverance. being, aspirant for buddhahood

6. prayer: meditation 6 prayer: petition

7. conservative 7. liberal

8. no God. Buddha, a teacher 8. Buddha, a god

9. Nirvana: extinction of suffering. 9. Nirvana: positive bliss. Buddha

Buddha entered state of cessation from continues to exist in 3 levels:
which there is no return.
a. transformation of body
b. body of bliss, celestial being but
not supreme.
c. Truth body—absolute. All
people have Buddha nature.
10. utter cessation of individual 10. only lower self is destroyed.
existence in Nirvana Higher self persists in Cosmic Self
once in Nirvana.
11. world in flux (doctrine of 11. world in a void, cosmic unity.
process)

INTRODUCTION TO THE UPANISHADS

Meaning
1.1 “Upanishad” means “sitting near devotedly”

1.1.1 “Sad”: to sit down

1.1.2 “Upa”: nearby

1.1.3 “Ni”: devotedly

1.2 “Vedanta”: end of the Vedas, goal of the Vedas.

1.3 homogenous, unsystematic

1.4 more than 200 Upanishads (legendary) but only 108 are traditional, and 11 or 12
are considered philosophical.

Teachings of the Upanishads

2.1 Brahman

2.1.1 “Brahman” derived from “brh” or “himha”: to grow or increase or evolve.

2.1.2 In Vedas: “this stanza” or “this verse”

2.1.3 Brahman is the permanent, the enduring in the changing

2.1.4 Relation between the universe and Brahman:

a. duality (Ramanuja)
b. identity (Samkara)
c. silence, escapes all definitions
2.1.5 All three are correct in that each corresponds to three different stages of the
perception of God:

a. negative: not this, not that

b. positive: God as one, the rest are appearances (maya)
c. “God in the heart of all”

2.1.6 The two ways Brahman is described in the Upanishads:

 Saguna Brahman (lower) Nirguna Brahman (higher)
cosmic acosmic

All comprehensive indeterminate

Full of qualities qualityless

describable indescribable

Knowable Transcendental, absolute

Cause of production, maintenance &
destruction of this universe

2.1.7 But only one Brahman.

2.2 Atman

2.2.1 originally from “an” meaning “to breathe” or “at” meaning “to go”

2.2.2 “life breath”

2.2.3 Atman is the Self in the heart of things

2.2.4 All creation evolves as gradual uncovering of quintessence originally present and
incapable of modification

2.2.5 The Self, not the ordinary self which lives in ignorance, in mistaking Self for the
body, mind or senses (cf Chandogya Upanishad VIII, 1-3)

2.2.6 Ten senses (knowledge): Action

sight speech
hearing grasping
touching moving
smelling excretion
taste generation
2.2.7 Mind
As receiver of the outer world: manas
As identifying an object by distinguishing & classifying: buddhi
(intellect)
as internalizing: ahamkara (ego sense)

2.2.8 Five Sheaths:

a. annamayatman: food body (flesh & blood)
b. prnamayatman: vital principle
c. manamayatman: manas (volition)
d. vihnanamayatman: intellect
e. annandamayatman: innermost kernel of man, the self dependent on bliss.

2.2.9 Atman transcends all these, found in turiya, samadhi.

2.3 Brahman and Atman are one and the same.

2.3.1 “Tat Tvam Asi”: “That thou art” cf. story of Svetaketu

2.3.2 Realization of Brahman: not just a theory of existence, that Brahman is Atman,
but to realize this is to enter into union with Brahman.

2.3.3 Realizable in the 4th stage, turiya, state of liberation.

2.4 Two kinds of Knowledge (Mundaka I, I, 4-6)

2.4.1 lower: knowledge of the Vedas: of the intellect and senses, limited to objective
finite world.

2.4.2 higher: knowledge of Atman, Brahman (paravidya)

2.4.3 higher kind of knowledge, neither objective nor subjective, transcends knower,
knowing and the act of knowing. And yet, not empty but fullness of joy and
infinite illumination.

2.4.4 Higher kind of knowledge is freedom from ignorance, limitation, birth and death.

2.4.5 Attainable either course of lifetime or at the moment of death

2.4.6 Attainment of immortality: not survival of individual personality, not

continuance in time, but coming into its own of divine Self which is beyond time.

2.5 Path to Realization

2.5.1 two types of spiritual discipline: self-control and meditation

2.5.2 Self-control: austerity

Giving love and compassion
Speaking the truth

2.5.3 Meditation: first, hearing from guru and reflection

Then, concentration (adapted to pupil) by means usually
Of a mantra
Then, meditation.

2.6 Karma and Reincarnation

2.6.1 Life after death depends upon moral quality of person which in turn depends
upon his deeds, of past life, of present.

2.6.2 every thought, feeling, impulse, imagination has cause-effect relationship.

2.6.3 “karma” : deeds in stream of causation: each one being at once effect and cause,
fruit and seed.
2.6.4 If good, to the fathers and gods.

2.6.5 Earth is the scene of man’s spiritual struggle.

2.6.6 No eternal damnation: always a second chance, rebirth.

2.7 Maya doctrine

2.7.1 “Ma” : to measure, form or build.

2.7.2 “maya”: power of god or demon to produce illusory effects, change form, or
appear in mask.

2.7.3 Atman: knowing subject within us, unknowable, the sole reality, the metaphysical
unity manifested in all empirical plurality.

2.7.4 Two functions of Maya:

a. concealment: hides Atman

b. projection: manifest Atman as world we perceive.