Biernmann Et Al 2015 Contextualizing Anthropocene

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JGEC 1521 No. of Pages 10
Global Environmental Change xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Global Environmental Change

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/gloenvcha
Down to Earth: Contextualizing the Anthropocene$

Frank Biermanna,b,* , Xuemei Baic, Ninad Bondred, Wendy Broadgatee,
Chen-Tung Arthur Chenf , Opha Pauline Dubeg , Jan Willem Erismanh,i , Marion Glaserj,
Sandra van der Helk , Maria Carmen Lemosl, Sybil Seitzingerm , Karen C. Seton
a
Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, Utrecht University, 3508 TC Utrecht, The Netherlands
b
Lund University Center for Sustainability Studies, Lund University, 221 00 Lund, Sweden
c
Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University, Canberra ACT 2601, Australia
d
International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 104 05 Stockholm, Sweden
e
The Fisheries Secretariat, 111 29 Stockholm, Sweden
f
Institute of Marine Geology and Chemistry, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung 804, Taiwan
g
Department of Environmental Science, University of Botswana, Private Bag 0022, Gaborone, Botswana
h
Department of Earth Sciences, VU University Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
i
Louis Bolk Institute, 3972 LA Driebergen, The Netherlands
j
Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology, 28359 Bremen, Germany
k
Institute for Environmental Studies, VU University, Amsterdam 1081 HV, The Netherlands
l
School of Natural Resources and Environment, University of Michigan, MI 48109, United States
m
Pacific Institute for Climate Solutions, University of Victoria, BC V8W 2Y2, Canada
n
Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511, United States
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article history: The ‘Anthropocene’ is now being used as a conceptual frame by different communities and in a variety of
Received 27 March 2015 contexts to understand the evolving human–environment relationship. However, as we argue in this
Received in revised form 10 November 2015 paper, the notion of an Anthropos, or ‘humanity’, as global, unified ‘geological force’ threatens to mask the
Accepted 16 November 2015
diversity and differences in the actual conditions and impacts of humankind, and does not do justice to
Available online xxx
the diversity of local and regional contexts. For this reason, we interpret in this article the notion of an
Anthropocene in a more context-dependent, localized and social understanding. We do this through
Keywords:
illustrating examples from four issue domains, selected for their variation in terms of spatial and
Anthropocene
Earth system governance
temporal scale, systems of governance and functional interdependencies: nitrogen cycle distortion (in
Food security particular as it relates to food security); ocean acidification; urbanization; and wildfires. Based on this
Ocean acidification analysis, we systematically address the consequences of the lens of the Anthropocene for the governance
Nitrogen cycle of social-ecological systems, focusing on the multi-level, functional and sectoral organization of
Urbanization governance, and possible redefinitions of governance systems and policy domains. We conclude that the
Wildfire notion of the Anthropocene, once seen in light of social inequalities and regional differences, allows for
novel analysis of issue-based problems in the context of a global understanding, in both academic and
political terms. This makes it a useful concept to help leverage and (re-)focus our efforts in a more
innovative and effective way to transition towards sustainability.
ã 2015 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
$
This article is part of a special issue of Global Environmental Change on the Anthropocene. Four articles and an introduction are part of the special issue. The special issue
represents a collaborative effort of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) and the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental
Change (IHDP) to develop an integrated natural and social science perspective of the Anthropocene. The papers critically examine existing knowledge of human–environment
complex system dynamics as applied to the Anthropocene; the ability of modelling and integrated assessment scenarios to capture these interactions; the policy implications
of the Anthropocene; and the plausible and desirable futures in the Anthropocene, with particular focus on the changing role of science and associated research agenda. Thus,
these articles provide a forward-looking synthesis aiming at informing research on social-ecological systems research within the context of the Future Earth programme.
* Corresponding author at: Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, Utrecht University, PO Box 80115, 3508 TC Utrecht, The Netherlands.
E-mail address: [email protected] (F. Biermann).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.11.004
0959-3780/ ã 2015 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Please cite this article in press as: F. Biermann, et al., Down to Earth: Contextualizing the Anthropocene, Global Environmental Change (2015),
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2 F. Biermann et al. / Global Environmental Change xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
1. Introduction and consequences. Yet the drivers or sources of change are in many
cases not necessarily the societies or environments affected by
In 2000, Paul Crutzen and Eugene Stoermer proposed that those changes. The contextualized Anthropocene lens that we
human activities had so profoundly altered the planet as to push it suggest in this article supports a view of the planet as an
into a new geological epoch—the Anthropocene (Crutzen and interconnected, interdependent social-ecological system while
Stoermer, 2000; Crutzen, 2002). The concept is now widely used in taking into account both local variation and social inequalities.
a variety of contexts, communities and connotations (see Brondizio Such a contextualized, localized and social conceptualization of the
et al., this issue). Geologists explore the chemical, physical and Anthropocene helps to better understand global interconnections
biological characteristics of the Anthropocene, and debate whether and disparities and to develop effective multilevel and polycentric
and when this new geological epoch has started (Dean et al., 2014). governance solutions that decrease the human impacts on the
For earth-system scientists, the concept encapsulates the radical planet and increase societal well-being particularly in the most
anthropogenic alteration of the planet’s natural cycles and systems impacted societies.
(e.g. Zalasiewicz et al., 2010). More recently, the concept has also Our analysis draws on detailed study of four issue domains that
attracted the attention of social scientists and humanists, who seek we selected for their variation in terms of spatial scale (local vs.
to take the Anthropocene concept beyond its biophysical confines global); temporal scale (long-term vs. short-term); systems of
(e.g. Biermann, 2014; Castree et al., 2014; Galaz, 2014; Palsson governance (highly integrated governance systems in place vs.
et al., 2013; Jahn et al., 2015). largely unregulated issues); and functional interdependencies (e.g.
In this article, we argue that at a time when the notion of an global economic integration through trade vs. largely local
‘Anthropocene’ is being used increasingly by different communi- occurrence with global cumulative impact). These issue domains
ties and in a variety of contexts, it is critical to clarify as well as to are the nitrogen cycle as it is affected by human action, with major
add depth to the concept. Indeed, the Anthropocene notion – in its impacts notably on food security, and with limited overall
most common formulation as Earth’s newest epoch in which governance responses in place so far; ocean acidification, a long-
humanity has collectively transformed the planet – has been term issue with multiple local impacts, partially covered by global
criticized for picturing an overly simplistic and globalized view on governance mechanisms; urbanization, as a socially and economi-
human agency (e.g. Malm and Hornborg, 2014; see also Brondizio cally driven transformation process that hugely impacts most
et al., this issue; Bai et al., this issue; Lövbrand et al., 2015). Major social- ecological systems of the planet; and wildfires, as an
conference declarations that compare the impact of humanity to essentially localized, often human-induced activity that impacts
“planetary-scale geological processes such as ice ages” (2012 Planet global systems through the increasing scale of its occurrence, with
under Pressure Declaration, see Brito and Stafford-Smith, 2012) or major relevance in particular for poorer communities and regions.
speak of “human-driven change” without differentiating between These four issue domains do not represent an attempt at a
diverse social groups and regions (2001 Amsterdam Declaration, controlled empirical research exercise through case studies (which
see Moore et al., 2001) have contributed to an image of ‘humanity’ would require a more limited choice of variables), but rather serve
as a global, unified ‘geological force’ (see for similar examples also as empirical illustrations of what we see as typical examples of
Schellnhuber, 2001; Markl, 2001). While we recognize that the highly connected problems of the Anthropocene. Also, the
Anthropocene concept can be powerful in raising awareness of the presentation of these four issue domains in separate sections
overall human impacts on our planet, we claim that it risks being does not deny that the four domains are in themselves
framed and understood in a way that is too ‘global’ and monolithic, interdependent (though to variant degree), as we detail later in
neglecting persistent social inequalities and vast regional differ- the concluding part of this article.
ences. In section 2, we explore the relevance and value of the concept
Instead, as we argue here, the Anthropocene can be a useful of the Anthropocene by synthesizing our existing knowledge from
conceptual frame only when it is viewed from a cross-scalar social and natural sciences on these four issue domains. Regarding
perspective that takes into account developments at local, regional these domains, we investigate three points: first, we explain the
and global levels, variant connections among these levels and issue societal relevance of each issue domain in the Anthropocene and
domains, as well as societal inequality and injustice. Using the explore current and future impacts on societies, emphasizing vast
Anthropocene lens must not mask the diversity of local and differences and disparities that are often hidden behind the
regional contexts and situations, nor the diversity and disparities general notion of a uniform ‘humankind’.
in the conditions, contexts, and distribution of wealth, consump- Second, we break down the broad notion of the Anthropocene
tion and environmental impact across human societies. It must not by exploring the social-ecological complexities of each issue
ignore that merely 20% of the world population consumes about domain regarding issues of scale, distribution and interdependen-
77% of all goods and services on Planet Earth (as measured by their cies, which we see as key features of the complex human–
total value, see World Bank, 2008, p. 4) or that, while much environment systems that characterize the Anthropocene. Scale
industrial production has been moved to emerging economies, the refers to the different spatial, temporal and institutional levels,
lion’s share of today’s consumption remains in the hands of a small where these issues play out and have different effects. Research
fraction of the global population, largely those living in industrial- and policy on these issues has traditionally focused on a specific
ized countries (Steffen et al., 2015). This vast human inequality that geographical scale, whereas an Anthropocene lens requires taking
characterizes the 21st century, we argue, should be recognized the full range from local to global developments into account,
within the conceptual frame of the Anthropocene if the concept is recognizing processes and effects over different time horizons, and
to be operationalized in research practice and policy development. engaging all levels of institutions for effective governance.
For this reason, we attempt in this article to ‘break down’ the Distribution refers to issues of wealth, scarcity, access and
globality and uniformity of the construct of a ‘humankind in the allocation. Not all people and communities are equally affected
Anthropocene’ and transform it into a more context-dependent, by the challenges of the Anthropocene, nor are all equally able to
localized and social understanding. In so doing, we synthesize cope. We discuss for each issue why certain communities are more
different strands of research to add to a new, more sophisticated vulnerable than others, what options they have to adapt to changes
and nuanced understanding of the Anthropocene. We show that in environmental systems, and what the costs of inaction will be.
the sum and interconnections of local changes (both environmen- Interdependence concerns issues of synchronicity, feedbacks, and
tal and societal) have become so great that they lead to global risks ‘teleconnections’ (defined here more broadly than in meteorology,
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F. Biermann et al. / Global Environmental Change xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 3
including also societal and economic long-distance connections increasing imbalance between ‘too low nitrogen areas’ and ‘too
and feedbacks). In other words, interdependence acknowledges much nitrogen areas’. The global alteration of the nitrogen cycle by
the highly interrelated and interconnected nature of the issues that humans has thus been highly unequal. Especially wealthy societies
societies face in the Anthropocene. have benefitted from increased food production, while all people
Third, we explore to what extent an Anthropocene lens, within are affected by the negative impacts of nitrogen cycle disruptions,
the social-ecological complexities that we emphasize, can including climate change.
contribute to developing novel insights into questions of gover-
nance and the political challenges of ‘navigating the Anthropocene’
(Biermann et al., 2012; Biermann, 2014). What implications, for 2.1.3. Governance in the Anthropocene
example, can we identify regarding the most appropriate levels of Resolving the issues detailed above is only conceivable through
governance for each issue domain? In what way does the notion of multilevel and polycentric governance approaches that take
the Anthropocene help to develop new ideas and insights? Finally, account of numerous heterogeneous drivers. Key drivers include
we conclude each section with an exploration of the usefulness of population growth combined with changing diets and increased
the concept of the Anthropocene for addressing pressing consumption of food, especially animal protein. Other important
challenges in the particular issue domain. drivers are trade and markets that shape food production,
distribution and accessibility. Moreover, extreme events and
2. Challenges of the Anthropocene climatic change increasingly affect production, cost, access and
utilization of food. Finally, alternative uses of nitrogen and
2.1. Nitrogen cycle disruption and its relation to food security agricultural land to produce crops for renewable energy along
with technology advances and technology transfer add new
2.1.1. Societal relevance influences on overall system dynamics (Erisman et al., 2001;
One key issue of the Anthropocene is the interlinkage between Vermeulen et al., 2012a,b; Barrett, 2010; Godfray et al., 2010).
the nitrogen cycle and food security. Food production critically Response policies and governance mechanisms thus require an
depends on nitrogen availability. Biologically, nitrogen has always integrated, multi-level, multi-sector and multi-actor approach that
been available, and plants and ecosystems have thrived on it, but effectively connects and reinforces local and global policies and
its natural availability has been limited. Humans were able to governance systems.
change this through the Haber–Bosch process that allowed First, an integrated understanding of the nexus of nitrogen
creating an endless source of reactive nitrogen for use as fertilizer and food security points to the need for specific local action.
(e.g. Smil, 2004; Erisman et al., 2008). The growing availability of Effective local governance needs to increase the efficiency of
nitrogen allowed some countries to dramatically increase food nutrient use for food production by avoiding waste and low
production (Erisman et al., 2008), often followed by socio- utilization. To achieve this, it is essential to improve availability
economic commercialization, the rise of major multinational of, and access to, technology in poorer regions. Moreover,
corporations in the food sector, and the support of vast education and training of farmers that links experience and
monocultures. But this unprecedented and unbounded use of knowledge from outside with local and regional characteristics
nitrogen has critically disrupted its natural cycle, with numerous can further improve the resilience of local food production
harmful effects such as pollution and eutrophication (Galloway (Settle et al., 2014). In terms of interconnections, smart
et al., 2003). At the same time, a significant share of the human extensification in nitrogen-polluted areas (that is, to reduce
population still lacks sufficient access to food. Policies to address excessive nitrogen inputs while accepting potentially lower
this global food insecurity, often directed at increasing food production) needs to be combined with smart intensification in
production, may further exacerbate disruptions of the nitrogen low nitrogen areas (that is, the increase of nitrogen to increase
cycle. Overall, the increasing connections among food production, local production while minimizing environmental impacts).
food insecurity and the nitrogen cycle are prominent signals of the Moreover, local governance of agricultural production and
Anthropocene epoch. nutrient use should be complemented with optimized access
and distribution of food, and stimulation of healthy and
2.1.2. Distribution, scale and interdependence sustainable diets (e.g. Van Grinsven et al., 2015).
The relationship between nitrogen use and food security, Second, an Anthropocene lens that takes into account local
however, is far from straightforward. On the one hand, there is a contexts as well as social inequalities, may suggest that it is equally
clear local to global signal that disruption of the nitrogen cycle due important to develop integrated policies that cut across sectors and
to human activities negatively affects human health through air include larger regions. Such policies need to help, for instance, to
and water pollution; the climate through release of the greenhouse minimize runoff of nutrients, chemicals and waste products into
gas nitrous oxide; crop productivity through ozone exposure; and downstream ecosystems, including freshwater and marine envi-
ecosystem health through pollution and eutrophication (e.g. ronments. Integrated policies to improve local and regional food
Galloway et al., 2003, 2008; Erisman et al., 2013; Vermeulen security are also needed to optimize nutrition and access to food;
et al., 2012a,b; Poppy et al., 2014; Seitzinger et al., 2010). On the minimize production, post-harvest and consumer waste; and
other hand, while increased nitrogen fertilizer use has almost increase income and well-being of farmers.
doubled global crop production, close to one billion people remain Third, such strategies imply a global responsibility for food
food insecure (Barrett, 2010), despite the existence of a global food production and integrated nitrogen management. The Anthropocene
market and decreasing global rates of poverty (World Bank, 2010). lens, as we conceptualize it here, makes visible that local and
In 2008, 842 million adults were undernourished, and 98% of those national policies to improve food security and minimize negative
were living in low-income countries (Bager, 2014). Overall, food effects of increased nitrogen use require global coordination and
prices are rising, making sufficient and healthy food unaffordable integration to connect policy domains and governance systems.
for many people (Godfray et al., 2010). Food insecurity is partly For example, from an institutional perspective, the issue of the
caused by agricultural production deficits related to lack of nitrogen cycle and food security touches upon the regulatory
technology, insufficient affordability of fertilizers, and unsustain- competencies of institutions as diverse as the Convention on
able use of inputs, especially in poorer regions. Paradoxically, Biological Diversity, the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, the
therefore, in the Anthropocene we face the problem of an World Food Programme, the UN Framework Convention on
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Climate Change, or the World Trade Organization, as well as acidification seem to occur in parts of the ocean where water
numerous regional institutions that address marine pollution. naturally upwells to the surface, around coral reefs, and in polar
There are already some initiatives that seek to help bring regions. Here, coastal communities often rely on marine harvests
governance domains together in order to increase effectiveness of fish or shellfish, or coastal tourism, activities that are negatively
and efficiency of the overall system. For example, for over a decade affected by the consequences of ocean acidification.
the International Nitrogen Initiative has brought the international The first of such ocean acidification ‘hotspots’ are upwelling
scientific, agricultural and industrial sectors together to share areas such as the California Current, the Humboldt Current off Peru
information and begin to address the challenges of optimizing and Chile, and the Benguela Current off South Africa, all of which
nitrogen use in food and energy production and minimizing the are naturally rich in nutrients, productivity and fisheries and
consequent harm to humans and the environment. Under the support vibrant fishing and shellfish industries. The upwelling of
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, a Task Force on water from the deep oceans, naturally high in carbon dioxide but
Reactive Nitrogen was formed as a first body to work towards with a low pH value, makes the surface water here harmful to
regional nitrogen policies. Building on this initiative, the UN corals, shellfish and some other organisms. If the prey of fish are
Environment Programme has formed the Global Partnership on affected and hence fish populations and commercial fisheries, this
Nutrient Management as a global platform to steer dialogues and could have a devastating effect on both local communities and
actions to promote effective nutrient management. Such global global trade of fish. For instance, the oyster industry in the
coordination mechanisms that build on local diversity and global California Current has had to adapt to low pH waters periodically
disparities within a globally integrated understanding are a logical affecting the oyster harvests (Barton et al., 2012). Some businesses
consequence of a holistic Anthropocene lens and require further are relocating the larval reproduction to Hawaii, where the pH
support and strengthening. conditions are more stable.
We conclude here that an Anthropocene lens that takes into A second ocean acidification ‘hotspot’ are coral reefs (Ricke
account local contexts as well as social inequalities proves useful to et al., 2013). The degradation of coral reefs due to ocean
improve our understanding of the interconnections between food acidification could result in economic losses of over 1 trillion
security and the nitrogen cycle, through allowing us to move from USD per year at 2010 price levels according to one estimate
local visibility and global invisibility to visibility at all scales. (Brander et al., 2012). The impacts of such losses are highly
Importantly, this has major implications for the need for better unequally distributed. Most will be borne by the over 500 million
cross-scalar integration of knowledge, cooperation and policies. people that live on tropical coasts where they rely on the
biodiversity, coastal protection, fisheries and tourism supported
2.2. Ocean acidification by coral reefs. The repercussions of this inequitable distribution of
the impacts and costs of ocean acidification include the further
2.2.1. Societal relevance impoverishment of small-scale coastal and reef fishers who are
Our second example of key Anthropocene issue domains is already among the world’s poorest.
ocean acidification. The oceans are undergoing a vast array of The polar regions form a third ocean acidification ‘hotspot’.
synchronous, interconnected changes that are driven by humans. Arctic waters are acidifying faster than the global average because
Many of these changes are connected with climate change. Carbon cold water is richer in carbon dioxide and melting ice worsens the
dioxide emissions are acidifying the oceans at the same time that problem (Orr et al., 2005). Increasing areas of the deep sea are
climate change is creating stresses such as warming, de-oxygen- affected as the aragonite saturation horizon is moving upwards
ation and sea-level rise. On a local scale, acid rain amplifies the with resulting dangers for cold water corals (Gattuso et al., 2011).
effect of ocean acidification, and increasing nutrients from The shells of some small marine snails, which are key species in the
fertilizers and sewage that enter coastal waters – as discussed food web, are already dissolving in some spots around Antarctica
in the previous section – are causing eutrophication. Ocean acidity (Bednaršek et al., 2012).
is projected to increase by about 170% in 2100 compared with
preindustrial levels if high carbon dioxide emissions continue, 2.2.3. Governance in the Anthropocene
with major implications for ecosystems and the societies that rely Governance solutions are limited inasmuch as the effects of ocean
on them (IGBP, IOC, SCOR, 2013). Already today, ocean acidification acidification cannot be reversed on human time scales. And yet,
impacts marine organisms, with far reaching consequences for ocean acidification can still be slowed down by reducing carbon
food webs, biodiversity, and eventually for societies through dioxide emissions or by removing carbon dioxide from the
reduced ecosystem services. Shells and skeletons of calcifying atmosphere. This calls for effective multilevel climate governance,
organisms such as shellfish and corals are particularly vulnerable. reducing the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
As marine ecosystems are affected by ocean acidification this may Here, ocean governance is linked to the broader issue of climate
ultimately affect coastal communities. For example, declines in change. In addition to global governance approaches, regionally
mollusc shellfisheries worldwide could cost 130 billion USD per defined ocean acidification ‘hotspots’ point to the parallel need for
year by 2100 (Narita et al., 2012). effective regional governance. Local and regional regulation of
nutrient runoff, for instance, is an effective mitigation measure for
2.2.2. Distribution, scale and interdependence ocean acidification in some coastal areas, linking ocean acidification
Since ocean acidification is linked to global warming and hence to nutrient management that we discussed in the previous section.
the excessive emission of greenhouse gases, it is in the end a Overall, our analysis shows that while ocean acidification is an
problem that has been caused, predominantly, by the richer, issue of global interdependence and global concern, it also needs to
heavily industrialized countries in the North, although the be analysed and approached in its regional and local circum-
contribution of emerging economies in the South to global stances. The different types of ocean acidification ‘hot spots’ that
greenhouse gas emissions is increasing rapidly in recent decades. we identify present different governance issues, with particular
The impacts of ocean acidification on societies are also unequally challenges and opportunities for each specific region. To address
spread across the globe, yet differently from the causation. To a the issue of ocean acidification in the California Current upwelling
large extent, societies that are highly vulnerable to ocean area, for example, a regional Blue Ribbon Panel was formed,
acidification are located in developing countries and small island bringing together scientists, shellfish industry representatives,
states (Cooley et al., 2012). Regional ‘hotspots’ of ocean public opinion leaders, conservation leaders, the state, and local,
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federal and tribal policymakers to prepare an adaptation plan to materials and energy, production of food and other goods, waste
respond to ocean acidification (Washington State Blue Ribbon assimilation, or changes in values and consumption patterns. A
Panel on Ocean Acidification, 2012). Yet, while different stake- salient feature of modern urbanization is that physical and
holders in the United States have begun to address problems economic landscapes are becoming more intertwined, and that
around ocean acidification, similar responses have not yet spread we see a greater integration of rural and urban economies.
to South America, where oyster farms – notably in Chile – are now Urbanization is thus a classic manifestation of the changing
experiencing similar negative effects on larvae. human–environment relationship conceptualized by the Anthro-
The effect of ocean acidification on coral reefs generates pocene.
different governance challenges. Since the global distribution of
reefs is biased towards vulnerable societies, the reduction of reef- 2.3.2. Distribution, scale and interdependence
based ecosystem services requires social and economic policy Historically, urbanization and economic development occurred
responses tailored towards distinct coastal regions. Such regions in parallel, and were tightly and inextricably linked (Henderson,
often also receive development assistance from national or 2003; Dobbs et al., 2013; Bloom et al., 2008; Bai et al., 2011). High
international sources. Connections between global governance proportions of urban populations, or more urban built-up areas,
mechanisms that reduce carbon dioxide emissions, compensate were correlated with high levels of per capita GDP. Urbanization,
for acidification-linked losses, and development assistance for with its relative concentration of people and activities, enabled
local communities are therefore required—a complexity that we economies of scale and the development of infrastructure such as
see as typical for the emergence of the Anthropocene. Finally, transportation, waste management and power supply. Thus,
uncertainties associated with ocean acidification in the polar urbanization has historically been both an indicator and a driver
regions require governance approaches that emphasize precaution of higher per capita incomes and improvements in living
and anticipate ecosystem change. conditions and well-being. Today, however, urbanization and local
Novel types of multi-scale ocean governance are thus needed and national economic growth have become decoupled in some
that recognize connections across system levels and issues (Glaser countries (Bloom et al., 2008); with the added complexity that
and Glaeser, 2014). Also here, global and local governance urbanization may affect the economic activity in non-urban places
approaches must be developed simultaneously in an integrated through trade, teleconnections, or labour flows. In the context of
manner, while disentangling geographically diverse impacts, the Anthropocene this means that urbanization takes place also at
incentives and options. Effective policies should consider the overall lower levels of economic development, and is not
different exposure of regional ecosystems. Yet equally relevant is necessarily linked to better municipal infrastructure, services or
the relative importance of ecosystems for affected human improvements in sanitation and living conditions. Particularly in
populations and economies, notably with a view to local fisheries rapidly developing cities in low-income countries, infrastructural
in developing countries. Possible local and national governance deficiencies and industrial pollution may thus negatively affect
responses include reducing sources of acidification through local well-being.
controlling nutrient runoff; increasing resilience of coral reefs Cities have far-reaching impacts through multiple interdepen-
by reducing other stressors such as sediment load, river runoff and dencies (Alberti, 2008; Bai, 2003; Grimm et al., 2008; Seto et al.,
fishing pressure; addressing overfishing and destructive fishing; 2012), which suggests an opportunity and responsibility of cities to
reducing pressures by the introduction of marine protected areas; act as stewards of the planet (Seitzinger et al., 2012). For example,
and controlling acid rain by limiting sulphur dioxide and nitrogen the most recent IPCC report concluded that urban areas are
oxide emissions from power plants. At the same time, however, responsible for about 70% of fossil fuel carbon emissions (IPCC,
global solutions are required for reducing carbon dioxide 2014a). Given the large economic disparities in development
emissions, as well as for the support of particularly affected among urban regions around the world, it is clear that the majority
communities in poorer regions in the South. of urban emissions come from high-income countries or rapidly
The Anthropocene concept, as interpreted here, proves useful in industrializing countries. Yet, it is largely the urban areas in low-
focussing on human societies as the major driver of increased income countries that are most vulnerable to climate change
ocean acidification, yet with the added need of emphasizing the impacts, owing to weaknesses in institutions and governance,
regional and local diversity in these drivers and resulting impacts, finance and human capacities (IPCC, 2014b).
including vast differences between the richer and poorer parts of Whereas for centuries, the ‘urban’ was conceptualized as a
the world. The analysis shows that major sources of atmospheric place bounded by administrative borders, urbanization is rather a
carbon dioxide are not located where the greatest negative effects dynamic process not limited to fixed geographic locations (Seto
are likely to occur, which calls for multilevel integrated governance et al., 2012). Also, urban systems are increasingly dependent on a
solutions within a global context. Adequate governance solutions global hinterland of resources for material input and waste
can only be developed when the social, ecological and economic assimilation. Moreover, policies in one country may affect other
context at lower spatial and institutional levels becomes an countries through multiple dimensions of urbanization (e.g. flows
integral part of global, multi-level ocean governance. of energy, food, water, waste, pollution, investments, remittances,
tourists, migrants, knowledge, communication, and construction
2.3. Urbanization materials) (Güneralp et al., 2013; Erb et al., 2009). As a result,
today’s urbanization breeds new inequalities, not only in its
2.3.1. Societal relevance immediate location but also beyond.
Another key trend in the Anthropocene – possibly even one of Urbanization thus involves contemporaneous change in thou-
the most defining ones – is urbanization. Today’s urbanization sands of places worldwide, putting the phenomenon at the centre
differs markedly from past urbanization in terms of its scale, rate, of the Anthropocene. In each of these places, urbanization involves
distribution, teleconnections and process (Seto et al., 2010, 2012). simultaneous change across multiple dimensions. These include an
Urbanization is a multifaceted phenomenon that involves eco- increase in the urban proportion of the total population (Dorélien
nomic, biophysical, political, social and cultural transformations et al., 2013; Montgomery, 2008), expansion of built-up areas and
(Friedmann, 2006). The reach of urbanization is so pervasive now infrastructure (Berry et al., 1970; Blanco et al., 2011; Bai et al., 2011;
that only few social-ecological systems worldwide are untouched Seto et al., 2011), a structural shift from agriculture and forestry to
by some component of its process, be it the extraction of raw manufacturing and services (Davis and Henderson, 2003), as well
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as changes in social interactions and a growing complexity in 2.4. Wildfires

political, social and economic institutions (Berry, 1974; Healey,
2003; Friedmann, 2006; Sampson et al., 2002). Finally, urbaniza- 2.4.1. Societal relevance
tion can accelerate inequalities, both within cities locally The global increase in wildfires is the fourth illustration of a
(particularly in low-income countries and rapidly developing typical Anthropocene challenge that we explore in this article. Of
cities) and between cities globally, as a result of teleconnections course, wildfires have always been a normal and even valuable
and differentiated vulnerabilities. ingredient of ecosystem functioning, and the significance of fire in
global biogeochemical cycles dates back to the pre-Quaternary
2.3.3. Governance in the Anthropocene (Scott, 2000; Whitlock et al., 2007; Nelson and Pierce, 2010).
Cities face multiple governance challenges that are inherently However, over the last century we have witnessed frequent,
bound by spatial, temporal and institutional scales (Bai, 2007; widespread and intense wildfires that far exceeded ecological and
Bulkeley, 2005), while cities are increasingly connected globally land use benefits and caused large damages such as human and
(Sassen, 2011). For example, urban infrastructures often extend animal mortality, loss of property, and negative consequences on
beyond a city’s territory and hence require coordinated policies long-term land productivity, fresh water supply, and climate. Fire
across adjacent municipalities. Cities also operate within regional in the Anthropocene has thus shifted dramatically, from an
and national authorities, and thus have varying degrees of ecological phenomenon driven by natural factors to a spatially and
autonomy and authority. These scale issues require governance temporally variable hazard strongly associated with humans
and institutions for the design and implementation of effective (Whitlock et al., 2007; Dube, 2009; Bowman et al., 2009). Fire
policy frameworks that address multiple administrative levels incidents range from small to medium-scale fires to very large and
and extend beyond a single city’s jurisdiction. Without fully destructive events, the so-called ‘mega-fires’. Such fires are now
accounting for interdependencies and teleconnections, solutions perceived largely negatively, and hence fire-restriction policies
in one place may lead to externalities and leakage of costs to other prevail globally, even though land-use practices that incorporate
places. A key example is the relocation of polluting industries fire are still wide-spread (Xanthopoulos, 2004).
from cities to the countryside or from one country to another
(Bai, 2002). 2.4.2. Distribution, scale and interdependence
But urbanization also offers opportunities for transformative The global problem of increasing wildfires shows high
change. The concentration of people and economic activities make variability in occurrence, intensity and effects. Fire intensity with
cities ideal settings for innovation and job and wealth creation regional variability increased already before the Holocene, driven
(Bettencourt et al., 2007; Puga, 2010; Rosenthal and Strange, 2004; by changes in global climate and growing human modification of
Sassen, 2001). The majority of the world's future population the landscape through fire (Bird and Cali, 1998; Carcaillet et al.,
growth will be living in urban areas in the developing countries, 2007; Daniels et al., 2005; Genries et al., 2009; Gill et al., 2009;
where emerging infrastructures and high-emissions lifestyles are Marlon et al., 2006, 2008, 2009; Millspaugh et al., 2000; Nelson
not yet locked-in. The need to design and construct the cities of and Pierce, 2010; Pausas and Keeley, 2009; Power et al., 2008;
tomorrow presents a major window of opportunity, but also a Roebroeks and Villa, 2011; Rolland, 2004; Thevenon et al., 2004).
challenge to existing values and power relations. Recognizing the Yet fires increased dramatically in the Holocene under the
interdependencies of resources, activities and economies offers a Neolithic Revolution, marking the begin of novel, complex
new lens to understand connections and impacts on the planetary relationships among fire, human activity, and vegetation (Whitlock
scale. Importantly, the global links among cities, as well as the et al., 2007; Dube, 2009).
strong global impact that they have, suggests new ways of It is estimated that in 2001–2004, each year 2.97–3.74 million
organizing political discourses and governance. One way for km2 land are burned (Giglio et al., 2006). Humans account for 90%
instance could be to strengthen the existing networks of city of ignitions in all biomes of the world, due to a combination of fire
governments. Transnational city networks, such as the C40 Cities policies, land use practices, and other human actions (Dube, 2013).
Climate Leadership Group, are already acknowledged as an Yet the impact is not the same all over the world. The tropical and
important arena for the governance of climate issues (Betsill boreal regions are the most frequently affected (Chuvieco et al.,
and Bulkeley, 2007; Rosenzweig et al., 2010). Turning such 2008), and about 30–50% of the total annual biomass burned
alliances into powerful sources of knowledge exchange as well globally is traced to Africa (Goldammer and de Ronde, 2004).
as venues for novel types of political cooperation and coordination Humans have altered the number, location, timing and intervals of
of the world’s vast urban spaces could be an essential step towards ignitions. Also seasonality and timing of fire has shifted globally to
better governance in the Anthropocene. dry-season burning and within a diurnal range of early to late
The prism of the Anthropocene can thus provide useful framing afternoon, giving rise to highly destructive fires (Evett et al., 2007;
for moving towards better or alternative models of urbanization Giglio, 2007). By fragmenting, depleting or maintaining excep-
that are more cognisant of complex system interactions and tionally high fuel loads, humans influence the ability of fires to
interconnections and that encapsulate a more nuanced under- ignite and spread as well as fire intensity. At the same time, the use
standing of sustainability. Urbanization draws on and concentrates of fire continues to be an important tool in local food production
resources, thereby generating wealth and ‘growth’ for some more practices supporting the livelihood of rural societies (e.g. Bird et al.,
than others. It is thus intimately linked with the creation or 2008; Lavorel et al., 2007).
sustenance of global and local inequality. Overall, the history of The increase in frequency and intensity of wildfires has far-
urbanization in the Anthropocene is in many ways the history of reaching local, regional, and partially even global consequences.
the Anthropocene itself (e.g. Industrial Revolution and technologi- Once lit and left to spread, wildfires release stored energy from soil
cal advances coupled with colonization and trade, etc.). Indeed, the and vegetation, along with evaporating moisture and unleashing
urbanization ratio is seen as a key indicator of the Anthropocene large quantities of greenhouse gases, volatile organic compounds,
(Steffen et al., 2007). A process-based conceptualization of black and organic carbon and mineral ash. The impacts are often far
urbanization requires us to move away from a focus on only local beyond the site of the fire, and include air pollution, ocean
and placed-based approaches towards sustainability and to acidification and deposits of black carbon soot, which lead to rapid
explore instead new global frameworks for effective multilevel melting of snow, glaciers and sea ice (McConnell et al., 2007).
governance that support transformation in the era of urbanization. Frequent hot fires further the loss of biodiversity and contribute to
G Model
land degradation and sedimentation of water bodies with respond and recover from fire, with poorer communities generally
implications on fresh water supply and fisheries downstream. being most severely affected by the spread of wildfire. This global
Land degradation and fire reinforce each other, with the former diversity points, on the one hand, to the need for locally specific
supporting fast growing fire-prone species that burn easily over approaches to wildfire management. On the other hand, local
the dry season and then leave the land exposed to further governance requires global support and cooperation, in particular
degradation (Dube, 2007; Lavorel et al., 2007). Together with land with a view to the poorest regions that are least able to cope with
pressures such as overgrazing and drought, fires also reduce such challenges.
carbon sequestration by terrestrial ecosystems, thus enhancing
global warming (McConnell et al., 2007; Chuvieco et al., 2008). 3. Conclusions
Considering these teleconnections of the effects of fire, current
estimates of damage by fires may underestimate their multiple Taken together, the four issue domains that we have reviewed
consequences, including social ones. For example, frequent small in this article – from the nitrogen cycle to ocean acidification,
fires in Africa are rarely noticed, yet play a role in widespread urbanization, and wildfires – at first appear vastly different. Yet
poverty on the continent. there are also significant similarities. Importantly, all four issue
domains exhibit key manifestations of the changed role of
2.4.3. Governance in the Anthropocene humankind in the planetary system, as it is captured in the notion
For much of the fire-prone regions of the world, such as the of the Anthropocene. Each of the four domains displays different
tropics and Mediterranean, governance and management dimensions of the Anthropocene. Some are associated with the key
approaches fall essentially into two categories: local fire practices drivers of global change, such as urbanization. Others relate more
that are driven by subsistence livelihood activities, and the to intermediate processes, such as the nitrogen cycle, or on the
national to global fire suppression approaches that have hardly overall effects of global change, such as ocean acidification.
any consideration for ecological needs for fire, disregard local fire Nonetheless, all four issues are inevitably entangled in the
uses, and take merely a reactive approach to hazards and disasters complexities of the Anthropocene.
(Julio-Alvear, 2004; Xanthopoulos, 2004). Catastrophic fires during Moreover, our analysis of the four domains manifests the global
extreme dry weather in the USA, Europe, Australia and other links among these domains through numerous interdependencies
industrialized countries are linked to a strong inclination towards and teleconnections. Urbanization, for instance, is both a driver of
fire suppression. The prevalence of such suppression practices can change as well as one of the prime sites where global change will
partially be explained by history in these less fire-prone temperate affect the wellbeing of people. Urbanization drives intensification
regions. It also relates to economic interests such as the timber of food production and increased fire risk from commercialization
industry, and perceptions that stem from longer periods of of natural resources and tensions at the wildland–urban interface.
urbanization and years of witnessing the consequences of Food production, in turn, is a major source of emissions through
destruction of natural systems (Xanthopoulos, 2004; Chuvieco land degradation, fertilizer use, or fire, which eventually contrib-
et al., 2008). Many fire-prone developing countries, however, do utes to ocean acidification and climate change, with again a
not fare well by adapting a fire management system that has been feedback loop on fires, food production, and use of nitrogen
developed in less fire-prone temperate zones. Moreover, inefficient fertilizers.
national governance in developing countries tends to disempower All four issue domains also demonstrate the highly varied role
local resource management that often makes fire a necessary tool, of people in both causation and effect of global environmental
giving rise to uncoordinated widespread burning (Dube, 2013). changes. Novel teleconnections now link countries and communi-
The political challenge in the Anthropocene requires careful ties in many ways. Local farmers are connected with global
integration of local, regional and global governance that balances markets and fertilizer developments; the livelihood of local fishing
ecological requirements with the fire needs related to land use. communities depends on global issues such as climate change and
Effective local fire management strategies are needed that consider ocean acidification; and urban areas across the world are
simultaneously socio-economic factors, ecosystem requirements, connected through financial, technological and governance net-
and changes in climate and fire risk (Julio-Alvear, 2004; works. The multiple connections of rural communities with often
Xanthopoulos, 2004; Eriksen, 2007; Dube, 2013). Local fire richer urban areas are in themselves interconnected across the
management should also take into account fire-dependent globe. In sum, the Anthropocene is a global phenomenon that is
production systems of indigenous and other traditional social marked by the new impact of humankind as a whole, yet – as
groups, recognizing that small-scale subsistence-based anthropo- illustrated by our analysis – there remain tremendous differences
genic fires reduce the risk of large-scale destructive fires, and could in both causation and impacts among societies and people in the
thus make a positive contribution to local fire policies (Bird et al., Anthropocene.
2012; Eloy et al., 2015). This again requires a degree of The interdependencies, inequalities and disparities that we
decentralization of fire management so that key components of uncovered in exploring the four issue domains have important
fire management – preparedness, prevention, suppression and consequences for the governance challenge of the Anthropocene
rehabilitation – are incorporated within the ecological needs and and the underlying need for fundamental changes in social values
local land use practices. At the regional level, a broader, often and development pathways.
transnational strategy is needed to deal with exceptionally large First, the Anthropocene lens, in the contextualized and nuanced
fires, transboundary fires, and fires in protected areas. Moreover, form that we propose, has major implications for the appropriate
given the teleconnections in fire, international – possibly even levels of governance. All issue domains that we analysed require
global – fire protocols will be essential to assess regional and global effective local and national governance, from instilling more social
fire weather, the effects of burning on biodiversity and land and environmental development aspects into sectoral governance
degradation, as well as feedbacks on global warming. (e.g. related to fire management) towards better adaptation
The Anthropocene lens provides better understanding of the policies (e.g. related to fisheries that will increasingly be affected
link between biophysical factors and the highly divergent socio- by ocean acidification). However, local and national governance
economic systems that drive fires. This analysis clearly shows the alone will be inadequate for addressing Anthropocene challenges
high variability in occurrence, intensity and effects of the global without strong coordination and support through global gover-
wildfire problem. Equally diverse are the capacity of societies to nance institutions and intergovernmental cooperation, given the
G Model
high connectivity. While current research practice is still often context of a global understanding, in both academic and political
marked by distinct communities of scholars who are studying local terms.
governance, and those who are studying global governance, much
more integration of both strands of research is needed. This is, Acknowledgements
among others, a key concern for the leading research programmes
in this field, notably the Earth System Governance Project that This paper arose from a workshop supported by the Interna-
explicitly seeks to build bridges between different communities in tional Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) and the Interna-
the social sciences. tional Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental
Second, the lens of the Anthropocene helps to focus attention Change, and Grant # GEO-1247560 from the US National Science
on new functional and sectoral domains of governance. Our Foundation (to SPS).
analysis has illustrated, for example, important interlinkages
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Global Environmental Change

Down to Earth: Contextualizing the Anthropocene$

2 F. Biermann et al. / Global Environmental Change xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

F. Biermann et al. / Global Environmental Change xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 3

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F. Biermann et al. / Global Environmental Change xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 5

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as changes in social interactions and a growing complexity in 2.4. Wildﬁres

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8 F. Biermann et al. / Global Environmental Change xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

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