FRT Pgs 2013
FRT Pgs 2013
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The rights of Lynne Eagle, Stephan Dahl, Susie Hill, Sara Bird, Fiona Spotswood and Alan
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with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
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NOTE THAT ANY PAGE CROSS REFERENCES REFER TO THE PRINT EDITION
Brief contents
Contributors xii
Preface xiii
Acknowledgements xvii
Part 1
The principles of social marketing 1
1 What is social marketing? 3
2 The core principles of social marketing 22
3 The social marketing intervention planning process 40
4 Upstream, policy and partnerships 68
5 Ethical issues in social marketing 92
Part 2
Understanding the consumer 109
6 Understanding the consumer: the role of theory 111
7 Conducting reasearch in social marketing 141
8 Segmentation 170
9 Social forces and population-Ievel effects 190
Part 3
Designing effective social marketing solutions 215
10 Designing social marketing interventions: products, branding,
channels and places 217
11 Message framing 234
12 Creativity in social marketing 260
13 Media planning 285
14 The challenges of evaluation 297
v
Contents
Contributors xii
Preface xiii
Acknowledgements xvii
vii
Contents
Evaluation planning 60
Developing the intervention 61
Summary 63
Chapter review questions 64
Recommended reading 65
Notes 65
viii
Contents
8 Segmentation 170
Segmentation defined 170
Segmentation methods 171
Effective segments - characteristics 171
Commercial segmentation packages 173
Case studies for discussion 176
Summary 186
Chapter rev iew questions 186
Recommended reading 187
Notes 188
ix
Contents
x
Contents
Summary 293
Chapter review questions 293
Recommended reading 294
Notes 295
Companion Website
For open-access student resources specifically written
to complement this textbook and support your learning,
please visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/eagle
Lecturer Resources
For password-protected online resources tailored to support
the use of this textbook in teaching, please visit
www.pearsoned.co.uk/eagle
xi
Contributors
Sara Bird is Senior Lecturer in Marketing at University of the West of England, and member of
the Bristol Social Marketing Centre there. Her research focuses on social marketing and the role
it can play in sexual health, but she also has a keen interest in emotional versus rational decision-
making processes, particularly amongst adolescents and older people. She lectures in public
relations and research methods.
Dr Stephan Dahl is Senior Lecturer in Marketing at Hull University Business School. His research
interests inc1ude social media, and the role social marketing and marketing communication can
play to prevent health problems, and especially to increase physical activity in a cro$s-cultural
and diverse context.
Professor Lynne Eagle is Professor of Marketing at James Cook University. Her research interests
centre on marketing communication effects and effectiveness, inc1uding the impact of persua-
sive communication on children; the impact of new, emerging and hybrid media forms and
preferences for/ use of formaI and informaI communications channels and trans-disciplinary
approaches to sustained behaviour change in social marketing/ health promotion/ environmental
protection campaigns .
Susie Hill has led health improvement programmes and campaigns in the NGO and corporate
sectors since 1994. She has a Masters in Health and Social Marketing and has a professional
interest in wellness and human performance. Susie is currently the Global Adviser on health
behaviour change and health promotion for Shell.
Dr Fiona Spotswood is Lecturer in Marketing and Social Marketing at Bristol Social Marketing
Centre, University of the West of England. Her research interests inc1ude the implications of
contemporary British ' working c1ass' culture on physical activity participation and the use of
marketing techniques to improve utility cyc1ing as a transport mode.
Professor Alan Tapp is Professor of Marketing at the University of the West of England and
Director of the Bristol Social Marketing Centre. He has worked in commercial and academic
marketing for 25 years, and is interested in applying marketing ideas to solve social problems.
Alan is also interested in social and cultural changes and how these are influenced by commercial
marketing, politics and other macro forces.
xii
Preface
Social marketing is a rapidly evolving field that will continue to change and adapt in line
with the evolution of new technologies and communication interfaces between social mar-
keters and their target groups. New ways of measuring the effects and effectiveness of in-
terventions will also impact on the design and implementation of social marketing activity.
In this text we have tried to address the learning needs of students who will go on to ca-
reers in this dynamic and challenging sector, while at the same time acknowledging the need
for additional research, critical evaluations of existing concepts and theories and a commu-
nications lands cape that will look very different in five years, let alone in the next decade.
We stress critical evaluation throughout the text for several reasons. Social marketing
deals with a number of complex issues for which no single solution exists. There is a need
to synthesise and evaluate data, often of variable 9uality, from a range of sources in order to
understand a problem. Our knowledge in the field is growing exponentially; however, there
are still a number of gaps in the extant knowledge base and many concepts and the 0 ries
have not been fuUy tested across wide ranges of population segments or situations. In areas
such as communications, theories need to evolve and adapt to take into account the rapidly
changing communications environment.
While there is a growing body of evidence that interventions based on sound theoretical
foundations are more effective than those made onjudgement alone, most theories provide
only partial explanations or predictors of behaviour. Judgement will always be an important
component in social marketing decisions. Environmental, social and economic forces can
act as enablers or inhibitors of behaviour change and interventions need to be framed for
the context in which the behaviours occur. Budge"tary constraints also force limitations on
the scope or duration of interventions - there is, unfortunately, no ideal world.
For all interventions, there are always multiple potential solutions and a critical approach
ensures that aU available data and other forms of information are not just passively accepte d,
but rather evaluated, with judgements being made where other forms of data do not exist.
A critical perspective also ensures that the input and the points of view of a range of stake-
ho Id ers are considere d, together with the likely impact of intervention decisions upon them.
We have tried to provide definitions of aU significant terms throughout the text. Real-world
'vignettes' and detailed case studies drawn from a range of countries provide insights into the
approaches used by practitioners to address actual social marketing challenges. The cases also
link to key chapter concepts. We acknowledge the valuable contribution that access to these
cases has made to illustrating key concepts throughout the text and for helping to make the
link between concepts and real-world implementation very vivid. Space prohibits the inclu-
sion of more than a smaU number of cases from the resource. You are encouraged to visit the
websites of the organisations featured, together with those of policy makers and regulators, in
order to gain a deeper understanding of real-world issues facing social marketers.
The text is organised into three separate parts, with multiple themes running through aU
chapters. A list of recommended additional resources is provided at the end of each chapter
and a detailed glossary at the end of the book.
xiii
Preface
This chapter introduces social marketing as a field and discusses its evolution and the
differences between it and related activity such as health education. The scope of social
marketing and the relative complexities of potential interventions across the range of areas
in which social marketing currently operates, or could potentially operate in the future, are
then examined, followed by a discussion of the potential for unintended impacts of social
marketing interventions in each of these areas.
The core principles of social marketing are reviewed in this chapter, together with debates
such as the use of commercial marketing theory in a social marketing context, the strengths
and weaknesses of specifie tools and techniques of commercial marketing in a social mar-
keting context, and the value of alternative theories and tools. Tensions regarding whether
social marketing should adopt a more service-driven approach versus the traditional
product-driven approach are also considered.
This chapter outlines the stages required in planning a social marketing intervention and
methods for conducting a critical review of competitors whose activity may impact on the
planning process. The potential of partnership development as part of the intervention
planning process is also discussed. The role of research in the planning process, including
commercial marketing ,techniques which may be helpful, is examined.
Chapter 4 focuses on the evaluation of external, environmental and policy factors that may
act as facilitators of, or barriers to, social marketing interventions. The complexities of
developing collaborative partnerships within communities, particularly when establishing
public - private partnerships, and the particular challenges presented by sorne sectors of
commercial marketing, are reviewed.
In this chapter, the strengths and weaknesses of the main ethical frameworks featured in
the business literature are discussed in the context of the relevance of each to social mar-
keting activity. Ethical dilemmas that may occur in social marketing activity in relation to
these frameworks are considered. The role of codes of ethics in ensuring ethical behaviour
from aIl participants in social marketing interventions is then discussed in the context of
the structure of codes that might be successfully implemented among social marketing
practitioners.
xiv
Preface
This chapter focuses on the role of the ory in planning, implementing and evaluating social
marketing interventions. It provides an overview of key theories used in social marketing
and their potential applications and provides guidance on how to critically evaluate these
theories, taking into consideration both their flaws and strengths. Guidance is also given
for comparing theoretical concepts across different types of social marketing interventions.
The focus of Chapter 7 is on the principles and practice of research within a social marketing
context, and ethical challenges that may apply to research on a range of topics and across
a range of population segments. This is followed by a discussion of the processes and tech-
. niques for designing and justifying research projects for specifie interventions, evaluating
the design and outputs of research projects and research programmes to evaluate the ef-
fects and effectiveness of an intervention.
Chapter 8 Segmentation
In this chapter, the strengths and weaknesses of different forms of segmentation used in
social marketing activity are discussed and guidance is provided for evaluating possible
segmentation frameworks for different types of social marketing interventions. The reason-
ing behind the segmentation strategies used in past interventions is also examine d, together
with strategies for improving future segmentation processes.
This chapter discusses the influence of social groups on individual and collective behav-
iours, the impact of conformity on social marketing activity and the concept of tipping
points for a range of behaviours. The impact of social norms on individual and group
behaviours is considered and guidance provided as to how these factors should be evaluated
and appropriate action incorporated into social marketing interventions .
In this chapter, different levels of 'products' are considered in the context of the development
of social marketing campaigns. The role of branding in social marketing is th en discussed,
including techniques for evaluating appropriate branding strategies and developing suitable
xv
Pref ace
brand images for interventions. The role of channels and distribution in social marketing
product development are then examined.
This chapter discusses the role of creativity in social marketing interventions, focusing on
how creative strategy evolves from scoping stages and the identification of insights into pos-
sible behaviour change options, and the development of a creative brief for the design of
material. Guidance is provided on how the needs of disadvantaged groups should be taken
into account when designing interventions. The influence of different media on the devel-
opment of mate rial is then discussed, along with the unique features of designing material
for new media forms and social media.
Chapter 13 explains the principles of planning traditional mass media such as television,
radio, newspapers or magazines, and social media integration and the issue of advertising
weight versus duration of an advertising schedule across a budget period. The enduring
debate over whether advertising (and, byextension, aIl forms of marketing communication
in the current era) is a strong or weak force is then discussed, along with the strengths and
weaknesses of major media vehicles, both traditional and new media, and qualitative fac-
tors that should also be considered in planning media.
This final chapter discusses why evaluations should occur, what should be evaluated and
when, and the contribution of evaluation processes at aIl stages of an intervention pro-
gramme. Guidance is provided on how to criticaIly evaluate formaI and informaI evaluative
processes and how to develop and justify evaluation programmes for a range of social mar-
keting interventions. The specific challenges involved in evaluating multi-component and
multi-partner interventions are considered, followed by a discussion of the way in which the
effect of competition on interventions can be evaluated.
Many more useful resources are provided on the companion website to this book. Please
visit www.personed.co.uk!eagle for more material to support your study.
xvi
Acknowledgements
Authors' acknowledgements
We would like to thank our colleagues within the BSMC, especially Simon Jones and Yvette
Morey for providing samples of material from reeent research projects for use in Chapter 7.
We also thank Professor Julia Verne, Director of the South West Public Health Observatory
for permission to use samples of epidemiological data.
Publisher's acknowledgements
We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduee copyright material:
Figures
Figure 2.1 adapted from 'Social Marketing and Communication in Health Promotion', Realth
Promotion International, 6 (2), pp 135-45 (Hastings, G. and Haywood, A., 1991), Oxford
Journals; Figure 2.6 from 'Ready to Fly Solo? Reducing Social Marketing's Dependenee on
Commercial Marketing Theory', Marketing Theory, 3 (3), pp. 365-85 (Peattie, S. & Peattie, K.,
2003); Figure 6.5 from 'Integrative Model of Behavioural Prediction and Change', Journal
of Communication, 56 (August supplement), Sl-S17 (Fishbein, M., & Cappella, J.), John
Wiley & Sons; Figure 7.1 from draft of the published report: http://www.swpho.nhs.
uk!resouree/view.aspx?RID=88928, see Figure 3.2 on page 36, South West Health
Observatory, Bristol; Figures 7.2a and 7.2b from Exploring Marketing Research 7th edn,
The Dryden Press, Orlando FL (Zikmund, W.G.) The Dryden Press, Orlando FL © 2000
South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning, Inc. Reprodueed by permission. www.eengage.
corn/permissions; Figures 7A, 7.5, 7.6 & 7.7 from NVivo illustration of software package,
www.qsrinternational.com/products_nvivo.aspx. QSR International Ltd, Courtesy of QSR
International Pty Ltd; Figures 9.3, 9A & 9.5 after The Tipping Point (Gladwell, M., 2000)
Little, Brown & Company, Boston (Hachette Book Group); Figure 10.1 from 'Appreciating
brands as assets through using two-dimensional model' (de Chernatony, 1. & McWilliam, G.,
1990) Journal of Marketing Management, 9, pp. 173-88, Taylor & Francis journals;
Figure 10.6 from Play Zone logo, www.tht.org.uk!, Copyright © Terrenee Higgins Trust;
Figure 10.7 from Cabwise logo, http://tfl.gov.uk, Transport for London; Figures 10.9 & 10.10
from 'Transport for London - Cabwise: creating a brand to help prevents rapes' (2008 IPA
Effectiveness Awards case history at www.warc.com), www.warc.com, Warc Advertising
Agency; Figure 11.2 from 'Fear Control and Danger Control: A Test of the Extended Parallel
Proeess Model (EPPM)', Communication Mongraphs, 61 (1), pp. 113-34 (Witte, K., 1994),
Taylor & Francis; Figure lIA from Texting Skills: Road Safety Authority (Republic ofIreland)
and the Department of the Environment (Northern Ireland) - Road safety campaign: 'Pay
attention, or pay the priee', www.rsa.ie/. Crown copyright
xvii
Acknowledgeme nt s
Screenshots
Figure 2.3: Facebook; Figure 2.4: Twitter; screenshot on p. 81 from http://webarchive.
nationalarchives. gOY. uki +/www.dh.gov.ukien/Publichealth/Publichealthresponsibility
deal, Crown copyright
Tables
Table 1.2 from Social Marketing. Improving the Quality of Life, Sage Publications Inc
(Kotler, P., Roberto, N. & Lee, N., 2002) Sage Publications Thousand Oaks, CA; Table 2.1
adapted from 'The Marketing Mix Revisited: Towards the 21st Century Marketing,' Journal
of Marketing Management, 22, pp. 407-38 (Constantinides, E. 2006), Routledge/Taylor &
Francis; Table 5.1 from 'Unintended Effects of Health Communication Campaigns',
Journal of Communication, 57 (2) (Cho, H., & Salmon, C. T), Wiley journals; Table 14.1
from 'Assessing the Effectiveness of Social Marketing', paper presented at the ES OMAR
conference, Berlin. (Varcoe, J., 2004), ESOMAR; Table 14.3 from' ESRC analysis of public
understanding of the safety of the MMR vaccine', Towards a Better Map: Science, the Public
and the Media (Hargreaves, 1., Lewis, J., & Speers, T.).
Text
Box 8.4 from Department of Health Segmentation description, http://www.dh.gov.
ukiprod_ consum_dh/ groups/ dh_ digitalassets/ documents/ digitalasset/ dh_ 086291. pdf,
Department of Health. Crown copyright.
Photographs
Front coyer images: Getty Images; photographs on pp. 11, 27, 238: Advertising Archives;
Figure 9.6: Collaborative Change/Steven Johnson; Figure 10.2: Alamy/SS Studios;
Figure 10.3: NHS; Figure 10.4: 56 Dean Street; Figure 10.5: Rescuescg.com; Figure 11 .3:
NHS Branding; Figure 12.1: Alamy/Gabbro; Figure l3.1: Alamy/MBI.
AlI other images © Pearson Education
In sorne instances we have been unable to trace the owners of copyright material, and we
would appreciate any information that would enable us to do so.
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