Social Marketing

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Social Marketing

Lynne Eagle, Stephan Dahl,

Susie Hill, Sara Bird,
Fiona Spotswood and Alan Tapp

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First published 2013

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The rights of Lynne Eagle, Stephan Dahl, Susie Hill, Sara Bird, Fiona Spotswood and Alan
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ISBN: 978-0-273 -72722-4 (print)

978-0-273-72723-1 (PDF)
978-0-273 -78099-1 (eText)

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Eagle, Lynne.
Social marketing / Lynne Eagle, Stephan Dahl, Susie Hill, Sara Bird, Fiona Spotswood
and Alan Tapp. - First Edition.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-273-72722-4 (print) - ISBN (invalid) 978027372723 (PDF) - ISBN
(invalid) 978-0-273 -78099-1 (eText) 1. Social marketing. 1. Title.
HF5414.E17942013
658.8-dc23
2012034833

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
16 15 14 13 12

Typeset in 9.5/12.5 pt Charter ITC Std by 75.

Print edition printed and bound in country by Ashford Colour, Gosport

NOTE THAT ANY PAGE CROSS REFERENCES REFER TO THE PRINT EDITION
 Brief contents

Contributors xii
Preface xiii
Acknowledgements xvii

Part 1
The principles of social marketing 1
1 What is social marketing? 3
2 The core principles of social marketing 22
3 The social marketing intervention planning process 40
4 Upstream, policy and partnerships 68
5 Ethical issues in social marketing 92

Part 2
Understanding the consumer 109
6 Understanding the consumer: the role of theory 111
7 Conducting reasearch in social marketing 141
8 Segmentation 170
9 Social forces and population-Ievel effects 190

Part 3
Designing effective social marketing solutions 215
10 Designing social marketing interventions: products, branding,
channels and places 217
11 Message framing 234
12 Creativity in social marketing 260
13 Media planning 285
14 The challenges of evaluation 297

Glossary of terms 320

Index 341

v
Contents

Contributors xii
Preface xiii
Acknowledgements xvii

Part 1 The principles of social marketing

1 What is social marketing? 3

Evolution and application of social marketing 3
What social marketing is not 6
Current social marketing focus 9
Unintended consequences 11
Justification of government-sponsored social marketing interventions 13
Summary 17
Chapter review questions 18
Recommended reading 18
Notes 19

2 The core principles of social marketing 22

The core principles 22
Traditionalists versus convergents: the debate about commercial marketing
technologies 23
The example of exchange: debating the use of commercial
marketing theory 24
The example of the 4Ps: debating the use of commercial marketing tools 30
Why social marketing is different 34
Other commercial marketing tools 36
Summary 36
Chapter review questions 37
Recommended reading 37
Notes 37

3 The social marketing intervention planning process 40

Introduction 40
Existing intervention planning frameworks 43
Scoping the problem 47
Situation analysis 51
SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) analysis 59

vii
Contents

Evaluation planning 60
Developing the intervention 61
Summary 63
Chapter review questions 64
Recommended reading 65
Notes 65

4 Upstream, policy and partnerships 68

Upstream factors 68
Partnerships 73
Features of successful partnerships 76
Partnership challenges 79
Public-private partnerships (PPPs) 80
The challenge of health-related partnerships with the alcohol industry 82
Summary 84
Chapter review questions 85
Recommended reading 85
Notes 85

5 Ethical issues in social marketing 92

Ethics defined 92
Ethical dilemmas wÎthin social marketing 93
Ethical frameworks 94
Ethical issues in targeting 97
Fear appeals 98
Role of culture in establishing ethical standards 98
Code of ethics 99
Summary 104
Chapter review questions 104
Recommended reading 105
Notes 105

[ Part 2 Understanding the consumer

~
6 Understanding the consumer: the role of theory 111
Theory 111
What is theory? 112
Is theory really useful in practice? 113
The raie of theory 113
The limitations of theory 115
Theories of behaviour change 116
Summary 136
Chapter review questions 136
Recommended reading 137
Notes 137

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 Contents

7 Conducting research in social marketing 141

Overview of research 141
Research ethics 143
Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods techniques 154
Quantitative techniques 155
Qualitative techn iques 158
Pre-testing 162
Qual itative data analysis 162
Summary 166
Chapter rev iew questions 166
Recommended reading 167
Notes 168

8 Segmentation 170
Segmentation defined 170
Segmentation methods 171
Effective segments - characteristics 171
Commercial segmentation packages 173
Case studies for discussion 176
Summary 186
Chapter rev iew questions 186
Recommended reading 187
Notes 188

9 Social forces and population-Ievel effects 190

Social forces 190
Conform ity 192
Social norm campaigns 195
Group types 198
Group effects 201
Compliance 204
Summary 211
Chapter review questions 212
Recommended reading 212
Notes 213

Part 3 Designing effective social marketing solutions

10 Designing social marketing interventions: products,

branding, channels and places 217
Designing campaigns 217
Developing products for social marketing campaigns 217
Brand development for social marketing 219
Brand attributes 219
Brand dimensions 220
Branding as a social/identity factor 222

ix
Contents

Place and distribution channel 222

Summary 231
Chapter review questions 232
Recommended reading 232
Notes 232

11 Message framing 234

Introduction: types of framing 234
Positive framing 235
Negative framing 236
Fear appeals 241
Rational versus emotional appeals 242
Cross-cultural issues in message framing 243
Personal relevance/tailored interventions 244
Reactance effects 245
Summary 255
Chapter review questions 256
Recommended reading 256
Notes 256

12 Creativity in social marketing 260

Creativity 260
Creative strategy formation 262
Presentation of strategy 266
Creativity for print: leaflets, posters, newspapers, magazines etc. 266
Creativity for television, radio and cinema 269
Evaluation/pre-testing 270
Creativity for new/electronic media 270
Regulation 271
Summary 281
Chapter review questions 281
Recommended reading 282
Websites 282
Notes 282

13 Media planning 285

Basic media planning principles 285
How much is enough? 286
Advertising as a strongly persuasive force 287
Advertising as a weaker, primarily repurchase reminder, force 287
50 how much should we spend? 288
Media choices 289
Media context 291
Planning for new media 292
Social media 293

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 Contents

Summary 293
Chapter review questions 293
Recommended reading 294
Notes 295

14 The challenges of evaluation 297

Why evaluate? 297
What to evaluate 299
When to evaluate 302
Intervention outcomes - effects and effectiveness 304
How to evaluate - techniques for different phases, components and media 305
Social advertising and communication 308
Monitoring 'noise' /upstream factors 309
Special circumstances 312
Evaluating partnerships 313
Summary 314
Chapter review questions 315
Recommended reading 315
Notes 316

Glossary of terms 320

Index 341

Companion Website
For open-access student resources specifically written
to complement this textbook and support your learning,
please visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/eagle

Lecturer Resources
For password-protected online resources tailored to support
the use of this textbook in teaching, please visit
www.pearsoned.co.uk/eagle

xi
 Contributors

Sara Bird is Senior Lecturer in Marketing at University of the West of England, and member of
the Bristol Social Marketing Centre there. Her research focuses on social marketing and the role
it can play in sexual health, but she also has a keen interest in emotional versus rational decision-
making processes, particularly amongst adolescents and older people. She lectures in public
relations and research methods.
Dr Stephan Dahl is Senior Lecturer in Marketing at Hull University Business School. His research
interests inc1ude social media, and the role social marketing and marketing communication can
play to prevent health problems, and especially to increase physical activity in a cro$s-cultural
and diverse context.
Professor Lynne Eagle is Professor of Marketing at James Cook University. Her research interests
centre on marketing communication effects and effectiveness, inc1uding the impact of persua-
sive communication on children; the impact of new, emerging and hybrid media forms and
preferences for/ use of formaI and informaI communications channels and trans-disciplinary
approaches to sustained behaviour change in social marketing/ health promotion/ environmental
protection campaigns .
Susie Hill has led health improvement programmes and campaigns in the NGO and corporate
sectors since 1994. She has a Masters in Health and Social Marketing and has a professional
interest in wellness and human performance. Susie is currently the Global Adviser on health
behaviour change and health promotion for Shell.
Dr Fiona Spotswood is Lecturer in Marketing and Social Marketing at Bristol Social Marketing
Centre, University of the West of England. Her research interests inc1ude the implications of
contemporary British ' working c1ass' culture on physical activity participation and the use of
marketing techniques to improve utility cyc1ing as a transport mode.
Professor Alan Tapp is Professor of Marketing at the University of the West of England and
Director of the Bristol Social Marketing Centre. He has worked in commercial and academic
marketing for 25 years, and is interested in applying marketing ideas to solve social problems.
Alan is also interested in social and cultural changes and how these are influenced by commercial
marketing, politics and other macro forces.

xii
Preface

Social marketing is a rapidly evolving field that will continue to change and adapt in line
with the evolution of new technologies and communication interfaces between social mar-
keters and their target groups. New ways of measuring the effects and effectiveness of in-
terventions will also impact on the design and implementation of social marketing activity.
In this text we have tried to address the learning needs of students who will go on to ca-
reers in this dynamic and challenging sector, while at the same time acknowledging the need
for additional research, critical evaluations of existing concepts and theories and a commu-
nications lands cape that will look very different in five years, let alone in the next decade.
We stress critical evaluation throughout the text for several reasons. Social marketing
deals with a number of complex issues for which no single solution exists. There is a need
to synthesise and evaluate data, often of variable 9uality, from a range of sources in order to
understand a problem. Our knowledge in the field is growing exponentially; however, there
are still a number of gaps in the extant knowledge base and many concepts and the 0 ries
have not been fuUy tested across wide ranges of population segments or situations. In areas
such as communications, theories need to evolve and adapt to take into account the rapidly
changing communications environment.
While there is a growing body of evidence that interventions based on sound theoretical
foundations are more effective than those made onjudgement alone, most theories provide
only partial explanations or predictors of behaviour. Judgement will always be an important
component in social marketing decisions. Environmental, social and economic forces can
act as enablers or inhibitors of behaviour change and interventions need to be framed for
the context in which the behaviours occur. Budge"tary constraints also force limitations on
the scope or duration of interventions - there is, unfortunately, no ideal world.
For all interventions, there are always multiple potential solutions and a critical approach
ensures that aU available data and other forms of information are not just passively accepte d,
but rather evaluated, with judgements being made where other forms of data do not exist.
A critical perspective also ensures that the input and the points of view of a range of stake-
ho Id ers are considere d, together with the likely impact of intervention decisions upon them.
We have tried to provide definitions of aU significant terms throughout the text. Real-world
'vignettes' and detailed case studies drawn from a range of countries provide insights into the
approaches used by practitioners to address actual social marketing challenges. The cases also
link to key chapter concepts. We acknowledge the valuable contribution that access to these
cases has made to illustrating key concepts throughout the text and for helping to make the
link between concepts and real-world implementation very vivid. Space prohibits the inclu-
sion of more than a smaU number of cases from the resource. You are encouraged to visit the
websites of the organisations featured, together with those of policy makers and regulators, in
order to gain a deeper understanding of real-world issues facing social marketers.
The text is organised into three separate parts, with multiple themes running through aU
chapters. A list of recommended additional resources is provided at the end of each chapter
and a detailed glossary at the end of the book.

xiii
Preface

• Part 1: The principles of social marketing

The chapters in this initial part of the text introduce social marketing concepts and prin-
ciples, providing an overview of the intervention planning process, upstream, policy and
partnership issues and ethical considerations.

Chapter 1 What is social marketing?

This chapter introduces social marketing as a field and discusses its evolution and the
differences between it and related activity such as health education. The scope of social
marketing and the relative complexities of potential interventions across the range of areas
in which social marketing currently operates, or could potentially operate in the future, are
then examined, followed by a discussion of the potential for unintended impacts of social
marketing interventions in each of these areas.

Chapter 2 The core principles of social marketing

The core principles of social marketing are reviewed in this chapter, together with debates
such as the use of commercial marketing theory in a social marketing context, the strengths
and weaknesses of specifie tools and techniques of commercial marketing in a social mar-
keting context, and the value of alternative theories and tools. Tensions regarding whether
social marketing should adopt a more service-driven approach versus the traditional
product-driven approach are also considered.

Chapter 3 The social marketing intervention planning process

This chapter outlines the stages required in planning a social marketing intervention and
methods for conducting a critical review of competitors whose activity may impact on the
planning process. The potential of partnership development as part of the intervention
planning process is also discussed. The role of research in the planning process, including
commercial marketing ,techniques which may be helpful, is examined.

Chapter 4 Upstream, policy and partnerships

Chapter 4 focuses on the evaluation of external, environmental and policy factors that may
act as facilitators of, or barriers to, social marketing interventions. The complexities of
developing collaborative partnerships within communities, particularly when establishing
public - private partnerships, and the particular challenges presented by sorne sectors of
commercial marketing, are reviewed.

Chapter 5 Ethical issues in social marketing

In this chapter, the strengths and weaknesses of the main ethical frameworks featured in
the business literature are discussed in the context of the relevance of each to social mar-
keting activity. Ethical dilemmas that may occur in social marketing activity in relation to
these frameworks are considered. The role of codes of ethics in ensuring ethical behaviour
from aIl participants in social marketing interventions is then discussed in the context of
the structure of codes that might be successfully implemented among social marketing
practitioners.
xiv
 Preface

• Part 2: Understanding the consumer

This second part of the book focuses on the role of the ory in developing interventions,
complemented by research and segmentation tools.

Chapter 6 Understanding the consumer: the role of theory

This chapter focuses on the role of the ory in planning, implementing and evaluating social
marketing interventions. It provides an overview of key theories used in social marketing
and their potential applications and provides guidance on how to critically evaluate these
theories, taking into consideration both their flaws and strengths. Guidance is also given
for comparing theoretical concepts across different types of social marketing interventions.

Chapter 7 Conducting research in social marketing

The focus of Chapter 7 is on the principles and practice of research within a social marketing
context, and ethical challenges that may apply to research on a range of topics and across
a range of population segments. This is followed by a discussion of the processes and tech-
. niques for designing and justifying research projects for specifie interventions, evaluating
the design and outputs of research projects and research programmes to evaluate the ef-
fects and effectiveness of an intervention.

Chapter 8 Segmentation

In this chapter, the strengths and weaknesses of different forms of segmentation used in
social marketing activity are discussed and guidance is provided for evaluating possible
segmentation frameworks for different types of social marketing interventions. The reason-
ing behind the segmentation strategies used in past interventions is also examine d, together
with strategies for improving future segmentation processes.

Chapter 9 Social forces and population-Ievel effects

This chapter discusses the influence of social groups on individual and collective behav-
iours, the impact of conformity on social marketing activity and the concept of tipping
points for a range of behaviours. The impact of social norms on individual and group
behaviours is considered and guidance provided as to how these factors should be evaluated
and appropriate action incorporated into social marketing interventions .

• Part 3: Designing effective social marketing solutions

In this third section of the text, the chapters focus on key intervention design and evalua-
tion issues.

Chapter 10 Designing social marketing interventions: products, branding,

channels and places

In this chapter, different levels of 'products' are considered in the context of the development
of social marketing campaigns. The role of branding in social marketing is th en discussed,
including techniques for evaluating appropriate branding strategies and developing suitable
xv
Pref ace

brand images for interventions. The role of channels and distribution in social marketing
product development are then examined.

Chapter 11 Message framing

We focus on the role of message framing in developing social marketing interventions,

including the use of positive or negative framing, and rational or emotional messages.
Guidance is provided for decisions as to which of these forms of framing may be effective for
specific circumstances or population segments and on assessing and making reasoned rec-
ommendations regarding ways of evaluating framing alternatives for a specific intervention.

Chapter 12 Creativity in social marketing

This chapter discusses the role of creativity in social marketing interventions, focusing on
how creative strategy evolves from scoping stages and the identification of insights into pos-
sible behaviour change options, and the development of a creative brief for the design of
material. Guidance is provided on how the needs of disadvantaged groups should be taken
into account when designing interventions. The influence of different media on the devel-
opment of mate rial is then discussed, along with the unique features of designing material
for new media forms and social media.

Chapter 13 Media planning

Chapter 13 explains the principles of planning traditional mass media such as television,
radio, newspapers or magazines, and social media integration and the issue of advertising
weight versus duration of an advertising schedule across a budget period. The enduring
debate over whether advertising (and, byextension, aIl forms of marketing communication
in the current era) is a strong or weak force is then discussed, along with the strengths and
weaknesses of major media vehicles, both traditional and new media, and qualitative fac-
tors that should also be considered in planning media.

Chapter 14 The challenges of evaluation

This final chapter discusses why evaluations should occur, what should be evaluated and
when, and the contribution of evaluation processes at aIl stages of an intervention pro-
gramme. Guidance is provided on how to criticaIly evaluate formaI and informaI evaluative
processes and how to develop and justify evaluation programmes for a range of social mar-
keting interventions. The specific challenges involved in evaluating multi-component and
multi-partner interventions are considered, followed by a discussion of the way in which the
effect of competition on interventions can be evaluated.
Many more useful resources are provided on the companion website to this book. Please
visit www.personed.co.uk!eagle for more material to support your study.

xvi
Acknowledgements

Authors' acknowledgements
We would like to thank our colleagues within the BSMC, especially Simon Jones and Yvette
Morey for providing samples of material from reeent research projects for use in Chapter 7.
We also thank Professor Julia Verne, Director of the South West Public Health Observatory
for permission to use samples of epidemiological data.

Publisher's acknowledgements
We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduee copyright material:

Figures
Figure 2.1 adapted from 'Social Marketing and Communication in Health Promotion', Realth
Promotion International, 6 (2), pp 135-45 (Hastings, G. and Haywood, A., 1991), Oxford
Journals; Figure 2.6 from 'Ready to Fly Solo? Reducing Social Marketing's Dependenee on
Commercial Marketing Theory', Marketing Theory, 3 (3), pp. 365-85 (Peattie, S. & Peattie, K.,
2003); Figure 6.5 from 'Integrative Model of Behavioural Prediction and Change', Journal
of Communication, 56 (August supplement), Sl-S17 (Fishbein, M., & Cappella, J.), John
Wiley & Sons; Figure 7.1 from draft of the published report: http://www.swpho.nhs.
uk!resouree/view.aspx?RID=88928, see Figure 3.2 on page 36, South West Health
Observatory, Bristol; Figures 7.2a and 7.2b from Exploring Marketing Research 7th edn,
The Dryden Press, Orlando FL (Zikmund, W.G.) The Dryden Press, Orlando FL © 2000
South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning, Inc. Reprodueed by permission. www.eengage.
corn/permissions; Figures 7A, 7.5, 7.6 & 7.7 from NVivo illustration of software package,
www.qsrinternational.com/products_nvivo.aspx. QSR International Ltd, Courtesy of QSR
International Pty Ltd; Figures 9.3, 9A & 9.5 after The Tipping Point (Gladwell, M., 2000)
Little, Brown & Company, Boston (Hachette Book Group); Figure 10.1 from 'Appreciating
brands as assets through using two-dimensional model' (de Chernatony, 1. & McWilliam, G.,
1990) Journal of Marketing Management, 9, pp. 173-88, Taylor & Francis journals;
Figure 10.6 from Play Zone logo, www.tht.org.uk!, Copyright © Terrenee Higgins Trust;
Figure 10.7 from Cabwise logo, http://tfl.gov.uk, Transport for London; Figures 10.9 & 10.10
from 'Transport for London - Cabwise: creating a brand to help prevents rapes' (2008 IPA
Effectiveness Awards case history at www.warc.com), www.warc.com, Warc Advertising
Agency; Figure 11.2 from 'Fear Control and Danger Control: A Test of the Extended Parallel
Proeess Model (EPPM)', Communication Mongraphs, 61 (1), pp. 113-34 (Witte, K., 1994),
Taylor & Francis; Figure lIA from Texting Skills: Road Safety Authority (Republic ofIreland)
and the Department of the Environment (Northern Ireland) - Road safety campaign: 'Pay
attention, or pay the priee', www.rsa.ie/. Crown copyright

xvii
Acknowledgeme nt s

Screenshots
Figure 2.3: Facebook; Figure 2.4: Twitter; screenshot on p. 81 from http://webarchive.
nationalarchives. gOY. uki +/www.dh.gov.ukien/Publichealth/Publichealthresponsibility
deal, Crown copyright

Tables
Table 1.2 from Social Marketing. Improving the Quality of Life, Sage Publications Inc
(Kotler, P., Roberto, N. & Lee, N., 2002) Sage Publications Thousand Oaks, CA; Table 2.1
adapted from 'The Marketing Mix Revisited: Towards the 21st Century Marketing,' Journal
of Marketing Management, 22, pp. 407-38 (Constantinides, E. 2006), Routledge/Taylor &
Francis; Table 5.1 from 'Unintended Effects of Health Communication Campaigns',
Journal of Communication, 57 (2) (Cho, H., & Salmon, C. T), Wiley journals; Table 14.1
from 'Assessing the Effectiveness of Social Marketing', paper presented at the ES OMAR
conference, Berlin. (Varcoe, J., 2004), ESOMAR; Table 14.3 from' ESRC analysis of public
understanding of the safety of the MMR vaccine', Towards a Better Map: Science, the Public
and the Media (Hargreaves, 1., Lewis, J., & Speers, T.).

Text
Box 8.4 from Department of Health Segmentation description, http://www.dh.gov.
ukiprod_ consum_dh/ groups/ dh_ digitalassets/ documents/ digitalasset/ dh_ 086291. pdf,
Department of Health. Crown copyright.

Photographs
Front coyer images: Getty Images; photographs on pp. 11, 27, 238: Advertising Archives;
Figure 9.6: Collaborative Change/Steven Johnson; Figure 10.2: Alamy/SS Studios;
Figure 10.3: NHS; Figure 10.4: 56 Dean Street; Figure 10.5: Rescuescg.com; Figure 11 .3:
NHS Branding; Figure 12.1: Alamy/Gabbro; Figure l3.1: Alamy/MBI.
AlI other images © Pearson Education
In sorne instances we have been unable to trace the owners of copyright material, and we
would appreciate any information that would enable us to do so.

xviii