1. What are the criteria for the classification of translations?

There are some criteria for classifying translation:

1. The first one is based on who does the translation. These days translation may be done by a
human translator or by computer.
2. Form of speech: according to this criterion, translation may be a written form, sight
translation(на око перекладати) (or translation-at-sight, on-sight translation) as the oral
translation of written text, and interpreting as oral translation of oral discourse are
differentiated. This criterion also involves subtitling, that is visual translation involving the
superimposition of written text onto the screen, and dubbing, or the replacement of the
original speech by a voice track which attempts to follow as closely as possible the timing,
phrasing and lip movements of the original dialogue.
3. Source text perception: a translator can see or hear the text.
4. Time lapse between the source text perception and translation: consecutive and
simultaneous interpreting.
5. Number of languages in translation situation: one-way or two-way translation.
6. Direction of translation: direct translation, that is, translation into the mother-tongue, and
inverse translation, or translation into a foreign language.
7. Methods of interpreting: note-taking interpretation, phrase-by-phrase interpretation
8. Functional style and genre of the text:literary works and informative texts.

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation?

In the past when we had to figure out the meaning of a word from another language, we made use
of a dictionary. Not only was this a very time consuming task but it was kind of irritating owing to
the fact that it was difficult to interpret the meanings.

The long-running debate of machine vs human translation continuing till nowadays . This is partly
because technology improves every year and the quality of translation it offers is constantly rising.
The advantages of machine translation
 The first benefit of machine translation is that it is comparatively cheap.Many free tools are
readily available (Google Translate, Skype Translator, etc.)
 When time is a crucial factor, machine translation can save the day. You don't have to
spend hours poring over dictionaries to translate the words. Instead, the software can
translate the content quickly and provide a quality output to the user in no time at all.    
 You can translate between multiple languages using one tool. A machine translator usually
translates text which is in any language so there is no such major concern while a
professional translator specializes in one particular field.
 Translation technology is constantly improving
The disadvantages of machine translation
 Level of accuracy can be very low                    
 Accuracy is also very inconsistent across different languages
 Machines can’t translate context                                            
 Mistakes are sometimes costly                                              
 Sometimes translation simply doesn’t work

The most important thing to consider with any kind of translation is the cost of potential mistakes.
Translating instructions for medical equipment, aviation manuals, legal documents and many other
kinds of content require 100% accuracy. In such cases, mistakes can cost lives, huge amounts of
money and irreparable damage. 
2.1. Define Rule-Based Machine Translation (RBMT) and Statistical Machine Translation (SMT).

Rule-Based Machine Translation

Rules-Based Machine Translation (RBMT) systems were the first commercial machine translation systems and
works based upon the specification of rules for morphology, syntax, lexical selection and transfer and generation.
Collection of rules and a bilingual or multilingual lexicon are the resources used in RBMT. The rules are
developed by human language experts and programmers who have made significant efforts to understand and
reflect the rules between the two languages.

Requirements 
 Monolingual and bilingual dictionaries to map input words to output words
 Rules that represent the input language structure
 Rules that represent the output language structure

Process 
 A parser (синтаксичний аналізатор) analyses the grammatical input structure.
 The parser creates an intermediate representation of the message. This representation can have different
levels of abstraction.
 The parser transfers that representation into the output language structure.

Statistical Machine Translation (SMT)

Unlike rule-based machine translation, statistical machine translation does not know grammatical
rules. It uses a computer algorithm to define rules that are most suitable for target content
translation. Statistical machine translation systems learn to translate by analysing the statistical
relationships between original texts and their existing human translations. SMT has made
tremendous success in less than two decades, and new ideas are constantly introduced.

2.2. Find out the apps (Ukrainian and foreign) developed on the base of each system

PROMPT and Systran are most famous examples of RBMT systems. 

3) What is the difference between simultaneous and consecutive interpreting?

There are two primary modes of interpretation — simultaneous and consecutive. Both are used to bridge
language barriers and help people understand each other, but it's important to understand their
differences.

The easiest way to explain the difference between consecutive interpretation and simultaneous
interpretation is this: 

 Consecutive Interpretation: The interpreter talks after the speaker pauses, giving the interpreter
time to process and translate from the first language to the second.
 Simultaneous Interpretation: The interpreter speaks at the same time as the original speaker; there
are no pauses.

Another important difference between the two interpretation methods is the number of people involved.

Consecutive interpreting is typically used for one-on-one meetings, such as depositions, legal proceedings,
or medical appointments.
On the other hand, simultaneous interpreting requires at least two interpreters as well as interpreting
equipment. It is generally used with large audiences, such as at conferences, a board of directors meetings,
multilateral organizations, and non-profit events. The interpreters may work from a booth that either is or
isn’t in the same room as the speaker.

4) What is the difference between artistic (literary) and special translation? The division into literary and
special translation indicates only the main function of the original, which should be reproduced in
translation. In fact, in the original, requiring, in general, literary translation, there may be separate parts
that perform exclusively informational functions, and, on the contrary, in the translation of an special text,
there may be elements of literary translation.

5) What are the subtypes of artistic (literary) translation? What are the criteria of their distinguishing?

Literary translation is a type of translation where the source documents are fiction.

Translation of literary texts includes:

 literary translation of books, articles, stories and other types of prose,

 literary translation of poetry,
 translation of advertising materials,
 translation of other texts that requires a creative and flexible approach.

The main principle of literary translation is the dominance of poetic communicative function. It means that
in addition to rendering information to the reader, literary translation also has aesthetic functions. The
artistic image created in the particular literary work ( be it the image of a character or nature) will certainly
have an impact on the reader. For this reason the literary translator should take into account specific
features of the text. It is quite a challenging task to achieve the main goal of the translation - creating a
particular image for the reader. Therefore, literary translation might involve some deviations from the
standard rules. A literal translation cannot reflect the depth and meaning of the literary work. A literary
translator reproduces a non-literal rendition of the original text. It is all about how the translator perceives
it. He/she rewrites the text from the beginning to the very end. This applies, for example, when an obvious
expression is replaced by synonyms or the structure of sentences is changed.

Example 1: The mountain tops were hidden in a grey waste of sky… - Вершини гір тонули в сірому небі (It
is clear that the rejection of the closest match to the English were hidden is not accidental. The translation
"тонули" here also conveys well the infinity of the vault of heaven (waste of sky))

Example 2: Dirmy waited in a corridor which smelled of disinfectant and looked out on to a back street. A
fly, disenchanted by the approach of winter was crawling dejectedly up the pane. (J. Galsworthy) - Дінні
чекала її в коридорі, пропахлим карболкою. Муха, пригнічена наближенням зими, сумно повзала
вікном, що виходило на глуху бічну вулицю. (And here the choices of translation «пропахлий» (smelled),
«карболкою» (disinfectant), «пригнічена» (disenchanted), «глуха бічна вулиця» (a back street), as well as
the addition of the pronoun "her" and the transfer of information about the window from the first sentence
to another, undoubtedly, aims to increase the artistic level of the translation)

Example 3: But night-time in this dreadful spot! - Night, when the smoke was changed to fire; when every
chimney spurted up its flame; and places, that had been dark vaults all day, now shone red-hot, with
figures moving to and fro within their blazing jaws and calling to one another with hoarse cries. (Ch.
Dickens) - А яка жахлива була тут ніч! Ніч, коли дим перетворювався на полум'я, коли кожна труба
палахкотіла вогнем, а прорми дверей, що зяяли весь день чорнотою, освітлювалися багряним
світлом, і в їхніх пащах, що палахкотіли, металися примари, що сиплими голосами переклиналися
один з одним. (The translator is guided primarily by the desire to create an artistic description of a terrible
picture of the night in the mind of a frightened homeless girl. To accomplish this task, the structure of the
sentence is changed (“night-time in this dreadful spot ” - “what a terrible night it was here”), matches are
selected for individual words (changed to fire - turned into a flame, spurted up flame - blazed with fire,
figures - ghosts etc.), the situation is described in a different way (places that had been dark vaults all day,
i.e. where there were black crypts all day), is replaced by a more understandable “doorways gaping with
blackness all day”). Regardless of the assessment of the results of such changes, they can be considered as a
modification of equivalence relations under the influence of a dominant function determined by the type of
translation)

Artistic translations play an important role in our translation agency because our approach to the source
information allows us to provide the best quality of the rendered poetic text. Work is done by a concrete
algorithm. The translator reads the text through, then allocates individual terms, divides the text into
logical sections and translates these sections one by one. In addition, we pay great attention to the stylistic
translation. The translated text is processed in several stages.

6) What are the subtypes of special translation? What are the criteria of their distinguishing?

Special translation is the translation of texts, the main function of which is to communicate some
information, and not to have an artistic and aesthetic impact on the reader. Such texts include all materials
of a scientific, business, socio-political, etc. This should also include the translation of many detective
(police) stories, travel descriptions, essays and similar works, where purely informational narrative prevails.

In special translation, subtypes of translation are distinguished on the basis of the belonging of the
translated texts to different functional styles of the foreign language. At the same time, it is necessary that
the functional and stylistic features of the originals determine the specific features of the translation of
such texts. On this basis, translation of scientific and technical materials, translation of official business
materials, translation of political and journalistic materials, translation of newspaper and information
materials, translation of patent materials, etc. are distinguished into special subspecies.

8. What are the demands to an interpreter?

interpreters must have the following knowledge, skills, and abilities: 

 An interpreter must have active and excellent listening skills

 Passion for Languages. Highly proficient in both English and the other language
 The ability to understand the spoken words so they can convey their meanings and accurate
message without any additions, omissions or other misleading factors that alter the
intended meaning of the message from the speaker.
 Be good at simultaneous interpretation, which is the most frequent form of
interpretation used in the courtroom, and in consecutive interpretation and sight
translation.
 An interpreter must have active and excellent listening skills

 Ability to communicate well with people from all backgrounds or cultures. Be culturally
aware
 Ability to cope with stress and to have self-control when dealing with difficult speakers
 Show emotional strength and flexibility.
 Ability to accept all forms of criticism.

9. What are the demands to a translator?

Qualities of a good translator:

 A translator must have a good command of the English language

 sharp listening and speaking skills
 Mother tongue speaker
 Relevant subject matter expertise
 Cultural awareness
 Accuracy and clarity
 Fluency in the languages
 strong written fluency in at least one or more non-English languages
 Having a university degree in translation, languages, or linguistics
 Proficient with online translation tools.

1) To find English correspondences to 10 criteria for the classification of translation types

and to their definitions given in the synopsis.