SWM Part 1

Exams Questions:-
1. Define life cycle assessment approach and the terms associated with product
life cycle, showing how this approach is meant to provide a useful framework
for manufacturers and consumers?
Life cycle assessment is an approach for assessing products, processes, industrial
systems and like. Begins with the gathering of the raw materials from the earth to
create the product and ends at the point when all materials are returned to the
earth. It evaluates all stages of product's life from the perspective that they are
interdependent, meaning that one operation leads to the next. Enables the
estimation of the cumulative environmental impacts resulting from all stages in
the product life cycle, and as a result allows selecting path or process that is more
environmentally preferable.
Terms associated with product life cycle:
a) Reusing: reusing a product saves energy and resources (plastic bags, glass
jars)
b) Remanufacturing: it is the process of resorting a product to like-new
condition, by disassembling the product, cleaning and refurbishing the
reusable parts, and stocking those parts in inventory.
c) Repair: it means replacing only the failed parts; while leaving the working
parts as they are.
d) Recycling: recovering materials from the waste stream and reprocessing
them so they become raw materials for new applications.
LCA provides a useful framework for manufacturers: who must choose
materials and technologies.
And for consumers: who want to include environmental considerations in their
choice of products.
2. What is meant by remanufacturing?
it is the process of resorting a product to like-new condition, by disassembling
the product, cleaning and refurbishing the reusable parts, and stocking those
parts in inventory.

3. Discuss briefly the different kinds of solid waste, and the main sources of
municipal solid waste. Define the following terms: waste generation, material
recover, trash?
Solid waste classifications:
 a) Domestic waste: vegetable waste, kitchen waste, household.
b) Industrial waste: unused materials.
c) E-waste: discarded electronic devices like computers, TV, music systems
d) Construction waste: wood, stone.
e) Agriculture waste
f) Food processing waste: vegetables, meat.
g) Bio-medical waste: syringes, ….
h) Nuclear waste: unused materials from nuclear power plants.
The main sources of municipal solid waste are:
a) Residential
b) Commercial
c) Institutional
d) Industrial
Waste generation: the amount of materials and products that enter the waste stream.
Material recovery: the term used to cover the removal of materials from waste stream
for purpose of recycling and composting.
Trash: the combustible portion of rubbish.

Review Questions:-
1. What is meant by solid waste, MSW, garbage, rubbish?
- Solid waste: any material that we discard, that is not liquid or gas.
- MW (municipal solid waste): part of solid waste that does not include wastes
such as construction waste, automobile bodies, combustion ashes, industrial
waste. It consists mainly of paper, cardboard, plastic bottles, glass, tins and
cans, engine oil. (rubbish and garbage)
- Garbage: (food waste) is the animal and vegetable residue resulting from the
preparation, coking and serving of food. Largely organic matter and moisture.
- Rubbish: consists of old tin cans, newspaper, tires, packaging materials,
bottles, yard trimmings, plastic.
-
2. What is the environmental problems of open dumps?
a) Bad odors
b) Leachate
c) Scattered waste by wind
d) Toxic, smoke and greenhouse gases from burning of waste
 3. What are the factors affecting waste generation?
a) Lifestyle
b) Urbanization
c) Income

SWM Part 2
Exams Questions:-
1. Give a reason:
A transfer station may be used as a part of SWM system: provides a link
between solid waste collection program and final waste disposal facility which
results in many benefits:
a) Fuel savings, reduction in road wear, and less air pollution due to fewer
vehicles being on the road
b) It reduces the cost of hauling waste to the regional landfill facility
c) It allows for screening, sorting and recycling waste
Waste segregated into degradable and non-degradable wastes: to recover non-
degradable wastes (electric items, plastics, tires, …) and degradable items (wood,
textiles, organic matter, …)

• Non-degradable wastes to be diverted to recycling plant, and

degradable wastes to be diverted to composting plant.

2. It is of a great importance to consider green product design strategies. Discuss

briefly the main five items to be considered in the green product design
strategies?
1. Material selection
• Evaluate the environmental impacts associated with acquisition,
processing, use and retirement of the material under consideration.
• Reduce toxicity of materials whenever possible (lead, mercury)
2. Reduced material intensiveness
• Reducing the amount, and/or toxicity of materials required to make a
given product while maintaining the product's usefulness and value.
• Example: mass reduction in soft-drink and beverage containers,
reducing car battery content of lead.
3. Process management
• It includes energy input and raw materials used
 • The pump flow rate controlled by adjusting valves rather than by
adjusting the speed of motor wastes electricity
• Electronic adjustable-speed drives coupled with efficient motor, can
often save half of the energy normally used
• Wastes can be minimized by more carefully estimating and ordering
needed materials especially when they are hazardous
4. Efficient distribution
• Methods of packing and transport product greatly affect energy and
environmental impacts associated with those products.
• Shipping by boat is the least energy-intensive option, followed by rail,
truck, and then air.
• To reduce environmental of product distribution; reduce the amount of
packaging and use recycled materials for packaging.
5. Labeling
• Products labels may be used to encourage people to buy products
environmentally superior even if they cost a bit more.
• These labels include; Recyclable, Recycled, Eco-safe, Ozone friendly.

3. What is meant by green product design strategies? What is the difference

between product life extension and material life extension? How can this
strategy be applied in material selection and reduced material intensiveness?
Green product design strategies concerned with reducing environmental
impacts associated with the manufacture, use and disposal of products.
• Product life extension: consumers replace their products less often,
which results in a decrease in sales volume for manufactures.
• Material life extension: by the ease with which they can be recycled.
(The answer is in the previous question)

4. A residential compound having 8000 residential units as follows; 1600 villa; 800
residential block each of 4 storeys, 2 apartment per floor, and average of four
persons in each unit. Determine the total daily waste generated the number
and size of collection bins for villas and residential blocks, and the number and
size of the required trucks for collection and transportation processes (assume
any missing data).
Solution
Waste generation assumption:
• 1.4 kg/day/person
• Density = 300 kg/m³
Then the total daily waste generated will be
Each residential block will generate = 4*2*4*1.4 = 44.8 kg/day
The volume of generated waste = 44.8/300 = 0.15 m³
Each villa will generate = 4*1.4 = 5.6 kg/day
The volume of generated waste = 5.6/300 = 0.01867 m³

Total waste generated daily

By residential blocks = 44.8*800 = 35840 kg/day with volume = 119.5 m³ ans.
By villas = 5.6*1600 = 8960 kg/day with volume = 29.9 m³ ans.
The number and size of collection bins
Every villa will have 2 bins, one for organic waste and the other for any-other
waste (plastic 120 L on the ground).

Every 10 residential blocks will have 2 bins, one for organic waste and the
other for any-other waste (3m³ each, underground storage type).
Waste transportation trucks
Three 8m³ rear loader trucks for the villas’ bins (1 for each type of waste as
stated before and 1 rotational shift).

Three 19 m³ crane trucks for the residential buildings underground bins (1 for
each type of waste as stated before, and 1 rotational shift).
Compression ratio 2:1

Review Questions:-
1. What is meant by solid waste management system and its components?
Solid waste management: the discipline associated with the control of
generation, storage, collection, transfer or transport, processing and disposal
of solid waste materials in a way that best addresses the range of public
health, conservation, economics, aesthetic, engineering and other
environmental considerations.
It consists of six components which are:
Waste generation: refers to activities either involved in identifying materials,
which are no longer usable and are gathered for systematic disposal or thrown
away.
Onsite handling, storage, and processing: are the activities at the point of
waste generation, which facilitate easier collection.
Waste collection: a crucial phase of waste management, includes activities
such as placing waste collection bins, collecting waste from those bins and
accumulating trash in the location where the collection vehicles are emptied.
Waste transfer and transport: are the activities involved in moving waste from
the local waste collection locations to the regional waste disposal site in large
waste transport vehicles.
Waste processing and recovery: refer to the facilities, equipment, and
techniques employed both to recover reusable or recyclable materials from the
waste stream and to improve the effectiveness of other functional elements of
waste management.
Disposal: is the final stage of waste management. It involves the activities
aimed at the systematic disposal of waste materials in locations such as
landfills or waste-to-energy facilities.

2. What is meant by ISWM and what are its three basic elements?
Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM): It refers to the selection and use
of appropriate management programs, technologies, and techniques to
achieve waste management goals and objectives.
a) Waste reduction or prevention: and consists of five elements
• Reduce toxicity
• Less packaging
• Product reuse
• More durable products
• On-site mulching and composting
b) Recycling: and consist of four elements
• Collection
• Processing
• Use of recycled materials in products
• Composting
c) Disposal: and consist of three elements
• Combustion with energy recovery
• Landfill
• Incineration without energy recovery
 3. What is meant by waste minimization (reduction) and the concept of the
three Rs and the environmental impact of source reduction?
Waste reduction: the prevention of waste being created which is an
important method of waste management.
The modern concept of the three Rs: methods of avoidance include reuse of
second hand products to be refillable or reusable, repairing broken items
instead of buying new and so on.
a) Reduce
b) Reuse
c) Recycle
• Source reduction: in almost all circumstances is given the highest priority, it
involves reducing the amount and/or toxicity of the waste, it is the most
effective way to reduce the quantity of waste, costs and environmental
impacts. It may occur through the design, manufacture, or packaging of
products. It reduces the rate of consumption of scarce resources.

4. What are the public contributions in ISWM?

• Buy durable items and repair them
• Buy recycled goods and recycle them
• Buy beverages in refillable containers
• Rechargeable batteries
• Lobby for trash separation and recycling
• Compost yard and food waste
• Choose items with minimal packaging and reduce number of bags used

5. Compare between door to door waste collection and adjacent to the

building waste collection?
Factors to be considered Door to Door Adjacent to the building
Highest cost. Most
Cost effectiveness Moderate cost
beneficial

Most injuries to service

crews as a result of Manual labor and injury
Health and Safety
carrying and climbing risk reduced
stairs with a load
 Most environmentally Environmentally sound
Environmental sound. Controls waste at but if service is not
appropriateness the source. No waste frequent, some litter may
litter. remain around countries.

Very high. Most

Public acceptance Moderate convenience.
convenient for public.
Require the most labor
Very efficient, reduces
Efficiency and equipment
labor.
resources.

Effective if residents
follow rules i.e. must put
Effectiveness Very effective.
waste outside door
within restricted hours.

6. State four types of waste collection vehicles? And what are the factors to
be considered when deciding the truck size?
a) Rear loading compaction vehicles
b) Side loading compaction vehicles
c) Front loading compaction vehicles
d) Crane trucks
The factors to be considered when deciding the truck size:
a) Annual cost of owning and operating trucks
b) Cost of the crew that makes the pick-up
c) Type and density of collection points
d) Quantity of waste
e) Traffic levels

Recycling
Exams Questions:-
1. What is meant by recycling. State the benefits of recycling?
Recycling is the processing of a waste item into usable forms through using it as a
raw material for new products.
 Benefits of recycling are:
a) Resource conservation
b) Pollution reduction
c) Reduces pressure on disposal systems
d) Making money out of waste

Review Questions:-
1. What is the difference between reuse and recycling?
• Reuse: elongation of the product life time.
• Recycling: elongation of material life time through using it as raw material
for other products.

2. What is meant by materials recovery facilities (MRF)? And what are the
functions of these facilities?
It is a facility that tries to recover recyclable materials that are mixed with all usual
municipal solid waste.

• The primary function of this facility is to separate bottles by color, plastic

by resin, cans by their metal content. Ferrous metal can be removed from
the conveyor belt by hand or magnets can pull them off.
• The second function is to densify those separated materials so that they
can be more easily shipped to end users.
Densification include crushing bottles, flattening metal cans, granulating
and baling plastics, and paling waste paper.

3. What are the main two types of plastic? Discuss briefly plastic recycling
processes?
Plastics can be categorized into:
a) Thermo plastics: represents 80% of plastics which can be re-melted and re-
molded into new products.
b) Thermo set plastics: represents 20% of plastics which decompose when they
are heated so they are difficult to recycle.
Plastic recycling processes depend on plastic waste type:-
1. Bags waste:
a) Agglomeration machine: cuts the plastic bags into small pieces.
 b) Pelleting machine: convert the small pieces of plastic into small grains.
c) Film extruding machine: uses the small grains to make plastic bags.
d) Cutting machine: used to cut and weld the bags according to the required
size.
2. Hard plastic waste:
a) Crushing machine: crushes the hard plastic waste into small pieces.
b) At this stage plastic can take one of two ways:
• Hose extruding: uses hard small pieces to make hoses.
• Injection: uses the hard small pieces to make plastic products
according to the used mold.
3. Reject of the reject of plastic:
a) Agglomeration
b) Mixing the fine particles with sand
c) Furnace
d) Hydraulic pressing
e) Final product (sewer cover)

Composting
Exams Questions:-
1. What are the main factors affecting the composting process. Discuss in detail
each of these factors indicating the range of values?
The factors affecting composting process:
1. Temperature
• In the early stages of decomposition mesophilic microorganisms (bacteria
and fungi grow best at temperatures between 25 to 45 °C) generate
heat, while they metabolize (digest) the waste, which rises the
temperature of the pile.
• When temperatures reach 45 °C, the activity of mesophilic stops, and
thermophilic microorganisms which prefer temperatures between 45
and 75 °C take over the decomposition.
• As the nutrient supply drops, thermophilic die off, the temperature falls
and mesophilic microorganisms once again dominate the
decomposition process until stable end products are formed.
2. PH: in early stages of decomposition, organic acids are formed, which cause the
PH of the pile to drop to about 5.
 When PH this low, acids tolerate fungi dominance.
Eventually microorganisms break down the organic acids and the pile PH rises.
3. Oxygen
• As aerobic microbes degrade waste, they remove oxygen from the pile.
• If the supply of oxygen is insufficient to meet their needs, anaerobic
microorganisms will take their place, slowing the degradation process
and producing undesirable odors.
• Oxygen can be supplied by:
Simply mixing or turning the pile every so often.
Piles can be aerated with forced ventilation.
4. Nutrient levels
• A number of nutrients must be available to the microorganisms that
attacking and degrading the compost pile.
• The most important nutrients needed are carbon for energy, nitrogen for
protein, and phosphorus and potassium for cell reproduction and
metabolism.
• One of the best indicators of the likely health of microorganisms is the
ratio of carbon to nitrogen available to them.
The ideal C: N ratio is roughly 25 to 35 parts of available carbon to
available nitrogen. High C: N ratios inhibit the growth of
microorganisms, slowing the decomposition. Low C: N ratios accelerate
the rate of decomposition.
• By properly combining different kinds of solid wastes, the C: N ratio can
be brought into the desirable range.
5. Moisture

2. Discuss briefly the biological process of composting?

• Composting is the term used to describe the aerobic degradation of
organic materials under controlled conditions, yielding a marketable
soil amendment.
Composting process occur in four phases
1. Mesophilic phase (25 to 45 °C)
easily degradable compounds like sugars and proteins are abundant and are
degraded by fungi, actinobacteria, and bacteria, generally referred to as
primary decomposers.
2. Thermophilic phase (35 to 65 °C)
Organisms adapted to higher temperatures get a competitive advantage and
gradually, and at the end, almost entirely replace the mesophilic flora.
3. Cooling phase (second mesophilic phase)
 When the activity of the thermophilic organisms ceases due to exhaustion of
substrates, the temperature starts to decrease.
The same temperatures are not reached in all zones of a compost pile; thus, it
is important that, through regular turning, every part of the substrate is moved
to the central, hottest part of the pile.
4. Maturation phase
During the maturation phase, the quality of the substrate declines, and in
several successive steps the composition of the microbial community is entirely
altered. Usually, the proportion of fungi increases, while bacterial numbers
decline. Compounds that are not further degradable, such as lignin–humus
complexes, are formed and become predominant.

Raw organic Microorganisms Compost

material + Oxygen
(Bio-fertelizer)

Review Questions:-
1. What are the advantages of bio-fertilizer?
a) Environmentally responsible
• Keeps biodegradable waste out of landfills and sewage plants.
• Alternative to burning.
• Can be used in gardens instead of chemical fertilizers.
b) Saving money
c) Producing good conditioner for desert land

2. Discuss briefly pre-processing preparation of composting process?

Pre-processing preparation consist of four stages:
1. Feedstock
a. Size reduction
b. Screening
c. Air classification
d. Removing of stones
The moisture content of the compost should be at or below 30%.
2. Site preparation
a. Facilitate materials handling
 b. Control any leachate that may be formed
c. Prevent flies from escaping the area
d. Shaded area will help prevent drying out in summer
e. Water source should be available, with good drainage.
f. Make your compost area attractive or keep it out of your neighbors'
view.
g. Hard surface to facilitate compost processing.
3. Covered windrows
Geotextiles or layers of various organic material can be used to cover the
pile to retain heat and moisture, suppress odors, or reduce dust.
4. Pile dimensions
• Pile size is crucial in windrowing; there has to be enough cross-
sectional volume to retain heat, usually twice as wide as high.
• The volume and shape of the pile should balance heat generated
with heat lost through conduction, convection and radiation.

3. Discuss briefly composting techniques?

There are three techniques used in composting
1. Windrow composting
Which can be done in three ways
a. Turned windrows: mechanically mixed several times during composting.
• Turning introduces air and improves porosity, more turning
means more rapid composting.
• Aeration of material is crucial and it is done manually or
mechanically.
• If there is no proper aeration the decomposition will be
anaerobic producing foul odors.
b. Static windrows (passively aerated windrows)
• The air that gets into the pile brings O2 required by the
microorganisms.
• No turning is needed.
c. Forced aerated windrows
• Air blowers are installed at the end of perforated pipes injecting
air in the piles.
• No turning is needed.
2. In-vessel composting
Composting materials are confined within a container (vessel)
3. Bin composting
 This technology is practiced mainly at household level or little amounts of
waste.

4. What are the compost uses?

1) Great soil cover specially when mixed with dry leaves or straw. It
retains moisture in the soil and prohibit the growth of unwanted weeds
around the plants.
2) Fresh compost release heat and keep plants warm in cold weather.
3) Compost is a great conditioner for the soil, add nutrients and upgrade
old, damage or sandy soil.
4) Compost introduces new active microorganisms to the soil which can
help decomposition old organic materials already exist in the soil and
add slow release nutrients.

5. What are the environmental impacts of composting process?

1) It can smell very bad even when it is working well
2) There are gases emissions including mainly CO2, NH3, N2O, CH4.
3) Leaching occurs during first two weeks, and generally after rainfall if
compost facility is uncovered. To avoid this problem, leachate should be
collected, used to add moisture to pile.
4) Compost windrows can carry nutrients, pathogens, that cause lung
problems for humans. Adequate moisture, covers, and siting with
consideration to prevailing winds can reduce dust production.

Waste to Energy
Exams Questions:-
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of waste incineration?
Incineration advantages:
1) Efficient way to reduce the waste volume and demand for landfill space
2) Reducing the cost of waste transportation
3) Provide the best way to eliminate methane gas emissions from waste
management processes
4) Provides a substitute for fossil fuel combustion
Incineration disadvantages:
1) Heavy investments and high operating costs
2) Requires skilled staff
 3) The residues from the flue gas cleaning can contaminate the environment if
not handled appropriately
4) Poorly operated incinerators release toxic substances such as dioxins into
the air
5) The ash recovered may be classified as hazardous materials that require
special handling
6) The public has generally been reluctant to accept the technology especially
if a facility is being proposed in their own area

2. What are the key issues to be considered during the implementation of

incineration of waste?
1) Incineration plants are capital intensive plants and require high maintenance
costs and skilled operators
2) Solid residues must be handled properly and disposed in a controlled and well-
operated landfills
3) A mature and well-functioning waste management system is required to
guarantee the continuous supply of waste and its calorific value
4) The calorific value of the waste must not fall below 6 Mw/kg of waste
5) The cost of electricity and heat are high, so they have to be subsidized by the
government
6) Public awareness campaigns are required
7) It is preferable to build the plant in an industrial area to make use of the heat
because it is more efficient to produce heat and electricity (80%) than
producing electricity only (30%)
8) EEAA has to ensure the performance of the facility
9) Local administration agencies have to ensure the supply of waste and
guarantee sustainable operation
10) It is recommended to divide the plant capacity into 2 or more identical lines to
improve the plant flexibility and availability

3. What are the main characteristics of the rotary kiln used for waste
incineration?
• Rotate wastes in cylindrical container, enabling thorough mixing with
air
• Operating temperatures 800 – 1650 °C
• Has greatest resistance to high temperatures
• Can handle liquid, sludge, solid, or gases in large quantities
• Can operate in batch mode, allowing more flexibility than continuous
mode
 • Can be mobile to allow onsite treatment
• Can accept entire drums of waste, a unique feature

Review Questions:-
1. State types of incinerators. Discuss briefly the characteristics of each type?
1) Grate system
2) Fluidized bed
3) Rotary kiln
4) Liquid injection
Fluidized bed

• Vessel contains inert granular material that expands and acts theoretically as a
fluid when gases are injected up through the material bed from nozzles
• Operating temperatures 750 – 1000 °C
• Can handle liquid, sludge, solid and gases
• Offers nearly isothermal operation
• Cannot handle waste that melts and slag that disrupting fluidization
Liquid injection

• Wastes are sent through nozzles and atomized into small droplets to allow for
the greatest possible mixing with air
• Operating temperatures 700 – 1600 °C
• Feed must act as liquid having a viscosity not exceeding certain limit
• Solids cause no problem if they can be melted and pumped

2. Discuss briefly gasification process?

Gasification technology is a thermo-chemical conversion of carbon based
materials to produce:
• Combustible gas: which consist mainly of synthetic gas (syngas) CO+H2
(85%) and other gaseous products (CO2, CH4, H2O)
• Liquid fraction: consisting of tar and oils
• Solid fraction: char consisting mainly of pure carbon and inert materials
originally present in the feedstock.
The main units of gasification plant are:
1) Pre-treatment to produce RDF (not including the organic fraction)
2) Reactor
3) Energy recovery
4) Flue-gas treatment
Gasification takes place in two stages:
1) Pyrolysis: where volatile compounds are released at temperatures below 600
°C and results in a char consisting of fixed carbon and the inorganic compounds
in the feed.
2) Reaction/conversion; of the carbon in the char by partial oxidation with steam,
air, or pure oxygen.

3. Discuss briefly the anaerobic digestion process?

It is a biological process in which organic matter only is decomposed by the
action of bacteria (mesophilic or thermophilic) in the absence of oxygen into
CH4 (55%) and CO2 (45%) which are the main constituents of biogas.
The main units in the anaerobic digestion plant are:
1) Pre-treatment of MSW: reducing the size of the material and removing the
contaminants
2) Digester
3) Energy recovery
4) Sludge treatment, waste water treatment and odor treatment
• The produced biogas is de-sulfurized to avoid corrosion of the downstream
cogeneration equipment
• The combined heat and power unit (CHP) convert the biogas in both heat and
electrical power
• The heat will be partially recovered to maintain the digester temperature at 55
°C and to induce the vacuum evaporation in the wastewater treatment.

4. What are the advantages of incineration over gasification & anaerobic

digestion?
1) Incineration technology can include all waste fractions
2) Incineration is a well-proven technology over the world, accordingly it can be
easily funded
3) The amount of waste generated from incineration plants is much less and thus
decreasing the load on the landfills
4) Incineration technology doesn't require pre-treatment of MSW (except for
shredding of bulky waste)
5) Land requirements are less than that of gasification and anaerobic digestion
 Landfills
Exams Questions:-
1. What are the main factors to be considered in selecting the site of a landfill?
1) Environmentally sensitive resources, ground and surface water
2) Volume, lifetime of the landfill from 10 to 30 years
3) Constraints of the community
4) 1.5 – 3 km far from runway end of aircrafts
5) Areas of high earthquake activity will be avoided
6) Accessibility for the site
7) Availability of earth cover material

2. Give a reason: landfill should have daily cover, intermediate cover and final
cover?
• Daily cover: to reduce windblown litter and odor
• Intermediate cover:
a) To minimize water access
b) To provide fire protection
c) Mainly compacted soil
• Final cover:
a) To control water access
b) Reduce leachate generation
c) Provide final contour
d) Provide gas control
e) Allow plant growth

Review Questions:-
1. What are the factors affecting landfill design process?
1) Size and scale of the proposed landfill operation
2) Site location and characteristics
3) Surrounding environment
4) Type of waste to be deposited in the landfill
It should be sufficiently detailed to define how, where and when?

• The site is to be prepared for accepting wastes

• Wastes are to be landfilled and water will be controlled
• The site is to be restored
 • Monitoring is to be carried out to ensure the site has been developed,
operated and closed down in accordance with design

2. What are the MSW landfill planning key elements?

1) Site selection
2) Waste type
3) Capacity
4) Energy
5) Closure