Human Behavior - Victimology
Human Behavior - Victimology
Human Behavior - Victimology
The danger with Mendelsohn typology is that doesn’t always Passive precipitation: occurs when the victim exhibits some personal
apply that well to actual cases. It does have some important characteristics that unknowingly either threatens or encourages the
conceptual value, in showing a continuum of possible victim culpability attacker.
or precipitation. However, if applied broadly, simplistically, and without
careful investigation into the facts, it could be misused. Before these D. Lifestyle Theory
descriptors can be applied to a specific case, attention must be paid to Some criminologist believed people may become victims
the details. This means accepting that not every prostitute or drug user because their lifestyle increases their exposure to criminal offenders.
is a voluntary victim; not every bar fight involves a more guilty or most Victimization risk is increased by such behaviors as associating young
guilty victim; and not everyone who fails to exhibit provocative behavior men, going out in public places late at night, and living in an urban
prior to an attack is completely innocent. While Mendelsohn’s typology area.
is interesting in theory, its application to specific cases can be High-Risk Lifestyles
problematic, if not entirely inappropriate, when contextual information People who have high-risk lifestyles- drinking, taking drugs,
is not investigated and considered. getting involved in crime- maintain a much greater chance of
victimization. Groups that have an extremely risky life, such as young
3. Stephen Schafer, Ph. D runaways living on a street, are at high risk for victimization; the more
Dr. Stephen Schafer was a professor of sociology at time they are exposed to street life, the greater their risk of becoming
Northeastern University in Boston, Massachusetts. In 1968, he crime victims.
published what is regarded by some as the first textbook on the subject Victims and Criminals
of victimology. The Victim and His Criminal: A Study in Functional One element of lifestyle that may place people at risk for
Responsibility. According to Van Dijk, this work was significant to the victimization is ongoing involvement in a criminal career.
advance of victimology, as it was an “independent study of Carrying a weapon was another surefire way to become a
relationships and interactions between offender and victims, before, crime victim. Males who carried weapons are approximately three
during and after the crime”. Schafer’s study involved interviews with times more likely to be victimized than those who did not carry
criminals and aimed to build upon the typologies presented in previous weapons. Another study of high school youth, conducted Pamela
works by focusing on victim culpability. Wilcox, David May, and Staci Roberts, also found that kids who carry
According to Doerner and Lab (2011), Schafer proposed weapons to school are much more likely to become crime victims than
seven types of victim responsibility (or victim precipitation), which are those who avoid carry weapons.
essentially a variation on the work of Von Hentig (1948):
Unrelated Victims: No victim responsibility E. Deviant Place Theory
Provocative Victims: Victim shares responsibility According to deviant place theory, the greater their exposure
to dangerous places, the more likely people will become victims of
Precipitative Victims: Some degree of responsibility
crime violence. Victims do not encourage crime but are victim prone
Biologically Weak Victims: No responsibility
because they reside in socially disorganized high-crime areas where
Socially Weak Victims: No Responsibility they have the greatest risk of coming into contact with criminal
Self – Victimizing: Total victim responsibility offenders, irrespective of their own behavior or lifestyle.
In reviewing this typology, we find it to be less of an inclusive F. Routine Activities Theory
measure and more of an incomplete list of circumstances that mitigate The availability of suitable targets
victim responsibility because they increase general vulnerability. While
The absence of capable guardians
it is true that lines are drawn between their provocative, the
The presence of motivated offenders
precipitative, and the self – victimizing, from the examples cited in the
literature, it is unclear how these categories would be applied to a Guardianship
specific case, as the defining elements are highly subjective. Also, Even the most motivated offenders may ignore valuable
Schafer has inappropriately defined (and therefore presumptively targets if they are well guarded. Despite containing valuable
assumed) the specific responsibility of each victim type. There appears commodities, private homes and/or public businesses may be
to be no room for mitigating circumstances once a victim is put in a considered off-limits by seasoned criminals if they are well protected
particular slot, which is what a pedantic or bureaucratic victimologist by capable guardians and efficient security systems.
could do with this labeling system. Hot spots
Motivated people- such as teenage males, drug users, and
unemployed adults- are the ones most likely to commit crime. If they
congregate in a particular neighborhood, it becomes a “hot spot” for Disorientation
crime and violence. Memory problems
Lifestyle, Opportunity, and Routine Activities Intrusive memories or flashbacks
Routine activities theory is bound up in opportunity and Nightmares
lifestyle. A person’s living arrangements can affect victim risk; people Inability to concentrate
who live in unguarded areas are at the mercy of motivated offenders. Difficulty in making decisions
Lifestyle affects the opportunity for crime because it controls a person’s III. Financial
proximity to criminals, time of exposure to criminals, attractiveness as Medical bills (e.g., emergency transportation, hospital
a target, and ability to be protected. stays, inpatient and outpatient physical care, medical
supplies)
Medication and prescription drugs
Replacement of eyeglasses, hearing aids, or other
Effect of Crime Victimization sensory aid items damaged, destroyed, or stolen
Physical therapy
Introduction Occupational therapy
Criminal victimization is a frightening and unsettling Job retraining
experience for many individuals. It is unpredictable, largely Mental health counseling and therapy
unpreventable and often unexpected. Unlike normal life experiences, Loss of wages due to incapacitation, rehabilitation, or
victimization is not sought out and never welcomed. It is debilitating taking time off from work to repair damage from
and demoralizing. Its effect can be often long – term and difficult to property crimes, participate in criminal or juvenile
overcome. justice proceedings, or seek medical or mental health
Victims may be confused, fearful, frustrated and angry. They treatment
want to know why this happened, and why it happened to them. Loss of or damage to personal property
Victims often have no knowledge of who or where to turn in the Costs of replacing locks and changing security devices
aftermath of crime. They feel insecure and do not know who to trust or
For families of homicide victims, funeral and burial
rely on for support, understanding, and help. Not only do they suffer
expenses and loss of income
physically, emotionally, psychologically, and financially from their
IV. Emotional
victimization, they are also burdened by the complexity of the criminal
Shock, disbelief and denial – Initially, victims may find it
justice system.
difficult to believe they have become victim of crime. They
may even pretend that it did not happen at all. These
How does crime affect people?
reactions can last for a few moments or they may be present
Crime affects everyone differently. Victimization often
for months and even years. It is not uncommon for victims to
causes trauma and depending the level of trauma that a person has
assume a ‘childlike’ state and may even need to be cared for
already experienced in their lifetime, crime can be devastating. In
by others for some time. It is also common for victims to feel
general, victimization often impacts people on an emotional, physical,
as though the crime occurred when they were in a dreamlike
financial, psychological and social level.
state. Once the initial shock of the crime has worn off,
victims may experience other emotions such as anger, fear,
A. Types of Losses
frustration, confusion, guilt, shame, and grief.
I. Tangible Losses
Property damage and loss (property damaged, taken, and
Anger or rage – Victims may be angry with God, the
not recovered)
offender, service providers, family members, friends, the
Medical care (payments for hospital and physicians,
criminal justice system, or even themselves. Many victims
emergency medical transport, rehabilitation, prescription,
experience strong desires for revenge or getting even. Hate
medical devices, and premature funeral expenses )
may even felt by victims. These strong emotions are often
Mental health care ( payments for services to crime victims disapproved of by the rest of society, which can leave the
by : psychiatrists, psychologists, and social workers ) victim feeling like an outcast. It is certainly justified for
Productivity ( wages, benefits, housework, and school days victims to feel anger toward the person or people who
lost by victims and their families, productivity lost by co – harmed them.
workers and supervisors/agency recruiting and training
replacements for disabled workers, people stuck in traffic Fear or Terror – It is common for victims to feel terror or
jams caused by vehicular accident ) fear following a crime that involved a threat to one’s safety or
II. Intangible Losses life, or to someone else a victim cares about. Fear can cause
Pain ( physical ) a person to have panic attacks if they are ever reminded of
Suffering ( mental – anti – social behavior, emotional – the crime. Fear can last for quite some time following the
trauma ) commission of a crime and under certain circumstances, it
Reduced quality of life ( physical disability / incapacity ) can become debilitating. Fear or terror that becomes
overwhelming is unhealthy and victims should consult their
B. Sufferings family physician about it as soon as possible.
I. Physical
Physical injuries (such as gunshot wounds, lacerations, Frustration – Many victims are frustrated by the feelings of
broken bones, sprains, and burns) helplessness or powerlessness that surface when the crime
Physical injuries that lead to other health conditions takes place. This can be especially true if victims were
(such as heart attack, stroke, fractures from falling, and loss unable to fend off an offender, call for help or run away. After
of dexterity) the crime, victims may continue to feel frustration if they
Physiological anxiety (including rapid heart rate, cannot access the support and information that is necessary
hyperventilation, and stomach distress) to their healing.
Permanent disability
Disfigurement Confusion – Victims of crime may become confused if they
Sleep disorders are unsure of what actually happened, as crimes often occur
Inability to work quickly and are chaotic. Victims might also become confused
For sexual assault victims: possible exposure to sexually while searching for answers to questions like “why did this
transmitted diseases, exposure to HIV, and unwanted happen to me?” It may be impossible to find out why
pregnancy someone else intended to hurt them.
II. Mental
Slowed thinking Guilt or self-blame – blaming one is common. Many victims
Confusion believe they were “in the wrong place at the wrong time.” If
the victim does not have someone to blame, they will often a. Impact Stage
blame themselves. Guilt is also common when no offender is b. Re – call Stage
found. Later on, when reflecting upon the crime, victims c. Re – organization Stage
might feel guilty for not doing more to prevent what
happened. Lastly, some victims will experience ‘survivor C. Fear
guilt’ – they feel guilty that they survived while someone else Many people fear crime, especially the elderly the poor and
was injured or even killed. If a loved one is murdered, minority group members. Their fear is escalated by lurid news
surviving family and friends may even blame the victim. Too accounts of crime and violence. While hearing about crime
often, society blames victims as well. causes fear, those who experience it are even more likely to be
fearful and charge their behaviors. Victims of violent crime are the
Shame and humiliation – Sadly, some victims blame most deeply affected, fearing a repeat of their attack.
themselves, particularly victims of sexual abuse/assault or
domestic violence. In crimes involving sexual acts, offenders D. Anti-Social Behavior
often degrade the victim by making them do humiliating There is growing of correlation between crime and
things. Victims of rape, for example, have long-lasting victimization. Kids are victims share many of those same
feelings of “being dirty”, and those feelings cannot be characteristics as those who are delinquent, such as antisocial
“washed away.” Some victims even feel self-hatred because behavior tendencies and impulsive personalities.
they believe that they can no longer be loved by those who
are close to them. Victims may seek revenge the people who harmed them or
who they believe are at fault for their problems. In some cases,
Grief or Sorrow – Intense sadness is often the most these feelings become generalized to others who share the same
powerful long-term reaction to crime. It is common for victims characteristics of their attackers.
to become depressed after a crime occurs.
Characteristics of Victims
Some ideas that may help you cope with the trauma or loss: A. Gender
Find someone to talk with about how you feel and what you are Characteristics of child sexual abuse victims were
going through. Keep the phone number of a good friend nearby to determined through a high comparison of 87 victims of
call when you feel overwhelmed or feel panicked. lone female perpetrators to 93 victims of lone male
perpetrators according to age, gender, and relationship of
Allow yourself to feel the pain. It will not last forever. perpetrator to victim. Lone female perpetrators abused
Keep a journal. children 3.3 years younger (M = 6.0 years) than lone
Spend time with others, but make time to spend time alone. female perpetrators (M = 9.3. years). Both lone female
Take care of your mind and body. Rest, sleep, and eat regular, and male perpetrators abused more girls (62%, 76%,
healthy meals. respectively) than boys. Female perpetrators were more
Re-establish a normal routine as soon as possible, but don’t over- likely to be caretakers than male perpetrators, whereas
do. male perpetrators were more likely to be strangers the
female perpetrators. Lastly, lone female perpetrators, lone
Make daily decisions, which will help to bring back a feeling of male perpetrators, and male/female co – perpetrators did
control over your life. not differ regarding severity of abuse. Thus, contrary to
Exercise, though not excessively and alternate with periods of popular assumption, abuse by female perpetrators was
relaxation. not less severe than abuse by male perpetrators. Males
Undertake daily tasks with care. Accidents are more likely to are more likely than females to be the victims of violent
happen after severe stress. crime. Men are almost twice as likely as women to
Recall the things that helped you cope during trying times and experience robbery. Women are six times more likely than
loss in the past and think about the things that give you hope. men to be victims of rape, domestic violence, and sexual
Turn to them on bad days. These are things to avoid: assault.
Be careful about using alcohol or drugs to relieve emotional pain.
B. Age
Becoming addicted not only postpones healing, but also creates
For females of most age categories, nonfatal
new problems.
intimate partner victimization declined over time. In
Make daily decisions, but avoid making life changing decisions in general, females ages 12 to 15 and age 50 or older were
the immediate aftermath, since judgment may be temporarily at the lowest risk of nonfatal intimate partner violence.
impaired. During 2005, females ages 35 to 49 were at a greater risk
Don’t blame yourself—it wasn’t your fault. of nonfatal intimate partner violence than older females.
Your emotions need to be expressed. Try not to bottle them up. With the exception of males and females age 65 or older,
For some victims and families of victims, life is forever changed. average annual rates from 2001 through 2005 for nonfatal
Life may feel empty and hollow. Life doesn’t “mean” what it used intimate partner victimization were higher for females than
to. Part of coping and adjusting is redefining the future. What males within each age category. Female ages 20 to 24
seemed important before may not be important now. Many victims were at the greatest risk of nonfatal intimate partner
find new meaning in their lives as a result of their experience. It is violence. In general, males ages 12 to 15 and age 65 or
important to remember that emotional pain is not endless and that older experienced the lowest rates of nonfatal intimate
it will eventually ease. It is impossible to undo what has happened partner violence. Young people face a much greater
but life can be good again in time. victimization risk than do older persons. Victim risk
diminishes rapidly after age 25: teens 16 to 19 suffer 45
For family and friends of a victim of crime: violent crimes per 1, 000, whereas people over 65
experience only 2 per1,000. Teens and young adults
Listen carefully. experience the highest rates of violent crime. Violent
Spend time with the victim. crime rates declined in recent years for most age groups.
Offer your assistance, even if they haven’t asked for help.
Help with everyday tasks like cleaning, cooking, caring for the C. Social Status
family, minding the children. The poorest people are also the most likely victims
Give them private time. of violent and property crime. Homeless people suffer very
Don’t take their anger or other feelings personally. high rates of assault. This association occurs across all
Don’t tell them they are “lucky it wasn’t worse”—traumatized gender, age, and racial groups.
people are not consoled by such statements.
Tell them that you are sorry such an event has occurred to them D. Ethnicity
and you want to understand and help them. African Americans are more likely than whites to
1. Stages of Crisis be victims of violent crime because of income inequality.
Racial and minority group members are often forced to communities and demoralize men. Feminist scholars and
live in deteriorated urban areas beset by alcohol and drug activists have made unique contributions to the discourse on
abuse, poverty, racial discrimination, and violence. Their sexual violence against women. They have proposed that
lifestyle places them in the most at – risk population the root causes of sexual violence lie in the social structure
group. However, this seems to be declining and the racial characterized by severe inequality, in which the male is
gap seems to be narrowing. dominant and the female exploited. Feminists also hold that
the weak institutional arrangements in place to address
E. Repeat Victimization consequences of sexual violence, as well as unfair treatment
Households that have experienced victimization of the victims or survivors, an alternatively proposed
in the past are the ones most likely to experience it again terminology are direct reflections of the ways in which
in the future. Most repeat victimization occur soon after a society regards men, women and the sexual relations
previous crime has occurred, suggesting that repeat between them. Furthermore, feminist critique has led to a
victims share some personal characteristics that makes closer convergence between feminism and psychology in the
them a magnet for predators. Repeat victimization refers study of sexual violence. Conveying a connection between
to the repeated criminal victimization of person, gender – based sexual violence and concepts of power –
household, place, business vehicle or other target seeking and subordination was pioneered in 1970s and has
however defined. Near repeat victimization or near proven to be very influential. Within this context, rape has
repeats refer to targets with similar characteristics or been assessed as a foremost toll of intimidation used by
situations also in virtual repeats. Repeats can be the men against women. Similarly, domestic violence can be
same or different crime types. It is generally accepted that viewed as a particularly severe from of patriarchal
a small proportion of any population of potential targets domination and oppression. Feminist interpretation of
experience a vastly disproportionate amount of the crime pornography also suggest a link between rape and
because they are repeatedly victimized. Even within the pornography, by which pornography that degrades,
population of repeats, a smaller set of super targets humiliates and exercises violence upon the female body
experience chronic crimes. The significance for many feeds a culture which validates this kinds of behavior.;
policy purposes, but particularly crime prevention, is that however, there is little evidence to prove this.
focus upon repeats can greatly increase the efficiency
with which resources are used. Most repeat victimization i. Sexual Violence
research relates to how it can be prevented, so crime Sexual violence is any sexual act or attempt to
prevention is the backdrop for much of this bibliography. obtain a sexual act by violence or coercion, unwanted sexual
comments or advances, acts to traffic a person or acts
Types of victims directed against a person’s sexuality, regardless of the
A. Homicide Victims relationship to the victim, in any setting. It occurs in times of
Homicide is an act of a human killing another peace and armed conflict situations, is widespread and is
human. Criminal homicide takes several and includes certain considered to be one of the most traumatic, pervasive, and
unintentional killings. The crime committed in a criminal most common human rights violations. Sexual violence is a
homicide is determined by the state of mind of the defendant serious public health problem and has a profound short or
and statutes defining the crime. Murder, for example, is long – term impact on physical and mental health, such as
usually an intentional crime. In some jurisdictions, certain an increased risk of sexual and reproductive health problems
types of murders automatically qualify for capital or an increased risk of suicide or HIV infection. Murder
punishment, but if the defendant in capital cases is occurring either during a sexual assault or as a result of an
sufficiently mentally disabled in the United States he or she honor killing in response to a sexual assault is also a factor
may not be excluded, for reasons described in Atkins v. of sexual violence. Though women and girls suffer
Virginia, similar to those utilizing an insanity defense. disproportionately from these aspects, sexual violence can
Varying by jurisdiction, a homicide that occurs during the occur to anybody at any age; it is an act of violence that can
commission of a felony may constitute murder regardless the be perpetrated by parents, caregivers, acquaintances and
felon’s state with regard to the killing. This is known as the strangers, as well as intimate partners. It is rarely a crime of
felony murder rule. Much abbreviated. And incomplete, the passion, and is rather an aggressive act that frequently aims
felony murder rule says that one committing a felony may be to express power and dominance over the victim. Sexual
guilty of murder if someone, including the felony victim, a violence remains highly stigmatized in all settings, thus level
bystander or a co – felon, dies as a result of his acts, of disclosures of the assault vary between regions. In
regardless his intent – or lack thereof – to kill. general, it is a widely underreported phenomenon, thus
available data tend to underestimate the true scale of the
B. Female as Victims problem. In addition, sexual violence is also a neglected
Sexual violence against women and girls can take area of research, thus deeper understanding of the issue is
many forms and is carried out in different situations. The imperative in order to promote a coordinated movement
WHO’s world report on violence and health lists the following against it.
ways in which sexual violence against females can be
committed. Systematic rape during armed conflict, rape ii. Theories of sexual violence
within marriage or dating relationships, rape by strangers, 1.Sexual Motivation
unwanted sexual advances or sexual harassment, including Some theorists charge that the
demanding sex in return for favors, sexual abuse of mentally acceptance of these sexual practices increase sexual
or physically disabled people. Sexual abuse of children, violence against women by reinforcing stereotypical views
forced marriage or cohabitation, including the marriage of about women, who are seen as sex objects which can be
children, denial of the right to use contraception or to adopt used and abused by men, and by desensitizing men; this
other measures to protect against sexually transmitted being one of the reasons why some theorists oppose the sex
diseases, forced abortion, violent acts against the sexual industry. They argue that pornography eroticizes the
integrity of women, including female genital mutilation and domination, humiliation, and coercion of women, and
obligatory inspection for virginity and forced prostitution and reinforces sexual and cultural attitudes that are complicit in
trafficking of people for the purpose of sexual exploitation. rape and sexual harassment. The anti – pornography
Sexual violence is one of the most common and widespread feminist, Andre Dworkin, has famously argued this point in
violations to which women are subject in wartime. It also her controversial pornography – men possessing women
figures among the most traumatic experiences, both (1981).
emotionally and psychologically, women suffer during
conflict sexual conflict, in particular rape, is often considered 2.Socialization
as a method of warfare: it is used only to “torture, injure, Factors operating at a societal level that
extract information, degrade, displace, intimidate, punish or influences sexual violence include laws and national policies
simply destroy”, but also a strategy to destabilize relating to gender equality in general and to sexual violence
more specifically, as well as norms relating to the use of This theory suggests that men who
violence. While the various factors operate largely at local sexually assault have harsh histories where coercion and
level, within families, schools, workplaces and communities, violence were acceptable ways of maintaining a relationship.
there are also influences from the laws and norms working at Past relationships during development would have been
national and even international level. There is evidence to impersonal and short – lived. Researchers have found that
suggest that sexual violence is also a learn behavior in some perpetrators develop either along an “impersonal sex
adults, particularly as regards child sexual abuse. Studies on pathway” or a “hostile masculinity pathway”. There has been
sexuality abused boys have shown that around one in five considerable research in recent times on the role of cognitive
continue in later life to molest children themselves. Such variables among the set of factors that can lead to rape.
experiences may lead to a pattern of behavior where the Sexually violent men have been shown to be more likely to
man regularly justifies being violent, denies doing wrong, consider victims responsible for the rape and are less
and has false and unhealthy notions about sexuality. knowledgeable about the impact of rape on victims. Such
Childhood environments that are physically violent, men may misread cues given out by women in social
emotionally unsupportive and characterized by competition situations and may lack the inhibitions that act to suppress
for scarce resources have been associated with sexual associations between sex and aggression. They may have
violence. Sexually aggressive behavior in young men, for coercive sexual fantasies, and overall are more hostile
instance, has been linked to witnessing family violence, and towards women than are men who are not sexually violent.
having emotionally distant and uncaring fathers. Men raised In addition to these factors, sexually violent men are
in families with strongly patriarchal structures are also more believed to differ from other men in terms of impulsively and
likely to become violent, to rape and use sexual coercion antisocial tendencies. They also tend to have an
against women, as well as to abuse their intimate partners, exaggerated sense of masculinity. Sexual violence is also
than men raised in homes that are more egalitarian. associated with a preference for impersonal sexual
relationships as opposed to emotional bonding with having
3. Biological Factors many sexual partners and with the inclination to assert
The unfortunate prevalence of the personal interests at the expense of others. A further
“impulse” model has been fostered, in part, by the recent association is with adversarial attitudes on gender, that hold
resurgence of more sophisticated biological theories of women are opponents to be challenged and conquered.
sexual assault. These theories assert that while there is no
“gene” that causes men to rape, the existence of a 5. Culture of Violence
predisposition to rape may be a consequence of evolution. Our families are torn by violence. Our
According to this theory, men who are predisposed to rape communities are destroyed by violence. Our faith is tested
may have more reproductive success such as a higher by violence. We have an obligation to respond. Violence – in
number of offspring. Over long periods of time, this our homes, our schools and streets, our nation and world –
reproductive advantage results in a widespread is destroying the lives, dignity and hopes of millions of our
predisposition to rape among males. Other theorists argue sisters and brothers. Fear of violence is paralyzing and
that predisposition to rape is not an adaptation itself, but the polarizing our communities. The celebration of violence in
side – effect of reproductive adaptations, such as the pursuit much of our media, music and even video games is
of a number of partners. Paired with these biological poisoning our children. Beyond the violence in our streets is
explanations of the perpetrator’s behavior have been the violence in our growing culture of violence. Verbal
biological explanations of the behavior of a victim of sexual violence in our families, communications and talk shows
assault. For women, sexual activity with a limited number of contribute to this culture of violence. Pornography assaults
partners is desirable and thus women have evolved to resist the dignity of women and contributes to violence against
rape. Further, these theorists argue, the experience of them. Our social fabric is being torn apart by a culture of
“trauma” associated with sexual assault was a reproductively violence that leaves children dean on our streets and
successful response because women who experienced such families afraid in our homes. Our society seems to be
trauma subsequently avoided being raped. Although some growing numb to human loss and suffering. A nation born in
biological theorists maintain that acknowledging a biological a commitment to “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness” is
basis for rape does not excuse rape, such theories can hunted by death, imprisoned by fear and caught up in the
contribute to and perpetuate beliefs that excuse perpetrators elusive pursuit of protection rather than happiness. A world
from responsibility their actions and blame the victims. For moving beyond the cold war is caught in bloody ethnic, tribal
example, some proponents of biological theories argue that and political conflict. It doesn’t have to be this way. It wasn’t
because men cannot control their irresistible impulses to always this way. We can turn away from violence; we can
rape, it is women’s responsibility to avoid dressing build communities of greater peace. It begins with a clear
provocatively. According to this view, women who are raped conviction: respect for life.
must have put themselves in circumstances that led to rape
and the appropriate response is to teach them how to avoid C. Child Victims
being raped. Biological explanations for rape also tend to
“naturalize” the perpetrator’s behavior – thus leading to the i. Theories regarding Child Abuse
conclusion that it is “acceptable” and potentially 1. Theory of Physical Abuse
unchangeable. These theories also diminish the victim’s pain Child abuse has been noted to have many causes:
and suffering. Further, biological theories have significant as a childhood symptom of mental illness in parents, as the
implications for criminal justice responses to rape. If rape is culmination of a lifelong experience of violence toward the
a biological adaptation, responses should include monetary caregiver, of environmental and social stresses on the
penalties; further, such theories would call for chemical family, and of society’s acceptance and promotion of
castration or hormonal treatments that can themselves physical violence. Contained in each causal explanation is a
constitute human rights violations. Finally, biological theories theory of etiology. And within each theory, researchers
also lack explanatory power – they do not explain why men extract from the complexity of families’ live those particular
rape women who cannot bear children, or why they rape factors that are believed to be causal agents for violence
their intimate partners and spouses. This model proposes against children. Clinicians are frequently frustrated by the
that over time, natural selection and evolution have favored limited focus and use of the diverse theories on child abuse.
rape, because it led to an increase in reproductive success In order to select which factors to study, researchers must
for the male. According to this theory, women have more exclude other factors. Clinicians, facing a variety of
mating choices, thereby causing them to be more selective distinctive life events, personal characteristics and unique
when choosing a mate. For males, rape was a tool to circumstances of the families and children they serve, are
circumvent that female selectiveness and increase their not always content with the explanations for the origin abuse
mating and reproductive success throughout history. found in the research literature.
B. Empowering Victims
One common feeling experienced by victims of
CRIME SCENE RESPONSE crime when they become involved in the criminal justice system is
helplessness. Victim service providers can assist victims in
While on scene, a police officer has tasks to complete and the overcoming this feeling of helplessness by providing them with
victim cannot be the officer's primary focus. Therefore, officers request advice regarding the different ways that they may become involved
advocates to help alleviate some of the victims’ emotional concerns in the system
and questions. Advocates have been trained to help the victim in 1. MEDIA
conjunction with the officer. The investigation is of the utmost The media have the ability to bring crime directly into our
importance and advocates will not interfere or hinder the investigation; living rooms. It is therefore critical for victim service providers to
we are not there to provide any facts about the case to the victim. understand how the media works and how to effectively
Responsible agencies are there to provide emotional support, communicate with them.
education about the police and investigative process, act as a liaison
with the police and provide crisis intervention. 2. Relations with the Media
Occasional conferences between the victim services
In addition to the police, fire departments, medical examiner’s provider and the news director of the television, or radio
offices and local hospitals contact the responsible office or unit to station, and the editor or publisher of the newspaper
meet with victims in their jurisdiction. Establishing an ongoing relationship with the media is
necessary
DEATH NOTIFICATION Based on trust and mutual respect
The Medical Examiner or the local police department has the job 3. Preparing for and conducting the Interview
of telling loved ones that a family member has died. Due to the trauma Understanding the goal of the media assists in the
that many family members endure from hearing such devastating preparation
news, Victim Assistance staff is often asked to accompany law Preparation before the interview can help relieve some
enforcement to someone’s home, the hospital or the medical anxiety
examiner’s office to support the victim and, in some cases, provide the Knowledge about the facts of the incident and the agency’s
notification. position can enhance the communication
Speak clearly in everyday language and avoid jargon
The advocate’s primary goal after providing or witnessing a Be professional
death notification is to ensure the individual has a dependable support
system in place. It is strongly suggest individuals are not left alone 4. LEGISLATION
after hearing such news, advocates may help individuals contact family
members or friends and ask them to come to the individual’s aid.There The Legislative Process
are many details to consider surrounding the burial and/or investigation - How a bill becomes a law
surrounding a death. The advocate will contact the family the following Advocacy
day to address any immediate questions or concerns. Most common form is lobbying
- Purpose is to inform, educate, and persuade elected
INDIVIDUALIZED CRISIS INTERVENTION officials to support certain legislative goals
Crisis intervention occurs both in person and via phone. 5. PUBLIC SPEAKING
Volunteers, interns and staff answer a 24-hour crisis hotline, which is Preparing for the Speech
based out of main office in to provide crisis intervention based on the Rules of communication change when moving from one-on-
caller’s needs. one to a group setting
Possible equipment malfunctions
GROUP CRISIS INTERVENTION
Drafting the Speech
Prepare an outline of the topics to be discussed 1. Not all crimes counted. There are a large number of
Draft an outline of the main points of discussion crimes unreported. Part are reported and counted such
Revise the outline several times as motor vehicle robbery, murder, manslaughter,
Remember, we write differently than we speak forcible rape etc. These crimes are counted only if there
Prepare an outline and deliver the speech based on the is an arrest involved.
outline 2. Crimes are difficult to collect because different states
When writing a speech, start at the middle or end define these various crimes differently. The operational
definitions are different. This produces more
Some Do’s and Don’ts of Public Speaking measurement error
Understand the topic of the speech
Know the audience and direct the speech to their interests - Some agencies send their reports to collection points in
and knowledge level where the data is summarize and then sent to the NBI
Humor is excellent, but it can backfire
Always be on time and dress appropriately - Error occurs in the summarization process. Some of the
Do not read the speech verbatim reports are incomplete. Some incidents are counted more
Understand how long the speech is to last and stay within than once by several competing jurisdictions
that time limit
When possible, use visual aids to assist in making your
points 3. The hierarchy rule is used to classify crimes committed in
Rehearse as often as possible a single incident.
Ask for honest feedback from the person that requested the
speech - If a robbery is committed and a rape occurs during the
incident, only the rape is counted in the UCR (Uniform Crime
6. Fundraising Report) the
Some victim assistance programs receive a most serious crime
steady flow of funds to administer their programs. However, most
must participate in fundraising activities.
WAYS OF MEASURING CRIMES
Types of Fundraisers
Grants 1. Measuring Crime through Surveys
Cash donations, by either the federal or state government, or
private foundations, for specific projects
- Using surveys have several advantages
Local fundraising events
Dinners 1. Collect information not reported to police
Banquets 2. Measure crime not officially recorded by police
Auctions 3. Provides data on individual units of analysis
House or garden tours 4. When conducted properly, surveys have high
Sporting events reliability
MEASURING OF CRIME AND ITS EFFECT - Using surveys have several disadvantages
- Three general purposes in measuring crime are the following: 2. Drug Surveillance Systems
Poor parenting practices, such as poor parental supervision The study has important implications for U.S. immigration
and parents’ rejection of a child, are modest predictors of policy.
subsequent delinquency by the child. Children who experience
“We need to be very careful about who we are admitting as This was the highest crime volume in the country. Crime
immigrants,” she concluded. volume includes index crimes (crimes against persons and property)
and non-index (petty) crimes.
Pew cited an expert who claimed the crime statistics were During President Benigno Aquino III's State of the Nation
the negative side of assimilation. Address Monday, he boasted of a lower crime rate and a significant
decline from 2009's more than 500,000 cases to around 247,000 cases
“Second generation immigrants appear to be catching up to in 2011.
and resemble the typical native-born (white) population, at least in Aquino also boasted that the past years have seen
regard to their offending profile,” wrote Bianca E. Bersani, a sociologist carjacking incidences go down.
at the University of Massachusetts-Boston. PNP spokesman Chief Superintendent Generoso Cerbo
attributed the high crime rate in Metro Manila to a higher population
E. Statistical Formula density in the capital region, as well as the presence of organized
crime.
I. Crime Volume "Aminado kami na talagang percentage-wise malaki ang
Total Crime Volume = Index + Non-index Crimes crime volume sa populated areas like Region 3, 4A, 7 at Metro Manila,
for example. Even NCRPO umamin na tumaas crime volume sa Metro
II. Index Crimes Manila (We admit that percentage-wise, crime volumes in populated
Index crimes: Murder, homicide, physical injury areas like Regions 3, 4A, 7 and Metro Manila are high. Even the
and rape (crimes against persons) and robbery and theft NCRPO admits that the crime volume in Metro Manila has gone up),"
(crimes against property) Cerbo said. He added that the PNP has doubled its efforts to record
crime incidences in the country, and a more efficient recording system
III. Non – Index Crimes in highly populated areas also factor into their reports.
Non-index crimes: Crimes against persons
(parricide/infanticide, maltreatment, kidnapping); crimes against 2. Percentage share of the occurrence of a type of crime
property (estafa and falsification, malicious mischief and damage to
property); crimes against morals and order (prostitution, vagrancy, NPD had fewest robbery cases in Metro Manila
alarm and scandal, assault/resistance to authority, corruption of public The Northern Police District (NPD) composed of the cities of
official, gambling, slander and libel, threat and coercion and Caloocan, Malabon, Navotas and Valenzuela posted the fewest
trespassing), crimes against chastity (abduction, seduction, lascivious robbery and theft cases in Metro Manila from January to November
acts) and other crimes (illegal possession of firearms, explosives and last year. According to data from the Philippine National Police, the
ammunition, concealment of deadly weapons, smuggling, car napping NPD accounted for 9 percent, or 4,840, out of 52,529 robbery and theft
and prohibited drugs) cases recorded in the metropolis.—Marielle Medina, Inquirer
Research
IV. Crime Solution Efficiency
The percentage of solved cases out of the total number of Philippine Daily Inquirer
crime incident handled by law enforcement agencies for a given period 11:50 pm | Sunday, January 12th, 2014
of time.
CSE = solve cases / crime volume x 100% 3. Variance
A method for analyzing the differences in the means of two
V. Crime rate or more groups. Specifically, this procedure partitions the total
The number of crimes committed per 100,000 population. variation in the dependent variable into two components: between-
(crime rate) the ratio of crimes in an area to the population of that area; group variation and within-group variation. It allows researchers to
expressed per 1000 population per year determine if the differences between a control group and a
treatment group are attributed to the independent variable or
Crime rate= crime volume/(population/100,000) treatment.
Crime
Solution
Efficiency
For their part, the CHR welcomes the study from the Hate
Crime Watch and invited them to send their study to them. “It’s a cause
for the CHR”’ said lawyer Chris Ocampo, CHR executive assistant.
“The CHR is already attending various for a on LGBT rights with these
reported cases”.