A: Reading

QUESTION 1: Enumerate the strategies for teaching reading skills.

Answer: Reading is an active communication process between the reader and the text through
the print media. Consequently, there is a paradigm shift away from approaches and methods to
embrace teaching strategies as the most effective pedagogical means to realize the goal of
education. Based on this development, the discussion in this chapter on approaches and methods
serves as historical facts of language pedagogy. It also serves to sensitize readers to current
thinking in language pedagogy. With this development, the focus of language pedagogy in the
teaching of reading and writing will shift from methods to strategies.
TEACHING READING
The teaching of reading is discussed under the following subheadings
 Teaching Reading at the Lower Primary Level
 Reading at the upper primary and secondary level

Teaching Reading at the Lower Primary Level

1. Identification Strategy
This is the oldest strategy in the teaching of reading at the primary level. In this strategy, learners
are made to recognize English alphabets in association with pictures of objects which represent
letters and their sounds. They read these letters until they can identify them either in isolation or
in words. Gradually, they are made to identify simple words like two letter words, three letter
words (http://www.americanliteracy.com)
2. Sound/Letter Strategy
This strategy emphasizes on the acquisition of letter-sound correspondences and their use in
reading and spelling. It is believed that if children know how to pronounce words in phonics,
they will read with ease. The primary focus of phonics instruction is to help beginning readers to
understand how letters are linked to sounds (phonemes), how they form letter-sound
correspondences and their spelling patterns.
3. Holistic Strategy
This strategy is yet to gain a foothold in Nigeria. We consist of it in our dialogue of techniques to
sensitize instructors of its existence. Rather, the top-down techniques to getting to know which
includes coaching a language as an entire will permit beginners collect language talents faster.
These techniques engages kids in analyzing sports which can be much like the approaches they
research different language talents including listening and speaking. Therefore, kids are made to
collect analyzing talents evidently with the aid of using recounting their stories orally. This
method additionally encourages instructors to have beginners write regularly and therefore
discover ways to write coherent sentences, paragraphs and pages with the aid of using clearly
analyzing.
It additionally encourages beginners to paintings with complete texts in an incorporated shape
and steadily collect the phonemic talents (phonological or sound gadget of a language), graphic
skill (Letter combination) and the lexical skill (shape of phrases) americanliteracy. com In our
view, the holistic method is extra suitable in coaching analyzing with inside the mom tongue
wherein the beginners have enough vocabulary to relate their stories.
Teaching Reading at the Upper Primary and Secondary Level
There are many teaching strategies for reading available to the teacher at this level of education.
The teacher is to choose a strategy or a combination of strategies that best serve his or her
teaching goals in reading. These various strategies are discussed below.
1. Reading Aloud
In this strategy, the teacher reads to the children while they listen. This strategy 'stimulates
listening skills, helps to familiarize learners with the language of books and their patterns'
(Nnamdi, 2005). The teacher also serves as a model for learners in their pronunciations and
expressions. It is worthy to note here that the teacher's pronunciation must be intelligible enough
to be understood by everybody. This is because the teacher is a non-native speaker of the English
who is constrained by problems of interference. A good second language teacher of English
should ensure that his or her interference problems are controlled as much as possible.
2. Shared Reading
In this strategy, the teacher introduces a book to the class or group of learners to read.
Afterwards, the learners will read with the teacher. The teacher focuses on new words which
he/she may instruct the learners to circle or underline. The learners use this medium to learn the
spelling and meaning of new words. The teacher goes further to help the learners identify rhymes
(if it is a poem), punctuation marks and sounds and then blends all in the context of the story
being read Kimbell-Lopez and Cummings (2009) believe that a lot of incidental learning takes
place during shared reading. The teacher scaffolds the learners at the beginning of the reading
exercise and gradually withdraws as the children become familiar with the language of book In
our view, this strategy should follow the read aloud strategy and should be adopted when the
children have learnt the rudiments of reading books on their own.
3. Paired Reading
Paired reading is similar to shared reading but differs in the aspect of the role of the teacher. In
paired reading, the learners read in pairs or small groups. The teacher only guides the learners as
they assist each other in reading and comprehending the text. Learners of mixed age and ability
are paired. Topping (2014) explained that paired reading is enjoyable when able readers are
paired with less able readers. The able reader becomes the tutor while the less able reader is the
tutee. The tutor reads together with the tutee but at the tutee's pace. The tutor helps the tutee to
pronounce difficult words while the teacher guides the reading. According to the author, this
exercise can be done repeatedly till the tutee gains independence in reading.
 4. Guided Silent Reading
This strategy engages a teacher with the learners reading a text together silently with intermittent
discussions and questions. The intermittent discussions and questioning help the teacher to
monitor and to access learners' level of understanding and areas of difficulties. According to
Whitehead (1994), teachers play a role of helping learners make meaning from the text by
encouraging them to share text related experiences prior to reading and asking questions
designed to test and extend understanding after reading. This strategy, in our view, is appropriate
at the senior secondary school level when students can read independently.
5. Teaching Reading through Comprehension
Learners read independently and answer the questions that arise after the reading passage. In
order for learners to acquire these skills, teachers can introduce them to pre-reading. According
to Sandhu (2019), the reading process has three stages; The pre-reading phase allows the reader
to activate basic knowledge. The second stage occurs during reading when the reader makes a
prediction.
At this final stage, the reader tells, discusses, answers questions and/or compares the text with
other texts.
• Here are some pre-reading activities that teachers can use to prepare the reader`s mind for
reading (Edu Gain, n. d. ). That is, after reading the text, learners can compare the information in
the text with what they predicted.
• Read the meaning in context to understand the meaning of words without consulting a
dictionary. analyze what has been critically read and draw specific conclusions after reading,
using graphical organizations such as: flow charts,
• Graphs or Graffiti (recordings that collect opinions and understanding of a given text) to help
learners critically analyze a text and draw conclusions (Edu Gain, undated).
5. Independent Reading
Learners read on their own with minimal or no assistance from adults. According to Spear-
Swerling (2005), independent reading consists of reading done in and out of school, including
purely voluntary reading for enjoyment and assigned reading for homework. At this point,
learners have gained confidence and independency in their communication with a written text.
They can read and interpret the help of the teacher by applying decoding and comprehension
strategies learnt in the class.
6. Language Exploration
This strategy requires using variety of styles in presenting information to the learners. This
includes: drama, songs and poems. According to Koutsompou (2015), this strategy provides
learners with genuine, authentic samples of language and also with real samples of wide range of
styles, text types and registers. Research has equally shown that exposure of the mind to literary
works makes learners more active in the learning process. When learners are asked to recite
poems or read dialogues, it gives room for teacher-learners interaction, motivates the learners
and also improves their communicative competence. Thereby, making learning to be very real
and functional.
 7. Teaching Reading through Writing
It requires learners to keep journals, engage in guided writing, content writing and peer editing.
Since reading and writing are two sides of the same coin, it is believed that the acquisition of one
facilitates the acquisition of the other. Writing creates a good platform for the reading skill to be
acquired. Keegan (2000) referred to reading and writing as a communicative pair' (p. 4). He
believes that the ability in one improves the ability in the other while if one skill languishes so
also will it affect the other. To improve the reading skill, learners need to participate in writing
frequently because the organizational pattern encoded in writing is what the reader will decode in
reading. Writing provides a reader means of recording, connecting, analyzing. Personalizing and
manipulating ideas (Fleming, 2014).
7. The Eclectic Strategy
It is a strategy that allows teachers to absorb the best activities of all well-known
language-teaching strategies into their classroom procedures using them for appropriate
purposes` (River 1981 cited in Burhanuddin, 2012,). The combination of the best
activities of several language teaching strategies in eclectic strategy makes it more
appropriate for mixed ability learners in the classroom since there is no one classroom
that has learners of same learning needs. The proponents of this strategy believe that in a
class of different kinds of learners, no single strategy could achieve optimum success
rather flexibility and adaptability on the selection and use of strategies and activities in
teaching and learning process would bring the expected.
QUESTION :2 What are the differences between shared reading and paired reading?
Answer: Paired reading and shared reading are similar but differs in the feature of the role of the
teacher. Following are the differences between shared and paired reading.
SHARED READING PAIRED READING
 In shared reading, the teacher introduces a  Paired reading is similar to shared reading
book to the class, group of learners to read. but differs in the aspect of the role of the
 Afterwards, the learners will read with the teacher.
teacher. The teacher focuses on new words  In paired reading, the learners read in pairs
which he/she may instruct the learners to or small groups. The teacher only guides
circle or underline. the learners as they assist each other in
 The learners use this medium to the reading and comprehending the text.
spelling and meaning of new words.  Learners of mixed age and ability are
 The teacher goes further to help the learners paired. Topping (2014) explained that
identify rhymes (if it is a poem), paired reading is enjoyable when able
punctuation marks and sounds and then readers are paired with less able readers.
blends all in the context of the story being  The able reader becomes the tutor while the
read. less able reader is the tutee. The tutor reads
 The teacher scaffolds the learners at the together with the tutee but at the tutee’s
beginning of the reading exercise and pace. The tutor helps the tutee to pronounce
gradually withdraws as the children become difficult words while the teacher guides the
familiar with the language of book. reading.
QUESTION3 : Explain the methods for assessing reading at the lower and upper primary
levels.
ANSWER:
READING SKILL ASSESSMENT
Reading assessment is treated as follows:
• Assessment at the Primary Level
• Assessment at the Secondary Level
It must be pointed out that, in discussing assessment, we retain the term, method because it is
only in teaching that the term is replaced by strategies. Instead of teaching methods, we use
teaching strategies,as pointed out.
Assessment at the Primary Level
1.Letter Knowledge Method
The instructor exams the younger freshmen` capacity to companion letters.
• The instructor does this with the aid of using providing a listing of letters that constitute speech
sounds and instructs the freshmen to call them.
• The instructor can as properly blend up the letters with numbers and different symbols possibly
mathematical symbols and instructs freshmen to separate and categorize the letters with the aid
of using top and decrease cases.
2.Phonemic Awareness Method
The instructor exams freshmen` capacity to pay attention and control sounds in phrases.
According to Shanahan (2005) and Phajane (2014).
segmentation, mixing and discrimination are the not unusual place sports of this method.
• Learners are requested to interrupt phrases into sounds. Examples: map = /m/ + /a/ + /p/
(mixing)
• Learners can also be requested to rely range of phonemes, delete or upload a phoneme to make
a brand new phrase.
Examples: rib: remove /b/ and upload /p/= rip. eat: remove /t/ and upload /r/= ear
The instructor can also additionally pair phrases of comparable sounds, proclaims them
and instructs freshmen to discriminate the sounds. Examples: ma/t/ and ma/p/ /s/advert and
/m/advert
The instructor also can use phrases of the identical range of graphemes and distinct range of
phonemes and teach the freshmen to discover the longer phrase in pronunciation. Example: four
graphemes and three phonemes four graphemes and four phonemes.

Assessment at the Secondary Level

1.Reading Comprehension Method
The goal in the back of a trainer`s evaluation with analyzing comprehension is to test learners`
information of a written or revealed textual content (National analyzing panel, 2000). In this
technique, the trainer can coach learners to:
 solution questions after analyzing the comprehension passage
 summarize the passage or retell the textual content study of their personal phrases expect
the writer`s concept solution
 oral or written quiz primarily based totally at the content material of the passage report
their analyzing and replay to the analyzing to their hearing.
 Identify not noted phrases and fill with inside the gaps with an appropriate options.
observe inferential and important degree of information in a given textual content. is to allow
learners become aware of their mistakes in pronunciation an analyzing velocity.
2.Language Comprehension Method
The sole goal of the trainer is to get right of entry to if learners apprehend the language of
communication. The trainer reads the passage whilst the learners concentrate. Afterwards, the
learners can be requested to:
●retell the tale
●solution questions from the textual content
●visualize the textual content
This evaluation is barely specific from analyzing comprehension. In analyzing comprehension
evaluation, the learners study independently whilst in language comprehension, the learners
concentrate whilst the trainer reads the textual content. One component that each have common
is they make sure that learners get each the explicit and implicit (literal and inferential that
means) message of the textual content. In analyzing and language comprehension evaluation, the
trainer can observe the following strategies as recommended in SEDL (2015):
Prediction
Prediction is an knowledgeable wager. The trainer makes use of this technique to permit learners
to wager the content material of the passage primarily based totally at the name of the textual
content. It is anticipated that the learners ought to had been taught a way to use visuals (if any)
consisting of pictures, graphs or diagrams to make predictions. These predictions have to be
written down because the analyzing progresses. After the analyzing activity, the predictions and
the general content material of the textual content may be compared. It is thrilling and motivating
while learners find out that they expected effectively.
Identification
This technique calls for learners to become aware of the writer`s motive and topics embedded
with inside the textual content. Questions consisting of this could assist the trainer to gain this:
What classes may be learnt from this passage?
What does the writer have a tendency to gain thru the passage? etc.
Visualization
This technique allows learners join the written phrases with real seen scenes thru their
imagination.. Learners may be requested to attract the characters primarily based totally at the
information of description of the textual content. They may even create comedian strip from the
information with inside the textual content Based on their drawing, the trainer can get right of
entry to if learners understood the content material of the passage or now no longer. For instance,
a passage can also additionally describe the advent of a thief sporting darkish shades, with a face
cap, sagged denims trousers, puffing cigarettes; if a learner attracts a picture of a person on a
healthy and tie, sporting a short case, it in reality indicates that the learner wishes greater
assistance.
3.Decoding Method
This is an assessment that examines learners` decoding skills Decoding aims at assessing
learners' reading accuracy. of learners' reading or noting of learners' errors as they read. reading
exercise, the teacher analyses the mistakes to determine if the reading instruction to suit the
learners' need.
4.Fluency
This is the automatic ability to read words in connected text. Words are read in groups and not
in isolation. their ability to read at a particular speed based on the readability of the The
readability of the text must be at par with learners` sometimes is discouraged because some
learners read without exercise, the teacher will stop learners at intervals. total number of words
pronounced correctly gives the learner's overall score in oral fluency rate (SEDL, 2015).

QUESTION4: The reading comprehension assessment method and language

comprehension assessment share some things in common. Discuss.
ANSWER: In reading comprehension assessment, the learners read independently while in
language comprehension, the learners listen while the teacher reads the text. One thing that both
have in common is that they ensure that learners get both the explicit and implicit (literal and
inferential meaning) message of the text. In reading and language comprehension assessment, the
teacher can apply the following methods as suggested in SEDL (2015):
 Prediction
Prediction is an educated guess. The teacher uses this method to allow learners to guess the
content of the passage based on the title of the text. It is expected that the learners must have
been taught how to use visuals (if any) such as pictures, graphs or diagrams to make predictions.
the predictions and the overall content of the text can be compared. It is exciting and motivating
when learners discover that they predicted correctly.
 Identification

This method requires learners to identify the author's purpose and themes embedded in the text.
Questions such as this can help the teacher to achieve this:
 What lessons can be learnt from this passage?
 What does the author tend to achieve through the passage? Etc.
 Visualization
This method helps learners connect the written words with actual visible scenes through their
imagination. Learners can be asked to draw the characters based on the details of description of
the text For instance, a passage may describe the appearance of a thief wearing dark shades,
with a face cap, sagged jeans trousers, puffing cigarettes; if a learner draws an image of someone
on a suit and tie, carrying a brief case, it clearly shows that the learner needs more assistance.
B. Writing
QUESTION1: What are the differences between shared and interactive writing?
ANSWER: The difference between shared writing and interactive writing is that in
interactive writing, the teacher gives the pen to different students and invites them to add
a letter, part of a word, a word or even a sentence. text is being written. Like shared
writing, it gives teachers a great opportunity to support student learning through
modeling and thinking out loud. This technique is best used for modeling word stretching
and spelling, grammar, capitalization, punctuation, and vocabulary development. It's a
great technique to use in interdisciplinary writing. Using interactive writing to create a
statement about what has been covered in science, social, or math lessons can help
students solidify their thinking. This technique is especially useful for ESOL students
who are trying to master the language of content and reflect on their learning. It can be
difficult to keep the whole class engaged in interactive writing activities. Keep activities
brief. Writing one to three sentences is more than enough to summarize what has been
covered in a lesson. To keep all students engaged while each student contributes writing,
ask other students to follow along on a dry erase board, in a notebook (we call our
content notebooks). one tab for math, science and social studies is our Knowledge Book).
, with text on the air, even written on the back of their partner. Make sure the sentences
are created by students.

QUESTION2: Explain the strategies at various stages of writing in controlled

writing?
ANSWER: Controlled writing is also used at the junior and senior secondary level. At this
level, the teacher uses various strategies to help learners acquire writing skills. The teacher
controls the content and expression of learners but at a much reduced rate. The learners are
free to express themselves explicitly. What the teacher does mainly, at this level, is to give
their writing practice a focus by creating a purpose and Writing, at this level, is that teaching
writing as a process allows the teacher to give an explicit writing instruction, using various
strategies and activities at different stages of writing.
These stages are:
• Pre-writing stage
• Drafting stage
•Revising stage
•Editing stage
• Publishing stage.
Pre writing stage
This is the stage where the writer thinks of what to write and how prewriting stage, learners
should be taught to brainstorm ideas alone or stage is a stage where learners list all the ideas they
can think of to a Learners should be taught to let their ideas flow from the head into the
irrelevant ones and merging repeated ideas. asked to: 'write a composition describing an
interesting cultural festival Brainstormed ideas used to form topic outline The learner has made
an outline of generated ideas, ranked the (entertainment and food and drinks) and struck out the
irrelevant idea.
Brainstormed ideas used to form topic outline
• Cultural attire 3rd
• Dancing steps 4th
• History of festival 1st
• Family relationship cancelled
• Significance of festival 2nd
• Entertainment 5th
• Personal feelings 6th
Merged

Drafting Stage
The teacher can use the P. I. E strategy This strategy is for paragraph development. acronym
stands for P-point, I-illustration, E - explanation. The writer expands the ideas by elaborating the
points and giving illustrations with other supporting ideas. Point Illustration Supporting ideas
can further be generated by using the E. E paragraph of writing as a stretching of ideas guide. For
instance, a nervous learner can be given a topic on his help the learner to think of more ideas.
Writing frames are starters for paragraphs which learners can follow and build their own ideas.
Revising stage
Revising stage is when learners revisit their written work and effect corrections on the content
and organization of ideas in the work. Additions, change of ideas and deleting of irrelevant ideas
are done at this stage. This stage of writing seems to be boring to the learners. A learner is
required to sit on the author's chair and read out his or her written work while others listen and
make their input.
Editing stage
At this stage, the learners correct errors on punctuation, spelling and grammar. Learners
need to know that editing is an integral part of writing skill and cannot be ignored. Carl
(2000) terms this stage as the nitty-gritty checks on mechanics of writing. This stage can
be done in pairs or groups(mixed ability group) It could also be through self- editing or
teacher conferences.
Publication
This stage calls for celebration. The knowledge that learners' work will be shared with a
particular audience is a great motivation for them. It is not only the teacher that needs to read the
learners finished product. Their work can be shared among their peers, published in the school
magazine, read in the general assembly, pasted on notice board or inthe class, or even read by
family and friends. All these avenues make learners' work visible and spur them to be better
writers.
 QUESTION3: Discuss the three types of writing assessment methods.
ANSWER: Strategies, tools and instruments that a teacher uses to determine the extent of
learning is called assessment method. defines assessment in education as the variety of methods
or tools that educators use to evaluate, measure, and document the academic readiness, learning
progress, skill acquisition and educational needs of students. The methods for assessing writing
are as follows.
1. Direct Assessment Method
These are the types of assessment methods in which samples of learners` writings are obtained
under controlled conditions and then evaluated by trained judges (Breland, 1983). Learners are
made to demonstrate their writing abilities by performing the act of writing. Questions that
require students to write essays are examples of direct assessment method.
2. Indirect evaluation method
This evaluation method is based on student observations Knowledge of a particular aspect of
writing. It may be grammar Depending on aspects such as punctuation and part of speech
The examiner wants to test. Learners take a multiple-choice test An element that deals with
the structural aspects of lighting. good Examples are lexical and structural. We recommend that
you do not use indirect methods This does not reflect the learner's true writing, so to test
writing skills capacity. Cooper (1984) supports this direct evaluation method. Essay tests are
considered to be more meaningful than multiple-choice tests.
3. Portfolio-based valuation method
The portfolio is period. White (1994) describes the valuation of the portfolio as follows: A
systematic collection of student work samples, Observation over a certain period, test results,
etc. that too the growth and achievement of students' academic achievements. Called
cumulative evaluation, it represents the learner's performance It has evolved over
time(https://www.rand.org). Regarding writing Ratings provide a portfolio with a collection
ofwriting samples from each Learner. These collections reflect learners' writing advances. Also
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