ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2017-19 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
GEOGRAPHY
(0460)
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Migration: movement of people (or animals) from one

country
or region to another
1. Population and Settlement Birth rates
Death rates
Fertility rate: The average number of children a
1.1. Population Dynamics
female is
expected to have in their lifetime
Keywords: High death rates in LEDCs:
Under-population: when country has declined too Poor health care/few hospitals/doctors/nurses/clinics
much that it can’t support its economic system Poor sanitation/hygiene/lack of toilets/dirty places
Overpopulation: too much population of an area: Poor access to safe/clean water/water borne diseases
overcrowding, depletion of resources Limited food supplies/malnutrition/starvation
Birth rate: average number of live births in a year for HIV/AIDS
every 1000 people Natural disasters/drought/flood
Death rate: average number of deaths for every 1000 Lack of vaccinations/medicines/cannot cure diseases
people Lack of education about healthy lifestyles e.g.
Natural increase of a country: Birth rate minus death smoking/diet
rate Lack of provision for elderly e.g. pensions/old people’s
Reasons for population explosion: homes
Improved medical care – vaccinations, hospitals, Low birth rates in MEDCs:
doctors, new drugs and scientific inventions Availability of contraception/family planning/abortions
Improved sanitation and water supply Educated in contraception/family planning
Improvements in food production (quality & quantity) Can afford contraception/family planning/abortions
Improved transport – moving food, doctors etc. Traditionally small families
Decrease in child mortality Expense of bringing up children (high standard of
Problems of overpopulation and underpopulation: living)
Many women have careers/women are educated
Overpopulation Underpopulation Origin and impact of HIV/AIDS:
Unemployment Shortage of workers HIV-1 – arose in Central Africa
HIV-2 – arose in West Africa
Pressure on healthcare and
Less people paying taxes HIV mostly occurs in women
education
When women give birth, they infect the child as well
Schools, hospitals & services resulting
in low death rate for infants
Shortage of housing close down due to lack of Death rate of mothers results in a higher orphan
customers generation
Traffic congestion Less innovation/development Due to the countries being poor, there is a lack of
Inflation (excess demand) Hard to defend country state
welfare, resulting in poverty and lack of
Shortage of food and water Have to attract migrants education
Population policies:
Noise, air & water pollution
Some countries have population policies to either
Diseases spread quicker decrease or increase their population

Reasons for contrasting rates of natural population Decrease population:

change:
Population size is related to the amount of resources China’s One Child Policy
available
e.g. water, wood and minerals Started in 1979
Carrying Capacity: number of people the environment Country’s fertility rate was 5.7
Would be fined up to 3000 if a family had a second
can
support without there being negative effects to
child
the population
Optimum Population: amount of people that a
Can have second child only
region/country
can ecologically support, usually less Evaluation
if….
than carrying capacity
Population Density: number of people living in a given First child died in 2008 Fertility rate dropped from 5.7
earthquake in 1960 to 1.5 in 2010
area
(km2)
Population Distribution: how a population is spread out High dependency ratio - lack
around a country or an area First child has disability of working population to
Factors that contribute to population size: support old dependents
Living in rural area Narrowing gender imbalance

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Can have second child only Employment: People may move to another country in
Evaluation
if…. search of better jobs and better pay, or for new business
opportunities
Multiple births (twins, triplets Forced abortions often
Education: Young adults from developing countries
etc), gets to keep all children happened
typically choose to move away from their home country to
study abroad for a better future
Increase population:
Healthcare: Elderly and medically challenged individuals
Germany’s Pro Natal population policy may opt to travel and then stay for access to better
Fertility rate 1.38 in 2012 medical facilities
Youth unable to support ageing population Reasons for population migration:
Push factors: Reasons for people to move away from
Encourage by… Evaluation their home country
Free education Not very effective Pull factors: Factors that attract migrants to their
destination
More immigration Fertility rate 1.54 in 2021
Rewards are given but no Push factors Pull factors
Paid maternity leave
punishment
Unemployment More job opportunities
Paid parental leave
War Better salary
No tax for families who have
Pollution and congestion Better schools and hospitals
more than one child
Bad weather Peaceful and safe
Friends and family may
1.2. Migration High crime rates
already live there
Poor education and
Keywords: Citizenship
healthcare
Migration: Movement of people from one place to
another Poor housing Higher standard of living
Immigrants: People who arrives at a country to live Famine Closer to relatives
there permanently
Emigrants: People who leaves the country to live in Impacts of Migration:
another country permanently
Net migration: Number of immigrants minus number COUNTRY OF ORIGIN
of emigrants Home country for migrants; country they were living in before
Types of migration: moving
Internal migration: When people move to a different Advantages Disadvantages
place within the country Labour force reduced -
Less pressure on healthcare
Eg - California, US to Texas, US reduced output
International migration: When people move from a Brain drain: more
country to another; involving the crossing of a Decline in birth rate skillful/educated labour leave
country’s border country - fewer innovations
Eg - Malaysia to Korea
Migrants bring back new skills Division of families
Temporary migration: When people stay in an area for
a limited amount of time Money is sent back Left with elderly population -
Eg: Seasonal migrants (remittances) less income
Permanent migration: When people move and never Creates more job
return home opportunities: reduces
Involuntary (forced) migration: When people are unemployment
forced to move Less pressure on education
Refugees: A person who has been forced to leave their Increased quality of education
home and their country, may be due to a natural disaster, and healthcare
war, religious or political persecution
Decrease traffic congestion
Persecution: When someone is attacked for what they
and air pollution - less cars
believe in e.g. their religion or political belief
Asylum Seekers: Someone seeking refuge (residency) in a
COUNTRY OF DESTINATION
foreign country because their life is in danger in their
Where migrants are moving to
home country
Voluntary migration: When people choose to move Advantages Disadvantages
Overcomes labour shortage Competition for jobs

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Advantages Disadvantages
More pressure on healthcare
Dirty unskilled jobs done
and education
Brings expertise to country:
Japanese moves to Australia Traffic congestion - air and
to set up Japanese restaurant noise pollution
- authentic
Skilled migrants bring Less religious amenities for
innovations immigrants
Cultural diversity
Will work long hours for low
salary

MIGRANTS THEMSELVES
Advantages Disadvantages
More job opportunities Culture shock
Better salary & access to
Racism Stage 1: high birth rates; high death rates; short life
wider variety of good
expectancy; less dependency (since there are few old
Better access to education & people and children must work anyway)
Language barriers
healthcare Stage 2: high birth rates; fall in death rates; slightly longer
Safer & peaceful; can start a Different culture may be life expectancy; more dependency due to more elderly
family difficult to integrate Stage 3: declining birth rate; declining g death rate; longer
Separated from friends and life expectancy; more dependency
Higher pay Stage 4: low birth rate; low death rate; highest
family
Higher standard of living Higher cost of living dependency ratio; longest life expectancy
Stage 5: When proportion of old dependents is increasing
Send remittances to family Not used to weather
Occurs because life expectancy increases, but also
back home conditions
because birth rates start to fall
Visa typically happens in very developed countries
Difficulty in finding houses to Population Pyramid: a type of graph that shows the age
stay and sex structure of the country

1.3. Population Structure

Keywords:
Ageing population: Old dependents (people above 60
years old)
Dependent population: People who don’t work; retired
and young children

The Demographic Transition Model:

Problems of having too many Old Dependents:

More pensions to be paid
More pressure on public transportation: many old
dependents do not drive
More pressure on healthcare
Not enough labour force
Difficult to evacuate old dependents during natural
disasters

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Why do LEDCs have more young dependents than Sparse Population Dense Population
MEDCs?
Poor public services
LEDCs cannot afford contraception
such as healthcare and Good public services
LEDCs have no education on family
education
planning/contraception
Civil war
Children wanted as labour in LEDCs
Cost of living higher in MEDCs
Implications of Young Dependents: 1.5. Settlements & Service Provision
Too few Too Many
Closure of child related Child care needed so parents
services; fewer jobs can work
Less consumers and Taxes for public schools from
taxpayers in the future government
An increase in the age of the
Increased dependency ratio
population An isolated, Buildings are
Buildings are
Birth rates fall below building or a group strung along a line
Creation of teaching and grouped together,
minimum because the of two or three of communication,
nursing jobs initially for defence,
population declines buildings, for example a main
or a common
separated from the road, a river valley,
Pressure on healthcare and resource.
Less labour in future next by 2 or 3 km. or canal
education

Site: describes the physical nature of where a settlement

1.4. Population Density & Distribution is
located – the actual piece of land
Situation: describes settlement in relation to other
Keywords: settlements
and physical features around it – this
Population density: number of people per unit of area determines whether the
situation will grow into a large
(typically per kilometer square) city or remain a small town or
village
Sparsely populated: an area with low population Factors influencing settlements:
density Wet point site: this has a good water supply
Densely populated: an area with high population Dry point site: this has less risk of flooding
density Building material: availability of stone, wood, clay etc.
Factors influencing: Defensive site: in a river meander or on a hill with
steep sided
and commanding views
Sparse Population Dense Population Fuel supply: for heating and cooking
Physical Mountainous areas - Flat relief - easier to Food supplies: land suitable for farming
Factors inaccessible build Nodal points: where routes converge
Extreme climates Favourable climates Bridging point: river shallow enough to build a bridge
Rivers - easy access Aspect: settlements often on sunny side of a valley
High risk of flooding Shelter: from cold prevailing winds and rain
and trading
Infertile soil Fertile land for crops Hierarchy of settlements:
Locations with frequent No or few natural
natural disasters disasters
Availability of natural
resources for industry
and manufacturing
Economic No economic
Many job opportunities
factors opportunities
No infrastructure Good infrastructures
Many transport routes
No transport routes
to travel easily
Social
High crime rates Low crime rates
factors
Political Government Reliable and stable
factors corruption government

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Determining order of importance: Industry - factories, warehouses, and small production

The population size centers
The range and number of services The CBD is in the centre because it is:
The sphere of influence A central location for road/railways to converge
Sphere of Influence: The distance or area people travel The most accessible location for workers
from to
access a service. Accessible to most people for shops and businesses
Services: Facilities that are offered to people e.g. Problems that CBD face: congestion, pollution, and lack of
supermarket. Services have a threshold population, which space
helps
explain why bigger settlements have more services.
Range: This usually refers to the number of different Residential Areas
services e.g.
Old inner-city area:
a school, a post office, etc. Typically found next to CBD
Has mainly terraced houses in a grid like pattern
Threshold Population: The minimum amount of people Suburbia:
required for
a service to be offered and remain open. Urban sprawl and owning cars led to construction of
High Order Goods (Comparison): Goods that people buy well-planned
and spacious houses
less
frequently. They tend to be more expensive and Larger than inner city terraces & most have a garden
people will normally
compare quality and price before Typically, detached or semidetached
purchasing e.g. a car Roads are arranged in cul-de-sacs and wide avenues
Low Order Goods (Convenience): Goods that people buy Land prices cheaper than in CBD and inner city
every day.
They don't usually cost much money and Demand can make some areas expensive
people would not normally
travel far to buy them e.g. Outer-city estate:
bread and milk Located on the fringes of cities with varied housing
Functions of settlements: People relocated here when inner city was being
Rural Areas: tend to have a lot less functions than redeveloped
urban
areas. The main purpose of settlements in rural Rural-urban fringe:
areas is
normally agriculture & low-order services. This is found at the edge of a town or city
This is because rural
areas have less people, poorer Mixture of land uses e.g. housing, golf courses,
transport, poorer communication,
less technology, & allotments,
businesses, parks and airports.
the land is better used for other purposes.
Urban Areas: tend to have a lot more functions Industrial Areas
ranging from
shopping functions, to educational
Factories were built:
functions, to transport
functions, to administrative
As close as possible to the CBD but with enough space
functions and residential
functions; more middle and
Next to canals and railways to transport materials
high order services.
Next to rivers for cooling, power source or waste
Urban Sprawl: The spread or growth of an urban area
disposal
into the
rural-urban fringe; provides mostly middle –
Next to land where lots of workers could live
order services
Urban Growth in Urban Areas
1.6. Urban Settlements
Urban Growth/Sprawl: rapid urbanisation, due to building
in the rural-urban fringe and land reclamation
Urban settlements tend to have several land uses
Problems of urban growth in urban areas:
The Central Business District
For People For Environment
The CBD: Overcrowded Loss of vegetation
Centre point of the city and has highest land prices Unable to obtain jobs/low pay Loss of habitats
Most accessible point in the city
Pressure on schools/hospitals Impacts on food chains
High-rise buildings and skyscrapers
Functions: retail, entertainment, financial services, and Increased crime rates Pollution of rivers
other
professional services Difficulties of waste/litter Death of fish/other species
Land uses: Traffic congestion Pollution of ground water
Leisure and recreation - may include open land Noise pollution Air/atmospheric pollution
Residential - High/multi-story buildings.
Lack of sanitation Rivers dry up
Transport - road and rail networks, train stations and
airports Poor quality of life
Business and commerce - offices, shops, and banks Food shortage

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

1.7. Urbanisation Advantages Disadvantages

May not be in desirable shape or
Closer to transport routes
Urban Growth in Rural Areas location

Many rural areas seek & experience rapid urban growth Urban Wedges: urban growth allowed to take place in
for several
reasons: wedges
ensuring some green areas protected throughout
Better transport links e.g. road, rail, river city
Better trading prospects Housing density: increasing housing density means less
Nearby natural resources e.g. fuel land will
be destroyed
Better job prospects
Better schools and hospitals Characteristics of Squatter
Settlements
Better supply of electricity, gas and water
Varied entertainment Squatter settlement: a rural residential area which has
developed without legal claims or permission to build on
Rural-Urban Migration the land
Extremely high home density
Movement of people from countryside towards cities Extremely high population density
Rural-urban migration is main cause of urbanisation Houses built from mud for walls, iron for roofs
It is caused by several push & pull factors: No electricity
No running water or sewage
Push factors from rural area Pull factors from urban areas
Diseases spread easily
No/poorly paid jobs More jobs Strong smell of human waste
Mechanisation of farming Good schools/healthcare No infrastructure or privacy
Agricultural products have
Good transport/comms
low prices
Poor schools/healthcare Reliable supply of resources
2. The Natural Environment
Lack of entertainment Better entertainment
Better quality & quantity of 2.1. Earthquakes and Volcanoes
Poor housing quality
houses
Earthquakes
Drought/famine
A series of vibrations or movements in the earth's crust
Shortage of resources
Poor transport/comms. How earthquakes happen:
Tension released from inside crust
Reducing negative impacts of
urbanisation Plates get stuck
Pressure builds up
Greenbelts: area of land around urban areas that is Pressure released
protected
from development
Greenfield Sites: sites that are barred from being built on Features of earthquakes Effects of earthquakes
by
government policies Focus: point of earthquake Large number of deaths
Epicenter: point directly above
Advantages Disadvantages Fires breaking out
the focus, on the ground
Land never used – not Seismic waves Water pipes burst
Conflicts with other land users
polluted
Water contamination,
Often near rural-urban fringe The government now protects Shaking ground
diseases
so good transport links many sites
Subduction zone: occurs at
Public protests for building on destructive margin, one plate Corpses: human & animal
Less congestion
greenfield site goes under the other
Room to expand Accessibility difficult
Building damaged/destroyed
Brownfield Sites: increasing building on brownfield sites
allows
less pressure to be put on rural areas Tsunami can follow
Reconstruction costs
Advantages Disadvantages
Site polluted – expensive to Reduce impacts of earthquakes:
Often cheap to buy
clean
Prediction Preparation
Near the CBD No room to expand

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Prediction Preparation Causes of eruptions:

Measure earth tremors, Build earthquake-proof At constructive margin: plates move away from each
pressure, and release of gas buildings other; magma rises to fill the gap;
At destructive margin: oceanic crust melts from
Use maps and facts to find
Train emergency services friction and heat from mantle; newly formed magma is
pattern in time/location
lighter so it rises to surface
Unusual animal behaviour Set up warning system Stages of volcanoes:
Seismometer Create evacuation plan Active: has erupted recently
Richter scale Emergency food supply Dormant: has not erupted recently but may in future
Prepare earthquake kit Extinct: unlikely to ever erupt again; no magma inside
Types of volcanoes:
Earthquake proof buildings:
Automated weights on roof to reduce movement
Rubber shock-absorbers between foundations
Foundation sunk deep into bedrock avoiding clay
Automatic shutters come down over the windows
Interlocking steel frames which can sway during earth
movements

Volcanoes
A vent in the earth's surface where magma, gas or ash
escapes onto the earth's surface or into the atmosphere Low viscosity (runny lava) -
Viscous (thick) - andesitic lava
basaltic lava
Diagram of volcano: Low in height, gentle sloping High in height, steep sided
sides with wide base volcanic cones
Low silica content (covers High silica content (covers
long distance) short distance)
Frequent eruptions but low in Infrequent but high
magnitude magnitude
High temperature Low temperature
Low gas content High gas content
Little build up pressure Enormous build up pressure

Distribution of Earthquakes and

Volcanoes

Where earthquakes occur and volcanoes form is

How do volcanoes form? governed by plate
tectonics
Magma rises through cracks of the Earth’s crust Oceanic crust: younger, heavier, can sink and is constantly
Pressure builds up (inside Earth) being destroyed and replaced
Pressure released → plate movement Continental crust: older, lighter, cannot sink and is
Magma explodes to surface causing eruption permanent
Lava cools and forms new crust Plate movement is caused by convection currents in the
Over time, rock builds up and volcano formed mantle

Impacts/hazard of Why do people live near

volcanoes volcanoes?
Pyroclastic flows Fertile soil for crops
Tourism (tour guides,
Lava flow
restaurants)
Ash clouds Scientific research
Landslides Mining
Deaths Geothermal energy
Agriculture affected
Lahars
Earthquakes:
Encircle the whole of the Pacific Ocean

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Extend down entire length of the mid-Atlantic Ocean

Stretch across southern Europe and Asia
Volcanoes:
Encircle the whole of the Pacific Ocean (known as the
Ring of Fire)
Extend down entire length of the mid-Atlantic Ocean
Some in southern Europe, the Caribbean & east Africa Drainage basin: the area of land drained by a river
Watershed: the edge of highland surrounding a drainage
Plate Boundaries basin,
marking the boundary between two drainage
Diagram Description basins
Source: the beginning or start of a river
Confluence: the point at which two rivers or streams join
Collision: occur when two Tributary: a stream/smaller river which joins a larger
continental plates move stream or
river
towards each other. Mouth: point where river comes to end, usually when
entering sea

River Processes
Example: Indo-Australian and
the Eurasian Plate

Constructive: occur when two

plates move away from each
other.

Example: North American and

Eurasian Plate

Conservative: occur when two

Drainage basins act as a system with:
plates slide past each other.
Inputs: precipitation
Transfers: infiltration, percolation, surface runoff,
throughflow & groundwater flow
Example: North American
Stores: interception, surface storage, soil moisture
Plate and the Pacific Plate
storage &
groundwater storage
Outputs: evaporation & transpiration or
evapotranspiration
Destructive: occur when
oceanic plate is subducted by Characteristics of rivers
‎a continental plate.‎

Example: pacific plate and the

Eurasian plate

Bed: The bottom of the river channel

Plate boundary Volcanoes Earthquakes Fold mountains Bank: The sides of the river channel
Constructive Gentle Gentle No A river has two banks
Destructive Violent Violent Yes Width: The distance between the two banks of a river
Collision None Violent Yes Depth: The distance from the water surface to the bed of
a river
Conservative None Violent No
Speed of flow: how fast the water in a river is moving;
different speeds arise at different parts of the river
2.2. Rivers Wetted perimeter: length of bed and banks in contact with
river
The Hydrological Cycle

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Channel: The route course (between bed and banks) that Course Long Profile Cross Profile
a river
flows. The flow of the river is often described as Upper Steep sided v-
channel flow. Steeply sloping
Thalweg: The fastest part of the river, always near the shaped valley, thin
towards the lower
river channel, deep
middle
of the river channel, where there is least friction sections of the river
in places
Erosion V-shaped valley
Attrition: large particles such as boulders collide and Middle remains with a
Shallow slopes
wider valley floor,
break
into smaller pieces; occurs at higher part of river towards the mouth
Hydraulic action: the sheer force of the river dislodges river begins to
of the river
particles from its banks and bed meander, channel
Abrasion: smaller particles rub against the river banks is wider & deeper
and bed
like sand-paper; occurs at low part of river Wide, shallow
Solution: acid in rivers dissolve rocks; occurs at any part of valley, with large
Lower Almost at sea level,
river flood plains &
gently sloping to its
meanders; channel
mouth
is wide deep &
smooth sided

png)
Transportation FLOODS

Traction: rolling stones along the bed Causes of flooding:

Saltation: small particles bounce along bed in a leapfrog No vegetation
motion Deforestation
Suspension: silt and clay-sized are carried within the Urbanisation
water
flow Poor drainage
Solution: minerals dissolve in the water Steep slopes
Rock type (impermeable rocks does not absorb water)
Wet soil (over saturation)

Why do people live near

Impacts
rivers?
Water supply (drinking,
People can be killed
washing)
Deposition
Homes destroyed Fishing industry
When a river lacks the energy to carry its load; it begins Spread of water borne
Transportation for trading
depositing the heaviest particles diseases
Happens when there is less water or where the current Shortage of clean water and
slows down Tourism
food
Large boulders are deposited at the top, and very small
Infrastructure damaged Fertile soil
particles
are deposited at the end, resulting in sorting
Businesses destroyed Powerplants (dams)
River Profiles Sports/recreation

Long profile:
Flood Management Techniques

Dams:
Built across a river to control the amount of discharge
Water is held back by the dam in a reservoir
Released in a controlled way to control flooding
Is expensive to build, can affect farmers & cause
erosion
downstream
Afforestation:
Trees planted near to the river
Cross profile: Greater interception of rainwater
Lower river discharge
Course Long Profile Cross Profile

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Relatively low-cost option, enhances environmental Name Located at Advantages Disadvantages

quality of
the drainage basin Absorbs
River engineering: energy of
Channel widened/deepened to carry more water waves,
Channel straightened so water travels faster prevents cliffs
Course altered to divert floodwater away from homes from being
Alterations may lead to a greater risk of flooding Slanted barrier
eroded;
downstream,
as the water is carried there faster Revetments against waves Expensive
Rippled
Managed flooding: Allow river to flood naturally in places, at base of cliff
surfaces helps
to
prevent flooding in other areas dissipate wave
Planning:
energy; No
Authorities & government introduce policies to control need much
urban
development near/on floodplain reducing risk of maintenance
flooding &
damage to property
Rocks and Absorbs wave Visual pollution,
Enforcing regulations may be difficult in LEDCs
stones put energy, susceptible to
Rip-raps
against base of protects cliffs being moved
2.3. Coasts cliff behind by the sea
Effective, Visual pollution,
Coasts are formed by the sea and wind working together
Breakwaters Near coasts breaks easily
in 3 key
tasks: erosion, transportation and deposition
incoming water destroyed
Coastal Opportunities Coastal Threats Prevents storm
Tidal
Sports/recreation Hurricanes Side of coasts surges, very Expensive
barriers
effective
Groundwater recharge Coastal storms
Habitat for fish Tsunamis
Soft Engineering:
Transport (shipping goods) Landslides Name Description Advantages Disadvantages
Tourism Flooding Increases
Job opportunities Coastal erosion distance
between
Coastal Management Sand/shingle
Beach waves and Effectiveness
Hard Engineering: added to the
nourishment cliffs → Waves is uncertain
beach
Name Located at Advantages Disadvantages lose energy →
Reduce erosion Less erosive
Very expensive power
and prevents
and big,
Coastlines/foot flooding; Tourism
Sea wall requires
of cliffs Curved Good barrier affected as
constant
structure Land Protect and against coastal dunes marked
maintenance
breaks waves management rebuild dunes flooding and out of bounds
Increases erosion to general
distance public
between waves Certain Break up
In front of area and coasts → sections of waves and
Groynes facing coastal Waves lose coast may be reduce speed
erosion energy → more exposed and power of
Reduces to erosion waves → Limits Effectiveness
Marshland
impacts of area which is uncertain
waves waves can
Reduces reach →
impact of Prevents
Not as effective flooding
waves on cliff,
as other
Gabions Base of cliff prevents cliff Widen beach
coastal
from being Planting dead and reduces
defences Beach Effectiveness
undercut; trees in sand wave energy,
stabilisation is uncertain
cheap to stabilise lowers profile
of beach

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Erosion at Coasts

Corrasion: large waves hurl beach material at the cliff

Corrosion: salts and acids slowly dissolve a cliff
Attrition: waves cause stones to collide and disintegrate
Hydraulic action: force of waves compresses air in cliffs

Transportation – Longshore Drift

Waves approach coast at an angle

Swash moves up the beach at an angle
Backwash drains straight back down the beach Cliffs & Wave-cut platforms
Gradually moving material along beach in zig-zag motion
Wave erosion is concentrated at the foot of the cliff
A wave-cut notch is formed
Cliff is undercut & collapses
Repeated collapse causes retreat of the cliff

Deposition

Components of a wave:
Swash: when a wave breaks & washes up the beach
Backwash: when the water drains back into the sea

TYPES OF WAVES
Constructive Destructive
Low wave height High wave height
Beach gradient is gentle Beach gradient is steep
Spill forward gently Plunge forward Caves, Arches & Stacks
Creates a strong swash Swash is weak
A band of weaker rock extends through a headland
Water drains through beach Rotation of water causes a
Erosion produces caves on both sides of headland
material strong backwash
More erosion produces an arch through the headland
Backwash is weak Erodes beaches Eventually the roof is weak & collapses forming a stack
Deposits material
Builds up beaches

Constructive:

Destructive: Beaches

In bays, the waves diverge outwards

The wave energy is dissipated creating a low energy
environment
hence deposition to form beaches

Bays and Headlands

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Coral Reef

Coral reefs support a great diversity of life

Built from the limestone remains of coral skeletons &
Bays are formed due to softer rock getting eroded easily coralline
algae
Headlands are usually formed since they are made of Conditions required for growth of coral reef:
resistant rock
and so is eroded more difficultly Warm water/seas; temperatures 20 - 30C
Shallow water; not more than 60 meters deep
Spits Water free from sediment/clear/availability of light
Plentiful supply of oxygen in water/unpolluted
Spits form when the coastline changes direction
Plentiful supply of plankton
Longshore drift carries material in same direction
Lack of strong current
Sand & shingle is built up to form a spit
End of spit curves due to wave refraction or wind
2.4. Weather
Sand Dunes
Weather:
Sand dunes form behind wide sandy beaches The mix of events that occur in our atmosphere,
Onshore winds pick up the dry sand from above the high- including
changes in temp., rainfall and humidity
water mark &
carry it landward by saltation Can vary from day to day and from place to place
If they encounter an obstacle the wind loses energy &
deposits sand
in the lee of the obstacle Protip: important to know features of the Stevenson’s screen
Eventually a dune is formed Stevenson’s Screen: contains the thermometers
Plants grow on it which stabilizes it & traps more sand
Painted white to reflect sun with double lid for insulation
Mangrove Swamps Slatted sides to let the air circulate, but slanted
downwards to
prevent light getting in
Mangrove swamps are trees and shrubs that grow in Legs 1m long to prevent heating from ground
saline coastal
habitats in the tropics and subtropics On short grass for same amount of reflection
Provide a habitat and protection for many fish & other sea
animals,
especially when young
They slow water flow encouraging any sediment to be
deposited,
keeping sea water clear
Protect the coast from erosion, storm surges, hurricanes,
and
tsunamis
They are a source of food and material
Conditions required for formation of mangrove swamps:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Protip: important to know how weather instruments look like

Three light rotating cups (mounted on a high pole) are
and brief knowledge of how to use
blown around
by the wind the revolutions are counted &
Rain Gauge: has a fixed diameter so that they collect the
converted into m/s, km/h
or knots
same
amount of water & so comparisons can be made
Sunshine Recorder (Heliograph): records the amount of
sunshine at a
given location

Burns a timeline
Traces sun shine not the hours of daylight
The glass ball focusses the light
This burns a line onto the card
Made of a hollow cylinder (C) containing:
Max-min thermometer: Records max. & min. temp. over 24hr
Funnel (A) to collect the water.
period
Container to collect water which may be graduated
Emptied once every 24hrs
Rain is measured in millimetres.
Sunk into ground, but not level so splashes or surface
water
can’t get in

Anemometer: Measures wind speed

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Both wet & dry bulb temperatures read

Barometer: Measures air pressure

**Protip**Unit used: mb/millibars (was asked in 2021
Geography paper 4)

Max thermometer contains mercury & min contains

alcohol
As temp. rises, mercury expands & pushes up a metal
index and when
it cools, mercury contracts and index is An aneroid barometer has a vacuum chamber
left in place at highest
temp As air pressure rises & falls, the chamber contracts &
As temp. falls, alcohol contracts & pulls metal index with expands
it; but
as alcohol expands, it flows past index, leaving it at Levers conduct this movement to a spindle which moves
lowest temp pointer on the
dial which records the air pressure in
Both indexes read from bottom once every 24hrs mmHg

Wet & dry bulb thermometer (hygrometer): Used to calculate Wind vane: Records wind direction
humidity of air

The fletching is blown by the wind so that the arrow head

points
into the wind.
Mounted on a high places (rooftops)
Dry bulb is a normal mercury thermometer and it Make sure no trees are blocking
measures actual air
temperature
Wet bulb is same but bulb is covered with a fine cloth
which is
connected to a reservoir of water.
2.5. Climate & Natural Vegetation
Water evaporates from the cloth & cools temperature so
Weather
it reads a
few degrees lower than air temp.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Describes condition of atmosphere eg sunny, hot, Ocean currents: warm currents raise winter temperatures
windy in
coastal areas; cold currents cool them down in summer
Climate Altitude: higher altitude = lower temperature (1° per
This is the average conditions over a longer period of 100m)
time,
usually a few years
Tropical Rainforest Ecosystem
Equatorial Hot Desert Distribution:
Between 5° and 30°
Close to the
Location north and south of the
equator
equator
Mean temp. of
≈25°C ≈30°C
hottest month
Mean temp. of
≈25°C >18°C
coldest month
Annual temp. range <5°C <5°C
Rainfall amount >200mm <250mm
Same
Rainfall distribution Irregular
throughout year
Vegetation & Adaptation:
Wind Low Strong
Cloud Heavy Almost none Emergent: tall trees up to 50m, few lower branches,
Humidity High Low grows above
others to get full sunlight
Pressure Low High Canopy: trees 20-40m forming a continuous canopy, few
lower
branches, makes up 50% of vegetation
Shrub: low shrubs & saplings, plants that adapt because
Equatorial Climate Graph
they are
extremely close to the forest floor
Lianas: use large trees as support to reach sunlight
Fan Palms: wide leaved plants that capture as much
sunlight &
rainfall as possible
Humus Layer: decaying biological matter; rainforest soil
fertility is dependent on this
Buttress Roots: very long roots that support tall trees &
suck
up maximum amount of nutrients in poor soil
Drip tip leaves: leaves that let rainfall travel over them &
Hot Desert Climate Graph drip to the ground, causing less damage by excess water

Wildlife & Adaptation:

Home to many mammals

Tigers in SE Asia
Jaguars in Central & South America
Leopards in Africa
Sloths
Primates
Lemurs
Home to birds, amphibians, reptiles & insects too
Animals adapt in differently to survive e.g. camouflage

Climate:

Are close to the equator so they have very similar

Factors Influencing Climate Characteristics: climates all year
around
Temp. is constant between 25-30°C
Latitude: closer to the equator = higher temperature Rainfall all year around, monthly amounts vary slightly
Distance from the sea: coastal area = warmer winters and
Days start of warm & then temp. and humidity build up
cooler
summers
Hot air rises causing low pressure
Prevailing winds: seasonal difference in heating between
land
and sea affects temperature of prevailing wind. Hot Desert Ecosystem
Warm prevailing wind
= rise in temperature Distribution:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Local environment Global environment People

Threatens species
Rising sea levels Less oxygen
with extinction
Reduction of
Changes in climate
Loss of habitat materials available
patterns eg drought
to build buildings
Reduction of food Loss of species
supply such as polar bears
Soil erosion
Vegetation & Animal Adaptations: Food chain
Vegetation Animal disrupted

Camel have humps to store

Seeds remain dormant
water 3. Economic Development
Waxy leaves to reduce Foxes have big ears to reduce
transpiration heat
Thorns to protect from Shelter in underground to
3.1. Development
predators avoid heat
Main Indicators
Only comes out at night to Birth Rate: number of births in a year per 1000 of total
Long roots to search for water
hunt population
Thick stem to store water Death Rate: number of deaths in a year per 1000 of
Light colours to reflect total population
sunlight Gross National Product (GNP): total value of goods
and services produced annually
Climate: GNP per Capita: wealth of a country averaged per
person
Deserts are extremely dry (arid) places Infant Mortality: average number of deaths of infants
Have less than 250mm of rainfall per year under 1, per 1000 live births per year
Air is dry because: Life expectancy: the average age people live to
Most of the moisture has precipitated over equator Human Development Index (HDI): measures and
Air travelling to desert travels over land, not the sea compares international development
No moisture leads to very few clouds, exposing them to Adult literacy rate: the percentage of adults that can
high levels
of incoming radiation from the sun read and write
Causes day-time temps. to be very high Sectors of the industry:
Lack of cloud cover allows outgoing radiation to escape
Causes night-time temps to be low Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary
Annual temperature range is very low High tech
Daily temperature range is very high Collecting Provides
Manufacturing and
Definition natural services
goods research
Deforestation of Tropical Rainforests resources to people
based jobs
Causes: carpenters, medical
Population growth farming, food researchers,
lawyers,
Economic growth Examples fishing, production, scientists,
teachers
Mining mining car computer
Road building manufacturers design
Agriculture
Urbanisation Comparing nations:
Exploitation of land by TNCs
Effects: An MEDC e.g. UK

Local environment Global environment People

Death of local
Loss of vegetation Melting ice
tribes people
Global
More carbon
Causes floods warming/increase
dioxide
temperatures

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Low proportion in primary sector: While Brazil’s economic base is developing, there are still
Mechanizations of jobs in primary a large
number of people employed in primary industries
Primary resources exhausted such as farming.
Resources are now imported There are a large proportion of people employed in
Numbers falling in secondary sector: tertiary
industries.
Mechanization - as machines are taking over jobs in One reason may be growth of Brazil as a tourist
factories destination.
Tertiary sector is main growth area: Also, there have been significant improvements in the
Most work in hospitals, schools, offices & financial provision of
health care, education and transport
services
Greater demand for leisure services as people have Globalisation
more free time and become wealthier
Process in which the world is becoming increasingly
More jobs become available in the tertiary sector
interconnected
An LEDC e.g. Ghana Causes of globalisation:
Improvements in transportation
Freedom of trade
Improvements of communications
Labour availability and skills
Impacts of globalisation:

Positive Negative
Local businesses may close
Provides jobs and skills
down
Countries may lose control of
Culture diversity
important decisions
Wider choice of goods and Usually operates in richer
services for locals countries
Majority in primary sector:
Lack of machinery available in farming, forestry and Governments of different
mining countries can work together
Farming very important because most eat what they to tackle global issues
grow
Few in secondary sector: TNCs (Transnational Corporation)
Lack of factories because machinery is too expensive
Companies that operate in more than 1 country
MNCS manufacture instead
Tertiary may be larger than secondary: Advantages Disadvantages
Most informal work is in the tertiary sector
Working conditions may be
Growth of jobs in tourism Create job opportunities
harsh
An NIC e.g. Brazil Damage to environment -
Improved education and skillls
factories create air pollution
Increased economy Profits going overseas
Invest in infrastructures, Natural resources being over
healthcare or education exploited

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Advantages Disadvantages Human Causes Physical Causes

Higher position jobs awarded If soil is infertile because the
to foreigners instead of locals Farming and industrial bedrock contains few
pollution can both degrade minerals it can be hard to
, land and reduce crop yields cultivate land and lead to low
yields.
3.2. Food Production Corruption of government

Agricultural Systems Effects:

HumanInputs Physical Inputs Process Outputs Hunger
Susceptible to infectious diseases
Things that
Natural things The events Impair physical and mental development
are built or Things that
that are found that take place Reduce labour productivity
made by are produced
on a farm or on a farm to Measures to increase output:
humans and on a farm that
added to a turn inputs
added on to a are often sold GM Crops and Farming
farm into ouputs
farm
Labor/rent Soil Rearing Profits Genetically modified crops are crops that have their
genes altered
to improve quality and/or quantity
Machinery Precipitation Shearing Meat products
Building Temp. Ploughing Wool Advantages Disadvantages
Length of Uniform in shape – easy to
Animal feed Fertilizing Milk Natural species may die
Season transport/appeal consumers
Fertilizers Alluvium Weeding Waste Growing season shorter Taste often not as good
Pesticide Floods Irrigating Crops Lead to development of super
Drought resistant – less water
Market weeds – stronger than GM
Relief Cultivating Pollution
demand No one knows long term
Higher yields
Government effect on humans
Drainage Harvesting Erosion
controls
Seeds Slaughtering Monoculture
Planting
Growing of only one type of crop
Cash crops: crops grown in large plantations for selling
Food Shortages & Famine
and
making a profit
When demand for food exceeds supply of food leading to
Advantages Disadvantages
undernourishment
Prolonged undernourishment can damage people's
Become more efficient If demand falls, no profit
health and eventually
lead to starvation Profitable Less variety
Can have high yields Bad season, no profit
Human Causes Physical Causes
Easily controllable Labor becomes deskilled
Increasing population; supply Too hot or cool temperatures
Low training required Only source of income
cannot keep up with demand can kill crops and animals.
Overgrazing reduces integrity Green Revolution
Shortage of rainfall kills most
of soil and can cause topsoil
crops or require irrigation
erosion and soil degradation. The introduction of modern western style farming
Too much rainfall can flood & techniques in LEDCs
during the late 1960's and 1970's.
Overcultivating causes soil High Yield Varieties:
kill crops or wash away topsoil
degradation, using up and not Developed to try and end food shortages by
reducing soils fertility leading
giving nutrients recovery time increasing yields.
to low yield
Were first developed by cross pollinating different
Deforestation of woodland, Natural disasters can destroy
varieties
damages integrity of soil as large areas of agricultural
This is now being done through genetic modification
well as its source of nutrients. land and kill or injure farmers.
Successes Failures
HYV did increase food
Required fertilisers &
production and made
pesticides polluted water
countries more self-sufficient

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Successes Failures Growth of Tourism

Food prices began to fall The HYV were more prone to
Greater affluence: higher salary + holiday with pay
making; affordable for poor disease and drought
Greater mobility: increased cars + more aircraft
Shorter growing season, More water had to be Improved accessibility & transport facilities:
more crops could be grown diverted to growing crops Better roads
Many poorer farmers couldn’t Larger airports, online reservation, package holidays
The yields were more reliable
afford to buy expensive HYV More leisure time:
Different crops were grown Mechanisation led to Longer vacations
adding variety to local diet unemployment Shorter working hours; people work from home
More elderly
There were surpluses so
Changing lifestyles: changing fashions, earlier retirement
crops could be traded Many natural varieties lost
Increase in recreational activities
commercially
Advertising holiday destinations: TV + Internet
Countries & farmers became
Farmers became wealthier
dependent on foreigners Factors that Change Tourist Patterns

Transport & accessibility: access to various means of

3.3. Industry transportation e.g. trains, cars, planes, ships
Scenery: landscape & visual appearance of places
Input: resources, can be physical e.g. ore or human e.g. Weather: climate is important e.g. cold place for ski trip
labour Accommodation: quality/price of hotels, camps, resorts
Processes: turning raw materials into usable things e.g.
steelmaking; turning usable things into other things e.g. Amenities: variety of recreational, historical, leisure
assembling
cars facilities & sites offered
Outputs: product + profit or loss + waste materials
Types of Industry: TOURISM
Manufacturing: produces goods that are physically Advantages Disadvantages
used by
consumers e.g. toys To create job opportunities More congestion
Processing: turns raw materials into other materials Money can be used for
used in
manufacturing e.g. metal production Damage to landscape
development
Assembly: using materials and a design scheme to put
Attract foreign investment
together a finished product e.g. electronics Noise/air pollution
(TNCs)
Hi-Tech: specialised industries that mostly do
research but
often have small sections dedicated to Cultural exchange Shortage of supplies
each of the 3 normal
types of industry Improve health care and
Inflation affecting locals
education
Factors influencing location of an
Industry
Roads built or improve Seasonal unemployment
Physical Human
Airports improve Social/cultural problems
Power/energy: industry
Electricity/water supply Racism may happen between
should be near source of raw Labour: quantity/quality improve locals and tourists
materials
Natural routes: river Managing Tourism
valleys/flat land is good for Markets: size & location
transport Ecotourism: holidays that involve eco-related activities &
Transport: cost increases are
sustainable e.g. hiking, bird-watching, horse riding
Site/land: availability/price when items are bulky, fragile, Sustainable tourism: tourist activities that are socially,
perishable environmentally & economically sustainable
How?
Government policies
Built National Parks with entrance fees → Money
Leisure facilities raised can be spent on conservation/improvement of
Capital parks
Ban hunting/fishing
Fence prohibited or protected areas
3.4. Tourism
Put up signs such as “no littering”
Tourism: the occupation of providing information, Impose fines on littering or breaking any rules
accommodation,
transportation and other services to Vehicles prohibited in certain areas
tourists Create paths for people to walk on

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

3.5. Energy Benefits Drawbacks

Technology for nuclear power
Risk of nuclear accidents
Non-renewable resources: exists
Are finite Plenty of radioactive supply as Risk of nuclear plants as
Fossil fuels were produced by photosynthesis fuel terrorist targets
Takes millions of years for them to form
Very low amounts of Nuclear technology can be
Examples: coal, oil, gas
greenhouse gases made used to make WMDs
Fossil fuels used mainly by MEDCs
Reduces dependency on fossil Risky to transport material &
Uranium for nuclear energy
fuel countries expensive
Fuel-wood is a non-commercial source of energy in Nuclear waste stored safely Risk of nuclear radiation
MEDCs but
important in LEDCs underground related to cancer
Electric supply altered easily Uranium mining dangerous
Advantages Disadvantages
based on demand and polluting
Cost of production high,
Remains radioactive for long
Lasts 300yrs, now become produces lot of GH gases,
time & expensive
Coal more efficient, needed to dangerous, open cast =
make coke visual pollution, costly to
transport, acid rain 3.6. Water
Lasts only 50-70yrs, oil
More efficient than coal, Uses of Water
spills, releases greenhouse
easier to transport,
Oil gases, prices fluctuate, Agriculture: to water plants
diversity of uses, petro-
refineries use lot of space, Industrial:
chemicals
acid rain Heated to make steam to turn turbines
Releases methane, Cooling down reactors
Cleanest of fossil fuels,
explosive, prices fluctuate, Domestic:
Gas cheaper than oil, easy to
acid rain, greenhouse Household e.g. cooking, cleaning, drinking
distribute
gases. Recreational e.g. swimming, sports
Environmental: preserving water in a dam
Renewable resources:
Are continuous Evolution of Global Water Use
Are, by definition, sustainable
Types:
Geothermal
Wind
Solar
Bio fuel
Hydroelectric
Water Use in Different Economies
Tidal
LEDC - Bangladesh MEDC - UK
Wave

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Reduce dependence upon Difficult to produce required
fossil fuels energy quantity
Alleviate the world’s energy Energy produced much less
crisis than fossil fuels
Development of alternative Unreliable supply of constant
energy energy
Some countries lack the
No pollution
conditions for these
Cost of technology high
Source lasts forever Methods of Water Supply
compared to fossil fuel
Dams: barrier placed across a river made from concrete
NUCLEAR POWER Reservoirs: artificial lake that develops behind a dam
Benefits Drawbacks Wells: a shaft sunk into the ground to obtain water
Desalination:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Thermal: evaporation of water to remove salt Low cost schemes to filter and clean water
Reverse Osmosis: forces water through semi- Irrigation Projects: use irrigation systems to redistribute
permeable
membrane to remove salt water & water the land
Sewage Treatment:
Removal of contaminants from waste water & 3.7. Environmental Risks of Economic
household sewage
Requires physical, chemical & biological processes to Development
remove all
the contaminants and make safe
Soil erosion:
Causes of Water Shortages Occurs in farms, where rainforest is cleared – soil is
washed away by rain because no tree roots to retain it
Population Growth: increased pressure on water sources
In the Amazon rainforest, eroded soil goes into rivers
as
world's population grows & pollutes drinking water
Pollution: water sources are being polluted by industries
Global warming:
Demand: as development increases globally so does Occurs due to too much greenhouse gases
amount of
water needed
Greenhouse effect:
Sewage: lack of proper sewage treatment means that When infrared radiation passes through atmosphere,
waste is
often pumped directly into water sources
& some is absorbed and re-emitted in all directions by
Climate Change: global warming may be releasing greenhouse gas molecules
freshwater from
glaciers & ice shelves, but much of it is This warms the surface & lower atmosphere
running directly into
oceans; inaccessible
Effects:
Political: water sources are often shared; some people Melting poles = rising sea levels = increase in storms
control
large percentages of the shared resource, leading
Change in the distribution of precipitation
to shortages for
others Plants and wildlife might not have time to adjust
Mismanagement: water is used inappropriately causing Lower crop yields in Africa, Asia & Latin America
water
shortages More people at risk from insect/water-borne diseases
Impact of Water Shortages Greenhouses gases are:
CO2 from burning fossil fuels or wood
Drought: below average supply of water over a prolonged Methane from decomposing organic matter & waste
period CFCs from aerosols, air conditioners, & refrigerators
Famine: crops fail/livestock die due to water shortage Nitrogen Oxides from car exhausts & power stations
Conflict arise when sharing a limited supply of water Air pollution:
People may be forced to relocate due to famine/drought Carbon monoxide: incomplete combustion of carbon-
Stagnant dirty water = increased risk of diseases containing substances causes oxygen starvation
Eutrophication due to run-off Sulphur dioxide: combustion of fossil fuels causes
Dirty water/eutrophication causes loss of biodiversity respiratory problems and acid rain
Eutrophication: Nitrogen oxides: N2 & O2 from air combine due to
Run-off from farms containing fertiliser causes excess heat (furnace/engine); same effect as sulphur dioxide
growth of
algae in water Lead oxide: burning leaded petrol; damages nervous
Water does not oxygenate properly/receive light system
Causes plants & animals to suffocate & die Water Pollution:
Chemicals in fertilizers cause eutrophication
Solutions to Water Shortages Oil spilling into the sea
Acid rain; destroys lakes and kills animals/plants
Desalination: governments should invest more in
Health hazards for humans
desalination
plants
Damages limestone buildings and sculptures
Sewage Treatment: governments should enforce better
Fewer crops can be grown on an acidic field
policies
regarding disposal and reuse of waste water
Noise pollution:
Conservation:
Vehicles
Half flush toilets & showering instead of bathing
Machinery in industries and farms
Watering the garden at dusk to prevent evaporation
Noisy humans
Collecting rainwater to use on garden
Visual pollution:
Using appropriate plants for the climate
all man-made things are ugly compared to unspoiled
Using drip irrigation rather than sprinklers
nature
Water Charities:
Desertification:
Building wells to access groundwater
Overgrazing
Building toilets to reduce sewage & pollution
Soil erosion
Teaching appropriate farming techniques

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Global climate getting warmer - gets drier due to less Resource conservation: Meeting needs of present without
rain affecting needs for the future
Deforestation - less roots of trees to hold soil together Ways of conservation:
Sustainable development: Economic development without 3 Rs: reduce, reuse, recycle
destroying natural resources Renewable energy
Management: Use energy efficient products
Population policies Restrict the use of resource
Sustainable tourism Use more public transport
Use of renewable energy Government can raise tax on petrol prices
Afforestation

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE
Geography (0460)

Copyright 2022 by ZNotes

These notes have been created by Saif Asmi for the 2017-19 syllabus
This website and its content is copyright of ZNotes Foundation - © ZNotes Foundation 2022. All rights reserved.
The document contains images and excerpts of text from educational resources available on the internet and
printed books. If you are the owner of such media, test or visual, utilized in this document and do not accept its
usage then we urge you to contact us and we would immediately replace said media.
No part of this document may be copied or re-uploaded to another website without the express, written
permission of the copyright owner. Under no conditions may this document be distributed under the name of
false author(s) or sold for financial gain; the document is solely meant for educational purposes and it is to remain
a property available to all at no cost. It is current freely available from the website www.znotes.org
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommerical-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.