IOAA 

> IOAA SYLLABUS

Theoretical and Practical Syllabus

Basic Astrophysics

Content Topic

Newton’s Laws of Gravitation, Kepler’s Laws For Circular And Non-

circular Orbits, Roche Limit, Barycentre, 2-body Problem, Lagrange
Celestial Mechanics Points.

Electromagnetic Theory &

Quantum Physics Electromagnetic Spectrum, Radiation Laws, Blackbody Radiation.

Thermodynamics Thermodynamic Equilibrium, Ideal Gas, Energy Transfer.

Absorption, Emission, Scattering, Spectra of Celestial Objects,

Spectroscopy and Atomic Doppler Effect, Line Formations, Continuum Spectra, Splitting And
Physics Broadening of Spectral Lines, Polarisation.

Basic Concepts Including Structure of An Atom, Mass Defect And

Nuclear Physics Binding Energy Radioactivity, Neutrinos (Q).

Coordinates and Times

Content Topic

Spherical Trigonometry, Celestial Coordinates And Their

Applications, Equinox And Solstice, Circumpolar Stars,
Celestial Sphere Constellations And Zodiac.

Solar Time, Sidereal Time, Julian Date, Heliocentric Julian Date,

Time Zone, Universal Time, Local Mean Time, Different Definitions
Concept of Time of “Year”, Equation of Time

Solar System

Content Topic

Solar Structure, Solar Surface Activities, Solar Rotation, Solar Radiation And
Solar Constant, Solar Neutrinos (Q), Sun-earth
Relations, Role of Magnetic Fields (Q), Solar Wind And Radiation Pressure,
The Sun Heliosphere (Q), Magnetosphere (Q).

Earth-moon System, Precession, Nutation, Libration, Formation And

Evolution of The Solar System (Q), Structure And Components of The Solar
System (Q), Structure And Orbits of The Solar System Objects, Sidereal And
The Solar System Synodic Periods, Retrograde Motion, Outer Reaches of The Solar System (Q).
 Satellite Trajectories And Transfers, Human Exploration of The Solar System
Space (Q), Planetary Missions (Q), Sling-shot Effect of Gravity, Space-based
Exploration Instruments (Q).

Phenomena Tides, Seasons, Eclipses, Aurorae (Q), Meteor Showers.

Stars

Content Topic

Methods of Distance Determination, Radiation, Luminosity And Magnitude,

Color Indices And Temperature, Determination of Radii And Masses, Stellar
Motion, Irregular And Regular Stellar Variabilities – Broad Classification &
Stellar Properties Properties, Cepheids & Period-luminosity Relation, Physics of Pulsation (Q).

Stellar Interior Stellar Equilibrium, Stellar Nucleosynthesis, Energy Transportation (Q),

and Atmospheres Boundary Conditions, Stellar Atmospheres And Atmospheric Spectra.

Stellar Formation, Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram, Pre-main Sequence, Main

Sequence, Post-main Sequence Stars, Supernovae, Planetary Nebulae, End
Stellar Evolution States of Stars.

Stellar Systems

Content Topic

Different Types of Binary Stars, Mass Determination In Binary Star Systems,

Binary Star Light And Radial Velocity Curves of Eclipsing Binary Systems, Doppler Shifts In
Systems Binary Systems, Interacting Binaries, Peculiar Binary Systems.

Exoplanets Techniques Used to Detect Exoplanets.

Star Clusters Classification And Structure, Mass, Age, Luminosity And Distance Determination.

Milky Way
Galaxy Structure And Composition, Rotation, Satellites of the Milky Way (Q).

Interstellar Gas (Q), Dust (Q), Hii Regions, 21cm Radiation, Nebulae (Q), Interstellar
Medium Absorption, Dispersion Measure, Faraday Rotation.

Classifications Based on Structure, Composition And Activity, Mass, Luminosity

Galaxies And Distance Determination, Rotation Curves.

Accretion
Processes Basic Concepts (Spherical And Disc Accretion) (Q), Eddington Luminosity.

Cosmology

Content Topic
 Expanding Universe And Hubble’s Law, Cluster of Galaxies, Dark Matter, Dark
Energy (Q), Gravitational Lensing, Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation,
Elementary Big Bang (Q), Alternative Models of The Universe (Q), Large Scale Structure (Q),
Cosmology Distance Measurement At A Cosmological Scale, Cosmological Redshift.

Instrumentation and Space Technologies

Content Topic

Multi-wavelength Observations In Radio, Microwave, Infrared, Visible, Ultraviolet, X-ray, And

Astronomy Gamma-ray Wavelength Bands, Earth’s Atmospheric Effects.

Telescopes And Detectors (E.G. Charge-coupled Devices, Photometers,

Spectrographs), Magnification, Focal Length, Focal Ratio, Resolving And
Light-gathering Powers of Telescopes, Geometric Model of Two Element
Interferometer, Aperture Synthesis, Adaptive Optics, Photometry,
Instrumentation Astrometry.

Practical Part
This part consists of 2 sections: observations and data analysis sections. The theoretical part
of the syllabus provides the basis for all problems in the practical part.
The observations section focuses on the contestant’s experience in

1. Naked-eye observations.
2. Usage of sky maps and catalogues (note: any stars referred to by name rather than
Bayer designation or catalogue number must be on the list of IAU-approved star
names; knowledge of the whole list is not required).
3. Application of coordinate systems in the sky, magnitude estimation, estimation of
angular separation
4. Usage of basic astronomical instruments-telescopes and various detectors for
observations but enough instructions must be provided to the contestants.
Observational objects may be from real sources in the sky or imitated sources in the
laboratory. Computer simulations may be used in the problems, but sufficient
instructions must be provided to the contestants.

The data analysis section focuses on the calculation and analysis of the astronomical data
provided in the problems. Additional requirements are as follows:

1. Proper identification of error sources, calculation of errors, and estimation of their

influence on the final results.
2. Proper use of graph papers with different scales, e.g., polar and logarithmic papers.
Transformation of the data to get a linear plot and find the “Best Fit” line
approximately.
3. Basic statistical analysis of the observational data.
4. Knowledge of the most common experimental techniques for measuring physical
quantities mentioned in Part A.
Preparation Tips for IOAA Exam
Candidates must be able to comprehend the material of this syllabus in minute detail in order
to do well in IOAA. Candidates are urged to get prior year questions and solve them at their
leisure in order to have a better understanding of the topic.
Students should read well-known astronomy literature to have a thorough understanding of
numerous themes. Students must also keep up with the most recent advancements in the area
of astronomy. They must also examine previous question papers to gain a sense of the
pattern. The answers to the solved problems may be found on the internet. The IOAA’s
official website also provides all of the necessary information for IOAA preparation.

Frequently Asked Questions on IOAA Syllabus 2022

What does IOAA stand for in full?

The International Olympiad on Astronomy and Astrophysics (IOAA) is an international
competition in astronomy and astrophysics. It is an annual competition in which youngsters
from all around the world compete on a wide range of topics. The foundation strives to instil
an enthusiasm for the topic of astronomy and astrophysics in students, in the hope that they
will continue to study and work in the field in the future.

What is the first stage of the IOAA examination?

To compete in the IOAA, you must first compete in the NSEA, which is the first stage of the
Astronomy Olympiad. Once a person qualifies at this level, he can access his scorecard
through the internet. Only then will he be eligible to take the IOAA test.

Is there a fee to participate?

According to IOAA guidelines, teams of up to 5 students and two team leaders are not
required to pay a participation fee. All participating teams’ local hospitality is covered by the
host country. Teams are responsible for arranging their own transport from their home
country to the host city.

Does IOAA ask for proof of eligibility for all participants?

All team leaders must have documentation that their student participants are under the age of
18 and have not graduated from high school before the start of the year. If there is any dispute
regarding a student’s eligibility, the IOAA hosts and/or EC might demand to see this
evidence at the event.
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Newtonian Gravitation and the
Laws of Kepler

We now come to the great synthesis of dynamics and astronomy accomplished

by Newton: the Laws of Kepler for planetary motion may be derived from
Newton's Law of Gravitation. Furthermore, Newton's Laws provide
corrections to Kepler's Laws that turn out to be observable, and Newton's
Law of Gravitation will be found to describe the motions of all objects in the
heavens, not just the planets.

Acceleration in Keplerian
Orbits
Kepler's Laws are illustrated in the
adjacent animation. The red arrow
indicates the instantaneous velocity vector
at each point on the orbit (as always, we
greatly exaggerate the eccentricty of the
ellipse for purposes of illustration). Since
the velocity is a vector, the direction of the velocity vector is indicated by the
direction of the arrow and the magnitude of the velocity is indicated by the
length of the arrow.

Notice that (because of Kepler's 2nd Law) the velocity vector is constantly
changing both its magnitude and its direction as it moves around the elliptical
orbit (if the orbit were circular, the magnitude of the velocity would remain
constant but the direction would change continuously). Since either a change
in the magnitude or the direction of the velocity vector constitutes an
acceleration, there is a continuous acceleration as the planet moves about its
orbit (whether circular or elliptical), and therefore by Newton's 2nd Law
there is a force that acts at every point on the orbit. Furthermore, the force is
not constant in magnitude, since the change in velocity (acceleration) is larger
when the planet is near the Sun on the elliptical orbit.

Newton's Laws and Kepler's Laws

Since this is a survey course, we shall not cover all the mathematics, but we
now outline how Kepler's Laws are implied by those of Newton, and use
Newton's Laws to supply corrections to Kepler's Laws.

1. Since the planets move on ellipses (Kepler's 1st Law), they are
continually accelerating, as we have noted above. As we have also noted
above, this implies a force acting continuously on the planets.
2. Because the planet-Sun line sweeps out equal areas in equal times
(Kepler's 2nd Law), it is possible to show that the force must be
directed toward the Sun from the planet.
3. From Kepler's 1st Law the orbit is an ellipse with the Sun at one focus;
from Newton's laws it can be shown that this means that the magnitude
 of the force must vary as one over the square of the distance between
the planet and the Sun.
4. Kepler's 3rd Law and Newton's 3rd Law imply that the force must be
proportional to the product of the masses for the planet and the Sun.

Thus, Kepler's laws and Newton's laws taken together imply that the force
that holds the planets in their orbits by continuously changing the planet's
velocity so that it follows an elliptical path is (1) directed toward the Sun from
the planet, (2) is proportional to the product of masses for the Sun and planet,
and (3) is inversely proportional to the square of the planet-Sun separation.
This is precisely the form of the gravitational force, with the universal
gravitational constant G as the constant of proportionality. Thus, Newton's
laws of motion, with a gravitational force used in the 2nd Law, imply Kepler's
Laws, and the planets obey the same laws of motion as objects on the surface
of the Earth!

Conic Sections and Gravitational Orbits

As mentioned the ellipse is not the only possible orbit in a gravitational field.
According to Newton's analysis, the possible orbits in a gravitational field can
take the shape of the figures that are known as conic sections (so called
because they may be obtained by slicing sections from a cone, as illustrated in
the following figure).
For the ellipse (and its special case, the circle), the plane intersects opposite
"edges" of the cone. For the parabola the plane is parallel to one edge of the
cone; for the hyperbola the plane is not parallel to an edge but it does not
intersect opposite "edges" of the cone. (Remember that these cones extend
forever downward; we have shown them with bottoms because we are only
displaying a portion of the cone.)

Examples of Gravitational Orbits

We see examples of all these possible orbitals in gravitational fields. In each
case, the determining factor influencing the nature of the orbit is the relative
speed of the object in its orbit as discussed above.

 The orbits of some of the planets (e.g.,

Venus) are ellipses of such small
eccentricity that they are essentially
circles, and we can put artificial
satellites into orbit around the Earth
with circular orbits if we choose.
 The orbits of the planets generally are
ellipses.
  Some comets have parabolic orbits; this means that they pass the Sun
once and then leave the Solar System, never to return. Other comets
have elliptical orbits and thus orbit the Sun with specific periods.
 The gravitational interaction between two passing stars generally
results in hyperbolic trajectories for the two stars.

Thus, Kepler's elliptical orbitals are but one example of the possible orbits in
a gravitational field. Only ellipses (and their special case, the circle) lead to
bound orbits; the others are associated with one-time gravitational
encounters. Here is a set of Java applets, taken from the Famous Curves
Applet Index that illustrate the geometrical properties of these gravitational
orbits:

 Java applet illustrating properties of a circle

 Java applet illustrating properties of an ellipse
 Java applet illustrating properties of an hyperbola
 Java applet illustrating properties of a parabola

For a given central force, increasing the velocity causes the orbit to change
from a circle to an ellipse to a parabola to a hyperbola, with the changes
occurring at certain critical velocities. For example, if the speed of the Earth
(which is in a nearly circular gravitational orbit) were increased by about a
factor of 1.4, the orbit would change into a parabola and the Earth would
leave the Solar System.

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

In astronomy, Kepler’s laws of planetary motion are three scientific laws describing the
motion of planets around the sun.

 Kepler first law – The law of orbits

 Kepler’s second law – The law of equal areas
 Kepler’s third law – The law of periods

Table of Content:
 Introduction
 First law
 Second Law
 Third Law

Introduction to Kepler’s Laws

Motion is always relative. Based on the energy of the particle under motion, the motions are
classified into two types:

 Bounded Motion
 Unbounded Motion
In bounded motion, the particle has negative total energy (E < 0) and has two or more
extreme points where the total energy is always equal to the potential energy of the particle,
i.e., the kinetic energy of the particle becomes zero.
For eccentricity 0 ≤ e <1, E < 0 implies the body has bounded motion. A circular orbit has
eccentricity e = 0, and an elliptical orbit has eccentricity e < 1.
In unbounded motion, the particle has positive total energy (E > 0) and has a single extreme
point where the total energy is always equal to the potential energy of the particle, i.e., the
kinetic energy of the particle becomes zero.
For eccentricity e ≥ 1, E > 0 implies the body has unbounded motion. Parabolic orbit has
eccentricity e = 1, and Hyperbolic path has eccentricity e > 1.
Also Read: 

 Gravitational Potential Energy

 Gravitational Field Intensity
Kepler’s laws of planetary motion can be stated as follows:

Kepler First law – The Law of Orbits

According to Kepler’s first law,” All the planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits
having the sun at one of the foci”. The point at which the planet is close to the sun is known
as perihelion, and the point at which the planet is farther from the sun is known as aphelion.
It is the characteristic of an ellipse that the sum of the distances of any planet from two foci is
constant. The elliptical orbit of a planet is responsible for the occurrence of seasons.
 Kepler First Law – The Law of Orbits

Kepler’s Second Law – The Law of Equal Areas

Kepler’s second law states, ” The radius vector drawn from the sun to the planet sweeps out
equal areas in equal intervals of time”
As the orbit is not circular, the planet’s kinetic energy is not constant in its path. It has
more kinetic energy near the perihelion, and less kinetic energy near the aphelion implies
more speed at the perihelion and less speed (v ) at the aphelion. If r is the distance of planet
min

from sun, at perihelion (r ) and at aphelion (r ), then,

min max

r + r  = 2a × (length of major axis of an ellipse) . . . . . . . (1)

min  max

 
 

Kepler’s Second Law – The law of Equal Areas

Using the law of conservation of angular momentum, the law can be verified.  At any point of
time, the angular momentum can be given as, L = mr ω. 2

Now consider a small area ΔA described in a small time interval Δt and the covered angle
is Δθ. Let the radius of curvature of the path be r, then the length of the arc covered = r Δθ.
ΔA = 1/2[r.(r.Δθ)]= 1/2r Δθ
2

Therefore, ΔA/Δt = [ 1/2r ]Δθ/dt

2

Taking limits on both sides as, Δt→0, we get;

limΔt→0ΔAΔt=limΔt→012r2ΔθΔt
dAdt=12r2ω
dAdt=L2m
Now, by conservation of angular momentum, L is a constant
Thus, dA/dt = constant
The area swept in equal intervals of time is a constant.
Kepler’s second law can also be stated as “The areal velocity of a planet revolving around the
sun in elliptical orbit remains constant, which implies the angular momentum of a planet
remains constant”. As the angular momentum is constant, all planetary motions are planar
motions, which is a direct consequence of central force.
 Check: Acceleration due to Gravity

Kepler’s Third Law – The Law of Periods

According to Kepler’s law of periods,” The square of the time period of revolution of a planet
around the sun in an elliptical orbit is directly proportional to the cube of its semi-major
axis”.
T  ∝ a
2 3

Shorter the orbit of the planet around the sun, the shorter the time taken to complete one
revolution. Using the equations of Newton’s law of gravitation and laws of motion, Kepler’s
third law takes a more general form:
P = 4π  /[G(M + M )] × a
2  2
1 2
3

where M  and M  are the masses of the two orbiting objects in solar masses.
1 2

Recommended Videos

Gravitation – Gravitational Potential Energy

4,934

Gravitation – Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

11,036

Frequently Asked Questions on Kepler’s law

What does Kepler’s first law explain?

According to Kepler’s first law, all the planets revolve around the Sun in elliptical orbits with
the Sun as one of the foci.

What does Kepler’s second explain?

According to Kepler’s second law, the speed at which the planets move in space continuously
changes. The second law helps to explain that when the planets are closer to the Sun, they
will travel faster.

What is Kepler’s third law?

Kepler’s third law, also called the law of periods, states that the square of the orbital period is
proportional to the cube of its mean distance R.

Why are the orbits of the planets not circular?

For the orbits to be circular, it requires the planets to travel with a certain velocity, which is
extremely unlikely. If there is any change in the velocity of the planet, the orbit will be
elliptical.
THE LAGRANGE POINTS

Introduction
For any two massive bodies rotating about their centre of mass there exist five
'stationary' points where the force on a third small body is zero (in the rotating
reference frame). Such is the case for the Sun and any individual planet, or for a
planet and one of its moons. These points are commonly referred to as the
Lagrange points. Their approximate locations are shown in the diagram below for
a Sun-planet two body system. The three points in a straight line (L1, L2 and L3)
are referred to as the co-linear points, and the other two (L4 and L5) as the
triangular points, as they form the third vertex of an equilateral triangle with the
main two masses of the system.

History
In 1687 Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica was published. This encapsulated
Newton's laws of motion and his law of gravitation. These allowed the calculation
of planetary orbits and gave a mathematical underpinning for Kepler's laws of
planetary motion (which he annunciated between 1609 and 1619)

Newton's laws allow the motion of a planet around the Sun to be computed fairly
readily, as long as only two bodies (the Sun and the planet) are considered.
However, the problem of three bodies is much more difficult. There is nothing in
the physics of the laws which prevents a solution, only the complexity of the
mathematics involved.

Many mathematicians worked on the problem of three-body motion in the 1700's

and even today only restricted three-body problems have been found to have
analytical solutions, although perturbation theory and numerical methods using
computers allow planetary orbits involving the forces from all major solar system
bodies to be calculated with high precision.

A publication in 1760 by Leonhard Euler indicated the presence of the stationary

points now labelled L1, L2 and L3. In 1772 Joseph Louis Lagrange predicted the
points L4 and L5 and in volume 6 of his collected works in 1773 he implied the
existence of all five stationary points. None of these works were accompanied by a
diagram, and it is not known when the first diagram appeared and when the naming
and numbering of the stationary points was first proposed. It does appear however,
that earlier references number the points as shown in the diagram above, whereas
post-1970 someone in the space community decided to revise the numbering
system such that L1 and L2 were reversed. In general the astronomical community
seems to prefer the original numbering scheme whereas the space community
almost universally uses the co-linear sequence L2-L1-L3.

Physics of the Lagrangian Points

The Lagrangian points are places that are stationary in a reference frame that
rotates about the system centre of mass (also known as the barycentre) with the
same angular speed as the two massive bodies (eg Sun and planet). This is a non-
inertial reference frame with gravitational and centrifugal forces acting on any
body within it.

The five stationary points exist because the true gravitational forces exerted by
both the Sun and the planet are just cancelled by the centrifugal force at these
points. At any point within the plane there are two gravitational forces (per unit
mass), one due to the Sun (G Ms / Rs2) and one due to the planet (G Mp / Rp2),
where Ms and Mp and the respective masses of the Sun and the planet, G is the
Newtonian gravitational constant, and Rs and Rp are the distances from the point
to the Sun and planet respectively. The centrifugal force per unit mass is given by r
ω2 where r is the distance from the point to the center of mass and ω is the angular
velocity of the rotating reference frame.

The gravitational forces all are directed toward the massive body in question,
whereas the centrifugal force is directed away from the centre of mass
(barycentre).

The points L1, L2 and L3 all lie along the line joing the Sun and the planet.
Derivation of their positions along this line will be shown in the next section.

Points L4 and L5 lie at the vertices of equilateral triangles whose base joins the
Sun and planet (or planet and moon), as shown in the diagram below for L4.
The centre of mass of the Sun-Earth system is shown outside the Sun here for
clarity. It actually lies within the core of the Sun, less than 500 km from its centre.
However, this distance is just enough to ensure that all three forces at the L4 point
can balance. To prove that the triangle is equilateral (equal side lengths) requires
that the three forces be resolved into orthogonal components and added
algebraically.

The diagram below shows the magnitude of the total force in the Sun-Earth
rotating system. Very bright regions signify a strong force field, whereas dark
regions are regions of weak field. The yellow lines indicate forces close to zero,
and show that L3, L4 and L5 are really quite extended areas rather than points.
This is confirmed by the distribution of Trojan asteroids discussed in a later
section. The intensity scale of this image is logarithmic in force and has also been
allowed to saturate at high field strengths to better show the weak field detail. Note
that L1 and L2 are elliptical areas with the major (longer) axis perpendicular to the
Sun-Earh line.
Derivation of the Positions of L1, L2, L3

The force equations for the three Lagrange points are:

 L1: Fs + Fe = Fc
L2: Fs = Fe + Fc
L3: Fs + Fe = Fc
Now the centrifugal force on a unit mass is of the form r ω2. However, we can
eliminate the angular velocity ω by considering the Earth where:
G Ms Me / R2 = Me Re ω2
which gives an expression for omega of
ω2 = G Ms / ( Re R2 ) = G Me / ( Rs R2 )
The distances to the centre of mass are defined by two relations:
R = Re + Rs
Ms Rs = Me Re
We can now write the force equilibrium equations for each of the co-linear
Lagrange points (noting that the gravitational constant disappears):
L1: Ms / (R + x)2 + Me / x2 = Ms (Re + x) / (Re R2)
L2: Ms / (R - x)2 = Me / x2 + Ms (Re - x) / (Re R2)
L3: Ms / x2 + Me / (R + x)2 = Me (Rs + x) / (Rs R2)
These can be rewritten as equations which can be easily iterated to solve for the
respective x values (x1, x2, x3) :
L1: x = √{(Me/Ms) Re R2 (R + x)2 / [(Re + x)(R + x)2 - Re R2]}
L2: x = √{(Me/Ms) Re R2 (R - x)2 / [ReR2 - (Re - x)(R - x)2]}
L3: x = √{(Ms/Me) Rs R2 (R + x)2 / [(Rs + x)(R + x)2 - Rs R2]}
The above equations are robust and converge quickly even with an initial value of
x = 0.
Real-World Parameters
System Sun-Earth Earth-Moon Sun-Jupiter

Major body Sun Earth Sun

mass M(kg) 1.991x1030 5.98x1024 1.991x1030

Minor body Earth Moon Jupiter

mass m(kg) 5.98x1024 7.35x1022 1.899x1027

Mass ratio
0.000 003 0.012 0.000 953
m/(M+m)

Distance 149,600,000 km 778,300,000 km

384,401 km
M to m 1.000 000 AU 5.206 AU
Distance
449 km 4,667 km 741,629 km
M to CM

Distance 149,599,551 km 777,558,403 km

379,734 km
m to CM 0.999 997 AU 5.197 AU

Distance 1,501,557 km 54,293,950 km

64,499 km
L1 to m 0.010 037 AU 0.363 AU

Distance 1,491,557 km 51,879,339 km

58,006 km
L2 to m 0.009 970 AU 0.347 AU

Distance 149,599,737 km 777,867,410 km

381,678 km
L3 to M 0.999 998 AU 5.200 AU

The values used in the above table are mean values for the planetary distances. As
all of the bodies move in elliptical orbits these values change from moment to
moment. We may thus ask if the values in the table should be quoted to the nearest
kilometre, and the answer of course is no, except in the comparison of two values
that differ by only a few tens of kilometres. It should also be noted that we have
used a value for the Astronomical Unit (which is defined as the mean distance
between the Sun and the Earth) of 149,600,000 km. A more accurate value is in
fact 149,597,871 km but the rounded value chosen is easier for comparison
purposes.

So bear in mind that all the values in the above table are approximate values. They
vary from moment to moment due to the non-circularity of the orbits and are
subject to perturbations from other bodies in the solar system. Lagrange himself
did not believe that these points would be of significance in the solar system, but
the fact that even some distance away the forces acting on a small body are quite
small gives these points a physical reality.

Note that only in the Sun-Jupiter system is the barycentre (centre of mass, CM)
outside the larger body (in this case the Sun) which has a radius of 695,950 km.

Stability of the Lagrangian Points

The points L1, L2 and L3 which are colinear with the Sun and the planet are points
of unstable equilibrium. They may be likened to placing a small ball on top of a
smooth hill. As long as the ball is able to sit on the very top of the hill, it will
remain stationary. However, even the slightest movement to one side will lead to
the ball sliding down the hill, either toward the large body or toward the small
body, depending on the direction of the initial displacement. That is, a small
displacement from these points will result in an ever increasing force away from
the point.
L4 and L5 are conditionally stable. As long as the mass ratio (as defined in the
previous table) is less than 0.0385 and the small mass at either L4 or L5 has both a
limited displacement and only a small velocity, it will stay in the general area of
the point. This point, under the given conditions, may be likened to a ball sitting in
a depression on the top of the hill. If its velocity is too great it will move out of the
depression and down the side of hill, but if it is only moving slowly it will stay
confined to the depression.

However, even at the unstable points, it is possible to set a spacecraft in a

reasonably stable orbit around these points. This may be an orbit that circles the
point. Stability analysis (see Introduction to Celestial Mechanics by S W
McCuskey, Addison-Wesley, 1963) shows that an elliptical orbit both in the orbital
plane and out of it are reasonably stable at the co-linear points.

Significance of the Lagrangian Points in the Natural World

The L4 and L5 points are the most significant of the Lagrange points in the natural
world because they have been found to be the home of asteroids in at least three
systems.

The Sun-Jupiter system has the greatest number of these asteroids and they are
called the Trojan asteroids or simply Trojans. As of July 2011 a total of 4917
Trojans have been found in this system, 3168 around the L4 point and 1645 around
the L5 point. The diagram below shows the distribution of these asteroids at one
point in time. Notice the enormous spread, over a distance of more than 500
million kilometres along the orbital path. This shows the region over which the
stability of the area extends.
As of mid-2011 eight trojans have now been discovered in the Sun-Neptune
system and four in the Sun-Mars system. One possible trojan in the Sun-Earth
system was recently discovered, but stability analysis has yet to confirm how
permanent this may be.

It was once thought that the gegenschein, a very faint patch of light at the midnight
zenith, similar to the zodiacal light, may be due to interplanetary dust particles
orbiting the Sun-Earth L1 point. This has still to be investigated further.

Significance of the Lagrangian Points in the Technological World

The L1 and L2 points are the sites of several spacecraft in the Sun-Earth system.

From L2 a spacecraft can continuously monitor the solar wind and space weather
from the Sun before it reaches the Earth. On the average they can give about one
hour's warning of an event. Three such spacecraft are SOHO, ACE, and WIND.
These have halo type orbits about L2, not just for stability, but to actually keep
them away from a direct line of sight from the Earth to the Sun. This is so that
ground stations downloading their data, do not have to point their antennas at the
Sun, which is a powerful radio source that can easily overwhelm the signal from
the spacecraft transmitters.

It is interesting to note that the replacement for the Solar Heliospheric Observer
(SOHO), the Solar Dynamics Observer (SDO) was not placed at L2, but in
geosynchronous orbit. The project scientists and engineers for SDO decided to
accept the eclipse periods that come with geosynchronous orbit to enable an
extremely high downlink data rate (several gigabytes per day), which simply
cannot be supported by the current NASA Deep Space Network from the L2 point.

Spacecraft placed at the L1 point (beyond the Earth away from the Sun) tend to be
astronomical in purpose. Examples are WMAP, Herschel and Planck. These
spacecraft need shielding from the Sun (the Earth partially covers the Sun at this
point) to enable their sensitive detectors to be kept as cool as possible and to cover
as much dark sky as possible. At the same time their solar cells also need a
reasonable amount of sunlight to power the spacecraft.
 This is how the Sun appears from the Sun-Earth L1
point. The Sun subtends an angle of 0.528 o or 31.7
minutes of arc, whereas the Earth subtends an angle of
0.487o or 29.2'. The Earth thus covers 85% of the solar
disc. If the Earth did not occult the Sun, the solar
power at L1 would be 1343 watts per square metre
(compared to 1370 W m-2 at the Earth). However, the
actual solar power received will be less than 200 W m -
2
 due to the presence of the Earth. The actual value will
be less than 15% of 1343, due to the phenomenon of
solar limb darkening. Of course, spacecraft will not be
stationed right at L1, but will orbit about the point, and
thus will have access to more solar power.

Note that all of these spacecraft, whether at L1 or L2 have to expend station

keeping fuel to keep them in appropriate orbits for any length of time.

Finally, it should be noted that the Lagrange points offer very low energy transfer
points for spacecraft on their way to and from other parts of the solar system. They
enable new orbital dynamics for fuel-strapped missions of exploration.

Mapping the Cosmic

Microwave Background
Observing the Sun Lagrange point transfers WMAP/L1
SOHO/L2 ISEE-3

[All images NASA artist impressions]

Home

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-body_problem
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the range of all types of EM radiation.
Radiation is energy that travels and spreads out as it goes – the visible light that
comes from a lamp in your house and the radio waves that come from a radio station
are two types of electromagnetic radiation. The other types of EM radiation that
make up the electromagnetic spectrum are microwaves, infrared light, ultraviolet
light, X-rays and gamma-rays.

You know more about the electromagnetic spectrum than you may think. The image
below shows where you might encounter each portion of the EM spectrum in your
day-to-day life.

The electromagnetic spectrum from lowest energy/longest wavelength (at the top) to highest

energy/shortest wavelength (at the bottom). (Credit: NASA's Imagine the Universe)
Radio: Your radio captures radio waves emitted by radio stations, bringing your
favorite tunes. Radio waves are also emitted by stars and gases in space.

Microwave: Microwave radiation will cook your popcorn in just a few minutes, but is
also used by astronomers to learn about the structure of nearby galaxies.

Infrared: Night vision goggles pick up the infrared light emitted by our skin and
objects with heat. In space, infrared light helps us map the dust between stars.

Visible: Our eyes detect visible light. Fireflies, light bulbs, and stars all emit visible
light.

Ultraviolet: Ultraviolet radiation is emitted by the Sun and are the reason skin tans
and burns. "Hot" objects in space emit UV radiation as well.

X-ray: A dentist uses X-rays to image your teeth, and airport security uses them to
see through your bag. Hot gases in the Universe also emit X-rays.

Gamma ray: Doctors use gamma-ray imaging to see inside your body. The biggest
gamma-ray generator of all is the Universe.

Is a radio wave the same as a gamma ray?

Are radio waves completely different physical objects than gamma-rays? They are
produced in different processes and are detected in different ways, but they are not
fundamentally different. Radio waves, gamma-rays, visible light, and all the other
parts of the electromagnetic spectrum are electromagnetic radiation.

Electromagnetic radiation can be described in terms of a stream of mass-less

particles, called photons, each traveling in a wave-like pattern at the speed of light.
Each photon contains a certain amount of energy. The different types of radiation are
defined by the the amount of energy found in the photons. Radio waves have
photons with low energies, microwave photons have a little more energy than radio
waves, infrared photons have still more, then visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, and, the
most energetic of all, gamma-rays.

Measuring electromagnetic radiation

Electromagnetic radiation can be expressed in terms of energy, wavelength,
or frequency. Frequency is measured in cycles per second, or Hertz. Wavelength is
measured in meters. Energy is measured in electron volts. Each of these three
quantities for describing EM radiation are related to each other in a precise
mathematical way. But why have three ways of describing things, each with a
different set of physical units?
Comparison of wavelength, frequency and energy for the electromagnetic spectrum. (Credit:
NASA's Imagine the Universe)

The short answer is that scientists don't like to use numbers any bigger or smaller
than they have to. It is much easier to say or write "two kilometers" than "two
thousand meters." Generally, scientists use whatever units are easiest for the type of
EM radiation they work with.

Astronomers who study radio waves tend to use wavelengths or frequencies. Most of
the radio part of the EM spectrum falls in the range from about 1 cm to 1 km, which
is 30 gigahertz (GHz) to 300 kilohertz (kHz) in frequencies. The radio is a very broad
part of the EM spectrum.

Infrared and optical astronomers generally use wavelength. Infrared astronomers

use microns (millionths of a meter) for wavelengths, so their part of the EM spectrum
falls in the range of 1 to 100 microns. Optical astronomers use
both angstroms (0.00000001 cm, or 10-8 cm) and nanometers (0.0000001 cm, or 10-
7
 cm). Using nanometers, violet, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red light have
wavelengths between 400 and 700 nanometers. (This range is just a tiny part of the
entire EM spectrum, so the light our eyes can see is just a little fraction of all the EM
radiation around us.)

The wavelengths of ultraviolet, X-ray, and gamma-ray regions of the EM spectrum

are very small. Instead of using wavelengths, astronomers that study these portions
of the EM spectrum usually refer to these photons by their energies, measured in
electron volts (eV). Ultraviolet radiation falls in the range from a few electron volts to
about 100 eV. X-ray photons have energies in the range 100 eV to 100,000 eV (or
100 keV). Gamma-rays then are all the photons with energies greater than 100 keV.

 Show me a chart of the wavelength, frequency, and energy regimes of the

spectrum

Why do we put telescopes in orbit?

 The Earth's atmosphere stops most types of electromagnetic radiation from space from
reaching Earth's surface. This illustration shows how far into the atmosphere different parts
of the EM spectrum can go before being absorbed. Only portions of radio and visible light
reach the surface. (Credit: STScI/JHU/NASA)

Most electromagnetic radiation from space is unable to reach the surface of the
Earth. Radio frequencies, visible light and some ultraviolet light makes it to sea level.
Astronomers can observe some infrared wavelengths by putting telescopes on
mountain tops. Balloon experiments can reach 35 km above the surface and can
operate for months. Rocket flights can take instruments all the way above the Earth's
atmosphere, but only for a few minutes before they fall back to Earth.

For long-term observations, however, it is best to have your detector on an

orbiting satellite and get above it all!

Updated: March 2013

https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/educators/materials.html

Radiation
Laws
Starlight and
Blackbodies
In stars, radiation comes from the surface
layers called the photosphere. Radiation is
coming from below that region in the star
but it is absorbed on its way out. How does
the photosphere produce the light that we
see?

To understand the light we see from stars,

we have to understand how photons are
produced, and how the TEMPERATURE
(a measure of the average velocity of
particles in a material) is related to atomic motions. The second issue is
straightforward. The faster the average motions of atoms the higher the
temperature. Hotter materials have faster moving atoms.

To address the first issue note that light is produced by a changing

electromagnetic field. If we disturb the motion of a charged particle like an
electron, the sudden change in the electric field around it produces an
electromagnetic wave. If you run a comb through your hair, you disturb the
electrons in the comb and your hair and produce an electromagnetic waves. If
you turn on an AM radio, you will hear pops: the wave has propagated from
your hair to the radio. This is the same with an astronomical object: changes
in electron motions produce electromagnetic waves which propagate and this
is the light that we observe.

Thus we can immediately realize that hotter objects emit more radiation: the
hotter the object, the more atomic motions disturb electrons and the more
radiation that is emitted.

The radiation emitted by a heated object is called BLACKBODY radiation. It

refers to the fact that at room temperature, a perfect emitter is also a perfect
absorber and would look black. This is because all radiation coming into the
object is absorbed and then re-radiated so you see no net emission from the
object. If the object is at higher than room temperature it would glow.

As long as the temperature of an object is larger than ABSOLUTE ZERO (on

the Kelvin scale) the atoms have thermal energy and can radiate. Thus ice
cubes radiate some photons.

The average or bulk properties of electromagnetic radiation interacting with

matter are systematized in a simple set of radiation laws. These laws apply
when the radiating body is a blackbody radiator. This means that it is not
interacting very much with its surrounding environment and is more or less at
equilibrium. Although stars do not satisfy perfectly the conditions to be
blackbody radiators, they do to a sufficiently good approximation that it is
useful to view stars as approximate blackbody radiators.

Planck Radiation Law

The primary law governing blackbody radiation is the Planck Radiation Law,
which governs the intensity of radiation emitted by unit surface area into a
fixed direction from the blackbody as a function of wavelength for a fixed
temperature. The Planck law is represented by the shape of curves in the
figure to the right. The mathematical function describing the shape is called
the Planck function. NOTE THAT BLACKBODY RADIATION HAS
EMISSION AT AT ALL WAVELENGTHS. THIS MEANS THAT IT IS
"CONTINUUM EMISSION."

The Wien and Stefan-Boltzmann Laws

The behavior of blackbody radiation is described by the Planck Law, but we
can derive from the Planck Law two other radiation laws that are very useful.
The Wien Displacement Law, and the Stefan-Boltzmann Law are illustrated
in the following equations.

Stefan-Boltzmann Law:
E= s T4
where s= 5.67 x 10-8 Joule/ (m2sec K4)

Wien Law:
wavelength of peak (in Angstroms)= 3 x
107/T
The Wien Law gives the wavelength of the peak of the radiation distribution,
while the Stefan-Boltzmann Law gives the total energy being emitted at all
wavelengths by the blackbody (which is the area under the Planck Law
curve). Thus, the Wien Law explains the shift of the peak to shorter
wavelengths as the temperature increases, while the Stefan-Boltzmann Law
explains the growth in the height of the curve as the temperature increases.
Notice that this growth is very abrupt, since it varies as the fourth power of
the temperature.

Temperatures and Characteristic Wavelengths

All heated objects emit a characteristic spectrum of electromagnetic radiation,
and this spectrum is concentrated in higher wavelengths for cooler bodies.
The following table summarizes the blackbody temperatures necessary to give
a peak for emitted radiation in various regions of the spectrum. The energy
there is the energy of the photon corresponding to the wavelength given by the
Wien law. (Recall that a given photon energy can be related to the wavelength
from equation in previous lecture or page 100 in text).
Some Blackbody Temperatures
Region Wavelength Energy Blackbody Temperature
(centimeters) (eV) (K)
Radio > 10 < 10-5 < 0.03
Microwave 10 - 0.01 10-5 - 0.01 0.03 - 30
Infrared 0.01 - 7 x 10-5 0.01 - 2 30 - 4100
Visible 7 x 10-5 - 4 x 10-5 2-3 4100 - 7300
Ultraviolet 4 x 10-5 - 10-7 3 - 103 7300 - 3 x 106
X-Rays 10-7 - 10-9 103 - 105 3 x 106 - 3 x 108
Gamma Rays < 10-9 > 105 > 3 x 108

Blackbody radiation corresponds to radiation from bodies in thermal

equilibrium. We will consider later the emission of non-thermal radiation,
which doesn't follow a blackbody law. Such radiation is often produced by
violent collisions rather than equilibrium heating. For example, in
astrophysical environments radiation at the long and short wavelength ends of
the above table is more likely to be produced by non-thermal processes.

Java Virtual Experiments: Blackbody Radiation

Here are three Java applets illustrating some important properties of
blackbody radiation.

 The Planck Law

 Wien's Law, Stefan-Boltzmann Law, and Color Indices
  BlackBody: The Game!

You may use these virtual experiments to gain some experience with how
Planck distributions evolve with temperature.

Black Body Radiation: Wien Displacement Law

A black body is an idealization in physics that pictures a body that absorbs all
electromagnetic radiation incident on it irrespective of its frequency or angle. In this article,
we will be learning about blackbody radiation and some important laws related to it.

What is Black Body Radiation?

To stay in thermal equilibrium, a black body must emit radiation at the same rate as it
absorbs, so it must also be a good emitter of radiation, emitting electromagnetic waves of as
many frequencies as it can absorb, i.e. all the frequencies.  The radiation emitted by the
blackbody is known as blackbody radiation.

Characteristics of Blackbody Radiation

The characteristics of the blackbody radiation are explained with the help of the following
laws:

 Wien’s displacement law

 Planck’s law
 Stefan-Boltzmann law

Wien’s Displacement Law

Wien’s displacement law states that
The blackbody radiation curve for different temperature peaks at a wavelength is
inversely proportional to the temperature.

Wien’s Law Formula

 T is the temperature in kelvins
Wien’s Law Formula λmax=bT
 b is the Wien’s displacement constant = 2.8977*10 3 m.K

Planck’s Law
Using Planck’s law of blackbody radiation, the spectral density of the emission is determined
for each wavelength at a particular temperature.

Planck’s Law Formula

Planck’s law Eλ=8πhcλ5(ehcπKT−1)  Eλ is the wavelength
  T is the absolute temperature

Stefan-Boltzmann Law
The Stefan-Boltzmann law explains the relationship between total energy emitted and the
absolute temperature.

Stefan-Boltzmann Law Formula

 E is the total energy emitted
Stefan-Boltzmann Law E ∝ T4
 T is the absolute temperature

Wien’s Displacement Law Example

 We can easily deduce that a wood fire approximately 1500 K hot gives out peak radiation at
2000 nm. This means that the majority of the radiation from the wood fire is beyond the
human eye’s visibility. This is why a campfire is an excellent source of warmth but a very
poor source of light.
 The temperature of the sun’s surface is 5700 K. Using Wien’s displacement law, we can
calculate the peak radiation output at a wavelength of 500 nm. This lies in the green portion
of the visible light spectrum. It turns out that our eyes are highly sensitive to this particular
wavelength of visible light. We really should be appreciative that a rather unusually large
portion of the sun’s radiation falls in a fairly small visible spectrum.
 When a piece of metal is heated, it first becomes ‘red hot’. This is the longest visible
wavelength. On further heating, it moves from red to orange and then yellow. At its hottest,
the metal will be seen to be glowing white. These are the shorter wavelengths dominating
the radiation.

Watch the video below to learn more about black body radiation!
12,199

Stay tuned with BYJU’S to learn more about black body radiation, light sources, etc.

Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

What is meant by black body radiation?

The radiation emitted by the blackbody is known as blackbody radiation. To stay in thermal
equilibrium, a black body must emit radiation at the same rate as it absorbs, so it must also be a
good emitter.

What is a black body?

It is an ideal body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic waves or radiation, regardless of the
angle of incidence or frequency. As it absorbs all colours of light, it is named as black “body”.

What are the laws that explain the characteristics of a black body?
Wien’s displacement law, Planck’s Law and Stefan-Boltzmann laws are the laws that explain the
character of a black body.

What is Wien’s Displacement Law?

According to Wien’s Displacement Law, the blackbody radiation curve for different temperature
peaks at a wavelength is inversely proportional to the temperature.

What is Planck’s Law?

Planck’s Law states that electromagnetic radiation from heated objects is not released as a
continuous form but is made up of discrete quanta or units of energy. This size possesses a
fundamental physical constant called Planck’s constant.

 Test your knowledge on Wien displacement law

Put your understanding of this concept to test by answering a few

MCQs. Click ‘Start Quiz’ to begin!

Select the correct answer and click on the “Finish” button

Check your score and answers at the end of the quiz

Start Quiz

PHYSICS Related Links

Magnetic Flux Definition Advantages And Disadvantages Of Energy Sources

Great Scientist Names Difference Between Uniform And Nonuniform Motion

Cgs Unit Of Viscosity Fermi Paradox

Helmholtz Free Energy Si Unit Of Electric Flux

Van Der Waals Equation Unit Of Frequency

1 Comment

1.  akshaya NOVEMBER 1, 2019 AT 7:58 PM

It was short,and it was easy to know about the black body radiation in a short and
sweet way.

REPLY
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