UNIT –VIII

ATOMS AND NUCLEI

ATOMS: -From the study of discharge of electricity through gases, it become clear that an
atom consist of positive and negative charges. As the atom is electricity natural. The no. Of
positive and negative charges must be equal.
“A theoretical explanation for the structure of atom in called an Atom model.”
THOMSON’S MODEL:-On the base of various experiments J.J.Thomson suggested that
the atom is full of some positive fluid like a‘ pudding’ in which electrons were embedded like
‘plums’ in that pudding or atom is like a
watermelon which is filled with positive
charge and electrons are like a seeds in
watermelon. The radius of the spherical
modal was about 10-8cmThis was the
first attempt to explain the atom. This
modal was failed to explain and satisfy
the result of various experiments
performed by Rutherford and others. It
is also not able to explain the origin of
spectral lines in the form of series.

ALPHA – PARTICLE SCATTERING EXPERIMENT: -Ernest Rutherford and others

performed a series of experiments to define the inner structure of atoms ∝- particale in
used in this experiment.
Experimental Arrangement: -
Radon a radioactive source
of∝- particle is placed in a
lead box having a narrow
hole. A very narrow beam
of ∝- particles in emerges
from the lead box which is to
be made incident on a thin
gold foil of thickness 10-6 m.
when ∝-particle beam passes
through gold foil ∝-particle
get scattered at different
angles. Scattered ∝- particle strikes on a fluorescent screen and produce the flashes of light.
The observations are taken with the help of a low – power microscope.
Observations: - (1) most of the ∝- particle either passed through straight or scattered by a
very small angles when passed through gold foil. These conclude that most of the space is
empty in the atom.
(2) A few ∝- particle were deflected through 1800 (back ward direction). On this basis
Rutherford conclude that the whole of the positive charge is concentrated and nearly the
entire mass is concentrated in a very small central core, called as nucleus of atom.

Explanation:-The positively charged alpha practical can be deflected when passed through
the atom because of two reasons. (1) Attraction of electrons and (2) repulsion of positive
charge.
The deflection of ∝- particle cannot be due to attraction of electron because the mass of ∝-
particle in nearly 8000 times the mass of electron. So, the possible reason is the repulsion
due to positive charge. It was observed that most of the∝- particle were passed without any
deviation it shows that no positive charge is present is most of the region of atom, this
conclusion rejects the Thomson model.
∝- Particle which travels towards the centre there speed continuously slowdown due to
force of repulsion, finally it stopped and repelled in opp. direction. That is not observed in
another region. It shows that the whole of the positive charge is present at centre. Those∝-
particle which passes near to the nucleus experience a slightly greater force of repulsion and
deflected by an angle less than 180o. Those ∝- particle which passes at greater distance
from nucleus experience a very weak force of repulsion and deviated by a very small or no
angle. So, we can say that scattering of ∝- particle depends upon the distance of ∝- particle
from centre of nucleus. Called the IMPACT PARAMETER (b). The impact parameter b is
defined as the perpendicular distance of the velocity vector of the ∝- Particle from the
centre of nucleus, when it is far away from nucleus.
 𝜃
𝑘𝑍𝑒 2 𝑐𝑜𝑡
2
Expression of impact parameter: - b = 𝐾.𝐸.

RUTHERFORD’S NUCLEAR MODEL: -

Postulates: - (1) The whole of positive charge and nearly the entire mass of the atom is
concentrated in a very small volume of the atom called nucleus.
(2) The electron is distributed around the nucleus. So, there is lot of empty space in the
atom.
(3) The atom is electricity neutral, because positive charge in the nucleus in equal to the
negative charge on electrons.
(4) Electrons are continuously revolving around the nucleus in the circular orbit and
electrostatic force provides the required centripetal force. Electrons are not stationary
because if they than they are pulled towards the nucleus because of electrostatic force of
attraction.
Limitation: - (1) According to the electromagnetic
wave theory the accelerated charge particle
radiates the energy in the form of electromagnetic
radiation. If the charged particle is moving with a
frequency 𝜈 then it should emit the radiation of
frequency 𝜈. As a result, there is continuous
decrease in energy of electrons and their path
around the nucleus is spiral and ultimately the
nucleus fall into the nucleus and nucleus will be
unstable but practically nucleus is very much
stable Rutherford fails to explain it.

(2) According to the Rutherford an electron emits the radiation of all possible frequencies,
but practically the spectrum of atom is series of sharp lines, but according to Rutherford it
should be continuous, Rutherford could not explain it.

Distance of closest approach: - (Estimation of nuclear size)

The alpha particle which is heading towards the nucleus stops at a certain distance r o from
the nucleus for a moment and then begins to retrace its path, i.e. it is scattered by an angle
of 180o. The distance r0 is known as Distance of closest approach.

As the alpha is moving towards the nucleus the speed of alpha particle starts decreasing due
to repulsive force of nucleus, but simultaneously the electrostatic potential energy of the
system starts increasing as the separation between the alpha particle and nucleus is
decreasing.
The gain in potential energy will be equal to the lost in kinetic energy of alpha particle as the
energy remains conserved.

𝑘𝑄1 𝑄2
The electrostatic potential energy is given by the relation P.E = 𝑟
(k = electrostatic
9 2 2
constant = 9 x 10 Nm /C )
So K.E. = P.E.

1 𝐾𝑄1 𝑄2
𝑚𝑣 2 =
2 𝑟𝑜
Where Q1 and Q2 are the charges of two particles. Here the two charge particles are alpha
particle and nucleus of gold.
Charge of alpha particle = Q1 = + 2e
Charge of nucleus of gold = + Ze (Z = 79 for gold)
For the Rutherford’s experiment the energy of alpha particle = 5.5 MeV was used
So K.E. = 5.5 MeV = 5.5 x 1.6 x 10-13 J
k x(+2e)x(+Ze)
So 5.5 x 1.6 x 10-13 J = 𝑟𝑜
9 x 109 x2x1.6 x 10−19 x 79 x 1.6 x 10−19
5.5 x 1.6 x 10-13 J = 𝑟𝑜

𝑟𝑜 = 4.13 x 10-14 m = 41.3 fm

BOHR’S ATOM MODEL: -

Neil’s Bohr’s in 1913 proposed a model to remove the drawbacks of Rutherford model. He
applies the quantum theory given by Einstein to the Rutherford model.
Postulates: - (1) an atom consists of a very tiny positively charged nucleus, where the whole
mass of the atom is assumed to be concentrated.
(2) The electrons revolve in the circular orbit and the centripetal force in provided by
electrostatic force of attraction.
(3) Bohr’s quantisation condition: - An electron can revolve only in those circular orbits for
𝒉
which orbital angular momentum is integral multiple of 𝟐𝝅.
According to the de – Broglie hypothesis, the moving electron produces the matter wave.
So 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆
ℎ
As 𝜆= 𝑚𝑣
ℎ ℎ ℎ
So 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑛 𝑚𝑣 , 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 𝑛 2𝜋 so L = 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 𝑛 2𝜋

Where r in the radius of the orbit, m is in the mass of the electron

and v is its velocity of electron in the orbit.
h=plank’s constant
and n=1, 2,3,---------(principal quantum number ).
(4) An electron when revolve in the permitted orbit it does not radiates energy though it is
accelerating. The total energy of the electron remains constant. The orbit is known as
stationary or non-radiating orbit.
(5) When an electron jumps from higher energy level to lower energy level (orbit)
electromagnetic radiation in emitted and when electron jumps from lower orbit to higher
orbit there is absorption of energy equal to difference in energy of orbit.
If E1 and E2 are the energies of n1 and n2 principal quantum number, then frequency of
emitted radiation is given by h𝝂 = E2 –E1
HYDROGEN ATOM: - Hydrogen is the simplest atom which contains one proton and no
neutron in nucleus and one electron revolving around the nucleus.
(1) Radius of Bohr’s Stationary Orbits: - As we know that the centripetal force required is
𝐦𝐯 𝟐 𝐤𝐙𝐞𝟐
provided by electrostatic force then =
𝑟 𝑟2
𝐤𝐙𝐞𝟐
Or mv2 = m = mass of electron
𝑟
r = radius of orbit
𝒏𝒉 𝒏𝒉 𝟐 𝐤𝐙𝐞𝟐
v= ⇒m( ) = v = velocity of electron
𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒓 𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒓 𝑟
𝐧𝟐 𝐡𝟐
Or r =(
𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒌𝒁𝒎𝒆𝟐
) where n=1,2,3,4,.....................

As r ∝ n2 so that radii of orbits are in the ratio 1: 4: 9: 16: 25...The orbits are near to each
other when they are close to nucleus and as we go away from the nucleus spacing between
them is continuously increases. Means orbit are not equally spaced.
(2) Size of Hydrogen Atom: - For n = 1 and Z = 1 we get

𝒉𝟐
r1 = on putting h = 6.63 x 10-34Js, k = 9 x 109 Nm2/C2
𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒌𝒎𝒆𝟐

m = 9 x 10-31 kg and e = 1.6 x 10-19 C

(𝟔.𝟔𝟑 𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 )𝟐
r1 = 𝟒 𝒙 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒙 𝟑.𝟏𝟒𝟐 𝒙 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 𝟏.𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗
= 0.53 x 10-10 m = 0.53 A

𝑛ℎ
(3) Velocity of Electron: - As V = 2𝜋𝑚𝑟

n2 h2 𝑛ℎ 4𝜋2 𝑘𝑍𝑚𝑒 2
As r =(
4𝜋2 𝑘𝑍𝑚𝑒 2
) than V = 2𝜋𝑚𝑛2 ℎ2

2𝜋𝑘𝑍𝑒 2
So V =
𝑛ℎ

𝒌𝒁𝒆𝟐
Vn = 𝒏𝒉
𝟐𝝅
To compare the speed of electron in hydrogen atom with the speed of light in vacuum,
multiply and divide by C. We get,
𝒌𝒆𝟐 𝒄 𝒌𝒆𝟐
Vn= 𝒏𝒉 ( 𝒉 is a dimensionless constant known as fine structure constant ∝ )
( )𝒄 ( )𝒄
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅

𝟏 𝒄
and ∝ = so Vn =
𝟏𝟑𝟕 𝟏𝟑𝟕 𝒏
Speed of electron in inner most orbits is 1/137 times the speed of light in vacuum. For
higher orbit speed o electron decreases. So, the electron has maximum speed in the
innermost orbit.
(4) Frequency of Revolution: -Let an electron is revolving with an angular velocity 𝜔 in an
orbit of radius r, with speed V. Then V = r𝜔 = r (2𝜋𝜈)
𝑉 2𝜋𝑘𝑒 2
𝜈 = 2𝜋𝑟 = (replace the value of V)
𝑛ℎ𝑟

For first orbit 𝜈 = 6.56 x 1015 rps

(5) Energy of orbit: - An electron revolving in a circular or it possess both the kinetic and
potential energy. E = E k + Ep
𝐦𝐯 𝟐 𝐤𝐙𝐞𝟐
As = so
𝑟 𝑟2
𝒌𝒁𝒆𝟐
Ek = ½ mv2 =
𝟐𝒓
𝒌𝒁𝒆𝟐
And Ep =−
𝒓
𝒌𝒁𝒆𝟐 𝒌𝒁𝒆𝟐 𝒌𝒁𝒆𝟐 𝐧𝟐 𝐡𝟐
So E = − =− (as 𝒓 = )
𝟐𝒓 𝒓 𝟐𝒓 𝒌𝒁𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒎𝒆𝟐
it shows that, E = - Ek and E = 2Ep
𝒌𝒁𝒆𝟐 𝒌𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒁 𝒎𝒆𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝒌𝟐 𝒁𝟐 𝒎𝒆𝟒
E= so E = −
𝟐 𝐧𝟐 𝐡𝟐 𝐧𝟐 𝐡𝟐

Negative sign shows that some work is need to be done to separate the electron from the
nucleus known as work function. As E ∝ 1/n2. The electron has the least energy in inner
most orbits, as we go on higher orbit the E becomes fewer negative means energy
increases. On multiply numerator and denominator by C2 . we get,

𝟐
𝒌𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝒁𝟐 𝒎𝒆𝟒 𝒄𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝒌𝒆𝟐
En = − So En = − 𝒎𝒁 𝒄 ( 𝒉 )
𝐧𝟐 𝐡𝟐 𝐜 𝟐 ( )𝒄
𝟐𝝅
𝟏
En = − 𝒎𝒄𝟐 𝜶𝟐 𝒁𝟐 The value of ½ mC2∝2 = 13.6 eV
𝟐
𝟏𝟑.𝟔 𝒁𝟐
Then En = − 𝒆𝑽
𝒏𝟐
(6) Work done in Raising the Electron: - Let W is the amount of work done in raising the
electron from n1 to n2 then W = E 2 – E1
Where E1and E2are the energies of n1 and n2 orbits.
𝒌𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝒁𝒎𝒆𝟒 𝒌𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝒎𝒆𝟒
W=− – (− )
𝐧𝟐𝟐 𝐡𝟐 𝐧𝟐𝟏 𝐡𝟐
𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝒌𝟐 𝒁𝒎𝒆𝟒 𝟏 𝟏
W=
𝐡𝟐
( 𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐
)
𝟏

HYDROGEN SPECTRUM: - When electron jumps from higher energy level E2 to lower
energy level E1then
𝒌𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝒎𝒆𝟒 𝒌𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝒎𝒆𝟒
h𝝂 = E2 - E1⟹h𝝂 = − – (− )
𝐧𝟐𝟐 𝐡𝟐 𝐧𝟐𝟏 𝐡𝟐

𝒌𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝒎𝒆𝟒 𝟏 𝟏
h𝝂 =
𝐡𝟐
(𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐
)
𝟏

𝒌𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝒎𝒆𝟒 𝟏 𝟏
𝝂 = (𝒏𝟐 − ) (as 𝝂 = C/𝝀 )
𝐡𝟑 𝟏 𝒏𝟐𝟐

𝟏 𝒌𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝒎𝒆𝟒 𝟏 𝟏
𝝀
=
𝒄𝐡𝟑
( 𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐
)
𝟏

Here 1/𝝀 is known as wave number, defined as number of waves in unit distance. The term
𝒌𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝒎𝒆𝟒
is called Rydberg Constant (R). Its value is 1.097 x 107 m-1 .
𝒄𝐡𝟑

(1) Lyman series: - When the electron makes the transition from higher energy state to
the innermost energy state (n = 1) then the radiations emitted are in Lyman series.
n1 = 1 and n2= 2,3,4,5...........
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝝀
= R (𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐
)
These are in Ultraviolet region.

(2) Balmer Series: -When the electron makes the transition from higher energy state to
the second energy state (n = 2) then the radiations emitted are in Balmer series.
n1 = 2 and n2= 3,4,5,6,.......
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝝀
= R (𝟒 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐
)
First four lines are in Visible region and others are in Ultraviolet region.
(3) Paschen Series: - When the electron makes the transition from higher energy state
to the third energy state (n = 3) then the radiations emitted are in Paschen series.
n1 = 3 and n2= 4,5,6,7,.......
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝝀
= R (𝟗 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐
)
 These lines are in Infrared region.

(4) Bracket Series: -When the electron makes the transition from higher energy state to
the fourth energy state (n = 4) then the radiations emitted are in Bracket series.
n1 = 4 and n2= 5,6,7,8,.......
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
=R( − )
𝝀 𝟏𝟔 𝒏𝟐𝟐
These lines are in Infrared region.

(5) Pfund Series: - When the electron makes the transition from higher energy state to
the fifth energy state (n = 5) then the radiations emitted are in Pfund series.
n1 = 5 and n2= 6,7,8,9,.......
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝝀
= R (𝟐𝟓 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐
)
These lines are in Far Infrared region.

(6) Humphery Series: - When the electron makes the transition from higher energy
state to the sixth energy state (n = 6) then the radiations emitted are in Humphery
series.
n1 = 6 and n2= 7,8,9,.......
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝝀
= R (𝟑𝟔 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐
)

𝟏𝟑.𝟔
ENERGY LEVELS OF HYDROGEN: - As En = − 𝒆𝑽
𝒏𝟐

If n = 1 then E1 = - 13.6 eV

This is known as ground state energy. This is the Ionisation Energy of the atom. If 13.6 eV of
energy is given to the electron then it will come out of the atom. Higher energy states are
known as Excited States.

𝟏𝟑.𝟔 𝟏𝟑.𝟔
If n = 2 then E2 = = = - 3.4 eV
𝟐𝟐 𝟒

𝟏𝟑.𝟔 𝟏𝟑.𝟔
If n = 3 then E3 =− = − 𝟗 = - 1.51 eV
𝟐
𝟑
𝟏𝟑.𝟔 𝟏𝟑.𝟔
If n = 4 then E4 = − 𝟐 = − 𝟏𝟔 = - 0.85 eV
𝟒
𝟏𝟑.𝟔 𝟏𝟑.𝟔
If n = 5 then E5 = − =− 𝟓
𝟐 = - 0.54 eV
𝟓
And If n = ∞ then E∞= 0 eV
IONISATION: - Ionisation is the process of knocking an electron out of the atom. Energy
required to knock an electron completely out of the atom is known as Ionisation Energy.
Ionisation energy of hydrogen atom = E∞ - E1= 0 - (- 13.6) = 13.6 eV
DRAW BACK OF BOHR’S THEORY: -
(1) It is not clear why only circular orbit is considered but elliptical orbit is possible.
(2) Bohr’s theory can only explain the spectra of simple atom like hydrogen but not able to
explain the spectra of atom containing more no of electrons.
(3) This theory doesn’t explain the arrangement and distribution of electron in an atom.
(4) This theory cannot explain any idea about the time for which an electron exists in any
state.
(5) It doesn’t explain the further splitting of spectral lines in magnetic field (Zeeman Effect)
or in an electric field (Stark Effect).