Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Unit - 8 Atoms
Unit - 8 Atoms
Explanation:-The positively charged alpha practical can be deflected when passed through
the atom because of two reasons. (1) Attraction of electrons and (2) repulsion of positive
charge.
The deflection of ∝- particle cannot be due to attraction of electron because the mass of ∝-
particle in nearly 8000 times the mass of electron. So, the possible reason is the repulsion
due to positive charge. It was observed that most of the∝- particle were passed without any
deviation it shows that no positive charge is present is most of the region of atom, this
conclusion rejects the Thomson model.
∝- Particle which travels towards the centre there speed continuously slowdown due to
force of repulsion, finally it stopped and repelled in opp. direction. That is not observed in
another region. It shows that the whole of the positive charge is present at centre. Those∝-
particle which passes near to the nucleus experience a slightly greater force of repulsion and
deflected by an angle less than 180o. Those ∝- particle which passes at greater distance
from nucleus experience a very weak force of repulsion and deviated by a very small or no
angle. So, we can say that scattering of ∝- particle depends upon the distance of ∝- particle
from centre of nucleus. Called the IMPACT PARAMETER (b). The impact parameter b is
defined as the perpendicular distance of the velocity vector of the ∝- Particle from the
centre of nucleus, when it is far away from nucleus.
𝜃
𝑘𝑍𝑒 2 𝑐𝑜𝑡
2
Expression of impact parameter: - b = 𝐾.𝐸.
(2) According to the Rutherford an electron emits the radiation of all possible frequencies,
but practically the spectrum of atom is series of sharp lines, but according to Rutherford it
should be continuous, Rutherford could not explain it.
The alpha particle which is heading towards the nucleus stops at a certain distance r o from
the nucleus for a moment and then begins to retrace its path, i.e. it is scattered by an angle
of 180o. The distance r0 is known as Distance of closest approach.
As the alpha is moving towards the nucleus the speed of alpha particle starts decreasing due
to repulsive force of nucleus, but simultaneously the electrostatic potential energy of the
system starts increasing as the separation between the alpha particle and nucleus is
decreasing.
The gain in potential energy will be equal to the lost in kinetic energy of alpha particle as the
energy remains conserved.
𝑘𝑄1 𝑄2
The electrostatic potential energy is given by the relation P.E = 𝑟
(k = electrostatic
9 2 2
constant = 9 x 10 Nm /C )
So K.E. = P.E.
1 𝐾𝑄1 𝑄2
𝑚𝑣 2 =
2 𝑟𝑜
Where Q1 and Q2 are the charges of two particles. Here the two charge particles are alpha
particle and nucleus of gold.
Charge of alpha particle = Q1 = + 2e
Charge of nucleus of gold = + Ze (Z = 79 for gold)
For the Rutherford’s experiment the energy of alpha particle = 5.5 MeV was used
So K.E. = 5.5 MeV = 5.5 x 1.6 x 10-13 J
k x(+2e)x(+Ze)
So 5.5 x 1.6 x 10-13 J = 𝑟𝑜
9 x 109 x2x1.6 x 10−19 x 79 x 1.6 x 10−19
5.5 x 1.6 x 10-13 J = 𝑟𝑜
As r ∝ n2 so that radii of orbits are in the ratio 1: 4: 9: 16: 25...The orbits are near to each
other when they are close to nucleus and as we go away from the nucleus spacing between
them is continuously increases. Means orbit are not equally spaced.
(2) Size of Hydrogen Atom: - For n = 1 and Z = 1 we get
𝒉𝟐
r1 = on putting h = 6.63 x 10-34Js, k = 9 x 109 Nm2/C2
𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒌𝒎𝒆𝟐
(𝟔.𝟔𝟑 𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 )𝟐
r1 = 𝟒 𝒙 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒙 𝟑.𝟏𝟒𝟐 𝒙 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 𝟏.𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗
= 0.53 x 10-10 m = 0.53 A
𝑛ℎ
(3) Velocity of Electron: - As V = 2𝜋𝑚𝑟
n2 h2 𝑛ℎ 4𝜋2 𝑘𝑍𝑚𝑒 2
As r =(
4𝜋2 𝑘𝑍𝑚𝑒 2
) than V = 2𝜋𝑚𝑛2 ℎ2
2𝜋𝑘𝑍𝑒 2
So V =
𝑛ℎ
𝒌𝒁𝒆𝟐
Vn = 𝒏𝒉
𝟐𝝅
To compare the speed of electron in hydrogen atom with the speed of light in vacuum,
multiply and divide by C. We get,
𝒌𝒆𝟐 𝒄 𝒌𝒆𝟐
Vn= 𝒏𝒉 ( 𝒉 is a dimensionless constant known as fine structure constant ∝ )
( )𝒄 ( )𝒄
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
𝟏 𝒄
and ∝ = so Vn =
𝟏𝟑𝟕 𝟏𝟑𝟕 𝒏
Speed of electron in inner most orbits is 1/137 times the speed of light in vacuum. For
higher orbit speed o electron decreases. So, the electron has maximum speed in the
innermost orbit.
(4) Frequency of Revolution: -Let an electron is revolving with an angular velocity 𝜔 in an
orbit of radius r, with speed V. Then V = r𝜔 = r (2𝜋𝜈)
𝑉 2𝜋𝑘𝑒 2
𝜈 = 2𝜋𝑟 = (replace the value of V)
𝑛ℎ𝑟
Negative sign shows that some work is need to be done to separate the electron from the
nucleus known as work function. As E ∝ 1/n2. The electron has the least energy in inner
most orbits, as we go on higher orbit the E becomes fewer negative means energy
increases. On multiply numerator and denominator by C2 . we get,
𝟐
𝒌𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝒁𝟐 𝒎𝒆𝟒 𝒄𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝒌𝒆𝟐
En = − So En = − 𝒎𝒁 𝒄 ( 𝒉 )
𝐧𝟐 𝐡𝟐 𝐜 𝟐 ( )𝒄
𝟐𝝅
𝟏
En = − 𝒎𝒄𝟐 𝜶𝟐 𝒁𝟐 The value of ½ mC2∝2 = 13.6 eV
𝟐
𝟏𝟑.𝟔 𝒁𝟐
Then En = − 𝒆𝑽
𝒏𝟐
(6) Work done in Raising the Electron: - Let W is the amount of work done in raising the
electron from n1 to n2 then W = E 2 – E1
Where E1and E2are the energies of n1 and n2 orbits.
𝒌𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝒁𝒎𝒆𝟒 𝒌𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝒎𝒆𝟒
W=− – (− )
𝐧𝟐𝟐 𝐡𝟐 𝐧𝟐𝟏 𝐡𝟐
𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝒌𝟐 𝒁𝒎𝒆𝟒 𝟏 𝟏
W=
𝐡𝟐
( 𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐
)
𝟏
HYDROGEN SPECTRUM: - When electron jumps from higher energy level E2 to lower
energy level E1then
𝒌𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝒎𝒆𝟒 𝒌𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝒎𝒆𝟒
h𝝂 = E2 - E1⟹h𝝂 = − – (− )
𝐧𝟐𝟐 𝐡𝟐 𝐧𝟐𝟏 𝐡𝟐
𝒌𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝒎𝒆𝟒 𝟏 𝟏
h𝝂 =
𝐡𝟐
(𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐
)
𝟏
𝒌𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝒎𝒆𝟒 𝟏 𝟏
𝝂 = (𝒏𝟐 − ) (as 𝝂 = C/𝝀 )
𝐡𝟑 𝟏 𝒏𝟐𝟐
𝟏 𝒌𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝒎𝒆𝟒 𝟏 𝟏
𝝀
=
𝒄𝐡𝟑
( 𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐
)
𝟏
Here 1/𝝀 is known as wave number, defined as number of waves in unit distance. The term
𝒌𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝒎𝒆𝟒
is called Rydberg Constant (R). Its value is 1.097 x 107 m-1 .
𝒄𝐡𝟑
(1) Lyman series: - When the electron makes the transition from higher energy state to
the innermost energy state (n = 1) then the radiations emitted are in Lyman series.
n1 = 1 and n2= 2,3,4,5...........
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝝀
= R (𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐
)
These are in Ultraviolet region.
(2) Balmer Series: -When the electron makes the transition from higher energy state to
the second energy state (n = 2) then the radiations emitted are in Balmer series.
n1 = 2 and n2= 3,4,5,6,.......
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝝀
= R (𝟒 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐
)
First four lines are in Visible region and others are in Ultraviolet region.
(3) Paschen Series: - When the electron makes the transition from higher energy state
to the third energy state (n = 3) then the radiations emitted are in Paschen series.
n1 = 3 and n2= 4,5,6,7,.......
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝝀
= R (𝟗 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐
)
These lines are in Infrared region.
(4) Bracket Series: -When the electron makes the transition from higher energy state to
the fourth energy state (n = 4) then the radiations emitted are in Bracket series.
n1 = 4 and n2= 5,6,7,8,.......
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
=R( − )
𝝀 𝟏𝟔 𝒏𝟐𝟐
These lines are in Infrared region.
(5) Pfund Series: - When the electron makes the transition from higher energy state to
the fifth energy state (n = 5) then the radiations emitted are in Pfund series.
n1 = 5 and n2= 6,7,8,9,.......
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝝀
= R (𝟐𝟓 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐
)
These lines are in Far Infrared region.
(6) Humphery Series: - When the electron makes the transition from higher energy
state to the sixth energy state (n = 6) then the radiations emitted are in Humphery
series.
n1 = 6 and n2= 7,8,9,.......
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝝀
= R (𝟑𝟔 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐
)
𝟏𝟑.𝟔
ENERGY LEVELS OF HYDROGEN: - As En = − 𝒆𝑽
𝒏𝟐
If n = 1 then E1 = - 13.6 eV
This is known as ground state energy. This is the Ionisation Energy of the atom. If 13.6 eV of
energy is given to the electron then it will come out of the atom. Higher energy states are
known as Excited States.
𝟏𝟑.𝟔 𝟏𝟑.𝟔
If n = 2 then E2 = = = - 3.4 eV
𝟐𝟐 𝟒
𝟏𝟑.𝟔 𝟏𝟑.𝟔
If n = 3 then E3 =− = − 𝟗 = - 1.51 eV
𝟐
𝟑
𝟏𝟑.𝟔 𝟏𝟑.𝟔
If n = 4 then E4 = − 𝟐 = − 𝟏𝟔 = - 0.85 eV
𝟒
𝟏𝟑.𝟔 𝟏𝟑.𝟔
If n = 5 then E5 = − =− 𝟓
𝟐 = - 0.54 eV
𝟓
And If n = ∞ then E∞= 0 eV
IONISATION: - Ionisation is the process of knocking an electron out of the atom. Energy
required to knock an electron completely out of the atom is known as Ionisation Energy.
Ionisation energy of hydrogen atom = E∞ - E1= 0 - (- 13.6) = 13.6 eV
DRAW BACK OF BOHR’S THEORY: -
(1) It is not clear why only circular orbit is considered but elliptical orbit is possible.
(2) Bohr’s theory can only explain the spectra of simple atom like hydrogen but not able to
explain the spectra of atom containing more no of electrons.
(3) This theory doesn’t explain the arrangement and distribution of electron in an atom.
(4) This theory cannot explain any idea about the time for which an electron exists in any
state.
(5) It doesn’t explain the further splitting of spectral lines in magnetic field (Zeeman Effect)
or in an electric field (Stark Effect).