UNIT III - TQM TOOLS & TECHNIQUES I

The seven traditional tools of quality – New management tools – Six-sigma:

Concepts, methodology, applications to manufacturing, service sector including
IT – Bench marking – Reason to bench mark, Bench marking process – FMEA –
Stages, Types.

TQM TOOLS (SEVEN TOOLS OF QUALITY)

1. PARETO DIAGRAM
2. FLOW DIAGRAM
3. CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM
STEPS IN CONSTRUCTING A CAUSE & EFFECT DIAGRAM :
a. Define the problem or effect to be analyzed.
b. Form the team to perform the analysis. Often the team will uncover potential
causes through brainstorming.
c. Draw the effect box and the centerline.
d. Specify the major potential cause categories and join them as boxes connected to
the centerline.
e. Identify the possible causes and classify them into the categories in step d. Create
new categories, if necessary.
f. Rank order the causes to identify those that seem most likely to impact the
problem.
g. Take corrective action.

4. CHECK SHEETS
5. HISTOGRAM
6. CONTROL CHARTS

7. SCATTER DIAGRAM
In scatter diagram, three types of co-relations exist.
1. Positive correlation.
2. Negative correlation.
3. No correlation.

NEW MANAGEMENT TOOLS

1. WHY,WHY
2. FORCED FIELD ANALYSIS
Define the objective.
Determine criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of the improvement action.
Brainstorm the forces.
Prioritize the forces from greatest to least.
Take action.
Objective : Stop Smoking
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Promoting Forces Inhibiting Forces
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Poor Health Habit
Smelly Clothing Addiction
Poor Example Taste
Cost Stress
Impact on Others Advertisement
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3. NOMINAL GROUP TECHNIQUE
4. AFFINITY DIAGRAM
5. INTER-RELATIONSHIP DIGRAPH
6. TREE DIAGRAM
7. MATRIX DIAGRAM
8. PRIORITIZATION MATRICES
9. PROCESS DECISION PROGRAM CHART
10.ACTIVITY NETWORK DIAGRAM

STATISTICAL FUNDAMENTALS
Statistics is defined as the science that deals with the collection, tabulation, analysis,
interpretation and presentation of quantitative data.
Data collected for quality control purposes are obtained by direct observation and
are classified as

1. Variables (Measurable quality characteristics like length measured in metres)

2. Attributes (Quality characteristic which are classified as either conforming (or)

non-conforming to specifications, such as “go & no-go” gauge.
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND DISPERSION
There are two important analytical methods of describing a collection of data as
1. Measures of central tendency.
2. Measures of dispersion.

A measure of central tendency of a distribution is a numerical value that describes

how the data tend to build up in the centre. There are three measures in quality as
1. Average
2. Median
3. Mode

Average is the sum of observations divided by the number of observations.

Median is the value which divides a series of ordered observations so that the
number of items above it is equal to the number of items below it.

Mode is the value which occurs with the greatest frequency in a set of numbers.
Mode can again classified as
No mode
Uni mode
Bi mode
Multimode

Measure of dispersion describes how the data are spread out on each side of the
central value.
The two measures of dispersion are
1. Range
2. Standard Deviation
Range is the difference between the largest and smallest values of observations in a
series of numbers.
Range = R = X h – X l
Where, R = Range
X h - highest observation in a series
X l - lowest observation in a series

Standard Deviation measures the spreading tendency of the data. Larger the
standard deviation, greater the variability of data.

POPULATION AND SAMPLE

In order to construct a frequency distribution of the outer diameter of shafts, a small
portion (or) sample is selected to represent all the shafts. The population is the
whole collection of shafts.
The population may be an hour’s production, a week’s production, 10000 pieces and
so on.
It is not possible to measure all of the population. Hence, we go for sampling.
Sampling becomes necessary

1. When it is impossible to measure the entire population.

2. When it is more expensive to observe all the data.
3. When the required inspection destroys the product.
4. When a test of the entire population may be too dangerous as in the case of
new medical drug.
X is for sample average or sample mean.
μ is for population mean.
S is for sample standard deviation.
σ is for population standard deviation.
NORMAL CURVE
Normal curve is common type of population. The normal curve is symmetrical,
unimodal, bell – shaped distribution with the mean, median and mode all having the
same value.

CONTROL CHARTS FOR VARIABLES AND ATTRIBUTES

Variation is a law of nature because no two natural items in any category are the
same. Variations are due to the following reasons.
1. Chance causes or Natural causes.
2. Assignable causes.
Chance causes of variation are inevitable. Chance causes affect almost every
production process and are inherent in the process. They are purely random,
unidentifiable sources of variations.
Hence, when only chance causes are present in a process, the process is said to be
in Statistical Control.
Assignable causes result in unnatural variations. The sources of variations may be
due to
Equipments
Materials
Environment
Operator etc.
The Control chart is used to look at variations, seek assignable causes and chance
causes. The control chart is a line chart with control limits.
All control charts have three basic components.
1. A centre line, usually the mathematical average of all the samples plotted.
2. Upper and Lower Control Limits that define the constraints of common cause
variations.
3. Performance data plotted over time.
A typical control chart is a graphic display of a quality characteristic that has been
measured or computed from a sample versus sample number or time. If the
process is in control, nearly all of the sample points will fall between Upper Control
Limit (UCL) and Lower Control Limit (LCL).

BENCHMARKING
Benchmarking is a systematic method by which organizations can measure
themselves against the best industry practices.
Benchmarking is a systematic search for the best practices, innovative ideas,
and highly effective operating procedures.

REASONS TO BENCHMARK :
It is a tool to achieve business and competitive objectives
It can inspire managers (and Organizations) to compete
It is time and cost effective
It constantly scans the external environment to improve the process
Potential and useful technological breakthroughs can be located and adopted
early
BENCHMARKING CONCEPT

PROCESS OF BENCHMARKING
The following six steps contain the core techniques of Benchmarking
1. Decide what to benchmark
Benchmarking can be applied to any business or production process
The strategy is usually expressed in terms of mission and vision
statements
Best to begin with the mission and critical factors
Choosing the scope of the Benchmarking study
Pareto analysis – what process to investigate
Cause and Effect diagram – for tracing outputs back

2. Understand current performance

Understand and document the current process
Those working in the process are the most capable of identifying and
correcting problems
While documenting, it is important to quantify
Care should be taken during accounting information

3. Plan
A benchmarking team should be chosen
Organizations to serve as the benchmark need to be identified
Time frame should be agreed upon for each of the benchmarking tasks
There are three types of benchmarking
a. Internal
b. Competitive
c. Process

4. Study Others
Benchmarking studies look for two types of information
How best the processes are practiced
Measurable results of these practices
Three techniques for conducting the research are
Questionnaires
Site visits
Focus groups

5. Learn from the data

Answering a series of questions like
Is there a gap between the organization’s performance and the performance
of the best-in-class organizations?
What is the gap? How much is it?
Why is there a gap? What does the best-in-class do differently that is better?
If best-in-class practices were adopted, what would be the resulting
improvement?
Benchmarking studies can reveal three different outcomes
Negative gap
Parity
Positive gap

6. Using the findings

The objective is to close the gap. For this
Findings must be communicated to the people within the organization
Action plans must be developed to implement new processes
Groups that must agree on the change
Process owners
Upper management

Steps for the development and execution of action plans are

1. Specify tasks
2. Sequence tasks
3. Determine resources needs
4. Establish task schedule
5. Assign responsibility for each task
6. Describe expected results
7. Specify methods for monitoring results

PITFALLS AND CRITICISMS OF BENCHMARKING :

Idea of copying others
It is not a cure or a business philosophy
Some process have to be benchmarked repeatedly
It is not a substitute for innovation

SIX SIGMA
The roots of six sigma as a measurement standard can be traced back to Carl
Frederick Gauss (1777-1885) who introduced the concept of the normal curve.
Walter Stewarts showed that three sigma from the mean is the point where a process
requires correction.
The objective of six sigma quality is to reduce process output variation so that ± six
standard deviations lie between the mean and the nearest specification limit.
This will allow no more than 3.4 Defect Parts per Million (PPM) opportunities, also
known as Defects per Million Opportunities (DPMO), to be produced.
Sigma is a Greek alphabet used to represent the distribution on spread (variation)
about the mean of a process.
In manufacturing processes ‘ ’ is used to evaluate the capability of the process to
produce defect free output leading to customer’s satisfaction.
It enables us to make comparisons with similar and dissimilar products and
services.
It is essential to understand the relationship between the sigma value and its
implication to meet the required specifications of a process.
The process capability is estimated from the data collected on a process under
statistical control (only chance cause variations are present).
 is called standard deviation in a stable process (process under statistical control).
Predictions about process can be made from knowledge of .
The pattern of variation of measurable characteristics (diameter, lengths, life etc.)
will conform to the statistical model known as the normal distribution.
The total process variation is ± 3 .
The property of normal distribution is that 99.73% of the entire output will be
within 3 , only 0.27% output remains beyond ± 3 .
This sort of result can be expected only if the middle value of the specification is set
at mean level or at the centre, but in the actual process the mean value may not be at
the middle.

When this happens even though process is not affected by any assignable cause
variation and is within chance cause variation level only, we call it a positive shift or
movement towards higher weight level.
Positive Shift
The process level shifts to the positive side, there will be no change in spread, but
there will be increase in defects on the positive side.
Negative Shift
The process level shifts to the negative side without any change in spread and you
can see the increase in defects on the negative side.
When we are clear that the process is capable of giving desired output level, then
with the help of control charts the process can be monitored to ensure that it is kept
under control or within the acceptable level.
Random sampling can be used to monitor the process and also identify’ the
assignable causes, so that necessary action can be taken to bring back the process
under control.
The Japanese quality guru Dr. Hitoshi Kume changed the system of mentioning
defects from percentage to parts per million to bring about a psychological change in
the people involved in the process.
When 0.27% may look small but 2700 ppm looks big and this makes people react
and act which can help in reducing defects.
When we have started taking efforts the chance cause of variations slowly start
disappearing and improvements reduce the spread of ± 3 to lesser span as shown in
figure.

Six Sigma
Six sigma strategies can be used in an organization to achieve incredible levels of
efficiency.
The defects can be brought down to a level of 3.4 parts per million.
This level is with a shift of 1.5 . If the process can be centered properly the value
can be still smaller (two defects per billion).
We check the output and if the output is prone to be on the lower or higher side
(even if they are within the tolerance).
We will be adjusting the process till we get an acceptable level of performance i.e.,
when the output is closer to the mean value of specification and the variations occur
an positive as well as negative side of the defects level.
This essentiates a realistic margin to be provided for dynamic variations (shifts and
drifts).
Therefore the long term capability is more significant. In six sigma approach the long
term The Motorola has stipulated 1.5 as typical mean shift after a lot of empirical
research.
Therefore, 1.5 is the mean shift used in determining long term capability.
T = 12
Process mean is at distance of 6 from LSL and USL.
3.4 defects/million implies 1.5 shifts.
The above process is 6 compliant. The short term capability of their processes is 6a.
The long term performance is 4.5. Process mean is at distance of 6 T = 12 a
Process mean is at distance of 6 from LSL and USL.
3.4 defects/million implies 1.5 shifts.
The above process is 6 a compliant. The short term capability of their processes is 6
The long term performance is 4.5 from LSL and USL.
3.4 defects/million implies 1.5 shift.
The above process is 6 compliant. The short term capability of their processes is 6
.The long term performance is 4.5

Units Used to Measure Defects.

The different units used to measure defects are
Six Sigma and Process Capability
The sigma level corresponding to the defect levels can be known from defects per
million or sixSigma tables.
When the Cp (capability index) value is higher then the variation will be lesser
Higher the Cpr (achieved capability index) value, lesser will be the variation and the
process average will be nearer to the target.
A process is said to of 6 when Cp 2 and Cpk 1.5.
THE NEW SEVEN MANAGEMENTAND PLANNING TOOLS
The “advanced” tools that are used to manage cross-functionality include the “seven
new QC tools” also known as the “seven management and planning tools” or “7 MP
tools”.
These are summarized and illustrated in Hizuno (1979) and Brassard (1989)

Identify a system owner and team members for each critical system.
Describe the system under study.
Identify all Identify subsystems that contribute to the critical system.
Define the interdependencies of the subsystems.
Prioritize the subsystems as to their contribution to the critical system.
Develop a detailed “as is” description of the critical system.
This includes identifying the interfaces between all system components as well as
expanding the level of detail for major contributing subsystems.
Identify obvious system deficiencies.
Identify possible cause of system deficiencies.
Establish “base line” measures for the system and major subsystems.
Assess the performance of the system and major subsystems.
Develop a “should be” description of the system and subsystems.
Recommend changes to improve system and subsystem performance (even if this
may mean creating a new system)
These are very important tools which are used in management and planning activities,
they are mainly used to organize and bring into a proper structure, the un organized
unstructured complex ideas.

The new seven management and planning tools are:

Affinity diagrams
Inter relationship diagram
Tree diagram
Matrix diagram
Matrix data analysis
Process decision programme chart and
Arrow diagram.

Affinity Diagrams
In affinity diagrams large volumes of data is gathered and organized. Ideas, opinions
and facts relating to a problem are grouped.
A sequence or pattern formation is the main aim. This is mainly useful in
addressing issues such as customer dissatisfaction etc.
Affinity diagrams are tools for verbal data.
Its applications are to organize into groups a large number of ideas, opinions about
a particular topic.

Interrelationship Diagram
The relationships between different causative factors and the main issue are
established.
This tool helps us in identify the relationship between different factors which cause
a problem or issue.
It also helps in determining the interrelationship between these factors.
This tool is used to identify the major causes which help in solving a problem on the
basis of logical analysis and linkage of causes associated with the problems.

Tree Diagram
Tree diagram is listed as a tool for non-numerical data. It is used to show the
relationships between an issue and its component elements.
This is a tool used for operational planning after initial diagnosis of issues.
The final chart shows steps from the initial problem to the sequential development
till the final conclusion.
It looks more like a tree; therefore it is called a tree diagram.

Matrix Diagram
A matrix diagram consists of a set of columns and rows. The intersections of these
rows and columns are checked for determining the nature and strength of the
problem.
This helps us to arrive at the key ideas and determining the relationship and an
effective way of perusing the problem.
The ideas are conceived on two dimensional relationship basis.

Matrix Data Analysis

It is a multi variate analysis technique also known as the “principal component
analysis”. This technique quantifies and arranges data presented in a matrix diagram
to find more general indicators that would differentiate and give clarity to large
amount of complexly intertwined information.

Process Decision Programme Chart (PDPC)

It is a method which maps out conceivable events and contingencies that can occur in
any implementation plan along with appropriate counter measures
This tool is used to plan each possible chain of events that needs to occur when the
problem or goal is unfamiliar one.
This is a qualitative tool. Thus PDPC is useful whenever uncertainty exists in a
proposed implementation plan. The background situation for a PDPC application is:
The talk on hand is either new or unique
Implementation plan has sufficient complexity
Consequences of failure are serious
Efficiency of implementation is critical
Contingencies must be planable.

Arrow Diagram
Arrow diagram is a tool to plan the most appropriate schedule for the completion of a
complex task and its related sub-tasks.
It projects likely completion time and monitors all sub-tasks for adherence to
necessary schedule.
The total work or task is broken down to sub-tasks or activities.
The sub-tasks and the total work is linked by arrows and a diagram is constructed to
depict the activities.

Failure Modes and Effects Analysis [FMEA]

Introduction
Customers are placing increased demands on companies for high quality, reliable
products. The increasing capabilities and functionality of many products are making
it more difficult for manufacturers to maintain the quality and reliability.
Traditionally, reliability has been achieved through extensive testing and use of
techniques such as probabilistic reliability modeling.
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) is methodology for analyzing potential
reliability problems early in the development cycle where it is easier to take actions
to overcome these issues, thereby enhancing reliability through design.
FMEA is used to identify potential failure modes, determine their effect on the
operation of the product, and identify actions to mitigate the failures.
A crucial step is anticipating what might go wrong with a product. While
anticipating every failure mode is not possible, the development team should
formulate as extensive a list of potential failure modes as possible.
The early and consistent use of FMEAs in the design process allows the engineer
to design out failures and produce reliable, safe, and customer pleasing products.
FMEAs also capture historical information for use in future product improvement.

Types of FMEA's
There are several types of FMEAs; some are used much more often than others.
FMEAs should always be done whenever failures would mean potential harm or
injury to the user of the end item being designed. The types of FMEA are:
System - focuses on global system functions
Design - focuses on components and subsystems
Process - focuses on manufacturing and assembly processes
Service - focuses on service functions
Software - focuses on software functions

System FMEA
This is used to analyze systems and subsystems in the early concept and
design stage. A system FMEA focuses on potential failure modes between the
functions of the system caused by system deficiencies. It includes the interactions
between systems and elements of the system.

The outputs of the system FMEA are

A potential list of failure modes ranked by RPN.
A potential list of system functions that could detect potential failure modes.
A potential list of design actions to eliminate failure modes, safety issues and
reduces the occurrence.

The benefits of the system FEMA are that it: -

Helps to select the optimum system alternative.
Helps to determine redundancy.
Helps to define the basis for system level diagnostic procedures.
Increases the likelihood that potential problems will be considered.
Identifies potential system failures and their interaction with other systems.

Design FMEA
This is used to analyze products before they are released to manufacturing. A design
focuses on failure modes caused by design deficiencies.
The outputs of the design FMEA are: -
A potential list of failure modes ranked by RPN.
A potential list of critical and / or significant characteristics.
A potential list of design actions to eliminate failure modes, safety issues and
reduces the occurrence.
A potential list of parameters for appropriate testing, inspection, and / or
detection methods.
A potential list of recommended action for the critical and significant
characteristics.

The benefits of design FMEA are that it: -

Establishes a priority for design improvement actions.
Documents the rationale for changes.
Provides information to help through design verification and testing.
Helps to identify the critical or significant characteristics.
Assists in the evaluation of design requirements and alternatives.
Helps to identify and eliminate potential safety concerns.
Helps to identify product failure early in the product development phase.

Process FMEA
This is used to analyze manufacturing and assembly processes. A process FMEA
focuses on
failure modes caused by process or assembly deficiencies. The outputs of the
process
FMEA are: -
A potential list of failure modes ranked by RPN.
A potential list of critical and/ or significant characteristics.
A potential list of recommended actions to address the critical and significant
characteristics.
A potential list to eliminate the causes of failure modes, reduces their
occurrences, and improves defect detection if Cpk cannot be improved.

The benefits of the process FMEA are that it: -

Identifies process deficiencies and offers a corrective action plan.
Identifies the critical and/ or significant characteristics and helps in developing
control plans.
Establishes a priority of corrective actions.
Assists in the analysis of the manufacturing or assembly process.
Documents the rationale for changes.

Service FMEA
This is used to analyze services before they reach the customer. A service FMEA
focuses on the failure modes (tasks, errors, mistakes) caused by system or process
deficiencies.
The outputs of the service FMEA are: -
A potential list of errors ranked by RPN.
A potential list of critical or significant tasks, or processes.
A potential list of bottleneck processes or tasks.
A potential list to eliminate the errors.
A potential list of monitoring system / process functions.

The benefits of the service FMEA are that it: -

Assists in the analysis of job flow.
Assists in the analysis of the system and/ or process.
Identifies task deficiencies.
Identifies critical or significant tasks and helps in the development of control
plan.
Establishes a priority for improvement actions.
Documents the rationale for changes.

An FMEA program should start

When new systems, designs, products, processes, or services are designed.
When existing systems, designs, products, processes, or services are about to
change regardless of reason.
When new applications are found the existing conditions of the systems,
designs, products, processes, or service.
When improvements are considered for the existing systems, designs,
products, processes, or services.

FMEA Usage
Historically, engineers have done a good job of evaluating the functions and the
form of products and processes in the design phase.
They have not always done so well at designing in reliability and quality. Often
the engineer uses safety factors as a way of making sure that the design will
work and protected.”
A large safety factor does not necessarily translate into a reliable product.
Instead, it often leads to an over designed product with reliability problems."
FMEA's provide the engineer with a tool that can assist in providing reliable,
safe, and customer pleasing products and processes.
Since FMEA help the engineer identify potential product or process failures,
they can use it to:
Develop product or process requirements that minimize the likelihood of those
failures.
Evaluate the requirements obtained from the customer or other participants in
the design process to ensure that those requirements do not introduce potential
failures.
Identify design characteristics that contribute to failures and design them out of
the system or at least minimize the resulting effects.
Develop methods and procedures to develop and test the product/process to
ensure that the failures have been successfully eliminated.
Track and manage potential risks in the design. Tracking the risks contributes
to the development of corporate memory and the success of future products as
well.
Ensure that any failures that could occur will not injure or seriously impact the
customer of the product/process.

Benefits of FMEA
FMEA is designed to assist the engineer improve the quality and reliability of
design. Properly used the FMEA provides the engineer several benefits. Among
others, these benefits include:
Improve product/process reliability and quality
Increase customer satisfaction
Early identification and elimination of potential product/process failure modes
Prioritize product/process deficiencies
Capture engineering/organization knowledge
Emphasizes problem prevention
Documents risk and actions taken to reduce risk
Provide focus for improved testing and development
Minimizes late changes and associated cost
Catalyst for teamwork and idea exchange between functions

Who Performs the FMEA?

The FMEA should be initiated by the design engineer for the hardware
approach, and the systems engineer for the functional approach.
Once the initial FMEA has been completed, the entire engineering team
should participate in the review process.
The team will review for consensus and identify the high-risk areas that
must be addressed to ensure completeness.
Changes are then identified and implemented for improved reliability of
the product. The following is a suggested team for conducting/reviewing
an FMEA.
– Project Manager
– Design Engineer (hardware/software/systems)
– Test Engineer
– Reliability Engineer
– Quality Engineer
– Field Service Engineer
– Manufacturing/Process Engineer
– Safety Engineering
Outside supplier engineering and/or manufacturing could be added to the team.
Customer representation is recommended if a joint development program between
user/supplier exists.

Stages of FMEA (Process)

Since the FMEA concentrates on identifying possible failure modes and their
effects on the equipment, design deficiencies can be identified and improvements can
be made. Priorities on the failure modes can be set according to the FMEA’s risk
priority number (RPN) system analysis. The FMEA process consists of the
following figure
FMEA Prerequisites
Functional Block Diagram
Failure mode analysis and preparation of work sheets
Team Review
Corrective action

FMEA Timing
The FMEA is a living document. Throughout the product development cycle
change and updates are made to the product and process. These changes can and
often do introduce new failure modes.
A new product or process is being initiated (at the beginning of the cycle).
Changes are made to the operating conditions the product or process is expected
to function in.
A change is made to either the product or process design. The product and
process are inter-related. When the product design is changed the process is
impacted and vice-versa.
New regulations are instituted.
Customer feedback indicates problems in the product or process.

FMEA Procedure
The process for conducting an FMEA is straightforward. The basic steps are outlined
below.
Describe the product/process and its function.
Create a Block Diagram of the product or process.
Complete the header on the FMEA Form worksheet: Product/System,
Subsys./Assy.,
The diagram prepared above to begin listing items or functions
A failure mode in one component can serve as the cause of a failure mode in
another component
Describe the effects of those failure modes. For each failure mode identified the
engineer should determine what the ultimate effect will be
Establish a numerical ranking for the severity of the effect. A common industry
standard scale uses 1 to represent no effect and 10 to indicate very severe with
failure affecting system operation and safety without warning Identify the
causes for each failure mode.
Enter the Probability factor. A common industry standard scale uses 1 to
represent not likely and 10 to indicate inevitable.
Identify Current Controls (design or process detect failures.. Review Risk
Priority Numbers (RPN).
The Risk Priority Number is a mathematical product of the numerical Severity,
Probability, and Detection ratings:
RPN = (Severity) x (Probability) x (Detection)
The RPN is used to prioritize items than require additional quality planning or
action.
Determine Recommended Action(s) to address potential failures that have a
high RPN..
Assign Responsibility and a Target Completion Date for these actions. This
makes responsibility clear-cut and facilitates tracking.
Indicate Actions Taken. After these actions have been taken, re-assess the
severity,
Update the FMEA as the design or process changes, the assessment changes
or new information becomes known.