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Unit 3
Unit 3
1. PARETO DIAGRAM
2. FLOW DIAGRAM
3. CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM
STEPS IN CONSTRUCTING A CAUSE & EFFECT DIAGRAM :
a. Define the problem or effect to be analyzed.
b. Form the team to perform the analysis. Often the team will uncover potential
causes through brainstorming.
c. Draw the effect box and the centerline.
d. Specify the major potential cause categories and join them as boxes connected to
the centerline.
e. Identify the possible causes and classify them into the categories in step d. Create
new categories, if necessary.
f. Rank order the causes to identify those that seem most likely to impact the
problem.
g. Take corrective action.
4. CHECK SHEETS
5. HISTOGRAM
6. CONTROL CHARTS
7. SCATTER DIAGRAM
In scatter diagram, three types of co-relations exist.
1. Positive correlation.
2. Negative correlation.
3. No correlation.
STATISTICAL FUNDAMENTALS
Statistics is defined as the science that deals with the collection, tabulation, analysis,
interpretation and presentation of quantitative data.
Data collected for quality control purposes are obtained by direct observation and
are classified as
Median is the value which divides a series of ordered observations so that the
number of items above it is equal to the number of items below it.
Mode is the value which occurs with the greatest frequency in a set of numbers.
Mode can again classified as
No mode
Uni mode
Bi mode
Multimode
Measure of dispersion describes how the data are spread out on each side of the
central value.
The two measures of dispersion are
1. Range
2. Standard Deviation
Range is the difference between the largest and smallest values of observations in a
series of numbers.
Range = R = X h – X l
Where, R = Range
X h - highest observation in a series
X l - lowest observation in a series
Standard Deviation measures the spreading tendency of the data. Larger the
standard deviation, greater the variability of data.
BENCHMARKING
Benchmarking is a systematic method by which organizations can measure
themselves against the best industry practices.
Benchmarking is a systematic search for the best practices, innovative ideas,
and highly effective operating procedures.
REASONS TO BENCHMARK :
It is a tool to achieve business and competitive objectives
It can inspire managers (and Organizations) to compete
It is time and cost effective
It constantly scans the external environment to improve the process
Potential and useful technological breakthroughs can be located and adopted
early
BENCHMARKING CONCEPT
PROCESS OF BENCHMARKING
The following six steps contain the core techniques of Benchmarking
1. Decide what to benchmark
Benchmarking can be applied to any business or production process
The strategy is usually expressed in terms of mission and vision
statements
Best to begin with the mission and critical factors
Choosing the scope of the Benchmarking study
Pareto analysis – what process to investigate
Cause and Effect diagram – for tracing outputs back
3. Plan
A benchmarking team should be chosen
Organizations to serve as the benchmark need to be identified
Time frame should be agreed upon for each of the benchmarking tasks
There are three types of benchmarking
a. Internal
b. Competitive
c. Process
4. Study Others
Benchmarking studies look for two types of information
How best the processes are practiced
Measurable results of these practices
Three techniques for conducting the research are
Questionnaires
Site visits
Focus groups
SIX SIGMA
The roots of six sigma as a measurement standard can be traced back to Carl
Frederick Gauss (1777-1885) who introduced the concept of the normal curve.
Walter Stewarts showed that three sigma from the mean is the point where a process
requires correction.
The objective of six sigma quality is to reduce process output variation so that ± six
standard deviations lie between the mean and the nearest specification limit.
This will allow no more than 3.4 Defect Parts per Million (PPM) opportunities, also
known as Defects per Million Opportunities (DPMO), to be produced.
Sigma is a Greek alphabet used to represent the distribution on spread (variation)
about the mean of a process.
In manufacturing processes ‘ ’ is used to evaluate the capability of the process to
produce defect free output leading to customer’s satisfaction.
It enables us to make comparisons with similar and dissimilar products and
services.
It is essential to understand the relationship between the sigma value and its
implication to meet the required specifications of a process.
The process capability is estimated from the data collected on a process under
statistical control (only chance cause variations are present).
is called standard deviation in a stable process (process under statistical control).
Predictions about process can be made from knowledge of .
The pattern of variation of measurable characteristics (diameter, lengths, life etc.)
will conform to the statistical model known as the normal distribution.
The total process variation is ± 3 .
The property of normal distribution is that 99.73% of the entire output will be
within 3 , only 0.27% output remains beyond ± 3 .
This sort of result can be expected only if the middle value of the specification is set
at mean level or at the centre, but in the actual process the mean value may not be at
the middle.
When this happens even though process is not affected by any assignable cause
variation and is within chance cause variation level only, we call it a positive shift or
movement towards higher weight level.
Positive Shift
The process level shifts to the positive side, there will be no change in spread, but
there will be increase in defects on the positive side.
Negative Shift
The process level shifts to the negative side without any change in spread and you
can see the increase in defects on the negative side.
When we are clear that the process is capable of giving desired output level, then
with the help of control charts the process can be monitored to ensure that it is kept
under control or within the acceptable level.
Random sampling can be used to monitor the process and also identify’ the
assignable causes, so that necessary action can be taken to bring back the process
under control.
The Japanese quality guru Dr. Hitoshi Kume changed the system of mentioning
defects from percentage to parts per million to bring about a psychological change in
the people involved in the process.
When 0.27% may look small but 2700 ppm looks big and this makes people react
and act which can help in reducing defects.
When we have started taking efforts the chance cause of variations slowly start
disappearing and improvements reduce the spread of ± 3 to lesser span as shown in
figure.
Six Sigma
Six sigma strategies can be used in an organization to achieve incredible levels of
efficiency.
The defects can be brought down to a level of 3.4 parts per million.
This level is with a shift of 1.5 . If the process can be centered properly the value
can be still smaller (two defects per billion).
We check the output and if the output is prone to be on the lower or higher side
(even if they are within the tolerance).
We will be adjusting the process till we get an acceptable level of performance i.e.,
when the output is closer to the mean value of specification and the variations occur
an positive as well as negative side of the defects level.
This essentiates a realistic margin to be provided for dynamic variations (shifts and
drifts).
Therefore the long term capability is more significant. In six sigma approach the long
term The Motorola has stipulated 1.5 as typical mean shift after a lot of empirical
research.
Therefore, 1.5 is the mean shift used in determining long term capability.
T = 12
Process mean is at distance of 6 from LSL and USL.
3.4 defects/million implies 1.5 shifts.
The above process is 6 compliant. The short term capability of their processes is 6a.
The long term performance is 4.5. Process mean is at distance of 6 T = 12 a
Process mean is at distance of 6 from LSL and USL.
3.4 defects/million implies 1.5 shifts.
The above process is 6 a compliant. The short term capability of their processes is 6
The long term performance is 4.5 from LSL and USL.
3.4 defects/million implies 1.5 shift.
The above process is 6 compliant. The short term capability of their processes is 6
.The long term performance is 4.5
Identify a system owner and team members for each critical system.
Describe the system under study.
Identify all Identify subsystems that contribute to the critical system.
Define the interdependencies of the subsystems.
Prioritize the subsystems as to their contribution to the critical system.
Develop a detailed “as is” description of the critical system.
This includes identifying the interfaces between all system components as well as
expanding the level of detail for major contributing subsystems.
Identify obvious system deficiencies.
Identify possible cause of system deficiencies.
Establish “base line” measures for the system and major subsystems.
Assess the performance of the system and major subsystems.
Develop a “should be” description of the system and subsystems.
Recommend changes to improve system and subsystem performance (even if this
may mean creating a new system)
These are very important tools which are used in management and planning activities,
they are mainly used to organize and bring into a proper structure, the un organized
unstructured complex ideas.
Affinity Diagrams
In affinity diagrams large volumes of data is gathered and organized. Ideas, opinions
and facts relating to a problem are grouped.
A sequence or pattern formation is the main aim. This is mainly useful in
addressing issues such as customer dissatisfaction etc.
Affinity diagrams are tools for verbal data.
Its applications are to organize into groups a large number of ideas, opinions about
a particular topic.
Interrelationship Diagram
The relationships between different causative factors and the main issue are
established.
This tool helps us in identify the relationship between different factors which cause
a problem or issue.
It also helps in determining the interrelationship between these factors.
This tool is used to identify the major causes which help in solving a problem on the
basis of logical analysis and linkage of causes associated with the problems.
Tree Diagram
Tree diagram is listed as a tool for non-numerical data. It is used to show the
relationships between an issue and its component elements.
This is a tool used for operational planning after initial diagnosis of issues.
The final chart shows steps from the initial problem to the sequential development
till the final conclusion.
It looks more like a tree; therefore it is called a tree diagram.
Matrix Diagram
A matrix diagram consists of a set of columns and rows. The intersections of these
rows and columns are checked for determining the nature and strength of the
problem.
This helps us to arrive at the key ideas and determining the relationship and an
effective way of perusing the problem.
The ideas are conceived on two dimensional relationship basis.
Arrow Diagram
Arrow diagram is a tool to plan the most appropriate schedule for the completion of a
complex task and its related sub-tasks.
It projects likely completion time and monitors all sub-tasks for adherence to
necessary schedule.
The total work or task is broken down to sub-tasks or activities.
The sub-tasks and the total work is linked by arrows and a diagram is constructed to
depict the activities.
Types of FMEA's
There are several types of FMEAs; some are used much more often than others.
FMEAs should always be done whenever failures would mean potential harm or
injury to the user of the end item being designed. The types of FMEA are:
System - focuses on global system functions
Design - focuses on components and subsystems
Process - focuses on manufacturing and assembly processes
Service - focuses on service functions
Software - focuses on software functions
System FMEA
This is used to analyze systems and subsystems in the early concept and
design stage. A system FMEA focuses on potential failure modes between the
functions of the system caused by system deficiencies. It includes the interactions
between systems and elements of the system.
Design FMEA
This is used to analyze products before they are released to manufacturing. A design
focuses on failure modes caused by design deficiencies.
The outputs of the design FMEA are: -
A potential list of failure modes ranked by RPN.
A potential list of critical and / or significant characteristics.
A potential list of design actions to eliminate failure modes, safety issues and
reduces the occurrence.
A potential list of parameters for appropriate testing, inspection, and / or
detection methods.
A potential list of recommended action for the critical and significant
characteristics.
Process FMEA
This is used to analyze manufacturing and assembly processes. A process FMEA
focuses on
failure modes caused by process or assembly deficiencies. The outputs of the
process
FMEA are: -
A potential list of failure modes ranked by RPN.
A potential list of critical and/ or significant characteristics.
A potential list of recommended actions to address the critical and significant
characteristics.
A potential list to eliminate the causes of failure modes, reduces their
occurrences, and improves defect detection if Cpk cannot be improved.
Service FMEA
This is used to analyze services before they reach the customer. A service FMEA
focuses on the failure modes (tasks, errors, mistakes) caused by system or process
deficiencies.
The outputs of the service FMEA are: -
A potential list of errors ranked by RPN.
A potential list of critical or significant tasks, or processes.
A potential list of bottleneck processes or tasks.
A potential list to eliminate the errors.
A potential list of monitoring system / process functions.
FMEA Usage
Historically, engineers have done a good job of evaluating the functions and the
form of products and processes in the design phase.
They have not always done so well at designing in reliability and quality. Often
the engineer uses safety factors as a way of making sure that the design will
work and protected.”
A large safety factor does not necessarily translate into a reliable product.
Instead, it often leads to an over designed product with reliability problems."
FMEA's provide the engineer with a tool that can assist in providing reliable,
safe, and customer pleasing products and processes.
Since FMEA help the engineer identify potential product or process failures,
they can use it to:
Develop product or process requirements that minimize the likelihood of those
failures.
Evaluate the requirements obtained from the customer or other participants in
the design process to ensure that those requirements do not introduce potential
failures.
Identify design characteristics that contribute to failures and design them out of
the system or at least minimize the resulting effects.
Develop methods and procedures to develop and test the product/process to
ensure that the failures have been successfully eliminated.
Track and manage potential risks in the design. Tracking the risks contributes
to the development of corporate memory and the success of future products as
well.
Ensure that any failures that could occur will not injure or seriously impact the
customer of the product/process.
Benefits of FMEA
FMEA is designed to assist the engineer improve the quality and reliability of
design. Properly used the FMEA provides the engineer several benefits. Among
others, these benefits include:
Improve product/process reliability and quality
Increase customer satisfaction
Early identification and elimination of potential product/process failure modes
Prioritize product/process deficiencies
Capture engineering/organization knowledge
Emphasizes problem prevention
Documents risk and actions taken to reduce risk
Provide focus for improved testing and development
Minimizes late changes and associated cost
Catalyst for teamwork and idea exchange between functions
FMEA Timing
The FMEA is a living document. Throughout the product development cycle
change and updates are made to the product and process. These changes can and
often do introduce new failure modes.
A new product or process is being initiated (at the beginning of the cycle).
Changes are made to the operating conditions the product or process is expected
to function in.
A change is made to either the product or process design. The product and
process are inter-related. When the product design is changed the process is
impacted and vice-versa.
New regulations are instituted.
Customer feedback indicates problems in the product or process.
FMEA Procedure
The process for conducting an FMEA is straightforward. The basic steps are outlined
below.
Describe the product/process and its function.
Create a Block Diagram of the product or process.
Complete the header on the FMEA Form worksheet: Product/System,
Subsys./Assy.,
The diagram prepared above to begin listing items or functions
A failure mode in one component can serve as the cause of a failure mode in
another component
Describe the effects of those failure modes. For each failure mode identified the
engineer should determine what the ultimate effect will be
Establish a numerical ranking for the severity of the effect. A common industry
standard scale uses 1 to represent no effect and 10 to indicate very severe with
failure affecting system operation and safety without warning Identify the
causes for each failure mode.
Enter the Probability factor. A common industry standard scale uses 1 to
represent not likely and 10 to indicate inevitable.
Identify Current Controls (design or process detect failures.. Review Risk
Priority Numbers (RPN).
The Risk Priority Number is a mathematical product of the numerical Severity,
Probability, and Detection ratings:
RPN = (Severity) x (Probability) x (Detection)
The RPN is used to prioritize items than require additional quality planning or
action.
Determine Recommended Action(s) to address potential failures that have a
high RPN..
Assign Responsibility and a Target Completion Date for these actions. This
makes responsibility clear-cut and facilitates tracking.
Indicate Actions Taken. After these actions have been taken, re-assess the
severity,
Update the FMEA as the design or process changes, the assessment changes
or new information becomes known.