General Climate and Differential Heating

General Climate
Climate zones are distinguishable climate zones that happen in an east-west direction around the Earth and can
be categorized using various climatic parameters. Climate zones are generally belt-shaped and circular around
the poles (see picture on the right). Climate zones can be broken up by mountains or oceans in some places.
Solar radiation strikes the ground at various angles in different parts of the Earth. On the tropics, sunlight almost
perpendicularly strikes the ground, whereas at the poles, the angle of the Sun is lower or even below the frontier
during polar evening.
The Sun's position in relation to the Earth changes with the seasons, as does the angle of incidence of sunlight.
The Sun's noon angle ranges from perpendicular (90°) within the tropics to horizontal (0° = Sun does not or
only partially appear on the horizon) within the polar circle. As a result, sunlight warms the Earth much more
strongly near the equator than at the poles. Temperature differences due to a difference in radiation result in
repeated climatic conditions such as winter and summer. These circumstances are distinguished by a specific
amount of precipitation in the summer or a specific average air temperature.
The categorization below summarizes and describes various climate patterns that occur on a regular basis in
specific areas.
Major Climate Zones:

1. Tropical zone from 0°–23.5° (between the tropics)- During almost the entire year, solar radiation
reaches the ground nearly vertically at noontime in the regions between the equator and the tropics
(equatorial region). As a result, it is extremely hot in these areas. More water evaporates at high
temperatures, and the air is frequently moist. The frequent and dense cloud cover those results reduces
the effect of solar radiation on ground temperature.
2. Subtropics from 23.5°–40°- Summer radiation levels are highest in the subtropics because the Sun's
angle at noon is almost vertical to the Earth and cloud cover is thin. Because these areas receive less
moisture (see trade winds), the effect of radiation is enhanced. As a result, the majority of the world's
deserts are located in this zone. In the winter, the radiation in these areas drops significantly, and it can
become very cool and moist.
3. Temperate zone from 40°–60°- The solar radiation arrives with a smaller angle in the temperate zone,
and the average temperatures are much lower than in the subtropics. Seasons and daylength vary
dramatically throughout the year. The climate is distinguished by fewer extremes, a more regular
distribution of rainfall over the year, and a longer vegetation period, hence the term "temperate."
4. Cold zone from 60°–90°- Because the Sun has a very flat angle toward the ground, the polar areas
between 60° latitude and the poles obtain less heat through solar radiation. The daylength varies the
most in this zone due to changes in the Earth's axis angle to the Sun. Polar days occur during the
summer. Vegetation is only feasible for a few months out of the year, and even then, it is often sparse.
The living conditions in these areas are extremely difficult.
General Circulation
The general circulation of the atmosphere refers to the average global winds. To determine typical wind
circulations, wind speed and duration must be averaged over a long period of time. Averaging over time
eliminates short-term fluctuations, allowing visualization of the primary sense of movement.
Global wind patterns are ultimately caused by a differentially heated, rotating Earth. The Earth's differential
heating constantly causes an imbalance in air pressure and temperature all over the world, resulting in a constant
general circulation of winds that try to restore balance.
Differential Heating
Since the Earth is round, radiation from the sun does not spread evenly across all latitudes. More solar radiation
per square meter is received near the equator, where sunlight shines directly on Earth, than near the poles,
where sunlight beams at sharp angles to the surface. The same solar energy is spread out over a large surface
area toward Earth's poles, so each square meter of Earth's surface receives less irradiance at the poles. As the
Earth rotates, incoming solar radiation is distributed zonally along latitude lines.
Single-Cell Model
Rising warm air transports excess heating at the equator poleward, which is replaced by cold sinking polar air
moving equatorward. The Hadley cell is the name given to this circulation. The Hadley cell is referred to as a
thermally direct circulation because warm air rises and cold air sinks in it.
There are two ways to think about circulation. In the first, because it is warm and buoyant, hot air at the equator
rises. At high elevations, it reaches the tropopause and spreads laterally north and south. Surface air flows
toward the equator to compensate for rising air, resulting in consolidation and further uplift. The continuation of
this circulation causes an emergence with rising air at the equator and sinking air at the poles.
Another way to think about global circulation is that excess temperature increase of air at the equator creates a
large area of low pressure at the planet's surface, while excess cooling at the poles creates high pressure.
Three-Cell Model
Each hemisphere has two major belts of high pressure and two major belts of low pressure (if you include the
equator in both). There are areas of high pressure and sinking air near 30 degrees latitude and at the poles. Over
the equator and near 60° latitude by the polar front, there are areas of low pressure and rising air. You can get a
pretty good idea of how surface winds blow around the world by having to know that winds transport
counterclockwise (clockwise) all-over low-pressure systems in the Northern Hemisphere (Southern
Hemisphere) and clockwise (counterclockwise) across high pressure systems in the Northern Hemisphere
(Southern Hemisphere).
Global Surface Winds
The graphic below depicts all of the above phenomena for global surface winds. All of the polar easterlies, mid-
latitude westerlies, and tropical trade winds can be seen. With the continents and land surfaces added, we can
see where these surface winds are observed on Earth.
Jet streams
If the general flow of the atmosphere is like a massive meandering river of air all around world, jet streams are
fast-moving currents within that river. Jet streams can span thousands of kilometers and are hundreds of
kilometers wide. Wind speeds in the core of a jet stream (called a jet streak) are frequently greater than 100
knots and, on rare occasions, greater than 200 knots. If the polar jet sweeps south enough, it can sometimes
merge with the subtropical jet, and it can also split into two jet streams.

General Climate and Differential Heating

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General Climate

Major Climate Zones:

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