040 - Human Performance Limitations - Answers
040 - Human Performance Limitations - Answers
Correct Answer – B
EASA PART FCL
The Principles of Threat and Error Management (TEM)
1. TEM MODEL
1.2 Threats
The first component of the TEM model is the threat. Threats are events that
occur beyond the influence of the flight crew, increase operational complexity,
and which must be managed to maintain the margins of safet
The TEM model considers 3 categories of threats, anticipated, unanticipated
and latent which all have the potential to negatively affect flight operations by
reducing margins of safety.
(...)
Latent
Lastly, some threats may not be directly obvious to, or observable by, flight
crews immersed in flight operations, and may need to be uncovered by safety
analysis. These are considered latent threats and may include organisational
weaknesses and the psychological state of the pilot such as:
Organisational culture/changes;
Incorrect/incomplete documentation;
Equipment design issues;
Operational pressures/delays;
Optical illusions;
Fatigue/rostering;
Stress;
Complacency;
Over or under confidence;
Lack of recent experience and proficiency
Question N 2
Correct Answer – A
Safety culture is the term used to describe those aspects of an organisation’s
reliability that depend on "shared values and norms of behaviour articulated
by senior management and translated with high uniformity into effective
work practices at the front line". This definition emphasises the direct and
powerful influence of an organisation’s leadership group on the safety a ttitudes
and behaviour of employees. Every individual involved in operations has to
support the safety culture, the duty of the "higher levels" of management is to
ensure that all required resources are available.
Dr James Reason has suggested that safety culture consists of five elements:
An informed culture
A reporting culture
A learning culture
A just culture
A flexible culture
Informed culture. The organization collects and analyses relevant data, and
actively disseminates safety information.
Reporting culture. An organizational climate in which people are prepared to
report their errors and near-misses.
Learning culture. An organization must possess the willingness and the
competence to draw the right conclusions from its safety information sy stem and
the will to implement major reforms.
Just culture. An atmosphere where errors and unsafe acts will not be punished if
the error was unintentional. However, those who act recklessly or take
deliberate and unjustifiable risks will still be subject to disciplinary action.
Flexible culture. A culture in which an organisation is able to reconfigure
themselves in the face of high tempo operations or certain kinds of danger –
often shifting from conventional hierarchical mode to a flatter mode.
Question N 3
Correct Answer – A
The Threat and Error Management (TEM) model is a conceptual framework that
assists in understanding, from an operational perspective, the inter -relationship
between safety and human performance in dynamic and challenging operational
contexts.
The TEM model classifies errors based upon the primary interaction of the pilot
or flight crew at the moment the error is committed. Thus, in order to be
classified as aircraft handling error, the pilot or flight crew must be interacting
with the aircraft (e.g. through its controls, automation or systems). In order to be
classified as procedural error, the pilot or flight crew must be interacting with a
procedure (e.g. checklists; SOPs; etc). In order to be classified
as communication error, the pilot or flight crew must be interacting with people
(ATC; groundcrew; other crewmembers, etc).
Manual handling/flight controls: vertical/lateral and/or speed
deviations, incorrect flaps/speedbrakes, thrust reverser or power
settings.
Automation: incorrect altitude, speed, heading, autothrottle
Aircraft settings, incorrect mode executed, or incorrect entries.
Handling errors Systems/radio/instruments: incorrect packs, incorrect anti-icing,
incorrect altimeter, incorrect fuel switches settings, incorrect
speed bug, incorrect radio frequency dialled.
Ground navigation: attempting to turn down wrong
taxiway/runway, taxi too fast, failure to hold short, missed
taxiway/runway.
Question N 4
Correct Answer – B
Threat and Error Management (TEM)
TEM model proposes that everyday flight operation is affected by two
components: threats and errors. These have to be managed to ensure flight
safety. In case they are mishandled, both threats and errors can lead to
undesired aircraft states.
Threats: Events that occur during flight which cannot be influenced by the
crew. These can be subdivided into Environmental or Organizational
threats, according to their origin.
Errors: Actions or inactions during the course of the flight, which lead to a
deviation from the organizational or the operational person’ intentions or
expectations. Errors are always influenced by the crew.
Undesired Aircraft State (UAS): Aircraft position, condition or attitude that
clearly reduces the margin of safety and is the result of flight crew
behaviour.
“A lateral offset from the cleared track as a result of a drifting IRS.” => This is
an example of an undesired aircraft state (caused by the threat of a drifting
IRS).
“A descent below the glide path in wind shear.” => Again, this is an example of
undesired aircraft state (caused by an environmental threat).
“Take-off with less than the legally required amount of fuel on board due to an
erroneous calculation by the dispatch crew.” => This is describing a latent
threat.
The only example of an error is “Inadequate control inputs resulting in a hard
landing and the collapse of the landing gear.”
Question N 5
Correct Answer – B
Refer to figure.
THE SWISS CHEESE MODEL
The Swiss Cheese Model proposes that there is not just a single cause of any
given accident and threats materialize as a result of cumulative effects and
many layers of defenses failing to deal with it.
Professor James Reason points out that the sequence of human events in an
accident can be likened to several slices of Swiss cheese, with the holes as
opportunities for accidents. The slices actually represent layers between
management decision making and the incident concerned. On the day that the
holes line up, something will happen. So, if you can recognize the sequence,
you should, in theory, be able to pull some of the holes out of line, thus
preventing an accident.
Question N 6
Correct Answer – A
Safety culture is the term used to describe those aspects of an organisation’s
reliability that depend on "shared values and norms of behaviour articulated by
senior management and translated with high uniformity into effective work
practices at the front line". This definition emphasises the direct and powerful
influence of an organisation’s leadership group on the safety attitudes and
behaviour of employees. Once a safety culture is established and maintained
it is is relatively enduring, stable and resistant to change.
Dr James Reason has suggested that safety culture consists of five elements:
An informed culture
A reporting culture
A learning culture
A just culture
A flexible culture
Informed culture. Those who manage and operate the system have current
knowledge about the human, technical, organizational and environmental factors
that determine the safety of the system as a whole.
Reporting culture. An organizational climate in which people are prepared to
report their errors and near-misses.
Learning culture. An organization must possess the willingness and the
competence to draw the right conclusions from its safety information system and
the will to implement major reforms.
Just culture. An atmosphere of trust in which people are encouraged (even
rewarded) for providing essential safety-related information, but in which they
are also clear about where the line must be drawn between acceptable and
unacceptable behaviour.
Flexible culture. A culture in which an organisation is able to reconfigure
themselves in the face of high tempo operations or certain kinds of danger –
often shifting from conventional hierarchical mode to a flatter mode.
Question N 7
Correct Answer – D
Undesired Aircraft States (UAS)
The TEM model defines Undesired Aircraft States (UAS) to be an aircraft
position, speed deviation, condition or attitude that clearly reduces the margin
of safety and is the result of flight crew behaviour (actions or inactions). In
order to prevent the sequence of events from leading to an accident, undesired
aircraft states must be managed by the flight crew.
All flight crew MUST employ counter measures in order to keep threats, errors
and undesired aircraft states from reducing safety margin s in flight operations.
Question N 8
Correct Answer – A
ICAO Annex 1
Chapter 1. Definitions and General Rules Concerning Licences
Competency. A dimension of human performance that is used to reliably predict
successful performance on the job. A competency is manifested and observed
through behaviours that mobilize the relevant knowledge, skills and attitudes to
carry out activities or taks under specified conditions.
Question N 9
Correct Answer – B
Safety culture is the term used to describe those aspects of an organisation’s
reliability that depend on "shared values and norms of behaviour articulated
by senior management and translated with high uniformity into effective
work practices at the front line" . This definition emphasises the direct and
powerful influence of an organisation’s leadership group on the safety attitudes
and behaviour of employees. Once a safety culture is established and
maintained it is is relatively enduring, stable and resistant to change.
As a summary:
Accountability = Management
Responsibility = Individuals
Question N 10
Correct Answer – D
Competency. A dimension of human performance that is used to reliably predict
successful performance on the job. A competency is manifested and observed
through behaviours that mobilize the relevant knowledge, skills and attitudes to
carry out activities or taks under specified conditions.
"3. possesses all the knowledge associated with the aircraft" Incorrect. Knowing
every detail of the aircraft does not make one "skilled" - i.e. if the pilot is not
able to maintain straight and level flight, he is not skilled, even if he/she knows
all about the materials used, type of construction, masses, dimensions, e tc of
the aircraft.
Question N 11
Correct Answer – D
Refer to figure.
Safety Management System (SMS) is composed of four functional components:
Safety Policy
Safety Risk Management
Safety Assurance
Safety Promotion
Question N 12
Correct Answer – B
ACTIVE AND LATENT ERRORS
An error, officially, arises when a planned sequence of activities fails to achieve
the intended outcome, where random external intervention is not involved.
The terms active and latent as applied to errors were coined by Reason.
Latent errors have consequences that lie dormant and are difficult to
recognize or foresee because of the time lag between their generation
and occurrence, while active errors, which are committed at the
human/system interface, have consequences that are fe lt almost
immediately, which is how they can be detected.
Active errors are committed by the “sharp end”, those people who are
directly involved in flight operations (pilots, ATC, etc). Latent errors are
usually committed by the blunt-end, people who are not directly engaged
in flight operations. However, latent errors can also be made by front -line
personnel. An example of a latent error committed by a pi lot would be the
selection of a wrong waypoint in a GPS database.
Question N 13
Correct Answer – B
Regulation (EU) No 1178/2011
PRINCIPLES OF THREAT AND ERROR MANAGEMENT
(2) Threats:
(i) Threats are defined as events or errors that occur beyond the influence of the
flight crew, increase operational complexity, and which must be managed to
maintain the margins of safety. During typical flight operations, flight crews have
to manage various contextual complexities. Such complexities would include, for
example, dealing with adverse meteorological conditions, airports surrounded by
high mountains, congested airspace, aircraft malfunctions, errors committed by
other people outside of the cockpit, such as air traffic controllers, flight
attendants or maintenance workers, and so forth. The TEM model considers
these complexities as threats because they all have the potential to negatively
affect flight operations by reducing margins of safety;
(...)
(vii) Table 1 presents examples of threats, grouped under two basic categories
derived from the TEM Model. Environmental threats occur due to the
environment in which flight operations take place . Some environmental threats
can be planned for and some will arise spontaneously, but they all have to be
managed by flight crews in real time. Organisational threats, on the other hand,
can be controlled (for example removed or, at least, minimised) at source by
aviation organisations. Organisational threats are usually latent in nature. Flight
crews still remain the last line of defence, but there are earlier opportunities for
these threats to be mitigated by aviation organisations themselves.
(A)operational pressure:
delays, late arrivals or
(A) weather: thunderstorms, turbulence, icing, equipment changes;
wind shear, cross or tailwind, very low or high (B) aircraft: aircraft
temperatures; malfunction, automation
(B) ATC: traffic congestion, ACAS RA/TA, event or anomaly,
ATC command, ATC error, ATC language MEL/CDL;
difficulty, ATC non-standard phraseology, (C) cabin: flight attendant
ATC runway change, ATIS communication or error, cabin event
units of measurement (QFE/meters); distraction, interruption,
(C) airport: contaminated or short runway; cabin door security;
contaminated taxiway, lack of, confusing, (D) maintenance:
faded signage, markings, birds, aids maintenance event or
unserviceable, complex surface navigation error;
procedures or airport constructions; (E) ground: ground-
(D) terrain: high ground, slope, lack of handling event, de-icing or
references or ‘black hole’; ground crew error;
(E) other: similar call-signs. (F) dispatch: dispatch
paperwork event or error;
(G) documentation:
manual error or chart error;
(H) other: crew scheduling
event.
Question N 14
Correct Answer – D
The Threat and Error Management (TEM) model is a conceptual framework that
assists in understanding, from an operational perspective, the inter -relationship
between safety and human performance in dynamic and challenging operational
contexts.
The TEM model classifies errors based upon the primary interaction of the pilot
or flight crew at the moment the error is committed. Thus, in order to be
classified as aircraft handling error, the pilot or flight crew must be interacting
with the aircraft (e.g. through its controls, automation or systems). In order to be
classified as procedural error, the pilot or flight crew must be interacting with a
procedure (e.g. checklists; SOPs; etc). In order to be classified
as communication error, the pilot or flight crew must be interacting with people
(ATC; groundcrew; other crewmembers, etc).
Manual handling/flight controls: vertical/lateral and/or
speed deviations, incorrect flaps/speedbrakes, thrust
reverser or power settings.
Automation: incorrect altitude, speed, heading,
autothrottle settings, incorrect mode executed, or
Aircraft incorrect entries.
Handling errors Systems/radio/instruments: incorrect packs, incorrect
anti-icing, incorrect altimeter, incorrect fuel switches
settings, incorrect speed bug, incorrect radio
frequency dialled.
Ground navigation: attempting to turn down wrong
taxiway/runway, taxi too fast, failure to hold short,
missed taxiway/runway.
Question N 15
Correct Answer – A
Open Culture
In a nutshell, an open culture connects employees to each other, facilitates
teams working together and ensures the visions and values of the organisation
are shared. Open business cultures encourage employees to share ideas, show
up to work as their whole self, and have empathy with each other. Where all
levels of an organization play an active part in the improvement of the safety
culture.
Question N 16
Correct Answer – B
The Threat and Error Management (TEM) model is a conceptual framework that
assists in understanding, from an operational perspective, the inter-relationship
between safety and human performance in dynamic and challenging operational
contexts. It is based on three components, threats, errors and undersired
aircraft states.
Threats are the first line of defense, and are times or places whe re a potential
error could be made qute easily. They can be classed as latent threats,
environmental threats, or organisational threats, depending on how the threat
has occured in the first place.
Errors are classified based upon the primary interaction of the pilot or flight crew
at the moment the error is committed. Therefore they can be classed as aircraft
handling errors, procedural errors or communication errors, depending on what
has occured to let the error happen. These are three of the main error t ypes.
Undesired aircraft states occur due to errors being allowed to happen and
potentially putting the aircraft in a state that it should not be in, undesired
attitude, location, low on fuel, etc. These are a consequence, but if the threat
and following error have not been picked up by the flight crew already, then the
undesired aircraft state is where the flight crew should realise that there is a
problem, and take action to return to safe operations.
There are some counter-measures that can be put in pla ce to aid Threat and
Error Management, probably the largest of which is the set of systemic
counter-measures that are put in place by all operators. These are parts of the
system that have been created or develoed specificaly to aid TEM and safety
procedure. They can be things like:
These all promote and help TEM as they provide the flight crew with more
opportunities to notice threats, errors and undesired aircraft states , as well as
good tools to mitigate any such errors, and get out of the undesired states .
Question N 17
Correct Answer – C
Refer to figure.
SHELL MODEL
The SHELL Model is a conceptual tool used to analyze the interaction of
multiple system components. The SHELL Model contains the following four
components:
Liveware (L). At the centre of the model is the pilot. Man - the most
valuable and flexible component of the system. The second ‘L’ represents
other humans whether inside or outside the aircraft.
Software (S). Includes procedures, training, support, manuals, checklist
layouts, maps and charts, computer programmes.
Hardware (H). Relates to machines and equipment. Including cockpit
layout, physical aircraft structure, instruments presentation and position of
controls.
Environment (E). The working environment in which the rest of the L -H-S
system must function - conditions both inside and outside the cockpit.
Interaction of different component of the SHELL Model:
Liveware-Hardware (L-H). The L-H interface, known as "man <=> machine"
interface", refers to the relationship between the human and the physical
attributes of equipment, machines and facilities.
Liveware-Software (L-S). The L-S interface is the relationship between the
human and the supporting systems found in the workplace, e.g. regulations,
manuals, checklists, publications, standard operating procedures (SOPs) and
computer software. It includes such issues as recency of experience, accuracy,
format and presentation, vocabulary, clarity and symbology.
Liveware-Liveware (L-L). The L-L interface is the relationship among persons in
the work environment. Since flight crews, air traffic controllers, aircra ft
maintenance engineers and other operational personnel function in groups, it is
important to recognize that communication and inter -personal skills, as well as
group dynamics play a role in determining human performance.
Liveware-Environment (L-E). This interface involves the relationship between
the human and both the internal and external environments. The internal
workplace environment includes such physical considerations as temperature,
ambient light, noise, vibration and air quality. The external e nvironment includes
operational aspects such as weather factors, aviation infrastructure and terrain.
This interface also involves the relationship between the human internal
environment and its external environment.
Question N 18
Correct Answer – C
ICAO Annex 1
Chapter 1. Definitions and General Rules Concerning Licences
Competency. A dimension of human performance that is used to reliably predict
successful performance on the job. A competency is manifested and observed
through behaviours that mobilize the relevant knowledge, skills and attitudes to
carry out activities or taks under specified conditions.
Question N 19
Correct Answer – C
ICAO Annex 1
Error. An action or inaction by an operational person that leads to deviations
from organizational or the operational person's intentions or expectations.
The TEM model classifies errors based upon the primary interaction of the pilot
or flight crew at the moment the error is committed. Thus, in order to be
classified as aircraft handling error, the pilot or flight crew must be interacting
with the aircraft (e.g. through its controls, automation or systems). In order to be
classified as procedural error, the pilot or flight crew must be interacting with a
procedure (e.g. checklists; SOPs; etc). In order to be classified as
communication error, the pilot or flight crew must be interacting with people
(ATC; groundcrew; other crewmembers, etc).
Dr James Reason has suggested that safety culture consists of five elements:
An informed culture
A reporting culture
A learning culture
A just culture (non-punitive culture)
A flexible culture
Informed culture. The organization collects and analyses relevant data, and
actively disseminates safety information. This is the most effective culture
towards risk management, as more data can be provided to manage/reduce
future risks.
Reporting culture. An organizational climate in which people are prepared to
report their errors and near-misses.
Learning culture. An organization must possess the willingness and the
competence to draw the right conclusions from its safety information system and
the will to implement major reforms.
Just culture. An atmosphere where errors and unsafe acts will not be punished
if the error was unintentional. However, those who act recklessly or take
deliberate and unjustifiable risks will still be subject to disciplinary action. This
is also known as a non-punitive culture.
Flexible culture. A culture in which an organisation is able to reconfigure
themselves in the face of high tempo operations or certain kinds of danger –
often shifting from conventional hierarchical mode to a flatter mode.
From these safety cultures, we can see that the specific one which is not upheld
by the captain yelling at the First Officer for a minor, unintentional slip, is
the "just culture (non-punitive culture)". The Captain is being
unnecessarily punitive of the FO, which could lead to them failing to come
forward about any future problems, and likely will dramatically reduce their
confidence, and therefore their safety.
Question N 21
Correct Answer – C
Undesired Aircraft States (UAS)
The TEM model defines Undesired Aircraft States (UAS) to be an aircraft
position, condition or attitude that clearly reduces the margin of safety and is
the result of flight crew behaviour (actions or inactions). In order to prevent the
sequence of events from leading to an accident, undesired aircraft states must
be managed by the flight crew.
All flight crew MUST employ counter measures in order to keep threats, errors
and undesired aircraft states from reducing safety margins in flight operations.
Question N 22
Correct Answer – C
Safety culture is the term used to describe those aspects of an organisation’s
reliability that depend on "shared values and norms of behaviour articulated by
senior management and translated with high uniformity into effective work
practices at the front line". This definition emphasises the direct and powerful
influence of an organisation’s leadership group on the safety attitudes and
behaviour of employees. Once a safety culture is established and maintained it
is is relatively enduring, stable and resistant to change.
Dr James Reason has suggested that safety culture consists of five elements:
An informed culture
A reporting culture
A learning culture
A just culture
A flexible culture
Informed culture. The organization collects and analyses relevant data, and
actively disseminates safety information.
Reporting culture. An organizational climate in which people are prepared to
report their errors and near-misses.
Learning culture. An organization must possess the willingness and the
competence to draw the right conclusions from its safety information system and
the will to implement major reforms.
Just culture. An atmosphere where errors and unsafe acts will not be punished if
the error was unintentional. However, those who act recklessly or take
deliberate and unjustifiable risks will still be subject to disciplinary action.
Flexible culture. A culture in which an organisation is able to reconfigure
themselves in the face of high tempo operations or certain kinds of danger –
often shifting from conventional hierarchical mode to a flatter mode.
Question N 23
Correct Answer – A
MURPHY'S LAW
In its simplest form, Murphy's Law states: If anything can go wrong, it will. Its
original meaning is that you should find everything that can go wrong and fix it
so that nothing will go wrong.
Question N 24
Correct Answer – B
Dr James Reason has suggested that safety culture consists of five elements:
An informed culture
A reporting culture
A learning culture
A just culture
A flexible culture
Informed culture. The organization collects and analyses relevant data, and
actively disseminates safety information.
Reporting culture. An organizational climate in which people are prepared to
report their errors and near-misses.
Learning culture. An organization must possess the willingness and the
competence to draw the right conclusions from its safety information system and
the will to implement major reforms.
Just culture. An atmosphere where errors and unsafe acts will not be punished if
the error was unintentional. However, those who act recklessly or take
deliberate and unjustifiable risks will still be subject to disciplinary action.
Flexible culture. A culture in which an organisation is able to reconfigure
themselves in the face of high tempo operations or certain kinds of danger –
often shifting from conventional hierarchical mode to a flatter mode.
Question N 25
Correct Answer – D
The components of the TEM model
There are three basic components in the TEM model, from the perspective of
flight crews: threats, errors and undesired aircraft states.
Threats are defined as “events or errors that occur beyond the influence
of the flight crew, increase operational complexity, and which must be
managed to maintain the margins of safety”.
Errors are defined “actions or inactions by the flight crew that lead to
deviations from organizational or flight crew intentions or expectations”.
Question N 26
Correct Answer – A
SAFETY CULTURE
Question N 27
Correct Answer – D
Safety culture is the term used to describe those aspects of an organisation’s
reliability that depend on "shared values and norms of behaviour articulated
by senior management and translated with high uniformity into effective
work practices at the front line". This definition emphasises the direct and
powerful influence of an organisation’s leadership gro up on the safety attitudes
and behaviour of employees. Every individual involved in operations has to
support the safety culture, the duty of the "higher levels" of management is to
ensure that all required resources are available.
Dr James Reason has suggested that safety culture consists of five elements:
An informed culture
A reporting culture
A learning culture
A just culture
A flexible culture
Informed culture. The organization collects and analyses relevant data, and
actively disseminates safety information.
Reporting culture. An organizational climate in which people are prepared to
report their errors and near-misses.
Learning culture. An organization must possess the willingness and the
competence to draw the right conclusions from its safety information system and
the will to implement major reforms.
Just culture. An atmosphere where errors and unsafe acts will not be punished if
the error was unintentional. However, those who act recklessly or take
deliberate and unjustifiable risks will still be subject to disciplinary action.
Flexible culture. A culture in which an organisation is able to reconfigure
themselves in the face of high tempo operations or certain kinds of danger –
often shifting from conventional hierarchical mode to a flat ter mode.
Question N 28
Correct Answer – C
ICAO Annex 19
Appendix 2. Framework For A Safety Management System (Sms)
This appendix specifies the framework for the implementation and maintenance
of an SMS. The framework comprises four components and twelve elements as
the minimum requirements for SMS implementation:
1. Safety policy and objectives
1.1 Management commitment and responsibility
1.2 Safety accountabilities
1.3 Appointment of key safety personnel
1.4 Coordination of emergency response planning
1.5 SMS documentation
2. Safety risk management
2.1 Hazard identification
2.2 Safety risk assessment and mitigation
3. Safety assurance
3.1 Safety performance monitoring and measurement
3.2 The management of change
3.3 Continuous improvement of the SMS
4. Safety promotion
4.1 Training and education
4.2 Safety communication
Question N 29
Correct Answer – C
Safety culture is the term used to describe those aspects of an organisation’s
reliability that depend on "shared values and norms of behaviour articulated
by senior management and translated with high uniformity into effective
work practices at the front line". This definition emphasises the direct and
powerful influence of an organisation’s leadership group on the safety attitudes
and behaviour of employees. Every individual involved in operations has to
support the safety culture, the duty of the "higher levels" of management is to
ensure that all required resources are available.
Dr James Reason has suggested that safety culture consists of f ive elements:
An informed culture
A reporting culture
A learning culture
A just culture
A flexible culture
Informed culture. The organization collects and analyses relevant data, and
actively disseminates safety information. This is the most effective culture
towards risk management, as more data can be provided to manage/reduce
future risks.
Reporting culture. An organizational climate in which people are prepared to
report their errors and near-misses.
Learning culture. An organization must possess the willingness and the
competence to draw the right conclusions from its safety information system and
the will to implement major reforms.
Just culture. An atmosphere where errors and unsafe acts will not be punished if
the error was unintentional. Howev er, those who act recklessly or take
deliberate and unjustifiable risks will still be subject to disciplinary action.
Flexible culture. A culture in which an organisation is able to reconfigure
themselves in the face of high tempo operations or certain kin ds of danger –
often shifting from conventional hierarchical mode to a flatter mode.
Question N 30
Correct Answer – B
Safety Culture is the way safety is perceived, valued and prioritised in an
organisation. It reflects the real commitment to safety at all levels in the
organisation. It has also been described as "how an organisation behaves when
no one is watching". National cultural values can impact safety culture and
worker safety behaviours.
Over the past several years, many studies have been conduc ted on the
influence of national culture in the workplace. These studies focused on a
number of dimensions, but primarily sought to answer whether people will first
act in the interest of what their national culture expects of them, or first act in
the interest of maintaining a safe work environment.
In this case, it is pretty clear that national culture is taking precedence over
safety culture.
Question N 31
Correct Answer – C
High and low power distance cultures differ greatly in the manner in which
conflict is approached and handled. Higher Power Distance cultures usually
adopt an autocratic leadership style, which means subordinates may be unlikely
to approach and contradict their bosses directly.
Some Consequences:
In High Power Distance cultures: obedience to authority (parent, boss,
officials) is expected; language filled with power or hierarchy indicators;
managers / teachers tend to be autocratic while subordinates expect
direct supervision.
In Low Power Distance cultures, emphasis is on challenging decisions,
expecting autonomy and independence.
Question N 32
Correct Answer – A
EASA AIRCREW REGULATION
Countermeasures directly related to the human contribution to the safety of flight
operations:
These are personal strategies and tactics, individual and team countermeasures
that typically include canvassed skills, knowledge and attitudes developed by
human performance training, most notably, by CRM training. There are basically
three categories of individual and team countermeasures:
Planning countermeasures
SOP briefing The required briefing (A) Concise, not rushed,
was interactive and and met SOP
operationally thorough requirements;
(B) Bottom lines were
established
Execution countermeasures
Monitor and cross-check Crew members actively Aircraft position,
monitored and cross- settings, and crew
checked systems and actions were verified
other crew members
Review countermeasures
Evaluation and Existing plans were Crew decisions and
modification of plans reviewed and modified actions were openly
when necessary analysed to make sure
the existing plan was the
best plan
Question N 34
Correct Answer – D
Just Culture describes an atmosphere where errors and unsafe acts will not be
punished if the error was unintentional. However, those who act recklessly or
take deliberate and unjustifiable risks will still be subject to disciplinary action. A
Just Culture environment creates an atmosphere of trust in which people a re
encouraged, even rewarded, for providing essential safety-related information -
but in which they are also clear about where the line must be drawn between
acceptable and unacceptable behaviour. Unitended errors should not be
punished in order to promote employee's willingness to report errors, so that the
future possibility of such an error occurring again is reduced.
In this case, the operator does not apply the principle of just culture. By
punishing the pilot for committing an unintended error, trust is broken
among other employees who will now avoid reporting errors for fear of
punishment.
Question N 35
Correct Answer – C
The Threat and Error Management (TEM) model is a conceptual framework that
assists in understanding, from an operational perspective, the inter-relationship
between safety and human performance in dynamic and challenging operational
contexts.
The TEM model classifies errors based upon the primary interaction of the pilot
or flight crew at the moment the error is committed. Thus, in order to be
classified as aircraft handling error, the pilot or flight crew must be interacting
with the aircraft (e.g. through its controls, automation or systems). In order to be
classified as procedural error, the pilot or flight crew must be in teracting with a
procedure (e.g. checklists; SOPs; etc). In order to be classified
as communication error, the pilot or flight crew must be interacting with people
(ATC; groundcrew; other crewmembers, etc).
Question N 36
Correct Answer – D
The components of the TEM model
Threats are defined as “events or errors that occur beyond the influence of the
flight crew, increase operational complexity, and which must be managed to
maintain the margins of safety”. During typical fl ight operations, flight crews
have to manage various contextual complexities. Threats can be grouped under
two basic categories derived from the TEM model.
Question N 37
Correct Answer – D
Safety culture is the term used to describe those aspects of an organisation’s
reliability that depend on "shared values and norms of behaviour articulated
by senior management and translated with high uniformity into effective
work practices at the front line". This definition emphasises the direct and
powerful influence of an organ isation’s leadership group on the safety attitudes
and behaviour of employees. Every individual involved in operations has to
support the safety culture, the duty of the "higher levels" of management is to
ensure that all required resources are available.
Dr James Reason has suggested that safety culture consists of five elements:
An informed culture
A reporting culture
A learning culture
A just culture
A flexible culture
Informed culture. The organization collects and analyses relevant data, and
actively disseminates safety information. This is the most effective culture
towards risk management, as more data can be provided to manage/reduce
future risks.
Reporting culture. An organizational climate in which people are prepared to
report their errors and near-misses.
Learning culture. An organization must possess the willingness and the
competence to draw the right conclusions from its safety information system and
the will to implement major reforms.
Just culture. An atmosphere where errors and unsafe acts will not be punished if
the error was unintentional. However, those who act recklessly or take
deliberate and unjustifiable risks will still be subject to disciplinary action.
Flexible culture. A culture in which an organisation is able to reconfigure
themselves in the face of high tempo operations or certain kinds of danger –
often shifting from conventional hierarchical mode to a flatter mode.
Question N 38
Correct Answer – A
The components of the TEM model
Threats are defined as “events or errors that occur beyond the influence of the
flight crew, increase operational complexity, and which must be managed to
maintain the margins of safety”. During typical flight operations, flight crews
have to manage various contextual complexities. Threats can be gro uped under
two basic categories derived from the TEM model.
Question N 39
Correct Answer – B
In a National Culture both government and ethnic factors influence attitudes
towards safety culture. A safety culture is definied as shared values and norms
of behaviour articulated by senior management and translated with high
uniformity into effective work practices at the front line. Therefore, even if
subconsciously, safety culture is affected by National culture even if we aim
to eliminate this dependence.
Question N 40
Correct Answer – D
Refer to figure.
SHELL MODEL
The SHELL Model is a conceptual tool used to analyze the interaction of
multiple system components and identify vulnerable spots. The SHELL Model
contains the following four components:
Liveware (L). At the centre of the model is the pilot. Man - the most
valuable and flexible component of the system. The second ‘L’ represents
other humans whether inside or outside the aircraft.
Software (S). Includes procedures, training, support, manuals, checklist
layouts, maps and charts, computer programmes.
Hardware (H). Relates to machines and equipment. Including cockpit
layout, physical aircraft structure, instruments presentation and position of
controls.
Environment (E). The working environment in which the rest of the L -H-S
system must function - conditions both inside and outside the cockpit.
Question N 41
Correct Answer – D
The Tem model proposes that threats and errors are an everyday part of
aviation. These need to be managed by flight crews in order to prevent
undesired aircraft states. These can be managed by briefings and
situaltional awareness.
The main objective of crew briefings is that all crew members understand the
desired sequence of events and actions, the condition of the aircraft, any
special circumstances affecting the planned flight. At the end of a briefing, all
crew members should share a common mental model of the situation. Briefings
can be a powerful means of transferring information; if properly given they can
be extremely effective.
Question N 42
Correct Answer – D
The complete elimination of risk in aviation operations would involve stopping all
aviation activities and grounding all aircraft. This is obviously an unachievable
and impractical goal. Not all risks can be removed and not all possible risk
mitigation measures are economically practical, therefore all participants in
aviation should aim to reduce as much as possible. If the risk is considered
to be unacceptable, then control measures are taken to fortify and increase the
level of defences against that risk or to avoid or remove the risk, if this
is economically feasible.
Question N 43
Correct Answer – D
Refer to figure.
SHELL MODEL
The SHELL Model is a conceptual tool used to analyze the interaction of
multiple system components and identify vulnerable spots. The SHELL Model
contains the following four components:
Liveware (L). At the centre of the model is the pilot. Man - the most
valuable and flexible component of the system. The second ‘L’ represents
other humans whether inside or outside the aircraft.
Software (S). Includes procedures, training, support, manuals, checklist
layouts, maps and charts, computer programmes.
Hardware (H). Relates to machines and equipment. Including cockpit
layout, physical aircraft structure, instruments presentation and position of
controls.
Environment (E). The working environment in which the rest of the L -H-S
system must function - conditions both inside and outside the cockpit.
An informed culture
A reporting culture
A learning culture
A just culture
A flexible culture
Informed culture. The organization collects and analyses relevant data, and
actively disseminates safety information.
Reporting culture. An organizational climate in which people are prepared to
report their errors and near-misses.
Learning culture. An organization must possess the willingness and the
competence to draw the right conclusions from its safety information system and
the will to implement major reforms.
Just culture. An atmosphere where errors and unsafe acts will not be
punished if the error was unintentional. However, those who act recklessly
or take deliberate and unjustifiable risks will still be subject to disciplinary
action.
Flexible culture. A culture in which an organisation is able to reconfigure
themselves in the face of high tempo operations or certain kinds of danger –
often shifting from conventional hierarchical mode to a f latter mode.
Question N 45
Correct Answer – B
The components of the TEM model
Threats are defined as “events or errors that occur beyond the influence of the
flight crew, increase operational complexity, and which must be managed to
maintain the margins of safety”. During typical flight operations, flight crews
have to manage various contextual complexities. Threats can be grouped under
two basic categories derived from the TEM model.
Question N 46
Correct Answer – A
Refer to figure.
Safety Management System (SMS) is composed of four functional components:
Safety Policy
Safety Risk Management
Safety Assurance
Safety Promotion
Question N 47
Correct Answer – C
Undesired Aircraft States (UAS)
The TEM model defines Undesired Aircraft States (UAS) to be an aircraft
position, condition or attitude that clearly reduces the margin of safety and is
the result of flight crew behaviour (actions or inactions). In order to prevent the
sequence of events from leading to an accident, undesired aircraft states must
be managed by the flight crew.
All flight crew MUST employ counter measures in order to keep threats, errors
and undesired aircraft states from reducing safety margins in flight operations.
Question N 48
Correct Answer – A
The components of the TEM model
Threats are defined as “events or errors that occur beyond the influence of the
flight crew, increase operational complexity, and which must be managed to
maintain the margins of safety”. During typical flight operations, flight crews
have to manage various contextual complexities. Threats can be grouped under
two basic categories derived from the TEM model.
Question N 49
Correct Answer – A
Learning Objective 040.01.01.01.01: State that competence is based on
knowledge, skills and attitudes of the individual pilot, and list the ICAO eight
core competencies:
application of procedures;
communication;
aircraft flight path management, automation;
aircraft flight path management, manual control;
leadership and teamwork;
problem-solving and decision-making;
situation awareness;
workload management.
.............................................................................................................................................................
Question N° 50
Correct Answer – D
Refer to figure.
Learning Objective 040.03.01.03.01: Explain the link between the types of
memory (to include sensory, working/short-term and long-term memory).
There are three main levels of memory in the multi-store model; the sensory
store (very short), the working memory (short-term memory) and the long-term
memory.
The sensory store (sensory memory) is very interesting, it is almost like your
vision has its own "fade-out" effect, where you see something and then stop
looking at it, but your brain is able to see it for up to a second longer. It works
the same with hearing, but actually a bit better still. When you hear something, a
sentence perhaps, the brain can effectively play it back for the next few
seconds.
You may know this from when you have been focussed on a task, but someone
speaks to you, and you only begin to focus on their words after they have
finished speaking, but somehow, you are able to remember exactly what they
have said. This is the sensory store. It is mainly useful for giving our brains
enough exposure time to process images and sounds.
The visual sensory store lasts less than a second , and the auditory sensory
store can last up to 5 seconds.
What has happened in this scenario is that the pilot has performed their usual
fast instrument scan (not focussed on detail at all), and has seen all the
instruments, expecting them to be indicating the same things they usually
indicate. The pilot's brain has taken in the sight of the different oil pressure
gauge, which is different from normal. The vision of it will stay in the sensory
store for 1 second, which is enough time for the brain to note
down something different from usual. At this point, no information has been
consciously processed yet.
The pilot then looks back at the gauge (if they had already looked away),
and focuses on its reading, processing the information , and detecting that the oil
pressure is abnormal in one engine. That information is now held in the working
memory, where it can be committed to the long term memory via repetition and
thought.
The pilot does not usually process the information from a fast scan like this , for
example, they would be unable to tell you the exact oil temper ature reading after
a normal scan. These fast scans are good at spotting abnormalities, which are
then processed as such.
Question N° 51
Correct Answer – A
STRESS
Stress disturbs the body’s homeostasis and enables you to adapt to
encountered situations. It is the body’s response to a stressor, which is an
internal or external stimulus that is interpreted as a threat to the body’s
equilibrium, and prepares it for action. Stress is a natural human reaction and it
is not always negative! A certain moderate amount of stress is beneficial to
human performance - it stops you slowing down and keeps you on your toes –
this is the sort associated with success.
Stress is a very subjective matter – every individual is different and stress
reactions as well as their magnitudes differ from person to person. The
individual level of stress depends on the individual’s subjective perception of
available abilities and comparing them to the situational demands. In humans,
the physiological reaction to stress is the non-specific “fight or flight” response.
This natural reaction prepares you to either flee or protect yourself in dangerous
situations.
Question N° 52
Correct Answer – C
Any medication can cause side effects, some of which may impair the safe
performance of performing aviation safety related duties. Equally, symptoms
of colds, sore throats, diarrhoea and other abdominal upsets may cause little or
no problem whilst on the ground but may distract the pilot or cabin crew member
and degrade their performance whilst on duty. The in-flight environment may
also increase the severity of symptoms which may only be minor whilst on the
ground. Therefore, one issue with medication and performing aviation safety
related duties is the underlying condition and , in addition, the symptoms may be
compounded by the side effects of the medication prescribed or bought over the
counter for treatment.
=> Therefore, people on regular medication should seek medical advice.
Question N° 53
Correct Answer – D
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL RESPIRATION
Internal and external respiration are two processes where the exchange of
oxygen and carbon dioxide occur.
The most important function of breathing is the supplying of oxygen to the body
and balancing of the carbon dioxide levels. Under most conditions, the partial
pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO 2 ), or concentration of carbon dioxide, controls
the respiratory rate. If the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is too high, you will
breth faster and deeper to eliminate CO 2 .
Question N° 54
Correct Answer – A
HYPERVENTILATION
Breathing too rapidly or too deeply without physiological need can cause
hyperventilation, a physiological disorder that develops when too much carbon
dioxide (CO 2 ) is eliminated from the body. Without a sufficient quantity of CO 2 ,
normal respiration is disturbed, producing symptoms that resemble
hypoxia. Hyperventilation can be triggered by tension, fear or anxiety.
When the pilot realizes that he has just escaped a mid -air collision, he
experiences symptoms of initial stress reaction: "fight or flight" response. The
perception of threat activates the sympathetic nervous system and triggers an
acute stress response that prepares the body to fight or flee but may be
experienced as uncomfortable when you do not know why they are happening.
During the "Fight or Flight" response, your heart beats faster. A faster heart beat
feeds more blood to the muscles and enhances your ability to run away or fight.
Breathing becomes quicker and shallower. Quicker breathing takes in more
oxygen to power the muscles. This makes the body more able to fight or run
away.
Question N° 55
Correct Answer – D
HEARING LOSS
Hearing loss can be broadly separated into two categories: conductive and
sensorineural (damage to tiny hair cells in the inner ear).
CORRECT OPTION: "A blockage of the outer or middle ear, e.g. ear wax, or
fluid in the middle ear."
All remaining factors mentioned induce sensorineural hearing loss.
Question N° 56
Correct Answer – C
Refer to figure.
The auditory system is comprised of three components; the outer, middle, and
inner ear, all of which work together to transfer sounds from the environment to
the brain.
THE OUTER EAR
The outer ear includes the portion of ear that we see: the pinna/auricle and the
auditory canal.
The pinna or auricle is a concave cartilaginous structure which collects and
directs sound waves travelling in air into the auditory canal. The sound waves
will cause the ear drum to vibrate.
Altitude;
Individual’s state of health;
Amount of activity.
40 000 ft 15 – 20 s
35 000 ft 30 – 90 s
30 000 ft 1 – 2 min
25 000 ft 2 – 3 min
20 000 ft 30 min
Question N° 59
Correct Answer – A
Human actions will never be entirely flawless and knowledge of mechanisms
that result in errors can help detect and prevent them. The bias related to
human decision making include:
Question N° 60
Correct Answer – A
The term working memory, or short-term memory, refers to a brain system that
provides temporary storage of information for about 10 to 20 seconds. If this
information is rehearsed, it will be transferred into the Long term memory. Long-
term memory refers to unlimited storage information to be maintained for long
periods, even for life. Despite of the belief that information is stored for an
unlimited period, there are retrieval problems. One major disadvantage is the
time it takes to access, pre-activation of necessary knowledge will allow for a
reduction in access time.
Question N° 61
Correct Answer – B
Pulse rate is determined by the autonomic nervous system, and is modified to
account for the necessary blood flow through the body at any moment. If the
autonomic nervous system (ANS) decides that the body needs more blood, due
to any reason, then it will make the heart beat more frequently to increase the
flow.
There are a few main factors that increase the required blood flow, and
therefore the heart rate:
There are many more factors which affect the heart rate, and can even
overpower the effects listed above sometimes.
Question N° 62
Correct Answer – D
Safety culture is the term used to describe those aspects of an organisation’s
reliability that depend on "shared values and norms of behaviour articulated
by senior management and translated with high uniformity into effective
work practices at the front line". This definition emphasises the direct and
powerful influence of an organisation’s leadership group o n the safety attitudes
and behaviour of employees. Every individual involved in operations has to
support the safety culture, the duty of the "higher levels" of management is to
ensure that all required resources are available.
Dr James Reason has suggested that safety culture consists of five elements:
An informed culture
A reporting culture
A learning culture
A just culture
A flexible culture
Informed culture. The organization collects and analyses relevant data, and
actively disseminates safety information.
Reporting culture. An organizational climate in which people are prepared to
report their errors and near-misses.
Learning culture. An organization must possess the willingness and the
competence to draw the right conclusions from its safety information system and
the will to implement major reforms.
Just culture. An atmosphere where errors and unsafe acts will not be punished if
the error was unintentional. However, those who act recklessly or take
deliberate and unjustifiable risks will still be subject to disciplinary action.
Flexible culture. A culture in which an organisation is able to reconfigure
themselves in the face of high tempo operations or certain kinds of danger –
often shifting from conventional hierarchical mode to a flatter mod e.
Question N° 63
Correct Answer – B
Refer to figure.
LONG TERM MEMORY
This is where all our basic knowledge (e.g., memories of childhood, training,
etc.) is kept – you might liken it to the unconscious, with more capacity and
ability to retain information than short term memory – its storage capacity is
regarded as unlimited, and possibly consists of several interlaced systems, such
as semantic memory, episodic memory, plus procedural memory.
Repetition (or rehearsing) is used to get information into it, combined with
organising it, placing it into some sort of context or associating it with an
emotion. The main limitation of the long-term memory is that information
retrieval can be difficult. Therefore, knowledge stored in long -term memory
should be pre-activated (with planning and anticipation) so it can be available
when required and have the access time reduced.
Long-term memory is influenced by experience, repetition, suggestion,
desires, and expectations.
Question N° 65
Correct Answer – B
Learning Objective 040.02.03.03.01: State the role of the Eustachian tube in
equalising pressure between the middle ear and the environment.
Ear pain during descent is most often caused by the difference in air pressure
between the cabin and a person's middle ear. The middle ear is a closed off
environment, which is sealed off by the eustachian tube. As the aircraft climbs
and descends (but the worst direction is descent, due to the way the eustachian
tube opens outwards), the ear has more or less pressure inside than the
ambient air, which feels like a dull pain within the ear, and sound becomes a
little muffled. The eustachian tube can be opened by making large
movements with the jaw, or by the action of swallowing . This will
then equalise the middle ear pressure with that of the ambient air , removing the
pain. This often occurs naturally when talking or eating, but is easy to induce
manually.
Another way of equalising pressure is the Valsalva manoeuvre (pinching the
nose and blowing out through it), but this can be a bit harsher.
People suffering from a cold or ear infection may struggle to equalise their ears
at all due to a blocked eustachian tube , so may feel some discomfort for a while.
Usually, this should clear over a few minutes/hours, but in extreme cases, could
cause damage the eardrum due to the difference in pressure. This is very rare
indeed, and unlikely to occur, especially when pain only begins on the approach.
The problem is also that the aircraft has to land anyway, so cannot stop the
descent, and it is not bad enough in this scenario to require a mayday call and
emergency ambulance, so this is all the cabin crew can do to help.
Note: This question was created from incomplete feedback. Any exam feedback
can be put in the comments or emailed to [email protected], thank you.
Question N° 66
Correct Answer – A
HYPOVIGILANCE
Hypo vigilance is a state of reduced vigilance and attention, which reduces,
among other, the abilities to direct attention to perform multiple tasks at the
same time.
Hypovigilance is characterized by a decrease in sensory perception, therefore a
higher level of sensory stimulation will be required to get a person’s attention
and a sensation of muscular heaviness.
Visible signs of reduced vigilance include reduced movements and low muscular
tension, which can se seen, for instance, in the fact that the person’s mouth is
slightly open. One can usually observe an increase in time between tow
blinks of the eyes (staring). The upper eyelid may be lowered slowly and the
person may experience microsleep.
Question N° 67
Correct Answer – D
Endemic intestinal disorders are caused by bacteria, viruses or toxic products of
germs and promoted by low hygienic standards. Many problems can be avoided
by observing a strict personal hygiene routine and taking a few basic
precautions. These measures should be observed in all parts of the world. They
are:
Do not drink tap water, you should drink water from sealed bottles only.
Remember that even cleaning teeth in contaminated water can be enough
to cause illness.
Avoid ice in drinks, unless you are certain that the ice is made from
treated water.
Peel or cook all fruit and vegetables. The skin may have been
contaminated by someone with a communicable disease or also washed
with tap water.
Avoid salad stuffs and other raw foods which may have been washed
in contaminated water.
Ice-creams should be avoid as these are generally made from raw fruits and
water. You should also avoid swimming in local rivers or lakes as the water
may be contaminated. It is recommended to wear appropriate clothing - Long-
sleeved shirts and long trousers are a must in malaria zones. Exposed skin
should be protected with insect repellents; the head and neck must be protected
from direct exposure to the sun.
Question N° 68
Correct Answer – B
COMPOSITION OF THE BLOOD
The plasma is the liquid part of the blood. As well as carrying the various blood
cells it delivers digested food products such as glucose and amino acids,
dissolved proteins, various hormones and enzymes. The blood cells are of three
types:
Red blood cells contain haemoglobin and carry oxygen to the cells and
tissues of the body. The red cells do not have nuclei and thereby make
more room for haemoglobin.
White blood cells are of various types; they resemble amoebae and have
large nuclei to engulf and destroy invading bacteria. Their main function is
the defence against disease. They produce antibodies to fight bacteria
and antitoxins to neutralise the toxins produced by bacteria.
Platelets are the smallest of the blood cells and assist in the blood
clotting process.
Question N° 69
Correct Answer – D
REVERSION
When overwhelmed by workload, confusion, and stress; pilots —like all
individuals—may revert to a reactive mode of operation because they cannot
keep up with the cognitive demands => humans tend to revert to the basics
first learned for a specific task (there is a tendency to revert to old habits)
Question N° 70
Correct Answer – D
Refer to figure.
CORIOLIS ILLUSION
Coriolis illusion happens when you're in a constant turn long enough for the fluid
in your ears to stop moving. When the fluid in your ears stops moving, your
brain thinks it is 'straight-and-level'. At this point, if you move your head too
quickly, such as tilting your head down to change a fuel tank or pick up a
pen, you can start the fluid in your ears moving in an entirely different axis. This
makes you feel like the airplane is maneuvering in a way that it isn't, an
overwhelming sensation of rotating, turning, or accelerating along an entirely
different plane. An attempt to stop the sensation by maneuvering the plane may
put it into a dangerous attitude.
To avoid this illusion, do not move your head too fast in limited visibility or
darkness.
Question N° 71
Correct Answer – C
Learning Objective 040.02.01.03.04: List the factors that affect the relative
humidity of both the atmosphere and cabin air.
Question N° 72
Correct Answer – A
The pilot should always try to ensure he/she maintains an accurate mental
model of his/her environment (perception matches reality) and this process is
sometimes referred to as maintaining situational awareness. The degree of
situational awareness depends upon the v igilance, alertness, communications,
overall comprehension and briefing of the crew.
It is important to point out that situational awareness is not only the state
whereby the crew are aware of the real situation both inside and outside the
aircraft but also alert as to their own personal performance state.
Factors which might interfere with Situational Awareness
Among the most important factors which can interfere with situation awareness
are:
Stress.
Interruptions to the thought process.
Fatigue.
Hopes, wishes and desires.
Poor communications.
Boredom.
=> The fact that the commander does not double check whether the
communication has been made or not, shows a lack of vigilance, alertness
and poor communication => resulting in poor situational awareness/mental
model.
Question N° 73
Correct Answer – C
The copilot is acting as a good follower. While sharing his/her experience and
giving the commander advice, he/she does not question the commander’s
authority. At the same time, when the commander autocratically ignores the
copilot’s advice, the first officer does not disengage and shows him/herself
available when an error is made.
The commander, on the other hand, applies an autocratic leadership style which
consists of a management style wherein the captain controls all the decisions
and takes very little inputs from the copilot.
Question N° 74
Correct Answer – D
Learning Objective 040.02.01.03.04: List the factors that affect the relative
humidity of both the atmosphere and cabin air.
Note: This question does mention humidity, but from the learning objectives,
general understanding and other similar questions, we strongly believe that the
examiner is referring to relative humidity in this question, a much more
commonly used metric. Also, if they were referring to absolute humidity, only the
outside air temperature would make a difference (within normal temperature
ranges), which would make two answers equally correct.
Question N° 75
Correct Answer – C
Refer to figure.
Blind Spot
Visual information from the retina is transported to the brain through the optic
nerve. This is the point at the back of the eye where all the nerve fibres meet
and form the nerve does not contain photosensitive cells. Light that falls on the
retina in this spot cannot be processed into visual impressions, so objects that
are projected onto this area cannot be seen.
This blind spot is most problematic when vision from the other eye is partially or
fully obscured, as that extra eye is usually what would fill in the blank section of
vision, hence the reason we do not notice our blind spot in everyday life. If a
pilot is looking in one direction with one eye obscured, there is a good chance
that they would not see an aircraft on a constant relative bearing
(stationary in the windshield) if it happens to lie within the blind spot of the
working eye, meaning that the pilot may not be aware of the problem until it has
come so close that its depiction is larger than the blind spot – which will most
likely be too late to avoid a collision. This could be avoided by using a constant
scan, to make sure the blind spot area is not always in the same place.
Question N° 76
Correct Answer – A
CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS
In normal conditions our circadian rhythms are locked to 24 hours by external
time cues (zeitgebers). These cues are provided by clock times and other
external events, such as, the sun rising, light and darkness, etc, all of which
assist in the regulation of our internal biological clock.
If an individual is isolated from these zeitgebers, without clocks or any way of
detecting light changes, the circadian rhythms will “free run” to a periodicity
of about 25 hours. This means that an average individual, if isolated from these
cues, instead of working to an average 16 hours awake and 8 hours sleep, will
extend his/her day to 17 hours awake, 8 hours sleep.
Question N° 77
Correct Answer – C
ICAO Annex 1
Error. An action or inaction by an operational person that leads to deviations
from organizational or the operational person's intentions or expectations.
The TEM model classifies errors based upon the primary interaction of the pilot
or flight crew at the moment the error is committed. Thus, in order to be
classified as aircraft handling error, the pilot or flight crew must be interacting
with the aircraft (e.g. through its contro ls, automation or systems). In order to be
classified as procedural error, the pilot or flight crew must be interacting with a
procedure (e.g. checklists; SOPs; etc). In order to be classified as
communication error, the pilot or flight crew must be intera cting with people
(ATC; groundcrew; other crewmembers, etc).
Question N° 78
Correct Answer – C
Body temperature
The human core body temperature is largely constant (approx. 36.5 °C – 37.5
°C) thanks to the interaction of heat generation, heat absorption and heat
release. This temperature range is the same for all healthy individuals ,
provided that they are adapted to the climatic zone where they are.
There is a direct relationship between our body temperature and sleep
cycle. At the time of lowest body temperature, we find it hardest to stay awake.
We will start to feel sleepy at a time when the temperature is falling and be at
our most wide awake when the temperature is rising. Sleep is most restful when
going to sleep while the temperature is falling. The best physical and mental
performance, on the other hand, is achieved during times of rising or high body
temperature, whereat mental or intellectual performance is better in the
morning.
Body temperature variations throughout the day follow a regular cycle. The
highest temperature occurs around 1700 hours and the lowest at about 0500
hours, at which time we are least efficient and the desire for sleep is at its peak.
Question N° 79
Correct Answer – A
Reliability is the ability to perform a given task without errors in a definite
time and under certain requirements. Errors are an inevitable part of flying.
"Humans make errors; it is not enough to simply ban them from doing so". It is
important to realise that humans will make mistakes and tha t this is inevitable.
The term IMSAFE is an acronym made of the individual factors which affect
human performance and reliability and should be used to assess one’s own
fitness to fly.
Illness – Illness can make a pilot unable to perform his/her flying dut ies.
Medication – A pilot under the influence of any medication, prescribed or over -
the-counter, may experience performance deterioration.
Stress – Chronic stress, professional as well as domestic, can affect a pilot’s
ability to focus.
Alcohol – The physical effects of alcohol include incorrect judgement of
distances and tunnel vision.
Fatigue – Insufficient rest will lead to fatigue, either acute or chronic. Both will
reduce a pilot’s vigilance and ability of judgement.
Eating – This includes physical aspects like proper hydration and correct
nutrition, which help keep up performance.
Note: Medium workload levels are associated with optimum arousal and,
therefore, increased performance and vigilance.
Question N° 80
Correct Answer – B
Refer to figure.
The diaphragm, located below the lungs, is the major muscle of respiration. It is
a large, dome-shaped muscle that contracts rhythmically and continually, and
most of the time, involuntarily. Upon inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and
flattens and the chest cavity enlarges. This contraction creates a vacuum, which
pulls air into the lungs. Upon exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes and returns to
its domelike shape, and air is forced out of the lungs.
Question N° 81
Correct Answer – A
Often, an initial symptom of a heart attack is sudden left arm pain that gets
increasingly intense over the course of a few minutes. Other symptoms of heart
attack are:
Question N° 82
Correct Answer – C
CONES AND RODS
The light sensitive cell-receptors of the retina are of two types: Rods and Cones.
The centre of the retina is called the fovea and the receptors in this area are all
cones. Moving outwards, the cones become less dense and are gradually
replaced by rods - in the periphery there are no cones.
=> In dim light it is easier to focus on an object if you look slightly away from
it. As the fovea contains no rods, which would be required for vision is very low
brightness levels, the centre part of the eye becomes blind to dim light. It is then
necessary to look away from the visual target so that the peripherally located
rods can perform their sensing task.
To check the other options given:
Peripheral Vision is vision far away from the centre, "in the corner of your
eye", but is not changed significantly by the darkness adjustment process.
Grey-out is a term used when a person is losing blood to their brain and
eyes, during a sustained high positive G manouvre, their vision becomes
grey, and forms a tunnel.
Sensitivity is correct as that is what is changing to allow us to see in
darker conditions, the sensitivity of our rods increase during this
adjustment period to pick up low light levels, versus the cones which
cannot see in the dark, so become less sensitive.
Binocular cues are things within our visual range that allow us to judge
depth perception, and have nothing to do with night vision adaptation.
Question N° 83
Correct Answer – B
Visual Flight Rules (VFR) flights that inadvertently or intentionally enter into
instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) continue to be a significant safety
hazard to general aviation.
VFR Pilots may attempt to continue a VFR flight in IMC conditions for many
reasons, such as:
In good weather and daylight, you obtain your orientation primarily through your
vision. In IFR conditions or at night, there are fewer visual cues, and your body
relies upon the vestibular and proprioceptors to supplement your
vision. Because these senses can provide false cues about your
orientation, the probability of disorientation occurring in IFR weather is
quite high. You are more subject to disorientation if you use body signals to
interpret flight attitude. To alleviate symptoms of disorientation, you must
properly interpret and rely on the indications of the flight instruments.
Question N° 84
Correct Answer – A
The Threat and Error Management (TEM) model is a conceptual framework that
assists in understanding, from an operational perspective, the inter-relationship
between safety and human performance in dynamic and challenging operational
contexts.
The TEM model classifies errors based upon the primary interaction of the pilot
or flight crew at the moment the error is committed. Thus, in order to be
classified as aircraft handling error, the pilot or flight crew must be interacting
with the aircraft (e.g. through its controls, automation or systems). In order to be
classified as procedural error, the pilot or flight crew must be interacting with a
procedure (e.g. checklists; SOPs; etc). In order to be classified
as communication error, the pilot or flight crew must be interacting with people
(ATC; groundcrew; other crewmembers, etc).
Manual handling/flight controls: vertical/lateral and/or
speed deviations, incorrect flaps/speedbrakes, thrust
reverser or power settings.
Automation: incorrect altitude, speed, heading,
autothrottle settings, incorrect mode executed, or
Aircraft incorrect entries.
Handling errors Systems/radio/instruments: incorrect packs, incorrect
anti-icing, incorrect altimeter, incorrect fuel switches
settings, incorrect speed bug, incorrect radio
frequency dialled.
Ground navigation: attempting to turn down wrong
taxiway/runway, taxi too fast, failure to hold short,
missed taxiway/runway.
.............................................................................................................................................................
Question N° 86
Correct Answer – C
When in straight and level flight there is no movement of fluid in the semi -
circular canals, resulting in the correct perception of being straight and level.
However, any movement of the head as a result of aircraft roll, pitch or yaw will
cause the hairs in the fluid of the appropriate semi-circular canal(s) to move.
Continued motion at a steady rate of turn will, after 10 - 15 seconds, allow the
fluid to ‘catch up’ with the canal causing the hairs to revert to their upright
position. This lack of vestibular input leads to a false perception that the aircraft
is straight and level, when in fact it is not.
Although the semicircular canals provide accurate information about angular
movements of the head in the natural environment, difficulties arise when the
speed of rotation is held steady for several seconds, or when the rate of turn
increases or decreases at a steady rate (constant angular acceleration).
Question N° 87
Correct Answer – D
Human actions will never be entirely flawless and knowledge of mechanisms
that result in errors can help detect and prevent them. The bias related to
human decision making include:
Question N° 88
Correct Answer – B
Refer to figure.
THE SWISS CHEESE MODEL
The Swiss Cheese Model proposes that there is not just a single cause of any
given accident and threats materialize as a result of cumulative effects and
many layers of defenses failing to deal with it.
Professor James Reason points out that the sequence of human events in an
accident can be likened to several slices of Swiss cheese, with the holes as
opportunities for accidents. The slices actually represent layers between
management decision making and the incident concerned. On the day that the
holes line up, something will happen. So, if you can recognize the sequence,
you should, in theory, be able to pull some of the holes out of line, thus
preventing an accident.
Question N° 89
Correct Answer – B
One of the most important aspects of a safe flight operation is the requirement
for crew members to carefully monitor the aircraft's flight path and systems, as
well as actively cross-check each other's actions. Humans are not good at
monitoring constant situations and, therefore, it is easy to fall behind the
aircraft. This is especially true when no deviations are expected to occur, as in
the case when monitoring automated systems. This can induce a feeling of
automation complacency (too much reliance on the machine) and lead you not
to check things as often as you should (hypovigilance).
Hypovigilance is a lack of attention to detail, it is akin to a microsleep which can
occur at any time during the flight, especially during periods of monotony,
reduction of workload, during simple and repetitive tasks, low lightning, high
temperature and constant and monotonous noise.
With regards to this question, this situation will place extra cognitive
stress on the individual which can negatively affect performance.
Question N° 91
Correct Answer – A
Being obedient refers to following the orders of someone with a higher social
status just because the orders were given. Whereas this may be a nice trait
for shepherd dogs, flight crew members should remain prepared to challenge
orders if they are believed to be suboptimal.
Persuasion refers to the process of changing attitudes, opinions and behaviours
of other group members. In contrast to negotiation, which implies retreating and
meeting somewhere in the middle, persuasion means to make people completely
abandon their point of view to accept the persuader's one. Pilots should not
suppress opinions which could lead to a better outcome.
The term self-discipline means the ability to counteract any distra ctions from a
self-imposed or given objective. This requires the capacity of delayed
gratification, which refers to the power to reject immediate pleasant
consequences in order to achieve greater future reward.
Question N° 92
Correct Answer – B
In addition to their aircraft control tasks, the Pilot Flying (PF) takes responsibility
for navigation and the Pilot Monitoring (PM) takes responsibility for
communication and systems operation. During normal operations, the
procedures and tasks for the PF and PM in the various flight phases are well
described and evenly distributed. With good use of the available automation, the
level of workload is such that spare capacity to maintain situational awareness
is available. However if an unexpected situation occurs which requires extra
attention, the workload can increase considerably.
When there is intense workload, instead of immediate reprogramming, pilots are
advised to reduce the level of automation to a more basic mode. This way, the
negative effects of automation on pilots may be alleviated by degrading to
a lower level of automation to recover comprehension of the flight status
from VNAV/LNAV to ALT/HDG or even to manual flying.
Note: downgrading automation is a good idea, however reverting to manual
flight would use up too many resources during an approach to a busy airport.
However, EASA seems to include "manual flight" in their correct answer. In our
opinion, flying manually would only be an option in case of a suspected
malfunction of automated systems.
Question N° 93
Correct Answer – C
Hypoxic hypoxia is a situation where the partial pressure of oxygen within the
lungs is not sufficient to oxygenate the arterial blood and fulfil the metabolic
demand. It can be caused by a reduced rate of breathing, a lower percetage of
oxygen in the air, or, more commonly in aviation, by a decreasing total air
pressure with corresponding reduction is oxygen partial pressure.
During significant hypoxic stress, alcohol is accompanied by greater levels of
oxygen desaturation. Even a small amount of oxygen will result in increased
physiological altitude.
When you exercise and your muscles work harder, your body uses more oxygen
and produces more carbon dioxide. To cope with this extra demand, your
breathing has to increase. Thus reducing physical activity reduces the
oxygen needs and, consequently, reduces the susceptibility to hypoxia.
Note that scuba diving, age over 35, humidity and poor nutrition do not increase
hypoxia severity.
Question N° 94
Correct Answer – C
ICAO Annex 19
Appendix 2. Framework For A Safety Management System (Sms)
This appendix specifies the framework for the implementation and maintenance
of an SMS. The framework comprises four components and twelve elements as
the minimum requirements for SMS implementation:
1. Safety policy and objectives
1.1 Management commitment and responsibility
1.2 Safety accountabilities
1.3 Appointment of key safety personnel
1.4 Coordination of emergency response planning
1.5 SMS documentation
2. Safety risk management
2.1 Hazard identification
2.2 Safety risk assessment and mitigation
3. Safety assurance
3.1 Safety performance monitoring and measurement
3.2 The management of change
3.3 Continuous improvement of the SMS
4. Safety promotion
4.1 Training and education
4.2 Safety communication
Question N° 95
Correct Answer – B
Pulse rate is determined by the autonomic nervous system, and is modified to
account for the necessary blood flow through the body at any moment. If the
autonomic nervous system (ANS) decides that the body needs more blood, due
to any reason, then it will make the heart beat more frequently to increase the
flow.
There are a few main factors that increase the required blood flow, and
therefore the heart rate:
There are many more factors which affect the heart rate, and can even
overpower the effects listed above sometimes.
Question N° 96
Correct Answer – B
Note that this questions asks for the most common causes of gastrointestinal
upset (and not symptoms). Diarrhoea and vomiting are symptoms of
gastrointestinal upset.
Bacterial gastroenteritis happens when bacteria cause an infection in your gut.
The infection leads to inflammation in your stomach and intestines. While
viruses cause many gastrointestinal infections, bacterial infections are also
common. Some people call these infections food poisoning.
Moreover, flying to a number of different countries may cause the pilot to eat
food that he/she is not used to. For example, in some countries, it is common to
consume very spicy food. For those who are not used to, the consumption of
spicy foods can trigger upper gastrointestinal symptoms, such as indigestion.
Drinking alcohol is associated with acid rising up from your stomach into your
throat (known as acid reflux), or causing heartburn. Some evidence suggests
alcoholic drinks can make your stomach produce more acid than usual, which
can gradually wear away your stomach lining and make it inflamed and painful
(gastritis).
Note: This question was created based on incomplete feedback. Please, let us
know if you come across this question in your exam and there is anything you’d
like to add.
Question N° 97
Correct Answer – A
Refer to figure.
EYE STRUCTURE
Light enters through the cornea and is controlled by the iris (coloured part of the
eye). It does this by controlling the size of t he pupil - In low light, your pupils
open up, or dilate, to let in more light. When it's bright, they get smaller, or
constrict, to let in less light.
After passing through the pupil, the light passes through a clear lens. Its shape
is changed by the muscles (ciliary muscles) surrounding it which allow the final
focusing onto the fovea - In order to focus clearly on a near object, the lens is
thickened. To focus on a distant point, the lens is flattened.
This focused light is directed onto the retina, a thin layer of light-sensitive nerve
tissue that lines the back of the eye. Images are focused at its center (known as
the macula) and converted into electrical impulses that are carried to the brain
by the optic nerve, where they are translated into sigh t.
Question N° 98
Correct Answer – D
Have you ever noticed that you feel more alert at certain times of day, and feel
more tired at other times? Those patterns are a result of two body systems:
sleep/wake homeostasis and your circadian rhythm, or internal body clock.
These systems determine your sleep drive, or your body’s need for sleep, at any
given time.
Sleep/wake homeostasis balances our need for sleep, called a “sleep drive”
or “sleep pressure,” with our need for wakefulness. When we’ve been
awake for a long period of time, our sleep drive tells us that it’s time to
sleep. As we sleep, we regain homeostasis and our sleep drive diminishes.
Finally, our need for alertness grows, telling us that it’s time to wake up.
Our circadian rhythm approximates a homeostasis in coordination with
environmental cues like sunlight. Because of our circadian rhythm, our
alertness level dips and rises throughout each 24-hour period, impacting
the amount of sleepiness and wakefulness we experience during t he day.
Question N° 99
Correct Answer – A
Most divers know air travel immediately following a scuba dive increases the
amount of nitrogen in your body tissues and can lead to decompression
sickness. The following guidelines apply to air dives followed by flights at cabin
altitudes of 2 000 to 8 000 ft:
Question N° 100
Correct Answer – B
Implicit communication refers to the things we do, individually or collectively,
usually without regard to the messages others receive. It could be corporate
culture or perhaps body language.
Explicit communication rules are about what a manager says or writes and are
usually very direct, clear, and straightforward. "Do this" and "Don't do that"
count as examples of explicit communication.
This is an example of explicit communication between the crew and ATC =>
prone to technical limitation.
Note: The correct option has been updated recently after a number of feedback.
Nevertheless, we encourage everyone who comes across this question in their
official exams to report it back to us.
Question N° 101
Correct Answer – A
CARBON MONOXIDE
Carbon monoxide is an odourless, colourless gas which is present in the smoke
from almost all aircraft fires and in aircraft exhaust gases, particularly from
piston engines. Inhaled carbon monoxide passes easily into the bloodstream
where it enters the red blood cells and binds to the haemoglobin, thus
preventing the carriage of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues, so that the
tissues become hypoxic.
Whenever it is suspected that carbon monoxide may be present in the air,
immediate action is required to avoid poisoning and incapacitation. First of
all, an exhaust-driven heating system has to be switched off and the cabin
must be ventilated with fresh air. If installed, pilots should don oxygen
masks. A diversion to the closest suitable airfield is required in any case.
After landing, an aeromedical examiner (AME) should be consulted to assess
health effects.
Question N° 102
Correct Answer – D
In the case of decompression the immediate use of oxygen is critical. Therefore,
the first actions to be performed by the crew is: Immediately don the nearest
oxygen mask.
The aircraft must rapidly descend to 10 000 ft or MSA whichever is the
higher.
Initiation of an emergency descent is done as a memory item drill in most
aircraft types. Once the descent has been initiated, it is standard procedure to
confirm that all required actions have been completed by referring to the
appropriate checklist in the Quick Reference Handbook (QRH) and an
emergency shall be declared.
It is most important to emphasize that crew protection must be the highest of
priorities. Should decompression take place it is critical for the crew to
individually don oxygen masks and check flow as quickly as possible. Any delay
caused by helping other members of the crew or passengers could have
catastrophic results for all the occupants of the aircraft.
Question N° 103
Correct Answer – A
HYPOXIA
Hypoxia occurs when the tissues in the body do not receive enough oxygen.
Hypoxia can be caused by several factors including an insufficient supply of
oxygen, inadequate transportation of oxygen, or the inability of the body tissues
to use oxygen. A healthy person is normally able to compensate for
altitudes up to approximately 10000 - 12000 ft.
An insidious characteristic of hypoxia is that its early (and probably the most
dangerous) symptom include euphoria (false sense of well being). This can
prevent the pilot from recognizing a potentially hazardous situation because it
puts him/her in such a state of mind that individual well being, as well as that of
the passengers, is a low priority. You should remain alert for the other
symptoms of hypoxia such as headache, increased response time, impaired
judgement, drowsiness, dizziness, tingling fingers and toes, n umbness, blue
fingernails and lips (cyanosis), visual disturbances, lack of concentration,
fatigue and limp muscles. The speed and order of appearance of signs, and the
severity of symptoms, produced by breathing air at altitude depend on the
individual.
Even if you learn the early symptoms of hypoxia, do not assume that you will be
able to take corrective action whenever they occur. Because when the brain
starts to feel the effects of hypoxia, the higher reasoning portion of the brain is
the first affected. This means that judgment and cognitive skills diminish from
the very start.
Question N° 104
Correct Answer – C
TERRAIN SLOPE ILLUSION
A final approach over a downsloping terrain with a flat runway may
produce the visual illusion that the aircraft is lower than it actually is. If the
pilot believes this illusion, he may respond by pitching the aircraft’s nose up to
gain altitude. If this happens, you will land further down the runway than you
intended.
A final approach over an upsloping terrain with a flat runway may produce the
visual illusion that the aircraft is higher than it actually is. If the pilot believes
this illusion, he may respond by pitching the aircraft nose -down to decrease the
altitude, resulting in a lower approach.
Question N° 105
Correct Answer – C
ANNEX IV (EU OPS Part-CAT)
SUBPART A: GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
SECTION 1 – Motor-powered aircraft
ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION
The operator should issue instructions concerning the consumption of alcohol by
crew members. The instructions should be not less restrictive than the following:
(a) no alcohol should be consumed less than 8 hours prior to the specified
reporting time for a flight duty period or the commencement of standby;
(b) the blood alcohol level should not exceed the lower of the natio nal
requirements or 0.2 per thousand at the start of a flight duty period ;
(c) no alcohol should be consumed during the flight duty period or whilst on
standby.
0.2 per thousand (grams per litre) is a concentration of 0.02%, and this (or the
national statutory limit) is the legal limit of blood alcohol level for crew at the
beginning of the duty period (not just during flight) within the EU.
Question N° 106
Correct Answer – D
G TOLERANCE
If you pull back on the controls, your body (after Newton) wants to carry on in a
straight line, but is forced upward by the seat, which feels the same as if you
were being pushed into it. This extra pressure is called G, and it affects the
whole body, including the blood, so the heart must change its action to ke ep the
system running. The body can only cope with certain amount of G -force and
tolerance to G forces is dependent on human physiology and the individual
pilot. The physiological effects of G-force vary with the magnitude of
acceleration, its duration and onset rate, the axis of the body upon which
the G acts against and where on the body they are applied.
Onset rate: when an acceleration sets on gradually, the body is capable of
partially compensate for its effect, by vasoconstriction and increase in bloo d
pressure. However, when acceleration sets on rapidly, the body mechanisms for
compensation will not be as effective. Thus acceleration will have a greater
effect.
Question N° 107
Correct Answer – D
HYPERVENTILATION
The term hyperventilation is used to describe a condition of increased rate and
depth of breathing which is not warranted by physiological needs.
Hyperventilation can result from physiological as well as psychological
conditions.
In order to mitigate the symptoms of hyperventilation or preven t their onset, it is
required to restore the physiological partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the
blood, which is achieved by reducing the rate and depth of breathing. Especially
when the reason is a psychological one, pilots need to calm themselves
down. One effective way to do so is speaking aloud, this will automatically
slow their breathing rate.
Question N° 108
Correct Answer – B
Since decision making is usually a time consuming process, time is an important
resource for making optimal decisions. The allocation of less time than what is
needed for making decision can cause a feeling of time stress and can harm the
optimality of the decision making process. In contrast to travelling by car, it is
not possible to simply stop at the side of an airway while flying and analyse the
situation.
Every good decision-making process must take this into consideration. To
improve the quality of decision, if the time is not the immediate limiting factor, a
pilot should take all the available time that he needs to make up his mind and
should try not to feel pressured to speed up the decision -making process
unnecessarily by his crewmembers. Rushed decision should be avoided, as
these will increase the risk of overlooking important facts and losing situational
awareness.
It is important to emphasise that, during flight, the overall situation is constantly
evolving and changing. Therefore, decisions only remain valid for a limited
period of time - until the next change in the overall situation occurs. Thereafter,
a new decision is needed.
Question N° 109
Correct Answer – A
SLEEP STAGES
The stages of sleep are classified into 4 stages:
=> During any normal night’s sleep, the pattern operates on an approximately 90
minutes cycle. Towards the end of the first 90 minutes od falling asleep, the first
REM stage occurs, but this first REM experience lasts only 10 to 20 minutes
before the person passes back into slow wave sleep. At the end of the second
cycle of 90 min, the duration of REM sleep periods increases. During a 8 hour
sleep period, an individual is likely to experience 4 to 5 REM sleep
episodes.
Question N° 110
Correct Answer – C
COMMUNICATION
The first cockpit tool that tends to suffer from stress is communication. When
several tasks have to be performed simultaneously, especially when these tasks
require a lot of conscious attention, people tend to reduce communication,
because communication also uses up mental resources. Communication is the
exchange of thoughts, messages, or information by various means, including
speech.
Officially, around 80% of all communication is achieved by factors other than
words, otherwise known as metacommunication, which consists of those
tools, other than the words, which complement them in order to
communicate. The fact that somebody is not talking does not mean they are not
communicating. It is said that 7% of communication is accomplished verbally,
38% by unconscious signals, such as tone of voice, and the remainder 55% by
non-verbal means, such as body language. Non-verbal communication can
accompany verbal communication, such as a smile during a face-to-face chat.
Body language can be very subtle, but powerful – for example, the word “no”
with a smile will be interpreted quite differently from one accompanied by a
smack in the mouth. Non-verbal communication may also include written
information or notes.
Unfortunately, the side-by-side seating arrangements in the cockpit tend to
lessen the effects of body language, so the choice of words (and their
packaging) assumes a greater importance.
Question N° 111
Correct Answer – C
Refer to figure.
BLACK-HOLE ILLUSION
The black hole illusion occurs when flying over featureless terrain, approaching
an airfield at night over water, jungle or desert. This illusion might fool the pilots
into thinking they are higher than they actually are, causing them to fly
dangerously low approaches - the aircraft may touch down short of the runway.
Question N° 112
Correct Answer – B
Cognitive Learning, also known as learning by sight, is what makes humans
superior to computers in flight because these can only solve problems when a
solution has been programmed before. The term refer to the acquisition or
restructuring of knowledge based on application of cognitive abilities.
In this case, it is not sufficient to be able to physically perform a checklist. The
captain should know what the individual items do and how they will be beneficial
to a given emergency situation. This deeper understanding of the procedure is
known as cognitive learning - the data is intellectually and cognitively
understood and is retained.
Question N° 113
Correct Answer – D
CONFIRMATION BIAS
Confirmation Bias is the term used to describe the tendency to search for
information to confirm a theory, while overlooking contradicting information.
Thus, even if presented with facts which would allow correcting the mental
model, a pilot will probably find it difficult to get out of his original interpretation.
It can be likened to making the ground fit the map, rather than accepting the fact
that we are lost. You could also look upon it as a tendency to ignore information
that confirms a decision is a poor one.
Question N° 114
Correct Answer – D
HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES
Studies have identified five hazardous attitudes among pilots that can interfere
with a pilot’s ability to make effective decisions.