081 - Principles of Flight - Answers

Question N 1
Correct Answer – A
Refer to figures.
Vertical gusts will affect the load factor (n) by changing the angle of attack of the
wing.
For a given gust speed and aircraft TAS, the increment in the load factor depends on
the increase in CL per change in angle of attack due to the gust (the slope of the lift
curve). If the lift curve has a steep slope, the ‘g’ increment will be greater. Factors
which affect the lift curve are aspect ratio and wing sweep.
Wings having a low aspect ratio, or sweep, will have a lower lift curve slope, and so
will give a smaller increase in ‘g’ when meeting a given gust at a given TAS.
Question N 2
Correct Answer – B
Refer to figure.
It is a design requirement of CS25 (old JAR25) that an airframe structure must be
strong enough to withstand gusts both positive and negative that would cause a change
of angle of attack so increasing load factor at three specified design speeds.
 Speed V B (max gust intensity speed): +/- 66 ft/sec

 Speed V C (design cruise speed): +/- 50 ft/sec
 Speed V D (design dive speed): +/- 25 ft/sec.
VB is quite a low airspeed so the aircraft would be flying at high alpha. It is a

suggested speed for penetrating turbulent air when that turbulence is particularly
severe.V B is the maximum speed at which a gust will not overly stress the aircraft.
Question N 3
Correct Answer – D
Maneuvering Speed (V A) is the speed at which an airplane will stall before exceeding
its maximum load limit. To calculate the V A we multiply the stall speed (V S1 ) by the
square root of the load factor (n).
 V A = V S1 x √n
CS 23.337 Limit manoeuvring load factors ED Decision 2003/14/RM

(a) The positive limit manoeuvring load factor n may not be less than –
1. 2 ∙ 1 + 24000 𝑊+10000 for normal and commuter category aeroplanes (where W
= design maximum take-off weight lb), except that n need not be more than 3•8;
2. 4•4 for utility category aeroplanes; or
3. 6•0 for aerobatic category aeroplanes.
V A = VS1 x √n
V A = 123 x √6
V A = 301 kt
Question N 4
Refer to figures.
Each type of aircraft has its own specific flight envelope, within which it can be safely
operated in accordance with the EASA Certification Specifications. This is
represented on a velocity against load factor, or V -n diagram.
The high-speed limit is the never exceed speed (V N E ) and is a design reference point
for the aircraft beyond which structural damage or failure may occur. Conversely,
the stall governs the low speed limit and this limit increases with increasing load factor.
Never Exceed Speed V N E : V N E is set below V D to allow for speed upsets to be
recovered and not less than 0.9 times the minimum value of V D .
V NE will be shown by a radial red line on the airspeed indicator at the high speed end of
the yellow arc.
Question N 5
Correct Answer – C
Commercial jet transport aeroplanes have a maximum load factor limit of 2.5 g.
Using the above factor, we can calculate that a lightly loaded B737 with a weight of
350 000 N has a maximum limit load of 875 000 N. However, a heavily loaded B737, at
a weight of 620 000 N, requires a maximum limit load limit of 1 550 000 N.
 Therefore, we can conclude that the limiting load of a heavy aircraft will be
reached at a higher value than that of a lighter aircraft.
Note: We are aware that there are 2 correct options. However, it has been confirmed
that this is how you will find this question in your official exam. It should therefore be
appealed. Please, let us know if you come across it in an exam.
Question N 6
Refer to figure.
For large aircraft a limit load factor of -1 must be considered up to V C . From V C to
V D the negative load factor varies linearly from -1 to 0.
 As you can see in the graph, at VD the minimum load factor is 0.
Question N 7
Refer to figure.
It is a design requiremnt of CS25 (old JAR25) that an airframe structure must be strong
enough to withstand gusts both positive and negative that would cause a change of
angle of attack so increasing load factor at three specified design speeds.

VB is quite a low airspeed so the aircraft would be flying at high alpha and it would
take some time for an aircraft to slow from VC (the design cruising speed) to VB if it
flew into turbulence. Therefore, another design strength requirement is for the aircraft
also to be strong enough to withstand a vertical gust of 50 ft/ sec at VC.
Question N 8
Maneuvering Speed (VA) is the speed at which an airplane will stall before exceeding
its maximum load limit. To calculate the VA we multiply the stall speed (VS1) by the
 V A = V S1 x √n
VA is just a stalling speed. Thus, it varies with mass:
 New V S = Old V S x √Change in mass factor
New VA = 181 x √ (4100 / 5700)
New VA = 181 x 0.8481
New VA = approx. 154 kt
Question N 9
Refer to figure.

Question N 10
BACKLASH
The possibility of movement of the control surface without any movement of the pilot’s
controls.
If the aircraft is not properly maintained and excessive play and flexibility (backlash)
exist, flutter could occur at flight speeds well below the operational limit speed
(V MO /M MO ).
FLUTTER
Incorrect balancing or slack control runs may cause a control surface to vibrate in the
airflow this is not a torsional vibration or flexural vibration.
The wing is subject to the interaction of the aerofoil mass and the aerodynamic load
imposed on the aerofoil causing distortion by bending and torsion of the structure that
can result in a violent vibration in the resonance frequency, which if excessive can
cause structural failure.
This is ‘flutter’ and the aeroelastic coupling will affect its characteristics. The risk of
experiencing flutter increases with IAS and may be one of the following three types:
- torsional flexural flutter;
- torsional control surface flutter;
- flexural control surface flutter.
TORSIONAL CONTROL SURFACE FLUTTER
Torsional flutter is caused by cyclic deformations generated by aerodynamic, inertial
and elastic loads on the surface.
The speed at which this phenomenon occurs is adversely affected by excessive free
play or backlash of the control runs.
Question N 11
Refer to figure.
The maximum operating limit speed (airspeed or Mach number, whichever is critical at
a particular altitude is a speed that may not be deliberately exceeded in any phase of
flight. As V MO is IAS, as altitude increases, the Mach number corresponding to V MO will
increase. During climb V MO will be superseded by M MO (Maximum operating Mach
number) approximately between 24 000 and 29 000 ft, depending on atmospheric
conditions.
As an example, the diagram shows the flight envelope for the 757-200. Notice that
below approximately FL270, the airplane is V MO restricted to 350 KIAS. Above
approximately FL270, the airplane is M MO restricted to 0.86 Mach. Therefore, 350
KIAS/0.86M defines V MO /M MO for this airplane respectively.
 V M O – is expressed in CAS, which is usually associated with operations at lower

altitudes and deals with structural loads and flutter;
 M M O – is expressed in Mach number, is associated with operations at higher
altitudes and is usually more concerned with compressibility effects and flutter.
Question N 12
Refer to figure.
Gust Loads
To avoid stalling and exceeding the limiting load factor an airplane must be operated
within the limitations imposed by the gust envelope, which is graphically constructed
by using the arbitrary values of gust speed against the EAS of the airplane originating
from a load factor value of +1.0 and specified in CS 25.341(a)(5)(I), as shown in figure
1.
Question N 13
Refer to figures.
operated in accordance with the EASA Certification Specifications. This is represented
on a velocity against load factor, or V-n diagram.
Never Exceed Speed V N E : V N E is set below V D to allow for speed upsets to be
recovered and not less than 0.9 times the minimum value of V D .
the yellow arc.
Question N 14
V LE – The maximum speed at which an airplane may be safely flown with the
undercarriage (landing gear) extended.
Question N 15
Refer to figure.
Question N 16
An aircraft travelling at a certain speed (V o ld ) encounters a vertical gust which increases
its load factor (n o ld ) to a certain amount.
The goal is to compare the effect of the same gust on an aircraft travelling at a different
speed (V n ew , in blue) and assessing the resultant load factor (n n ew ).
V o ld = 1.8V S
no ld = 1.9g
V n ew = 2V S
nn ew =?
The first thing we should do is check if in the first situation the aircraft is stalled, by
comparing the two V S 0 :
VS 1 = VS 0 x √(n o l d )
VS 1 = √1.9 x V S 0 = 1.38V S 0
1.38VS0 < 1.8VS0
 Therefore, the aircraft is not stalled!

As the aircraft does not stall in the first situation, we can calculate the load factor
resulting from the same gust on an aircraft travelling at V n ew using a direct proportion:
Vo l d x (n n e w −1) = Vn e w x (n o l d −1)
n n e w = ((V n e w x (n o l d −1)) / Vo l d ) +1
n n e w = ((2VS x (1.9−1)) / 1.8V S ) +1
n ne w = 2.00g
 Encountering the same gust with a speed of 2V S the load factor will be 2.00g.
The last step of the exercise is to assess the limiting load factor at which the aircraft
would stall and conclude if the new load factor calculated would be reached or the
aircraft would stall before that.
To do this, let us compare V n ew with the stall speed (V S ) and load factor in straight and
level flight (n 1 g ):
Vn e w = V S * √(n 1 g
From here results that our limiting load factor is:
n 1 g = V2 n e w
n 1 g = 4.00g
As our limiting load factor is higher than the new. In this case encountering the gust
the aircraft would have its load factor increased to 2.00g without stalling.
Question N 17
Refer to figure.
Flutter is an oscillation of the control surface which can occur due to the bending and
twisting of the structure under load.
If the control surface CG is behind the hinge line, inertia will cause the surface to
oscillate about its hinge line. The oscillations can be divergent and cause structural
failure.
Flutter involves:
- aerodynamic forces.
- inertia forces.
- the elastic properties of a surface.
An aircraft is subject to many aerodynamic excitations (gusts, control inputs, etc.) and
the aerodynamic forces at various speeds have characteristic properties for rate of
change of force and moment.
The interaction of the aerofoil mass and the aerodynamic load imposed on the aerofoil
causes distortion by bending and torsion of the structure that can result in a violent
vibration in the resonance frequency, which if excessive can cause structural
failure. This is ‘flutter’ and the aeroelastic coupling will affect its
characteristics. The risk of experiencing flutter increases with IAS.
CONTROL SURFACE FLUTTER
Control surface flutter can develop as a result of an oscillation of the control surface
coupled with an oscillation in bending or twisting of the wing, tailplane or fin.
A control surface oscillation can result from backlash (free play) in the control system
or from a disturbance (gust).
MASS BALANCE
Flutter may be prevented by adding weight to the control surface in front of the
hinge line.
This brings the centre of gravity of the control forward to a position on, or slightly in
front of the hinge, but always to the point required by the designers. This reduces the
inertia moments about the hinge and prevents flutter developing .
Question N 18
Refer to figure.
A gust is a localized sudden and rapid change to the speed of the air in the atmosphere
that can be either horizontal or vertical. The horizontal gust is of little importance
because it causes a change to an airplane’s dynamic pressure that results in an
insignificant change to the load factor. The vertical gusts are far more important
because they change the effective angle of attack, total lift, and the load factor.
The gust load is the extra load imparted to the airplane by vertical gusts or turbulence.
Its magnitude is unaffected by increased altitude but is increased with increased aspect
ratio and/or decreased mass.
The load factor for any given angle of attack can be derived from the basic load factor
for the normal cruise angle of attack because it is increased by the same percentag e as
the increase of angle of attack.
It can be defined by:
load factor(n) = (Lift(L)) / (Weight(W))
In straight and level flight, Lift = Weight, thus n = 1.
In this exercise, the increment in CL from a gust will be of 0.1 for every degree of
angle of attack impacted by the gust. We also know that the aircraft encounters a gust
which increases its angle of attack by 3°.
In straight and level flight n = 1 or : n = 0.47 / 0.47
A 3° increase in angle of attack, 3 * 0.1 = 0.3
Will give an increment of 0.3 in the CL : 0.47+0.3 = 0.77
A gust which increases the angle of attack by 3° will increase the load factor to : n =
0.77 / 0.47 ≈ 1.64g
Question N 19
 V A = V S1 x √n
VA is just a stalling speed. Thus, it varies with mass:
 New VS = Old VS x √Change in mass factor
New VS = 123 x √ (1900 / 2300)

New VS = 111.8 kt
Question N 20
Refer to figure.
for the normal cruise angle of attack because it is increased by the same percentage as
load factor(n) = (Lift(L))/(Weight(W))
In this exercise, the increment in C L from a gust will be of 0.079 for every degree of
In straight and level flight n = 1 or:
n = 0.35/0.35
A 2° increase in angle of attack,
2*0.079 = 0.158
Will give an increment of 0.45 in the C L :
0.35+0.158 = 0.508
A gust which increases the angle of attack by 2° will increase the load factor to:
n = 0.508/0.35 ≈ 1.45g
Question N 21
The maximum load factors which must be allowed for during maneuvers are shown in
an envelope of load factor against speed (EAS).
The limit load factors will depend on the design category of the aircraft.
The EASA regulations state that:
 For normal category aircraft, the positive limit load factor is 3.8.
 The positive limit load factor for modern high-speed jet transport aircraft is 2.5.
 For utility category aircraft the positive limit load factor is 4.4.
 For aerobatic category aircraft the positive limit load factor is 6.0.
The negative limit load factor may not be less than:
 -1.0 g for large/transport aircraft (CS 25)

 -1.52 g for normal (CS 23)
 -1.76 g for utility category aircraft (CS 23)
 -3.0 for aerobatic category aircraft (CS 23).
Question N 22
Refer to figure.
that can be either horizontal or vertical.
The vertical component of a gust increases the effective angle of attack, and therefore
the lift and the load factor, by the same percentage. In a vertical gust the change in
angle of attack is proportional to the ratio of TAS/vertical gust velocity.
True Airspeed: The speed of the aircraft through the air.
TAS = EAS / √σ
where, σ is Relative Density.
The Airspeed Indicator is calibrated for ‘standard’ sea level density, so it will only read
TAS if the density of the air through which the aircraft is flying is 1.225 kg/m3. Thus at
40 000 ft where the ‘standard’ density is one quarter of the sea-level value, to maintain
the same EAS the aircraft will have to move through the air twice as fast.
As altitude increases the TAS at any given CAS increases, so the effect of a vertical
gust decreases. At 40000 ft ISA for example, the TAS at any given CAS being abou t
twice its sea level value, the effect of a vertical gust is reduced accordingly (half as
much).
Question N 23
V A - is the design maneuvering speed. This is the highest speed at which the airplane
will stall before exceeding the maximum load factor and does not need to exceed V C . It
is not less than the stalling speed with the flaps retracted multiplied by the square root
of the limiting load factor at a speed of V C .
V A is not shown on the ASI, but it should be placarded close to the ASI. For a normal
category light airplane having a maximum load factor of 3.8g then:
V A = VS 1 g ∗ √3.8 = 1.95VS 1 g
If only one value of V A is quoted, then it is the speed at which the airplane will stall at
the maneuvering load factor at the MTOM.
In this exercise, the 1g stalling speed is 70kt and a limiting load factor of +2.5g is
imposed:
V A = VS 1 g ∗ √n
V A = 70 ∗ √2.5
V A ≈ 111kt
Question N 24
Refer to figure.
insignificant change to the load factor. The vertical gusts are far mor e important
Its magnitude is unaffected by increased altitude but is increased wit h increased aspect
load factor(n) = (Lift(L))/(Weight(W))
In this exercise, the increment in C L from a gust will be of 0.09 for every degree of
In straight and level flight n = 1 or:
n = (0.4)/(0.4)
A 5° increase in angle of attack,
5*0.09 = 0.45
Will give an increment of 0.45 in the C L :
0.4+0.45 = 0.85
A gust which increases the angle of attack by 5° will increase the load factor to:
n = 0.85/0.4 ≈ 2.13g
Question N 25
V LE = Landing Gear Extended speed.
V LE is the maximum speed you can fly with the landing gear extended under normal
operation of the aircraft.
Question N 26
EASA regulations for flight manoeuvring envelope
The load factor and speed limits for a given aircraft are strictly regulated by EASA.
The requirements are described in CS-25 (Certification Specification 25) for transport
aircraft MTOW > 5 700 kg and in CS-23 for smaller aircraft MTOW < 5 700 kg.
Note: This is not the full description of classification of CS -23 and CS-25 aircraft but it
is enough for us to know.
For the CS-25 category, the maximum positive and minimum negative limitation of
load factor is:
n MA X = 2.5; n MI N = -1 in clean configuration (high lift devices not extended)
The CS-23 category includes three subparts:
Normal [N] n MA X = 3.8 n MI N = -1.52
Utility [U] n MA X = 4.4 n MI N = -1.76
Aerobatic [A] n MA X ≥ 6 n MI N ≤ 3
If flaps are deployed n MA X = 2; n MI N = 0 are the required limits for both categories.
Question N 27
Refer to figure.
The load factor for any given angle of attack can be derived from the basi c load factor
The load factor deriving from a gust is determined by the magnitude of the vertical
velocity of the gust and the forward speed of the airplane.
High wing loading reduces the ‘g’ increment in a gust. This is because the lift
increment produced is a smaller proportion of the original lift force for the more
heavily loaded aircraft.
For a given TAS and gust speed, the increase of lift will be proportional to the wing
area. Therefore, the increase in load factor is inversely proportional to the wing
loading.
Wing Loading = Weight/(Wing Area)
Decreasing mass, decreases wing loading which increases load factor.
Therefore, statement 1 is correct.
With increasing altitude, density decreases and any aerodynamic force resulting from a
gust will be smaller.
Thus, when comparing two aircraft flying at different altitudes, the one flying in thicker
air (lower altitude) will experience an increased increment in load factor following a
gust. Therefore, statement 2 is correct.
Question N 28
CS 25.1505 Maximum operating limit speed
'The maximum operating limit speed (VMO/MMO, airspeed or Mach number,
whichever is critical at a particular altitude) is a speed that may not be deliberately
exceeded in any regime of flight (climb, cruise, or descent), unless a higher speed is
authorised for flight test or pilot training operations.(...)'
CS 23.1505 AIRSPEED LIMITATIONS

'This paragraph establishes the operational speed limitations which establish safe
margins below design speeds. For reciprocating engine powered aeroplanes there is an
option. They may either establish a never exceed speed (VNE) and a maximum
structural cruising speed (VNO) or they may be tested in accordance with 23.335(b)(4)
in which case the aeroplane is operated under a maximum operating speed concept
(VMO/MMO). For turbine powered aeroplanes, a VMO/MMO should be
established.(...)'
Question N 29
V C - is the design cruising speed. The minimum value of V C must exceed V B by a
sufficient margin to allow for inadvertent speed increases that may be caused by severe
turbulence.
This is a speed selected by the designer and used to assess the strength
requirements in the cruise. Its value is determined by the requirements CS -25.335 and
CS-23.335.
Question N 30
LANDING GEAR SPEED LIMITATIONS
The landing gear will normally be retracted as soon as possible after take-off to reduce
drag and increase the climb gradient. There is no normal requirement for the gear to be
operated at high IAS so the retract and extend mechanism together with the attachment
points to the structure are sized for the required task.
LANDING GEAR EXTENDED SPEED - V LE
There may be occasions when it is necessary to ferry the aircraft with the gear down,
and to do this a higher permissible speed would be convenient. V L E is the speed at
which it is safe to fly the aircraft with the landing gear secured in the fully extended
position.
LANDING GEAR OPERATING SPEED - V LO
This is the speed at which it is safe both to extend and to retract the landing gear. If the
extension speed is not the same as the retraction speed, the two speeds must be
designated as V LO ( EXT) and V LO ( R ET) .
When the gear is retracted or extended the doors must open first. The doors merely
streamline the undercarriage bay and are not designed to take the aerodynamic
loads which would be placed on them at high IAS. Consequently V LO is usually lower
than V L E .
Question N 31
load factor is:
Normal [N] nMAX = 3.8 nMIN = -1.52
Utility [U] nMAX = 4.4 nMIN = -1.76
Aerobatic [A] nMAX ≥ 6 nMIN ≤ 3
Question N 32
Refer to figure.
Flutter is an oscillation of the control surface which can occur due to the bending and
twisting of the structure under load.
If the control surface CG is behind the hinge line, inertia will cause the surface to
oscillate about its hinge line. The oscillations can be divergent and cause structural
failure.
Flutter involves:
- aerodynamic forces.
- inertia forces.
- the elastic properties of a surface.
change of force and moment.
The interaction of the aerofoil mass and the aerodynamic load imposed on the aerofoil
causes distortion by bending and torsion of the structure that can result in a violent
vibration in the resonance frequency, which if excessive can cause struct ural
failure. This is ‘flutter’ and the aeroelastic coupling will affect its
characteristics. The risk of experiencing flutter increases with IAS.
CONTROL SURFACE FLUTTER
Control surface flutter can develop as a result of an oscillation of the control surface
coupled with an oscillation in bending or twisting of the wing, tailplane or fin.
A control surface oscillation can result from backlash (free play) in the control system
or from a disturbance (gust).
MASS BALANCE
Flutter may be prevented by adding weight to the control surface in front of the
hinge line.
This brings the centre of gravity of the control forward to a position on, or slightly in
front of the hinge, but always to the point required by the designers. This reduces the
inertia moments about the hinge and prevents flutter developing.
Question N 33
Weather Avoidance. Whenever possible, pilots should endeavour to circumnavigate
weather which may be considered prejudicial to either the safety of their aircraft or to
the comfort of its passengers such as a Thunderstorm, Cumulonimbus (CB) or Towering
Cumulus (TCU) and the severe turbulence and hail which may be associated with them.
 When avoidance can't be achieved and a flight through a TS is inevitable,

the aircraft should be flown at the V R A speed when in severe turbulence.
V R A : The operational rough air speed, it is the recommended speed for flying in
turbulence. This speed provides the best protection against reaching structural limits
due to gust effect
Question N 34
Refer to figure.
It is a design requirement of CS25 (old JAR25) that an airframe structure must be
strong enough to withstand gusts both positive and negative that would cause a change
of angle of attack so increasing load factor at three specified design speeds.

Question N 35
Unlike a gust that has only a short duration, turbulence is a disturbance in the
atmosphere caused by frictional influences of the air resulting in the same changes of
air velocity but over a longer period.
Turbulence is categorized as slight, moderate, or severe. Throughout its duration an
airplane may experience sudden changes from positive ‘g’ to negative ‘g’ and the
‘bumps’ or jolts will vary in severity and will cause stress to the airframe.
Question N 36
Design Dive Speed (V D) is the maximum speed which was considered when the
airframe structure was constructed. During test flights, V D are reached by test pilots
with the objective to demonstrate that the aircraft structural integrity is not put at stake
at these speeds, and that the aircraft remains safely recoverable at all times.
The aircraft is designed to be capable of diving to this speed (in very smooth air) and
be free of flutter, control reversal or buffeting. Control surfaces hav e a natural
vibration frequency where they begin to “flutter” like a flag in a stiff breeze
Question N 37
Refer to figure.
POINTS ON THE FLIGHT ENVELOPE
In the manoeuvring envelope the load factor is plotted against the vertical axis and the
speed as an EAS is plotted against the horizontal axis.
 The stall speed lines originate from a point where speed = 0 and load factor = 0.
If load factor (n) is zero, no lift is being produced and the aircraft will not stall.
 At some point, the stall speed line will run through a point where the speed =
V S and load factor = +1. The stall speed lines show the maximum load factor at
which the aircraft can fly without stalling. When that figure is 1, the aircraft
must be at its minimum horizontal speed (V S ).
 V A is the point where n reaches its maximum value (for commuter category
2.5). V A is the design manoeuver speed, the speed at which the aircraft will
stall at the limiting load factor of 2.5g.
Question N 38
To calculate the V A we multiply the stall speed (V S1 ) by the square root of the load
factor.

(b) The negative limit manoeuvring load factor may not be less than –
1. 0•4 times the positive load factor for the normal, utility and commuter
categories; or
2. 0•5 times the positive load factor for the aerobatic category.
(c) Manoeuvring load factors lower than those specified in this paragraph may be used
if the aeroplane has design features that make it impossible to exceed these values in
flight.
From this article we can derive that the manoeuvring load factor for an aerobatic
aircraft is 6
The calculation will therefore be as follows: 58 * sqrt(6) = 143 kt
Question N 39
load factor is:
Question N 40
Refer to figure.
Aileron reversal can occur at high speed when the wing twists as a result of the loads
caused by operating the ailerons. In figure 1 the aileron has been deflected downwards
to increase lift and raise the wing. Aerodynamic forces act upwards on the aileron , and
as this is behind the flexural axis of the wing, it will cause a nose-down twisting
moment on the wing structure. This will reduce the angle of attack of the wing which
will reduce its lift. If the twisting is sufficient, the loss of lift due to decr eased angle of
attack will exceed the gain of lift due to increased camber, and the wing will drop
instead of lifting.
Question N 41
V A - is the design maneuvering speed. This is the highest speed at which the airplane
will stall before exceeding the maximum load factor and does not need to exceed V C . It
is not less than the stalling speed with the flaps retracted multiplied by the square root
of the limiting load factor at a speed of V C .
V A is not shown on the ASI, but it should be placarded close to the ASI. For a normal
category light airplane having a maximum load factor of 3.8g then:
V A = VS 1 g ∗ √3.8 = 1.95VS 1 g
If only one value of V A is quoted, then it is the speed at which the airplane will stall at
the maneuvering load factor at the MTOM.
Because of this, a change of mass causes the value of VA to alter by a percentage
amount equal to approximately half of the percentage mass change. An alternative
calculation that may be required because of a mass change is that:
V A (New Mass) = V A (Original Mass) ∗ √( (New Mass) / (Original Mass) )
In this exercise, the ‘New Mass’ is 20% smaller than the ‘Original Mass’, which is the
same as saying that New Mass=80% Original Mass .
V A (New Mass) = V A (Original Mass) ∗ √( (0.8 ∗ Original Mass) / (Original Mass) )
V A (New Mass) = V A (Original Mass) ∗ √0.8
V A (New Mass) ≈ 0.9V A (Original Mass)
The new V A with a mass 20% smaller corresponds to 90% of the original V A, i.e. V A will
decrease by approximately 10 %.
Question N 42
The limit load factors will depend on the design category of the aircraft.
The EASA regulations state that:
 For normal category aircraft, the positive limit load factor is 3.8.
 The positive limit load factor for modern high-speed jet transport aircraft is 2.5.
 For utility category aircraft the positive limit load factor is 4.4.
 For aerobatic category aircraft the positive limit load f actor is 6.0.
The negative limit load factor may not be less than:
 -1.0 for normal category aircraft.

 -1.76 for utility category aircraft.
 -3.0 for aerobatic category aircraft.
Question N 43
LANDING GEAR SPEED LIMITATIONS
The landing gear will normally be retracted as soon as possible after take-off to reduce
drag and increase the climb gradient. There is no normal requirement for the gear to be
operated at high IAS so the retract and extend mechanism together with the attachment
points to the structure are sized for the required task.
LANDING GEAR EXTENDED SPEED - V LE
There may be occasions when it is necessary to ferry the aircraft with the gear down,
and to do this a higher permissible speed would be convenient. V L E is the speed at
which it is safe to fly the aircraft with the landing gear secured in the fully extended
position.
LANDING GEAR OPERATING SPEED - V LO
This is the speed at which it is safe both to extend and to retract the landing gear. If the
extension speed is not the same as the retraction speed, the two speeds must be
designated as V LO ( EXT) and V LO ( R ET) .
When the gear is retracted or extended the doors must open first. The doors merely
streamline the undercarriage bay and are not designed to take the aerodynamic
loads which would be placed on them at high IAS. Consequently V LO is usually lower
than V L E .
Question N 44
V N E – The maximum IAS that must never be exceeded and is shown as a red line across
the speed arc
on the ASI.
Question N 45
Flutter is a periodic aeroelastic process. It is a self-induced oscillation, at which
different oscillations are coupled via aerodynamic and inertial forces. Energy for the
oscillation is provided by the airstream with velocity (v), the "channe l" through which
the energy is transmitted is lift (changes in lift) and used by the flexible system (having
mass and elasticity).
If the CG is in the hinge, wing bending - controls surface flutter will not be started.
Therefore, CG of the control is moved towards the hinge by the means of mass and
balance by adding an extra weight in front of the torsion axis of the wing.
Question N 46
Gust load depends on various factors. Below we will discuss the effect of Wing
Loading on Gust Load:
 Aircraft with smaller Wing Loading will suffer higher loads (gust is inversely
proportional to wing loading). Decreasing airplane mass will increase gust
load as it decreases Wing Loading.
Question N 47
Limit load factors are specified by the EASA certification specifications for different
aeroplane categories (EASA CS-23 for normal, utility, aerobatic, and commuter
category aeroplanes and EASA CS-25 documents for large aeroplanes, in EASA
questions often referred to transport aircraft) . The maximum limit load factors for
different classes of aeroplanes are typically:
CATEGORY FROM TO
Large / transport
-1.00 g +2.5 g (+2.0 g with flaps extended)
aircraft (CS 25)
Normal (CS 23) -1.52 g +3.8 g
Utility (CS 23) -1.76 g +4.4 g
Aerobatic (CS 23) -3.00 g +6.0 g
Question N 48
its maximum load limit.
Any stalling speed changes with the square root of the change in mass.
A 20% reduction in mass is a change of mass by a factor of 0.80. Consequently, the
stall speed will reduce by a factor of:
 √0.80 = 0.90
For example, if V A was 100 kt, the new V A (at a lower mass) would be:
 100 kt x 0.90 = 90 kt
Which corresponds to a 10% reduction.
Question N 49
Refer to figure.
It is a design requirement of CS25 that an airframe structure must be strong enough to
withstand gusts both positive and negative that would cause a change of angle of attack
so increasing load factor at three specified design speeds.
GUST LOAD DIAGRAM
Aircraft are designed to be strong enough to withstand a 66 ft/sec vertical gust at
V B (the design speed for maximum gust intensity). If an aircraft experienced a 66 ft/sec
vertical gust while flying at V B, it would stall before exceeding the limit load factor. In
turbulence an aircraft would receive maximum protection from damage by flying at V B .
V B is quite a low airspeed and it would take some time for an aircraft to slow from
V C (the design cruising speed) to V B if it flew into turbulence. Therefore, another design
strength requirement is for the aircraft also to be strong enough to withstand a vertical
gust of 50 ft/ sec at V C .
Protection is also provided for the remote possibility of a vertical gust duri ng a
momentary upset to a speed of V D (the design diving speed). The aircraft must also be
strong enough to withstand a vertical gust of 25 ft/sec at V D .
Question N 50
According to CS 25.1505, V MO /M MO is the maximum operating IAS (or Mach number,
whichever is critical at a particular altitude), which must not be deliberately exceeded
in any flight condition, is referred to as V MO /M M O . V MO is the maximum operating IAS
and M MO is the maximum operating Mach number.
This speed is that which, allowing for moderate upsets ensures the aircraft will remain
free from buffet or other undesirable flying qualities associated with compressibility. It
must not exceed V C . When climbing at V MO , the TAS and the Mach number are
increasing, so care must be taken to ensure that M MO is not exceeded. Conversely, when
descending at M MO , the TAS and IAS increase, and care must be taken not to exceed
V MO .
Question N 51
Refer to figure.

Question N 52
Flutter is a phenomenon that can occur when an airfoil is subjected to aerodynamic
forces.
Flutter is an oscillation caused by interaction of aerodynamic forces, structural
elasticity and inertial effects.
Flutter happens when the eigenfrequencies of two oscillations move close together so
their motions can reinforce themselves mutually.
When that happens, then the amplitude will increase with each oscillation, up to a point
where the amplitude is big enough to break things.
Flutter is a very dangerous condition; if it is not stopped, it can cause structural fa ilure
and potentially lead to a fatal accident.
There are four ways to stop flutter.
1. Limit the flight envelope; immediately leave the speed at which flutter is
possible
2. Increase damping; this can be done by for instance adding some friction
3. Increase stiffness; this reduces eigenfrequencies which makes flutter less likely
4. Reduce mass; If a wing is made lighter, the eigenfrequency will move up,
increasing flutter speeds.
Question N 53
Refer to figures.
for the normal cruise angle of attack because it is increased by the same perce ntage as
Vertical gusts will affect the load factor (n) by changing the angle o f attack of the
wing.
For a given gust speed and aircraft TAS, the increment in the load factor depends on
the increase in CL per change in angle of attack due to the gust (the slope of the lift
curve). If the lift curve has a steep slope, the ‘g’ incremen t will be greater. Factors
which affect the lift curve are aspect ratio and wing sweep.
Wings having a low aspect ratio, or sweep, will have a lower lift curve slope, and so
will give a smaller increase in ‘g’ when meeting a given gust at a given TAS.
Therefore, statement 1 is incorrect.
loading.
Wing Loading = Weight/(Wing Area)
Therefore, statement 2 is incorrect.
Question N 54
In steady horizontal flight, the load factor is 1.
For every degree of angle of attack, CL increases by 0.1, leading to a total increade of
0.1 * 3 = 0.3
New CL / Old CL = Load factor
(0.42 + 0.3) / 0.42 = 1.71
Question N 55
 V A = V S1 x √n


V A = VS1 x √n
V A = 70 x √4.4
V A = 146.8 kt
Question N 56
Refer to figure.
loading.
WingLoading = Weight/(WingArea)
Decreasing mass, decreases wing loading which increases load factor.
Therefore, statement 1 is correct.
With increasing altitude, density decreases and any aerodynamic force resulting from a
gust will be smaller.
Thus, when comparing two aircraft flying at different altitudes, the one flying in
thinner air (higher altitude) will experience a decreased increment in load factor
following a gust. Therefore, statement 2 is incorrect.
Question N 57
Refer to figure.
The flight load factor, generally referred to as the load factor, is defined as the ratio of
aerodynamic force component acting at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the
airplane, (i.e. the lift), to the airplane mass in the same units of measurement. It is
therefore a nondimensional number and is positive in an upward direction.
The operating limitations of an airplane in terms of speed and load factor can be shown
graphically and is used to specify the design requirements for new airplanes or to
illustrate the performance of an airplane type for comparison purposes. The load factor
is plotted against the vertical axis and the speed as an EAS is plotted against the
horizontal axis. This is the maneuver envelope.
Question N 58
Refer to figure.
FLUTTER
The rapid and uncontrolled oscillation of a surface resulting from
imbalance. Flutter normally leads to a catastrophic failure of the structure.
change of force and moment. The aerodynamic forces may interact with the
structure and may excite (or negatively damp) the natural modes of the structure and
allow flutter.
Flutter must not occur within the normal flight operating envelope and the natural
modes must be damped if possible or designed to occur beyond V D / M D .
DESIGN DIVE SPEED (V D)
Point ‘D’ in the V-n Diagram (figure 1) is the design dive speed V D . This is the
maximum speed which has to be considered when assessing the strength of the aircraft.
It is based on the principle of an upset occurring when the aircraft is flying at V C ,
resulting in a shallow dive, during which the speed increases, until recovery is effe cted.
All design speeds, and design gust values, are EAS.
Question N 59
Exceeding limit load factors can lead to structural failure. For safety reasons these are
multiplied by a 1.5 safety factor. This value is also named as ultimate load factor.
Aircraft structures are designed to withstand the ultimate load factor for 3 seconds,
therefore it is very likely that a structural failure will occur if the ultimate load factor is
exceeded.
Question N 60
V S1g N EW = V S 1 g O LD √(new weight / old weight)
V A = V S1 g √n
The load factor “n” is the same for both weights. New V A :
V A N EW = V A O LD √(new weight / old weight)
V A N EW = V A O LD √(0.8 / 1)
V A N E W = V A O LD 0.9 (10% lower)
V A N EW = 260 x 0.9
V A N E W = 234 kt
or
260 kt x 10% = 26 kt
260 kt – 26 kt = 234 kt
Question N 61
V A = Maximum Design Manoeuvring Speed
V A is the maximum speed where an aircraft stalls at a sudden full elevator deflection
(nose-up) but does not exceed the design limit load factor.
Obviously, it means that at or below this speed, a full elevator deflection will not cause
damage on the airframe, however, it will lead to accelerated stall. Above this speed,
full elevator deflection can cause structural damage as load factor will reach its
maximum limit value.
Question N 62
load factor is:
Question N 63
Refer to figures.
operated in accordance with the EASA Certification Specifications. This is
represented on a velocity against load factor, or V -n diagram.
the yellow arc.
Question N 64
The following formula may be used:
V N E W = V OLD x √ New weight ÷ Old weight
V N EW = 102 x √(1 900 ÷ 2 550)
V N EW = 88 kt
Question N 65
The V A is defined by:
V A=V S √n ( n is Limit Load Factor)
We know that n is constant here. Let's define V A 1 , V A 2 as maneuvering speeds for the
first and the second situation respectively.
Also do the same for V S 1 , V S 2 stall speeds.
V A1 =V S1 √n and V A 2 =V S 2 √n. Thus V A 1 /V A 2 =V S 1 /V S2
The stall speed is defined by:
VS = √((2 ∗ W) / (ρ ∗ S ∗ CL M AX )) (All other variables are constant except weight)
V S1 /V S 2 =√(5.4/4.7) = 1.07
Therefore V A 1 /V A2 = 1.07, V A 1 =100 then V A 2 =93.
Question N 66
Refer to figures.
COLOUR CODING OF THE ASI
White arc
This arc extends from V SO (stall full flap) to V F E (maximum speed with flaps extended),
and marks the flap operating speed range.
Green arc
This arc extends from V SI (stall clean) to V NO (normal operating speed), and is the
normal operating speed range.
Yellow
This arc extends from V NO to V N E (never exceed speed), and denotes the cautionary
speed range. Operations within this speed range should not be carried out except in
smooth air.
Red Radial line
This line marks V N E .
MANOEUVERING SPEED (V A) (figure 2)
V A - Maximum design manoeuvring speed and is the highest speed where the aircraft
will stall before it exceeds the maximum load factor
THE STALL
The C L of an aerofoil increases with angle of attack up to a maximum (C LMA X ). Any
further increase above this stalling angle, or critical angle of attack, will make it
impossible for the airflow to smoothly follow the upper wing contour, and the flow will
separate from the surface, causing C L to decrease and drag to increase rapidly.
A stall is caused by airflow separation. Separation can occur when either the boundary
layer has insufficient kinetic energy or the adverse pressure gradient becomes too great.
STALL RECOVERY
To recover from a stall or prevent a full stall, the angle of attack must be
decreased to reduce the adverse pressure gradient. This may consist of
merely releasing back pressure, or it may be necessary to smoothly move the pitch
control forward, depending on the aircraft design and severity of the stall.
Allow airspeed to increase and recover lost altitude w ith moderate back pressure on the
pitch control.
Pulling too hard could trigger a secondary stall, or worse, could exceed the limit load
factor and damage the aircraft structure.
At low airspeeds the stall may occur before reaching the limit load factor. That is why,
when pulling from a stall recovery, keeping the speed between V S and V A will allow
us to not stall again due to the increased load factor.
As angle of attack reduces below the critical angle, the adverse pressure gradient will
decrease, airflow will re-attach, and lift and drag will return to their normal values.
Question N 67
V A = V S1 x √limiting load
EASA CS23, load limits for utility:
Maximum +4.4g
-
Minimum
1.76g
 V A = 58 x √4.4
 V A = 122 kt
Question N 68
Refer to figure.
Flutter of control surfaces is a divergent oscillatory motion of a control surface caused
by its natural frequency, the interaction of aerodynamic forces, inertia forces and the
stiffness of the structure.
To prevent flutter, stiffness should be increased and/or the CG of the control surface
should be moved forward of the control hinge by adding a balancing mass in front of
the control surface hinge line (the more forward the CG of a control surface is, the
more stable it will be).
Note: A low stiffness would make a control surface more susceptible to flutter because
a flexible structure will keep vibrating longer after a disruption than a stiff structure.
Question N 69
Refer to figures.
MANOEUVRING STABILITY
Whenever an aircraft is manoeuvring, acceleration forces act on it (if, for example, the
aircraft is pulling out of a dive, its flight path will be curved and the resultant pitching
velocity provides aerodynamic damping in pitch due to the downward movement of the
tailplane).
The tailplane provides the largest contribution toward damping in pitch, although other
aircraft components such as the wings do assist. A graph of stick force versus load
factor illustrates the manoeuvring stability of an aircraft.
The gradient of the graph should be positive (with increasing load factor the stick force
must also increase). This gradient must not be excessively high or the aircraft would be
difficult and tiring to manoeuvre. Conversely, it should not be too low or the stick
forces would be too light and the aircraft could be over-stressed.
 If a higher limit load factor is set by the manufacturer, there's more margin
for the aircraft to be controlled inside the envelope and therefore a lower
stick force per g may be set. Statement I is correct.
 The limit load factors will depend on the design category of the aircraft. For
example, the limit load factor for modern high-speed jet transport aircraft is -
1.0g and 2.5g. This value is stated in the Aircraft Flight Manual to be consulted
by the pilot and should bever be exceeded. However, the stick force per g is
not listed in the AFM. Statement II is incorrect.
Question N 70
CS 25.1511 Flap extended speed
The established flap extended speed V F E must be established so that it does not exceed
the design flap speed VF chosen under CS 25.335 (e) and 25.345, for the corresponding
wing-flap positions and engine powers.
Here are the different speeds with the associated visual indicators (colored arcs) of an
airspeed indicator:
White arc:
 Lower limit – VS0: stalling speed with flaps extended.

 Upper limit – VFE: maximum speed with flaps extended.
Green Arc:
 Lower limit – VS1: stalling speed in clean configuration.

 Upper limit – VN0: maximum speed in normal operation.
Yellow arc:
 Lower limit – VN0: maximum speed in normal operation.

 Upper limit – VNE: Red Line - never exceed speed.
.............................................................................................................................................................
Release date: 2022.12.18.
Question N° 71
Refer to figure.
A completely symmetrical airfoil will intersect the vertical axis of the graph at the
origin (0).
A positively cambered airfoil will generate more lift at the same speed (and therefore
has a higher CL) than a symmetrical airfoil and therefore intersects the vertical axis
above the origin (and generates 0 lift at a negative angle of attack).
A negatively cambered airfoil will generate less lift at the same speed (which translates
into a lower CL at a certain speed) and therefore intersects the vertical axis below the
origin.
An increased camber generates a higher value of CL at the same Angle of Attack.
Therefore, we have the following combinations:
 Aerofoil A corresponds to line 3.

 Aerofoil B corresponds to line 4.
 Aerofoil C corresponds to line 1.
 Aerofoil D corresponds to line 2.
Question N° 72
Refer to figure.
In trimmed level flight a disturbance in pitch usually oscillates about its original state
causing fluctuations in the values of speed, height and indicated load factor. When an
airplane has positive longitudinal dynamic stability the amplitude of the oscillations
gradually diminish as the aircraft returns to its original trimmed flight state.
The oscillatory motion of the airplane in pitch after a disturbance to its trimmed state
can be shown as two separate oscillations. One is a short-period oscillation and the
other is a long-period oscillation called a phugoid.
 The phugoid is usually poorly damped; it has large variations of speed and
height and has an almost uniform load factor (n). It has a constant energy motion
in which the potential energy and the kinetic energy are continuously
interchanging.
 The motion that causes short-period oscillation is usually heavily damped . It not
only involves small changes of speed and height but also large changes of
load factor. The speed and height of the airplane remain approximately
constant.
Question N° 73
Refer to figure.
The boundary layer is the layer of fluid (in our case this fluid is the atmosphere) in the
immediate surface of a bounding surface (the airfoil) where the effects of viscosity are
significant. There are two types of boundary layer; the lam inar and the turbulent
boundary layer.
In the laminar boundary layer, the flow moves parallel to the surface over which it
flows. In the laminar boundary layer, the air flows very smoothly. The velocity
increases with distance from the airfoil and there is no movement of air perpendicular
to the surface of the airfoil. Laminar flow creates less friction drag than the turbulent
flow, but is less stable.
At a distance from the leading edge of the airfoil, the air transitions from a
laminar flow to a turbulent flow. This air does not flow smoothly, it contains
swirls. There is flow in parallel and perpendicular direction. This air creates more
drag than the laminar air flow, has more kinetic energy and breaks down from the
surface less easily and is therefore m ore stable.
Question N° 74
Refer to figure.
Flow separation occurs because the boundary layer loses kinetic energy as it flows
against the adverse pressure
gradient.
Increasing the kinetic energy of the boundary layer will reduce flow separation. Simple
devices called vortex generators are used to re -energize the boundary layer.
Vortex generators are small plates, vanes, blades or wedges mounted in spanwise rows
along the wing surface, as illustrated in figure 1.
Each vortex generator produces a vortex at its tip which will induce high energy air
from the free stream flow to mix with the boundary layer, thus increasing its kinetic
energy and with retarding separation.
Question N° 75
SPIN RECOVERY
Although the POH is the primary reference for recovery from a spin, the following can
be used as a general procedure:
P - Retard the throttle to idle. In most aircraft, power hampers the recovery.
A - Ailerons neutral. Many pilots will attempt to recover from the spin using the
ailerons. This may actually make the problem worse.
R - Apply full opposite rudder. Apply rudder opposite the rotation of the spin. If you
have trouble determining which way the airplane is spinning, look at your turn
coordinator or turn needle. It will indicate the direction of rotation.
E - Apply forward elevator. Immediately after applying opposite rudder, apply a quick
forward motion on the control yoke and hold anti-spin controls until the aircraft starts
to recover.
D - Recover from the dive. Once you have completed the four previous steps, and the
rotation stops, recover from the dive. The descent rate may be over 5000 feet per
minute and the airspeed will rapidly exceed redline. Remember to neutralize the rudder
after the rotation stops.
Question N° 76
Refer to figure.
Drag is the force which resists the forward motion of the aircraft. Drag acts parallel to
and in the same direction as the relative airflow (in the opposite direction to the flight
path).
Total Drag is sub-divided into two main types:
Parasite Drag - independent of lift generation
Induced Drag - the result of lift generation.
Parasite drag is further sub-divided into:
- Skin Friction Drag
- Form (Pressure) Drag
- Interference Drag
FORM DRAG
Form (pressure) drag results from the pressure at the leading edge of a body being
greater than the pressure at the trailing edge.
Skin friction, along with the adverse pressure gradient behind the transition will
cause a reduction in kinetic energy of the boundary layer.
Separation will occur when the boundary layer does not have sufficient kinetic
energy in the presence of a given adverse pressure gradient.
Because of separation, there will be a lower pressure at the trailing edge than the
leading edge. An aerodynamic force will act in the direction of the lower pressure -
form drag.
When a shock wave forms on the upper surface, the increase of static pressure through
the shock wave will create an extreme adverse pressure gradient. If the shock wave is
sufficiently strong, separation will occur immediately behind the shock wave.
Question N° 77
Refer to figures.
Ground effect occurs because the surface alters the airflow pattern around the wings.
Primarily, the surface restricts the formation of the wingtip vortices.
This results in a reduction in the amount of induced downwash behind the wing and
increases the wing’s effective angle of attack.
It also alters the pressure distribution around the wing and the amount of lift developed.
This occurs because the change in effective angle of attack increases the wing’s
coefficient of lift (CL) and thus its lifting capability at any given angle of attack.
The magnitude of the wing tip vortices, and thus downwash, also determine the amount
of induced drag produced by the wing. The closer the aircraft is to the surface, the
greater the reduction in induced drag at any given angle of attack. (figure 2)
THE INFLUENCE OF GROUND EFFECT ON LANDING
When an aircraft enters ground effect during the landing phase of flight, the sudden
increase in lift and reduction in drag cause it to experience a floating tendency. The
aircraft also tends to pitch nose-down due to the reduction in download on the tailplane.
THE INFLUENCE OF GROUND EFFECT ON TAKE-OFF
During the take-off phase of flight, as the aircraft leaves ground effect the wing tip
vortices rapidly grow in magnitude producing an increase in downwash behind the
wing. This causes a reduction in the lift produced at a given angle of attack and the
associated rapid increase in induced drag may prevent a successful take-off. The
increased downwash acting on the tailplane increases the download, resulting in a nose -
up pitching moment.
The aircraft with the most lift reduction will be the one initially benefiting the most
from the increased lift IN ground effect.
A low wing aircraft on take-off, initially has increased lift due to the wing being
closer to the ground, but once airborne the OUT of ground effect condition will
result in a major decrease in lift.
Question N° 78
An imminent stall is one in which the airplane is approaching a stall but is not allowed
to completely stall. Indications of an imminent stall can include buffeting, stick shaker,
or aural warning.
Other sensory cues for the pilot include: The pilot will feel control pressures change as
speed is reduced. With progressively less resistance on the control surfaces, the pilot
must use larger control movements to get the desired airplane response. The pilot will
experience difficulty in maintaining altitude.
A full stall occurs when the critical AOA is exceeded. Indications of a full stall are
typically that an uncommanded nose-down pitch cannot be readily arrested, and this
may be accompanied by an uncommanded rolling motion. For airpla nes equipped with
stick pushers, its activation is also a full stall indication.
Question N° 79
Friction drag is the drag caused by the friction between the air molecules and the
boundary layer of the airfoil's surface.
It is also the energy lost due to friction within the boundary layer. Very close to the
surface, the air molecules are slowed down and brought to a standstill relative to the
aircraft's surface. All this is happening just a few millimetres of the surface.
The boundary layer exists in two forms:
 Laminar flow is the thinnest layer, smooth and produces the least friction.
 Turbulent flow is unsteady, thicker, the layers become mixed and as a result
produces more friction drag.
The laminar layer transitions to the turbulent layer at the transition point. The airflow
starts off as laminar flow, the speed increases steadily from the surface to the free
stream and at some point along the airfoil's surface the airflow transits into turbulent
flow.
The difference in drag caused by the two states of the boundary layer is very marked
about the same order of magnitude as the effect of streamlining, so it's understandable
that much design effort is focussed on keeping the flow laminar for as long as possible.
Thus, some aerofoils are designed to delay the transition by making it occur further
aft so there is a greater area of laminar flow.
But such aerofoils have their disadvantges:
 They produce less lift, so they tend to be used on aircraft that fly at higher
speeds.
 The separtion point tends to move forward very quickly leading to a narrow stall
region.
Question N° 80
Refer to figure.
When the propeller is rotating, aerodynamic losses occur near the hub and at the blade
tips. Near the hub, the airflow is disrupted where the propeller blade sections are
thicker and near the engine.
Vortices form at the propeller blade tips in a similar manner as at the wing tips. This
results in induced drag and a reduction in the actual amount of thrust developed in this
region. In practice, only a small part of the propeller blade is effective in producing
thrust at normal operating angles of attack. This is generally between 60% and 90% of
the distance from the blade hub to the tip.
At positive angles of attack, the greatest useful thrust is produced at 75% of the tip
radius. By convention, the blade angle at this radius is the reference pitch for the whole
propeller blade.
Question N° 81
The position of the CG directly affects the amount of trim necessary for the angle of
attack required. A forward CG adds to the inherent longitudinal stability of the
airplane; the pilot may run out of elevator up movement and be unable to maintain the
required attitude. An aft CG decreases the longitudinal stability and makes the airplane
more difficult or impossible to control in pitch.
The CG must always remain within the CG safe envelope to ensure that the airplane
remains controllable in all phases of flight. The elevator trim or stabilizer trim setting
must be preset to a value for take-off and initial climb that will ensure a minimum stick
force during this critical stage of flight.
Usually, there is a graph in the airplane performance manual from which the setting
appropriate to the total mass and CG position for take-off can be determined.
Factors that affect the stabilizer trim position for take-off are:
 CG position
 Take-off mass
 Flap setting
In comparison with a correctly balanced airplane during take-off, the position of the
stabilizer for a nose-heavy airplane requires nose-up trim from a decreased stabilizer
angle of incidence.
Question N° 82
"I. The combination of a wing with sweepback and a T-tail make an aeroplane prone to
deep stall." CORRECT.
A deep stall is a dangerous phenomenon that occurs when the turbulence created by the
main wing encompasses the horizontal stabilizer of the aircraft, preventing the aircraft
from recovering from the stall.
 Aircraft with swept-back wings are prone to deep stall, regardless of horizontal
stabilizer position (T-tail or low tail). T-tail will worsen recovery
characteristics.
 Swept-forward wings at very high angle of attack are prone to deep stall as well.
However, if a low horizontal tail is fitted, some pitch down moment may be
produced with the help of the horizontal stabilizer since it is out of the separated
turbulent wake of the wing.
"II. A stick shaker system is fitted to an aeroplane to resolve deep stall
problems." INCORRECT
A stick shaker, as the name suggests shakes the control colum warning the pilot of an
impeding stall. It does not apply any corrective measures.
Question N° 83
Refer to figures.
ICAO Doc 8168
1.3.8 The instrument approach chart (IAC) will specify the individual categories of
aircraft for which the procedure is approved. Normally, procedures will be designed to
provide protected airspace and obstacle clearance for aircraft up to and including
Category D. However, where airspace requirements are critical, procedures may be
restricted to lower speed categories.
1.3.9 Alternatively, the procedure may specify a maximum IAS for a particular segment
without reference to aircraft category. In any case, it is essential that pilots comply
with the procedures and information depicted on instrument flight charts and the
appropriate flight parameters (...) if the aircraft is to remain in the areas developed for
obstacle clearance purposes.
RADIUS OF TURN
Radius of turn is dependent on both airspeed and bank angle.
Turn Radius = V 2 / g tan Ø
Where V = True Airspeed, g = acceleration of gravity constant of 9.81 m/s 2 , Ø = angle
of bank
The radius of turn at any given bank angle is directly proportional to the square of
the airspeed. Which means that doubling the airspeed results in a radius of turn that is
four times greater
RATE OF TURN
Rate of turn is the rate of change of heading or angular velocity of the turn.
Rate of turn = g tan Ø / V
Increasing the speed results in a decrease of rate of turn. Whereas increasing bank
angle, increases the rate of turn.
Question N° 84
Refer to figure.
The Blade Angle
Sometimes called the pitch angle, is the angle subtended between the plane of rotation
and the chord line of the propeller blade, which may be fixed or variable. When the
airplane is moving it comprises two parts, the angle of attack and the helix angle, but
when it is stationary the blade angle is equal to the angle of attack.
The Helix Angle
The angle that the actual path of the propeller makes to the plane of rotation.
Angle of Attack
The path of the propeller through the air determines the direction of the relative
airflow. The angle between the blade chord and the relative airflow is the angle of
attack (α).
The angle of attack (α) is the result of propeller rotational velocity (RPM) and aircraft
forward velocity (TAS).
Question N° 85
Refer to figure.
The forward component of Weight (W sin γ) is a product of descent angle (γ); the
greater the descent angle, the greater the forward component of weight.
The forward component of weight must balance Drag for the aircraft to be in a steady
glide.
For a glide descent, we get the following formulas:
D = W sin y
L = W cos y
With regards to this question:

 L = W cos y
L = 8 000 cos 60
L = 4 000 N
Question N° 86
Load factor is known as the lift divided by the weight:
n=L/W
During straight and level flight, load factor is equal to 1 as the lift will equal the weight
of the aircraft.
To have a load factor of less than 1, lift would have be less than the weight.
The other answers are incorrect because:
 In a turn the load factor is increased because the lift will have to higher than the
weight to compensate for the bank angle.
 In steady level horizontal flight the load factor is 1.
 During a recovery from a stall lift, the aircraft would have to pitch up from a
dive, therefore the lift has to exceed the weight.
Question N° 87
The low-speed buffet is caused by flow separation as the aircraft approaches the
stalling angle of attack. Increasing the angle of attack will put the aircraft closer to its
critical angle of attack. Thus, closer to the point at which low speed buffet is
encountered. Consequently, the low speed buffet margin will decrease.
Question N° 88
Refer to figure.
The total drag is the resulting factor if you add induced drag and parasite drag together.
Parasite drag is caused if an airfoil is moving through the air. It is the result of form
drag and skin friction drag.
Form drag arises from the shape of the object. The more streamlined the object, the less
form drag is present.
Shape and size are most important in the amount of form drag resulting.
Form drag increases with increasing velocity, making it very important for high speed
aircraft.
Skin friction drag is caused by the friction of the fluid (in case of aircraft this fluid is
the atmosphere) against the skin of the object moving through it.
It is directly related to the surface area in contact with the fluid. Skin friction increases
with the square of the velocity.
Induced drag is caused when an object redirects the airflow. A wing produces lift by
creating a pressure difference.
This pressure difference is caused by the shape of the airfoil, causing the airflow on top
to accelerate, creating a low pressure on top of the wing and high pressure below the
wing.
This pressure difference naturally wants to restore towards a uniform pressure, which
creates vortices around the wingtip.
These vortices are deflected downwards, this phenomenon is also called downwash.
The induced drag decreases with airspeed and increases with angle of attack and
increasing weight.
In the image we can see that the two vectors (induced and parasite drag) create a
resulting vector, the total drag.
Where the induced and parasite drag vectors collide, we have the minimum drag speed
(Vmd); the speed where the total drag is the lowest.
This leads us to understand that during an acceleration from a total stand still, the total
drag first decreases up until the minimum drag speed and then starts increasing again.
The CL/CD ratio is therefore biggest at Vmd. Adding flaps or slats to this
configuration will generate a large amount of drag, worsening the ratio.
Therefore the highest value of the CL/CD ratio is obtained in clean configuration
at V M D .
Question N° 89
Refer to figure.
The Venturi effect states that in a situation with constant mechanical energy, the
velocity of a fluid passing through a constricted area (throat) will increase and its
static pressure will decrease. The effect utilizes both the principle of continuity as
well as the principle of conservation of mechanical energy.
In the tube depicted in the attached figure, a fluid flows from left to right at a constant
volume flow rate. To maintain this flow, the fluid must be moved at the same rate,
despite the constricted space (throat) in the middle of the tube. Therefore, the velocity
of the fluid is increased, as the fluid needs to flow faster in the constricted area.
Continuity equation: Mass flow = A x p x V
A- cross section area; p- air density; V- velocity
With regards to this question, the airflow starts to accelerate when the diameter of the
tube starts reducing (1) and the speed is the highest at the centre of the venturi (2). As
we can see, at “4” the diameter has not expanded to its full width, therefore it is faster
than at “1”. The speed at “2” is lower than at “3” because the reduction in diameter is
not yet complete.
 Sequence of increasing magnitude of airflow speed: 1, 4, 2, 3
Question N° 90
Refer to figure.
POINTS ON THE FLIGHT ENVELOPE
In the manoeuvring envelope the load factor is plotted against the vertical axis and the
speed as an EAS is plotted against the horizontal axis.
 The stall speed lines originate from a point where speed = 0 and load factor = 0.
If load factor (n) is zero, no lift is being produced and the aircraft will not stall.
 At some point, the stall speed line will run through a point where the speed =
V S and load factor = +1. The stall speed lines show the maximum load factor at
which the aircraft can fly without stalling. When that figure is 1, the aircraft
must be at its minimum horizontal speed (V S ).
 V A is the point where n reaches its maximum value (for commuter category
2.5). V A is the design manoeuver speed, the speed at which the aircraft will
stall at the limiting load factor of 2.5g.
Question N° 91
Refer to figures.
Primarily, the surface restricts the formation of the wingtip vortices .
This results in a reduction in the amount of induced downwash behind the wing and
increases the wing’s effective angle of attack.
It also alters the pressure distribution around the wing and the amount of lift
developed. This occurs because the change in effective angle of attack increases the
wing’s coefficient of lift (CL) and thus its lifting capability at any given angle of
attack.
greater the reduction in induced drag at any given angle of attack. (figure 2)
THE INFLUENCE OF GROUND EFFECT ON LANDING
aircraft also tends to pitch nose-down due to the reduction in download on the tailplane.
THE INFLUENCE OF GROUND EFFECT ON TAKE-OFF
During the take-off phase of flight, as the aircraft leaves ground effect the wing tip
vortices rapidly grow in magnitude producing an increase in downwash behind the
wing. This causes a reduction in the lift produced at a given angle of attack and the
associated rapid increase in induced drag may prevent a successful take -off. The
increased downwash acting on the tailplane increases the download, resulting in a nose -
up pitching moment.
The high wing aircraft will still experience ground effect, but because the wing is
several feet farther from the runway, the total effect on the aircraft is greatly reduced,
as ground effect decreases exponentially with difference from the runway surface.
Thus, a high wing on take-off is the configuration with the least reduction in lift.
Question N° 92
Refer to figure.
A variation of CG position can cause large changes in the static longitudinal stability.
In the conventional airplane configuration, the large changes in stability with CG
variation are primarily due to the large changes in the wing contribution.
As the CG is gradually moved aft, the airplane static stability decreases, then becomes
neutral then unstable. The CG position which produces zero slope and neutral static
stability is referred to as the “neutral point”. The neutral point may be imagined as the
effective aerodynamic center of the entire airplane configuration, i.e. with the CG at the
neutral point, all changes in net lift effectively occur at that point and no change in
pitching moment results. The neutral point defines the most aft CG position without
static instability.
As seen in figure 1, neutral static stability would be the result if the curve had zero
slope. If neutral stability existed, the airplane could be disturbed to some higher or
lower lift coefficient without change in pitching moment coefficient.
For an airplane to always have positive longitudinal static stability the CG must be
ahead of the neutral point, so that the wing-pitching moment always exceeds the tail
plane pitching moment. The further aft the neutral point is from the CG the greater is
the static longitudinal stability.
Question N° 93
Refer to figures.
MANOEUVRING STABILITY
Whenever an aircraft is manoeuvring, acceleration forces act on it (if, for example, the
aircraft is pulling out of a dive, its flight path will be curved and the resultant pitching
velocity provides aerodynamic damping in pitch due to the downward movement of the
tailplane).
The tailplane provides the largest contribution toward damping in pitch, although other
aircraft components such as the wings do assist. A graph of stick force versus load
factor illustrates the manoeuvring stability of an aircraft.
The gradient of the graph should be positive (with increasing load factor the stick force
must also increase). This gradient must not be excessively high or the aircraft would be
difficult and tiring to manoeuvre. Conversely, it should not be too low or the stick
forces would be too light and the aircraft could be over-stressed.
 If a higher limit load factor is set by the manufacturer, there's more margin
for the aircraft to be controlled inside the envelope and therefore a lower
stick force per g may be set. Statement I is correct.
 The limit load factors will depend on the design category of the aircraft. For
example, the limit load factor for modern high-speed jet transport aircraft is -
1.0g and 2.5g. This value is stated in the Aircraft Flight Manual to be consulted
by the pilot and should bever be exceeded. However, the stick force per g is
not listed in the AFM. Statement II is incorrect.
Question N° 94
Refer to figures.
An aircraft is said to be trimmed (in trim) if all moments in pitch, roll, and yaw are
equal to zero.
The term controllability refers to the ability of the aircraft to respond to control surface
displacement and achieve the desired condition of flight. Adequate controllability must
be available to perform take-off and landing and accomplish the various maneuvers in
flight.
A contradiction exists between stability and controllability. A high degree of
stability gives reduced controllability. The relationship between static stability and
controllability is demonstrated by figure 1 and 2.
The effect of increased static stability (forward CG movement) on controllability is
illustrated by the ball in a steeper trough (figure 2). A greater force is required to
“control” the ball to the same position of displacement when the static stability is
increased. In this manner, a large degree of static stability tends to make the aircraft
less controllable. It is necessary to achieve the proper proportion between static
stability and controllability during the design of an aircraft because too much static
stability (forward CG position) reduces controllability. The forward CG limit is set to
ensure minimum controllability.
Question N° 95
Refer to figure.
(Normal meaning perpendicular to the upstream flow).
Whenever supersonic airflow is slowed to subsonic speed without a change in
direction, a ‘normal’ shock wave will form as a boundary between the supersonic and
subsonic region. This means that some compressibility effects will occur before the
aircraft reaches Mach 1.0.
Question N° 96
Leading-edge slats increase the wing's chamber area and mean aerodynamic chord
(MAC), thereby increasing its coefficient of lift (CL) maximum, which reduces the
aircraft's stall speed. The mass flow over the upper surface is increased and so is its
energy when air flows through the venturi-shaped slot.
These effects combine to delay the forward movement of the separation point as angle
of attack increases. The stall is delayed until a higher angle of attack is reached.
The wing where the slats did not extend (right) will stall at a lower angle of attack
and higher airspeed than the left wing.
Question N° 97
Refer to figure.
When an airplane flies at a height equal to or less than the length of its wingspan the
efficiency of its wings is considerably improved. A low wing airplane, just before
touchdown, experiences a 50% reduction of its total drag. This phenomenon is ground
effect.
Primarily, the surface restricts the formation of the wingtip vortices.
aircraft also tends to pitch nose-down due to the reduction in download on the tail
plane.
greater the reduction in induced drag at any given angle of attack.
Aircraft entering ground effect:
 Downwash decreases.
 The effective angle of attack increases.
 Increased lift during landing if the angle of attack remains constant.
 The induced angle of attack decreases.
 Induced drag decreases.
Aircraft leaving ground effect:
 Downwash increases.
 The effective angle of attack decreases.
 Decreased lift during take-off if the angle of attack remains constant.
 The induced angle of attack increases.
 Induced drag increases.

081 - Principles of Flight - Answers

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081 - Principles of Flight - Answers

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Question N 1

 Speed V B (max gust intensity speed): +/- 66 ft/sec

VB is quite a low airspeed so the aircraft would be flying at high alpha. It is a

CS 23.337 Limit manoeuvring load factors ED Decision 2003/14/RM

 As you can see in the graph, at VD the minimum load factor is 0.

 Speed V B (max gust intensity speed): +/- 66 ft/sec

 Speed V B (max gust intensity speed): +/- 66 ft/sec

 V M O – is expressed in CAS, which is usually associated with operations at lower

 Therefore, the aircraft is not stalled!

VA is just a stalling speed. Thus, it varies with mass:

 New VS = Old VS x √Change in mass factor

New VS = 123 x √ (1900 / 2300)

The negative limit load factor may not be less than:

 -1.0 g for large/transport aircraft (CS 25)

Normal [N] n MA X = 3.8 n MI N = -1.52

Utility [U] n MA X = 4.4 n MI N = -1.76

CS 23.1505 AIRSPEED LIMITATIONS

Utility [U] nMAX = 4.4 nMIN = -1.76

Aerobatic [A] nMAX ≥ 6 nMIN ≤ 3

 When avoidance can't be achieved and a flight through a TS is inevitable,

 Speed V B (max gust intensity speed): +/- 66 ft/sec

1. 2 ∙ 1 + 24000 𝑊+10000 for normal and commuter category aeroplanes (where W

Normal [N] n MA X = 3.8 n MI N = -1.52

Utility [U] n MA X = 4.4 n MI N = -1.76

The negative limit load factor may not be less than:

 -1.0 for normal category aircraft.

Normal (CS 23) -1.52 g +3.8 g

Utility (CS 23) -1.76 g +4.4 g

Aerobatic (CS 23) -3.00 g +6.0 g

Which corresponds to a 10% reduction.

 Speed V B (max gust intensity speed): +/- 66 ft/sec

CS 23.337 Limit manoeuvring load factors ED Decision 2003/14/RM

1. 2 ∙ 1 + 24000 𝑊+10000 for normal and commuter category aeroplanes (where W

Normal [N] n MA X = 3.8 n MI N = -1.52

Utility [U] n MA X = 4.4 n MI N = -1.76

 Lower limit – VS0: stalling speed with flaps extended.

 Lower limit – VS1: stalling speed in clean configuration.

 Lower limit – VN0: maximum speed in normal operation.

Release date: 2022.12.18.

 Aerofoil A corresponds to line 3.

With regards to this question:

 Sequence of increasing magnitude of airflow speed: 1, 4, 2, 3

Aircraft leaving ground effect:

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