Irrigation Engineering

1. Introduction
a) Irrigation is artificial application of water to soil, throughout the crop period to assist in the production
of crops. Irrigation water is supplied to supplement the water available from rainfall and ground water.
b) Related terms
• Flood cushioning – The reservoirs created behind dams may be emptied to some extent,
depending on the forecast of impending flood, so that when the flood arrives, some of the water
gets stored in the reservoir, thus reducing the severity of the flood.
• Flood proofing – In instances where only isolated units of high value are threatened by flooding,
they may sometimes individually flood proofed.
¨ An industrial plant comprising buildings, storage yards, roads, etc., may be protected by a
ring levee or flood wall.
• Check dams are small barriers built across the direction of water flow on shallow rivers and
streams for the purpose of water harvesting. The small dams retain excess water flow during
monsoon rains in a small catchment area behind the structure. Pressure created in the catchment
area helps force the impounded water into the ground. The major environmental benefit is the
replenishment of nearby groundwater reserves and wells.
c) Methods of Irrigation
• Irrigation water may be applied to the crops by three basic methods: (1) surface irrigation method,
(2) Sprinkler method and (3) Sub-surface irrigation method

• Uncontrolled or wild flooding:

¨ In this method water is spread or flooded on a rather smooth flat land, without much control
or prior preparation.
¨ This method is generally used in inundation irrigation system in which water is forced to
spread over vast tract during this season of ice cream flow. It is wasteful use of water, and
is practiced largely where irrigation water is abundant and in expensive.
¨ This method is suitable for close growing crops. Ex—rice
• Free flooding or flooding from field channels:
¨ In the controlled flooding, water is spread over the land, with proper method to control the
depth of application. Controlled flooding can be achieved by free-flooding, contour laterals,
border strip or by check flooding.
¨ Free flooding method consist of dividing the entire land to be irrigated into small strips by a
number of field channels known as laterals. These laterals maybe either at right angle to the
side of the field or right angle to the contour lines.
• Flooding by contour laterals:

1
 ¨ This is a special case of free flooding or flooding from field channels in which the field
channels or laterals are aligned approximately along the contour lines. This method is
applicable for a steeper terrain.
• Border strip irrigation:
¨ In the border strip flooding method, the farm is divided into a series of strips 10 to 20 m
wide and 100 to 300 m long. These strips are separated by lower levies or borders and run
down the predominant or any other desired slope.
¨ This method is especially suited for forage crops, its advantage being that for a relatively
low investment a system can be developed which can afford the highest irrigation
efficiency and lowest labour requirements.
¨ Time required for irrigating a field
𝑦 𝑄
𝑡 = ln ' +
𝑓 𝑄 − 𝐴𝑓
o 𝑦 – is average depth of water
o 𝑓 – infiltration capacity
¨ Maximum area which can be irrigated
𝑄
𝐴,-. =
𝑓
• Check basin flooding:
¨ It is a modified form of ordinary flooding in which flow is controlled by dividing the whole
area into a number of parts with the help of levees and borders.
¨ It is the most common method of irrigation used in India.
¨ Since water is supplied through largest drains, the method is most suitable for permeable
soil which must be quickly covered with water in order to prevent excessive percolation
losses near the supply ditches. The method is also suitable for impermeable soil in which
the percolation rate is so slow that infiltration would be inadequate in the time required for
the sheet of water flowing over it.
• Contour border:
¨ In this method, borders are made along contours in hilly areas to reduce the runoff losses in
the field, it is specially required for fine soils to obtain a desired percolation. It is also
referred as step farming or terrace farming.
• Ring Basin flooding:
¨ It is special form of check basin flooding adapted to orchards. Ring basins are formed for
each tree; in some cases, one ring basin may be formed for two or more trees.
¨ Water is allowed to stand until the desired percolation is obtained.
• Furrow irrigation:
¨ The furrow method of irrigation is very much used for row crops like maize, jowar,
sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, groundnut, potatoes etc.
¨ In this method; only one half to one-fifth of the surface is wetted, thus evaporation losses
are reduced.
¨ A furrow consists of a narrow ditch between rows of plants, which carry irrigation water
through it.
¨ A special case of furrow irrigation in which a single inlet is provided and the water moves
continuously through a single ditch is referred as corrugation irrigation.
d) Sprinkler irrigation:
• In this method of irrigation water is applied in the form of spray through a network of pipes and
pumps.
Advantages Limitations
Ø Erosion can be controlled Ø Wind may distort sprinkling pattern.
Ø Uniform application of water is possible
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 Ø Land preparation is not required. Labour cost is Ø Technical man power is required to
reduced. More land is available for cropping, as operate the system.
borders and ditches are not required. Ø Initial cost, maintenance cost and
Ø Useful where slopes are excessive and operation cost are high.
topography is irregular. Ø Evaporation loss is maximum.
Ø Helps in crop cooling during summer and frost Ø Not suitable for heavy irrigation.
protection in winter. Ø Network of pipes and nozzles cause
Ø Used when fertilizers are to be mixed with interference with farming operation.
water.
e) Drip irrigation:
• Also called trickle irrigation, in this method water is directly applied in the root zone of plant in
the form of drops, using pipes and drip nozzles.
Advantages Disadvantages
Ø Less requirement of irrigation water as Ø High initial cost.
Evaporation and seepage loss are considerably Ø Danger of blockade of nozzles
reduced. Ø Cannot be used for heavy irrigation
Ø Water supply at optimum level, which also Ø Causes interference in farming operation
gives high yield. Ø Involves technical knowledge and thus not
Ø The nuisance of weeds is avoided. adopted by ordinary cultivators.
Ø Suitable for any topography.
2. Water logging and quality of water
a) Water logging
• An area is said to be water logged if the productivity of land gets reduced due to high water table
this makes the soil ill aerated.
• It can happen even when the roots of plants are not submerged.
• Because of this productivity of field decreases, salt concentration increases, and water borne
diseases may spread.
b) Effects of salt in soil –
• The phenomenon of salts forming a thin layer of crust on the surface after evaporation of water
from the surface is called efflorescence.
• Salts absorb large amount of water and thus reduces the water available to the roots of the plant.
• Salt crystals in the soil also blocks the flow of water through semipermeable membrane of the
roots.
• Such salt affected soils become unproductive and are called saline soils. If salt efflorescence
continues for a long time, makes the soil Banjar soil or Usher soil.
c) Classification of irrigation water
• Irrigation water may be classified on the following basis:
¨ Classification based on total concentration of soluble salts
¨ Classification based on sodium concentration
¨ Classification based on electrical conductivity (EC), total salt content (TDS), sodium
concentration (ESP) etc.
• Classification based on total concentration of soluble salts
¨ Salinity concentration of soil solution
𝐶𝑄
𝐶0 =
𝑄 − 1𝐶2 − 𝑃455 6
¨ Based on the salt concentration or electrical conductivity, USDA classifies irrigation water
in four types:
Conductivity
Types of water Suitability for irrigation
µ-mhos/cm

3
 Suitable for all types of crops and all
Low salinity water C1 100-250
kinds of soils.
Medium salinity Can be used if moderate amount of
C2 250-750
water leaching occurs.
Unsuitable for soil with restricted
High salinity water C3 750-2250
drainage.
Very high salinity C4 >2250 Unsuitable for irrigation.
• Classification based on sodium concentration
¨ Irrigation water having a high sodium percentage will, after some time, give rise to a soil
having a large percentage of replaceable sodium in the colloid.
¨ Such a soil is often known as black alkali. The percentage of sodium, also known as
exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), is determined from
100 𝑁𝑎>
𝐸𝑆𝑃 = >?
𝐶𝑎 + 𝑀𝑔>? + 𝑁𝑎> + 𝐾 >
¨ With constant irrigation with high sodium water, the soil becomes plastic and sticky when
wet and forms clods and crusts on drying.
¨ Irrigation water is classified on sodium concentration, on the basis of a factor called
Sodium-Absorption Ratio (SAR), given by:
[𝑁𝑎> ]
SAR =
I [𝐶𝑎 ?> ] + [𝑀𝑔?> ]
2
Concentration m-eq/l K- L (,N/P) SNL (,N/P) U- VL (,N/P)
?R T? ?W
¨ Sodium Absorption Ratio: SAR allows assessment of the state of flocculation or of
dispersion of clay aggregates in a soil. Sodium and potassium ions facilitate the dispersion
of clay particles while calcium and magnesium promote their flocculation. The behaviour
of clay aggregates influences the soil structure and the permeability of the soil which
directly determines the water infiltration rate.
¨ Based on SAR values water is classified into four types
Type of water SAR Suitability
Suitable for all types of crops and all types
Low sodium water S1 0-10
of soil.
Medium sodium Suitable for coarse textured organic soil with
S2 10-18
water good permeability.
High sodium water S3 18-26 Harmful for almost all types of soil
Very high sodium
S4 >26 Unsuitable for irrigation
water
• Boron concentration: the boron content of water is of great importance for many crops. Sugarcane
may tolerate large concentration of boron in the irrigation water while other crops such as beans,
ground-nuts etc. are very sensitive to an excess of boron. Boron concentration of more than 2 ppm
is harmful to most of the crops.
¨ It is present in soaps and detergents, these are toxic to plants
d) Classification of salt affected soil
• The USDA salinity laboratory classified salt affected soils into three distinct categories: saline,
sodic and saline-sodic.
• Since 50% reduction in yield takes place at ECe of 4000 for most agricultural crops, this was
proposed as the critical value to distinguish saline soil from non-saline soil.
• Similarly, as the physical property, especially the permeability of soil, was significantly affected
by ESP more than 15%, that was taken as critical value for differentiating sodic from normal soil.
Classification EC 𝜇 𝑚ℎ𝑜/𝑐𝑚 ESP 𝑝𝐻

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 Saline soil (white alkali) > 4000 < 15 ≤ 8.5
Saline-Alkali soil (Saline-sodic) > 4000 > 15 ≥ 8.5
Alkaline or Sodic or Usher soil < 4000 > 15 8.5 − 10
• Black alkali is more harmful as it is less soluble, it becomes difficult to remove it by the process
of leaching, to remove black alkali, a small amount of gypsum is added to make it more soluble
o CaSOj + Na? COR → Na? SOj + Ca?> COm R
e) Common and injurious salts present in soil are:
• NaCl, Na? SOj (white alkali) because they leave white efflorescence
• Na? COR (Black alkali) because they leave black efflorescence
• White alkali is more soluble than black alkali
f) Leaching – It is the process of flooding a particular land with adequate quantity of water, the slat present
in the soil gets dissolved, which percolates down to meet ground water table or drained away by surface
of subsurface drainage system.
• Sometimes the acidic soil may be reclaimed by adding basic salt such as lime.
g) Leaching requirement
• When soil or the irrigated water is saline, the accumulated salt should be leached out by irrigating
it with more water. The fraction of irrigated water that must be leached through the root zone to
keep the salinity of water below a specific limit is termed as Leaching Requirement.
opqrst pu vwxty ytzr{yt| upy qtw}~{•€
• Leaching Requirement =
•pqrst pu vwxty ‚rƒƒq{t|
𝐶2
𝐿… = 1 −
𝐷‡
¨ 𝐶2 is consumptive use of crop, 𝐷‡ – depth of water supplied
‚wqx }p•}t•xywx{p• {• ‚rƒƒq{t| vwxty
¨ 𝐿… =
‚wqx }p•}t•xywx{p• {• |yw{•t| vwxty
• Leaching water can be added with irrigation water or can be applied separately
h) Design of Subsurface drainage: these are tile drainage, required for the soil with poor internal drainage
and high-water table conditions. These drainage system removes water by simple action of gravity and
maintains proper air circulation in soil above it. These are placed in such a manner that they are capable
of lowering the water table sufficiently below the root zone.
• Assumptions
ˆ
¨ It is assumed that ? (discharge intensity) enters the drain from either side.
¨ A value of 1% of average annual rainfall can be removed by the drains in 24 h
¨ The diameter of the drains is found out by Manning’s equation assuming full flow condition
at maximum discharge condition.
• Discharge intensity
4𝑘 ?
𝑞= (𝑏 − 𝑎? )
𝑠
o 𝑘 – coefficient of permeability
o 𝑠 – spacing between drains
o 𝑎 – depth of impervious stratum below centre of drains
o 𝑏 – maximum height of water table above impervious layer including capillary
jŽ }p‚ •
water height ℎ• = •‘ ’
• Discharge can be taken as 1% of annual average rainfall
𝑃• × 0.01 × 𝑠
𝑞(m? /s) =
24 × 60 × 60
o 𝑃 – average annual rainfall in m
¨ Total discharge
T
o 𝑄 = 𝑞𝑙 = 𝑅?/R ›𝑠œ × 𝐴
™
o Find diameter of pipe
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 3. Water requirement for crop
a) Classes and availability of soil water
• Water present in soil may be classified under three heads
¨ Hygroscopic water: when an oven dried sample is kept open in the atmosphere, it absorbs
some amount of water from atmosphere. This is known as hygroscopic water, and is not
capable of movement by gravity or capillary forces.
¨ Capillary water: it is that part in excess of hygroscopic water which exists in the pore space
of the soil by molecular attraction.
¨ Gravitational water: it is that part in excess of hygroscopic and capillary water which will
move out of the soil if favourable drainage is provided.
• Soil moisture tension:
¨ The force per unit area that must be exerted in order to extract water from the soil is known
as soil moisture tension and is expressed in terms of atmosphere.
¨ It is also known as capillary potential, capillary tension or force of suction. It is inversely
proportional to moisture content of soil and is measured with tensiometer and centrifuge.
• Soil moisture constants
¨ Saturation capacity: it is amount of water required to fill all the pore spaces between soil
particles by replacing all air held in pore spaces. It is the upper limit of possible moisture
content.
¨ Field capacity: it is the moisture content of soil after free drainage has removed most of the
gravity water. It is depth of water which is held against gravity
𝛾’
𝑑žU = × 𝑑 × 𝐹𝐶
𝛾
¨ Permanent wilting point: or wilting coefficient is that water content at which plants can no
longer extract sufficient water from soil for its growth. Soil moisture tension may range
from 7 to 40 atm.
𝛾’
𝑑¢£¢ = × 𝑑 × 𝑃𝑊𝑃
𝛾
¨ Available moisture: it is the difference in water content between field capacity and
permanent wilting point.
𝛾’
𝑑- = × 𝑑 × (𝐹𝐶 − 𝑃𝑊𝑃)
𝛾
¨ Readily available moisture: it is that portion of available moisture that is most easily
extracted by plants and is approximately 75% of available moisture. It is also the portion of
moisture content between field capacity and optimum water content.
𝛾’
𝑑¥- = × 𝑑 × (𝐹𝐶 − 𝑂𝑀𝐶)
𝛾
b) Depth and frequency of irrigation
• Depth of water given during watering
𝛾’
𝑑 = 𝑑(𝐹• − 𝑚œ )
𝛾
¨ 𝑚œ – is the maximum level upto which the soil moisture may be allowed to be depleted.
• Frequency of watering
𝑑
𝑓 = days
𝐶2
c) Basic terminologies
• Gross command area (GCA): the total area that can be brought under cultivation (without
consideration of water supply) is called as GCA.
• Culturable command area (CCA): after removing the area unfit for cultivation, such as rocks,
hills, rivers, lakes, roads, railway lines, CCA is obtained.
• Intensity of irrigation (IOI):
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 ¨ The percentage of CCA proposed to be irrigated during either a crop season or during a
year.
¨ The yearly IOI is summation of intensities of irrigation of various crops during different
seasons and can be more than 100%
• Crop growth period is time in days from the instant of showing to that of its harvesting.
• Base period for a crop refers to the whole period of cultivation from the time when irrigation
water is first issued for preparation of the ground for planting the crop, to its last watering before
harvesting.
• Kor period and kor depth:
¨ Crops require maximum water during first watering after the crops have grown few
centimeters. During the subsequent watering the quantity of water needed by crops
gradually decreases and is least when crop gains maturity.
¨ The first watering is known as kor watering, and the depth applied is known as kor depth.
¨ The portion of the base period in which kor watering is needed is known as kor period.
¨ While designing the capacity of a channel, kor water must be considered since discharge in
the canal has to be maximum during this time.
• Paleo:
¨ It is the first watering before sowing the crop. This is done in order to add sufficient
moisture to the unsaturated zone of the soil and is required for the initial growth of the crop.
d) Delta (Δ)
• It is total depth of water required by a crop during the entire period the crop is in the field, it
represent evapotranspiration demand, does not include losses.
e) Duty (D):
• Duty represents the irrigating capacity of a unit of water. It is the relation between the area of a
crop irrigated and the quantity of irrigation water required during the entire period of the growth
of that crop.
• Or it is hectares of field irrigated for full growth of crop by a supply of 1m3/s water continuously
during the base period of the crop.
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑(𝑑𝑎𝑦)
Δ(m) = 8.64
𝐷 (ℎ𝑎)
• Variation of duty with the place of its measurement
¨ The duty varies because of continuous conveyance losses
as the water flows. The duty of water goes on increasing
as the water flows.
¨ Duty increases from Main channel to field channel
• Capacity factor: this is ratio of the mean supply to the full
supply of a canal.
𝑄-®N
𝐶𝐹 =
𝑄¯4-°
• Time factor: it is the ratio of the number of days the canal has actually run to the number of days
of irrigation period.
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑇𝐹 =
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑝
𝑄-®N
𝑄’40‡N™ =
𝐶𝐹 × 𝑇𝐹
f) Consumptive use of water (Evapotranspiration)
• Consumptive use of water by a crop is the depth of water consumed by evaporation and
transpiration during crop growth, including water consumed by accompanying weed growth.
• If sufficient moisture is always available to completely meet the needs of the plants, the resulting
evapotranspiration is called potential evapotranspiration (PET)
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 • The real evapotranspiration occurring in a specific situation is called actual evapotranspiration
AET
• Direct Measurement of consumptive use
¨ Tank and lysimeter methods: tanks are containers set flush with the ground level having an
area of 10m2 and 3m deep. Tank is filled with soil of the field and crop is grown in it.
Consumptive use is determined by measuring the quantity of water required to maintain
constant moisture conditions within the tank for satisfactory proper growth of the crop. In
Lysimeters, the bottom is pervious. Consumptive use is the difference of water applied and
that draining through pervious bottom and collected in a pan.
¨ Field experimental plots
¨ Soil moisture studies: this method is suitable to those areas where soil is fairly uniform and
ground water is deep enough so that it does not affect the fluctuations in soil moisture
within the root zone of the soil. Soil moisture measurements are done before and after each
irrigation. The quantity of water extracted each day is calculated and plotted.
¨ Integration method
¨ Inflow and out flow studies for large area
• Empirical method
¨ Blaney-Criddle method
o Blaney and Criddle (1962) proposed an empirical relation which is largely used
by irrigation engineers. The equation expresses potential evapotranspiration
(consumptive use) in terms of temperature and day time hours. If 𝐶2 is monthly
consumptive use then
𝑝
𝐶2 (𝑐𝑚) = 𝑘 [1.8𝑡 + 32]
40
§ 𝑘 – crop factor
§ 𝑝 – % of monthly sunshine hrs. wrt total annual sunshine hours
§ 𝑡 – mean monthly temperature ºC
¨ Penman method
o Penman developed a theoretical formula based on principles of both energy
budget and mass transfer approaches to compute potential evapotranspiration.
o Not empirical but more of an analytical approach.
¨ Hargreaves class-A pan evaporation method
o This method is very much used in India.
𝐶2 = 𝐾𝐸¯
o 𝐾 = consumptive use coefficient depends on environmental factors and types of
crops.
o 𝐸¯ = class A pan evaporation.
g) Irrigation Efficiencies
• Conveyance efficiency(η} ): this considers the conveyance or transit losses into consideration,
which include evaporation and seepage losses.
water delivered to field
η} =
water extracted from source
• Water application efficiency (ηw ): it takes into consideration application or field losses, which
include surface runoff and deep percolation.
water actually stored in root zone
ηw =
water delivered to field
• Water storage efficiency
water actually stored in root zone
η‚ =
water theoratically required to be stored
• Water use efficiency

8
 water beneficially used by plant
ηr =
water distributed to field
• Water distribution efficiency (η| ): it evaluates the degree to which water is uniformly distributed
throughout the root zone.
y
η| = Æ1 − È × 100
D
¨ 𝑦 – average numerical deviation in depth of water stored from average depth stored during
irrigation.
¨ 𝐷 – average depth of penetration
h) Determination of Irrigation Requirements of crops
• Effective rainfall (Ptuu ) :Effective rainfall is that part of precipitation falling during the growing
period of a crop that is available to meet the evapotranspiration needs of the crop.
• Consumptive Irrigation Requirement (CIR): It is amount of irrigation water that is required to
meet the evapotranspiration needs of the crop during its full growth.
𝐶𝐼𝑅 = 𝐶2 − Ptuu
• Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR): It is the amount of water required to be delivered at the field to
meet evapotranspiration needs as well as leaching and pre-showing requirement.
𝑁𝐼𝑅 = 𝐶𝐼𝑅 + LR + PSR
• Field Irrigation Requirement (FIR): It is defined as the amount of irrigation water required at the
plot to meet the evapotranspiration needs of water as well as other needs such as deep percolation.
𝑁𝐼𝑅
𝐹𝐼𝑅 = 𝑁𝐼𝑅 + field losses =
𝜂-
• Gross Irrigation Requirement (GIR): It is the sum of water required to satisfy the field irrigation
requirement and the water lost as conveyance losses in distributaries up to field.
𝐹𝐼𝑅 𝑁𝐼𝑅
𝐺𝐼𝑅 = 𝐹𝐼𝑅 + conveyance losses = =
𝜂• 𝜂• × 𝜂-
¨ Overall efficiency 𝜂œ = 𝜂- × 𝜂•

i) Principal crops and crop seasons

• Agricultural classification
¨ Field crops: wheat, rice, maize, barley, oats, millets, gram, pulses
¨ Commercial crops: sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, hemp, sugar beat
¨ Oil seed crops: mustard, ground nut, sesame, linseed, caster
¨ Horticulture crops: various fruit crops, vegetable crops and flower crops
¨ Plantation crops: tea, coffee, cocoa, coconut, rubber
¨ Forage crops: fodder, grass
¨ Miscellaneous crops: medicinal crops, aromatic crops, sericulture, condiments and spices
• Based on crop seasons
¨ Rabi crops are sown in winter from October to December and harvested in summer from
April to June. Some of the important rabi crops are wheat, barley, peas, gram and mustard.
¨ Kharif crops are grown with the onset of monsoon in different parts of the country and
these are harvested in September-October. Important crops grown during this season are
paddy, maize, jowar, bajra, tur (arhar), moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and soyabean.
¨ Perennial crops: sugarcane, fruits, vegetables

9
 ¨ Zaid crops: In between the Rabi and the Kharif seasons, there is a short season during the
summer months known as the Zaid season. Some of the crops produced during ‘zaid’ are
watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables and fodder crops.
• Crop ratio:
¨ It is the ratio of the area irrigated in Rabi season to area irrigated in Kharif season. Water
requirement of kharif crops are two to three times more than that required for Rabi, the
ration is so kept that almost uniform discharge is required for this purpose.
4. Irrigation Canals: Silt theories
a) Design of alluvial channels:
• A canal which takes off from a river has to draw a fair share of silt flowing in the river. This silt is
carried either in suspension or along the bed.
• The velocity to be allowed to a channel design should be such that the silt flowing in the channel
is not dropped on the bed. In case a channel silts up its capacity reduces and so it will irrigate less
area.
• The velocity should not be large enough to erode away the bed and sides. If the sides and bed of
channel are eroded away, the cross-section increases and besides other damages because of scour,
its full supply depth decreases; it can, therefore, command much less area.
• A velocity which will just keep the silt in suspension, without scouring the channel is known as
non-silting and non-scouring velocity.
b) Kennedy’s theory
• Kennedy selected a number of sites on Upper Bari Doab Canal System, one of the oldest in
Punjab for carrying out investigations about velocity and depth of the channel. The site selected
by him did not require any silt clearance for more than 30 years and were thus supposed to be
flowing with non-silting non-scouring velocity. His study revealed the following:
• The flowing water has to counteract some amount of friction against the bed of the canal. This
gives rise to vertical eddies rising up gently to the surface. These eddies are responsible for
keeping most of the silt in suspension.
• Some eddies may start from sides but these are for most of its part horizontal and so do not have
any silt supporting power. The silt supporting power is therefore, proportional to the bed width of
the stream and not to its wetted perimeter.
• He also defined critical velocity as non-silting non-scouring velocity and gave a relation between
critical velocity to the depth of flowing water.
𝑣•¥ = 0.55𝑚𝑦 W.Ïj
critical velocity for area
𝐶𝑉𝑅 = 𝑚 =
critical velocity for UBD canal
¨ 𝑚 > 1 for sand coarser than standard (1.1 to 1.2)
¨ 𝑚 < 1 for finer soil than UBDR (0.9 to 0.8)
• Kennedy made use of Chezy’s equation for finding the mean velocity, with C value calculated
from Kutter’s equation.
1 0.00155
23 + 𝑛 + 𝑆
𝑣= √𝑅𝑆
0.00155 𝑛
1 + Æ23 + 𝑆 È
√𝑅
= 𝐶√𝑅𝑆
• Kennedy did not give any equation for the slope of the canal. The slope is decided according to
the slope of the ground available.
• B/D ratio: Kennedy’s theory did not provide any clue, so some guidance is necessary.
DESIGN PROCEDURE
Ø Assume a trial depth (𝑑)
Ø Calculate velocity from equation 𝑣•¥ = 0.55 ∙ 𝑚 ∙ 𝑑W.Ïj

10
 Ø Get area of section from continuity equation 𝐴 = 𝑄/𝑣•¥

𝑑?
𝐴 = 𝐵𝑑 +
Ø Considering a trapezoidal section with side slope 2
1H:2V find base width 𝑃 = 𝐵 + 𝑑√5
𝑅 = 𝐴/𝑃
Ø Calculate actual mean velocity of flow, By Chezy’s equation, if this value of velocity is same as
calculated in step 2 the assumed depth is correct. If not repeat the calculations.
𝑣 = 𝐶›𝑅𝑆œ
Ø Compare assumed 𝑣•¥ with 𝑣 and modify 𝑑,
𝑑 ↑, 𝑣•¥ < 𝑣
𝑑™4 = Õ
𝑑 ↓, 𝑣•¥ > 𝑣
Ø This solution is normally done with Garret’s diagram.
c) Lacy’s Regime Theory:
• Regime channel:
¨ Lacey defined regime channel as a stable channel transporting a regime silt charge. A
channel will be in regime if it flows in unlimited incoherent alluvium of the same character
as that transported and the silt grade and silt charge are all constant.
¨ Incoherent alluvium:
o It is a soil composed of loose granular graded material which can be scoured with
the same ease with which it is deposited.
¨ Regime silt charge:
o It is the minimum transported load consistent with fully active bed.
¨ Regime silt grade:
o This indicates the gradation between the small and the big particles.
• Regime condition: a channel is said to be in regime when the following conditions are satisfied
o The channel is flowing in unlimited incoherent alluvium of the same character as
that transported.
o Silt grade and silt charge are constant.
o Discharge is constant.
¨ If the above three conditions are met with fully, then the channel is said to be in True
Regime. However, it is seldom that the above conditions are realized in field. Hence, Lacey
gave the idea of initial and final regime for actual channel.
• Initial regime
¨ It is first stage of stability attainment by a channel after it has been put into service.
¨ A newly constructed channel 1st adjusts its bed slope and attains a temporary stability called
as initial regime, this regime is temporary because the width and depth of channel have not
been so far adjusted.
• Final regime
¨ It is ultimate state of regime in which all
the geometrical element i.e. bed slope,
depth and width stabilize and becomes
true regime.
¨ The equation developed by Lacy are applicable for these channels.
¨ When all the variables are equally free to adjust, cross section of such a channel tend to
approach a semi elliptical shape, which is less deep for coarser silt and deeper and narrower
for finer silt.
• According to Lacey, the eddies are generated from bed and sides, both normal to surface of
generation. Hence, vertical component of eddies generated from sides will also support the silt.

11
 Lacey, therefore, assumed hydraulic mean depth R as variable, unlike Kennedy who assumed
depth D as variable.
• Lacy’s equation
Fundamental 2 𝐴𝑓 ? = 140𝑣 Ù T/R
𝑣 = Ø 𝑓𝑅 𝑣 = 10.8 × 𝑅?/R 𝑆œ
equations 5 𝑓 – silt factor
T/Ï
𝑄𝑓 ? 𝑓 Ù/R
For solving 𝑣=Ú Û 𝑃 = 4.75›𝑄 𝑆œ =
140 3340𝑄T/Ï
¨ Silt factor
𝑓 = 1.76›𝑑,,
¨ Lacy’s Scour Depth: it is below maximum flood level of the river.
T/R
𝑞?
𝑙 = 1.35 Ú Û
𝑓
DESIGN PROCEDURE
Ø The design procedure involves no trial and error steps. For the channel design, the
discharge Q and mean diameter of silt particles should be known.
Ø Calculate silt factor 𝑓 = 1.76√𝑑
T/Ï
Ý5 V
Ø Compute velocity 𝑣=Æ È
TjW
Ý
Ø Determine area 𝐴=
®
Ø Compute perimeter 𝑃 = 4.75›𝑄
Ø Considering a trapezoidal section with side slope 1H:2V find base width and depth
’V
Area 𝐴 = 𝐵𝑑 +
?
Perimeter 𝑃 = 𝐵 + 𝑑√5
5 Þ/ß
Ø Find slope 𝑆œ = RRjWÝà/á
d) Tractive force approach for channel design
• Tractive force approach, which is an improvement over various silt theories discussed above, can
be used for the design of alluvial channels.
• Tractive force or fluid drag is the force exerted by the flowing water on the bed grains to cause its
movement. Tractive force is equal to the tangential component of the weight of water flowing in
the channel and acts in the direction of flow. Tractive force per unit area or boundary shear is
equal to tractive force per unit length divided by its perimeter
𝛾 𝐴𝑆œ
𝜏=
𝑃
𝜏 = 𝛾 𝑅𝑆œ
• The tractive force required to initiate the general movement of bed grains is called the critical
tractive force and the corresponding stress is known as critical tractive stress. (𝜏• )
¨ The critical tractive stress is a function of sediment concentration (G-specific gravity) and
average grain size of the bed material.
• Shield’s theory of sediment transport
¨ Is valid for d ≥ 6mm
𝜏-•ã 𝜏•¥ kN/m2 For safety
𝜏-•ã ≤ 𝜏•¥
0.056 𝛾 (𝐺0 − 1)𝑑
𝛾 𝑅𝑆œ ≤ 0.056𝛾 (𝐺 − 1)𝑑
On bed 𝛾 𝑅𝑆œ
𝑅𝑆œ ≤ 0.056(2.65 − 1)𝑑
𝑑 grain size in m
11𝑅𝑆œ ≤𝑑

12
 𝜏-•ã ≤ 𝜏•¥
sin? 𝜃
𝜏•¥ä4’ ØÚ1 − Û 0.75𝛾 𝑅𝑆œ ≤ 𝜏•¥ 0‡’4
On Side sin? 𝜙
0.75𝛾 𝑅𝑆œ
slopes
𝜙 – angle of internal friction find R which is minimum from
𝜃 – side slope with horizontal both equation for design
¨ For d ≤ 6mm by Mittal and Swami
V
W.jWç ’èè
o 𝜏•¥ä4’ = 0.155 +
V
IT>W.Téé’èè

• Stickler’s Formula
’ à/á
¨ Roughness coefficient 𝑛 = ?j
where d – mm
e) Design of Lined canal (IS 4745)

Triangular 𝐴 = 𝑦 ? (𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃)
section 𝑃 = 2𝑦(𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃)
Q < 55 mR /s 𝑅 = 𝑦/2

𝐴 = 𝐵𝑦 + 𝑦 ? (𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃)
Trapezoidal
𝑃 = 𝐵 + 2𝑦(𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃)
Q > 55 mR /s
𝑅 = 𝐴/𝑃

DESIGN PROCEDURE
Ø Knowing limiting value of velocity and n and 1 ?/R T/?
𝑣= 𝑅 𝑠
s work out R using Manning’s equation 𝑛
𝑄
Ø Find the area of cross-section from continuity 𝐴=
𝑣
𝐴
Ø Find wetted perimeter 𝑃=
𝑅
Ø Using P and A find B and y
f) Economic justification
• At times the choice of canal lining is to be done on financial considerations besides the technical
feasibility. The benefits accrued from canal lining should be greater than extra cost to be
incurred on lining.
Saving/Benefit Cost
Ø Saving of seepage water which when supplied to Let the extra expenditure on canal
farmer yield revenue. lining be 𝐶 rupees. If 𝑃ã is the total
Let 𝑞 m3/s be the water saved, 𝑅T rupees be the cost perimeter of lining, 𝐿 is length of
of water per m3. Then total saving lining and 𝑐 is the cost of lining in
= 𝑞𝑅T Rupees m2
Ø Reduction in maintenance cost 𝐶 = 𝑐𝑃ã 𝐿
Let 𝑝 be the percentage saving in annual
maintenance cost which is rupees 𝑅? for unlined Let the life of lining be N years and
channel. Then saving in annual maintenance cost 𝑖 be the percentage rate of interest per
= 𝑝𝑅? year
𝐵 = 𝑞𝑅T + 𝑝𝑅?
Ø Capital recovery factor or annual cost of extra expenditure
𝑖(𝑖 + 1)K
=𝐶
[(𝑖 + 1)K − 1]

13
 Ø Benefit cost ratio (BCR)
𝐵 (1 + 𝑖)K − 1
𝐵𝐶𝑅 =
𝐶 𝑖 (1 + 𝑖 )K
For project justification BCR > 1
5. Conveyance and regulating structure
a) Canal Outlets
• An outlet is a small structure which admits water from the distributing channel to a water course
or field channel. Thus, an outlet is a sort of head regulator for field channel delivering water to
irrigation fields.
• The responsibility of maintenance of the distributing channel and the whole canal network lies
with government, while that of the field channel lies with the farmer. The outlet is the connecting
medium of the two.
• Types of outlets
Ø Discharge depends on difference in water level between distributing
channel and water course.
Non-modular Ø Discharge through such an outlet varies in wide limits with the fluctuations
outlet of the water levels.
Ø Example: submerged pipe outlet, masonry sluice and orifice, wooden
shoot.
Ø Discharge is affected by fluctuations in the water level of distributing
Semi-module channel, while the fluctuations in the water level of the field channel do
or flexible not have any effect on its discharge.
module Ø Example: Kennedy’s gauge outlet, Crump’s open fume outlet and Pipe-
cum open fume outlet.
Ø This type of outlet maintains constant discharge within limit irrespective
Rigid
of fluctuations in water levels in the distributing channel or field channel.
module
Ø Example: Gibb’s rigid module, Khanna’s rigid module
b) Important definitions
• To understand the criteria for judging the behaviour and fluctuation of outlets, following
definitions are useful:
¨ Flexibility: It is ratio of rate of change of discharge of the outlet to the rate of change of
discharge of the distributary channel.
𝑑𝑞/𝑞
𝐹=
𝑑𝑄/𝑄
Ø For field channel Ø For parent cannel
,
𝑞 = 𝑘𝐻 𝑄 = 𝐶𝐷™
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝐻 𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝐷
=𝑚 =𝑛
𝑞 𝐻 𝑄 𝐷
𝐻 – head acting on outlet 𝐷 – depth of water in canal
𝑚 – outlet index 𝑛 – canal index
Orifice 𝑚 = 0.5 Trapezoidal channel𝑛 = 5/3
Weir 𝑚 = 1.5
𝑑𝐻
𝑚 𝐻
𝐹=
𝑑𝐷
𝑛 𝐷
𝑚𝐷 𝑑𝐻
=
𝑛𝐻 𝑑𝐷
𝑚𝐷
=
𝑛𝐻
o Since any change in water depth results in equal change in the head 𝑑𝐻 = 𝑑𝐷

14
 ¨ Proportionality: A proportional outlet is the one on which the flexibility (F) is equal to
unity. Thus, in a proportional outlet, the rate of change of its discharge is equal to the rate
of change of the distributing channel.
𝐹 = 1
𝐻 𝑚
=
𝐷 𝑛
o 𝐹 > 1 Hyper proportional
o 𝐹 < 1 sub proportional
¨ Setting: it is the ratio of the depth of the sill or the crest level of the module below the full
supply level to the full supply depth of the distributing channel. For 𝐹 = 1
Ø For orifice in trapezoidal channel Ø For weir
𝐻 𝑚 𝐻 𝑚
= =
𝐷 𝑛 𝐷 𝑛
1/2 1.5
= = 0.3 = = 0.9
5/3 5/3
¨ Sensitivity: It is the ratio of rate of change of discharge through an outlet to the rate of
change of water level of the distributary (zero for rigid module)
𝑑𝑞
𝑞
𝑆=
𝑑𝐷
𝐷
𝑆 = 𝑛𝐹
¨ Modular limit and modular range:
o Modular limits of an outlet are the upper and the lower limits of any one or more
factors beyond which an outlet is incapable of acting as a module or semi-module.
modular range is the range between the modular limits.
c) Cross drainage works:
• A cross drainage work is a structure carrying the discharge of a natural stream across a canal
intercepting the stream. Depending upon the relative levels and discharge, cross-drainage works
may be of following types:
¨ Canal over the drainage:
o In this type of CD work, the canal is carried over the natural drain. The advantage
of such arrangement is that the canal, running perennially, is above the ground
and is open to inspection. Also, the damage done by floods is rare.
Aqueduct CBL > HFL:
Ø Highest flood Level (HFL) of the drainage is much
below the bottom of canal trough.
Ø Uplift pressure on the floor of the aqueduct: The
maximum uplift pressure due to seepage occurs
when the canal is running full, but there is no water
flowing in the drain.
Syphon Aqueduct Ø CBL < HFL < FSL:
Ø HFL is higher above the canal bed, and the water
runs under symphonic action through the aqueduct
barrels.
Ø The water surface level of flood is depressed when it
passes under the canal trough, the bed of the
drainage is also lowered.
¨ Drainage over the canal:
o In this type of CD work, drainage is carried over the canal.

15
 o Major disadvantage of this work is that the perennial canal is not open to
inspection. Also, if the silt is deposited in the barrels of the work, it is difficult to
clear it out.
Ø The FSL of canal is lower than the underside of the
Supper passage
trough carrying drainage water.

Ø The FSL of the canal is much above the bed level of the
drainage trough, so that the canal runs under symphonic
Syphon or canal syphon action under the trough.
Ø The canal bed is lowered and a ramp is provided at the
exit so that the trouble of silting is minimized
¨ CD work admitting drainage water into the canal:
o In this type of work, the canal water and the drainage water are permitted to
intermingle with each other. Its only advantage is low initial cost. Disadvantages
of such kind of work are: regulation of such work is difficult and requires
additional staff. The faulty regulation of gates may damage the canal. There is
additional expenditure of silt clearance.
Level It is constructed in the circumstance when the beds of the canal and drainage
crossing are practically at the same level. In this type of work, the drainage water is
passed into the canal and then taken out at opposite bank.
Inlet and A canal inlet is constructed when CD flow is small and its water may be
outlets absorbed into the canal without causing appreciable rise. However, if the canal
is small, an outlet may be constructed to pass out the additional discharge
which has entered into the canal.
d) Canal regulation work: Any structure constructed to regulate the discharge, full supply level or
velocity in a canal is known as a regulation work. Such a structure is necessary for the efficient working
and safety of an irrigation channel.
• Canal fall: a fall is an irrigation structure constructed across a canal to lower down its water level
and destroy the surplus energy liberated from the falling water which may otherwise scour the bed
and banks of the canal.
• Head regulator or head sluice: it regulates the supplies of the off taking channel. They serve as a
meter for measuring the discharge entering the off taking canal. They control the silt entry, help in
shutting off supplies when not needed.
• Cross regulator: it regulates the supplies of the parent channel. During the time of low discharge
in the parent channel, the cross regulator raises water level of the u/s and feeds the off-take in
rotation. It helps in closing the supply to the d/s of the parent channels for the purpose of repairs
etc.
• Canal escape: it is a structure constructed on an irrigation canal for the purpose of wasting some
of its water. Depending upon the purpose, there can be three types of escape:
¨ Canal scouring escape: it is constructed for the purpose of scouring off excess silt from time
to time.
¨ Surplus escape: to dispose off excess supplies of the parent channel.

16
 ¨ Tail escape: it is provided at the end of the canal and is useful in maintaining the required
FSL at the tail end.
e) Contraction of canal waterway
• For economical point of view the canal width is reduced. This requires the provision of extra
transition wings for joining the flumed portion gradually to the normal section. The transition can
be designed under two condition. (i) water depth remains constant (ii) water depth varies
• Mitra’s hyperbolic transition (d=constant)
¨ Transition is designed on the criterion that the rate of change of velocity per unit length of
the transition is constant throughout the length of the transition.
ìí mìî ìí mìï
¨ .
= ðí

¨ And applying continuity equation we get
𝐵œ 𝐵5 𝐿5
𝐵. =
𝐿5 𝐵œ − 1𝐵œ − 𝐵5 6𝑥
• Chaturvedi’s semi-cubical parabolic transition
¨ Choosing various value of 𝐵. the corresponding distance 𝑥 can be computed.
R/? R
𝐿5 𝐵œ 𝐵5 ?
𝑥 = R/? R/?
ò1 − ' + ó
𝐵 −𝐵 𝐵.
œ 5

6. Analysis of Gravity dams

a) Introduction
• A gravity dam is a structure so proportioned that its own weight resists the forces exerted upon it.
This type of dam is the most permanent one, requires little maintenance and is most commonly
used.
b) Forces acting on a Gravity dam
• Self-weight
¨ It is a major resisting force. For Analysis purpose unit length is considered.
¨ The cross-section of the dam is divided into several triangles and rectangles and weights of
each may be computed conveniently.
¨ This also Includes weight of water on head and tail inclined surfaces
• Hydrostatic forces
¨ This is the major external force acting on dam. The intensity of pressure varies triangularly,
with a zero intensity at the water surface, to a value 𝛾 ℎ at any depth ℎ below water
surface.
T
o 𝑃 = ? 𝛾 𝐻? × 1 this act at a distance 𝐻/3 from base.
T
o If there is tail water 𝑃ô = ? 𝛾 ℎ? × 1
• Uplift force on dam
¨ The uplift pressure is defined as the upward pressure of water as it flows or seeps through
the body of the dam or its foundation.
¨ Uplift pressure intensities are equal to the hydrostatic pressure of water at the toe and heel
joined by a straight line in between.
¨ Sometimes drainage galleries are also provided in the body of the dam which releases the
uplift pressure built up under it. Drainage gallery must be placed as close as upstream face
as possible for more reduction in uplift pressure. Intensity of uplift pressure is independent
of the location of gallery.
o Pressure at heal = 𝛾 𝐻
o Pressure at toe = 𝛾 ℎ
¨ Uplift pressure at gallery

17
 𝛾 (𝐻 − ℎ)
=𝛾 ℎ+
3
¨ Uplift can be reduced by
o Providing drainage gallery
o Pressure grouting the foundation
o Providing sheet pile/ cutoffs
• Pressure due to Earth quake:
¨ EQ forces causes both the dam and water stored in the reservoir to vibrate. Thus, has
horizontal and vertical component.
o 𝐹õ = 𝐾õ ∙ 𝑊
o 𝐹ì = 𝐾ì ∙ 𝑊
o 𝐾õ , 𝐾ì – Horizontal seismic coefficients and vertical seismic coef.
o On dam
¨ In vertical direction:
o Due to vertical earthquake acceleration, the dam as well as reservoir water are
accelerated vertically upwards or downwards. Hence the effect of vertical
earthquake acceleration is to change the unit weight of water and dam material.
o When earth moves away from dam i.e. Downward direction, a pseudo force act on
the dam in upward direction, causing effective weight to reduce.
§ 𝑊tuu = 𝑊(1 − 𝐾® )
¨ In horizontal direction:
o For reservoir full condition, the worst case occurs when the earthquake
acceleration acts towards the upstream direction and the corresponding inertia
force acts in the downstream direction.
o For reservoir empty condition, the worst case occurs when the acceleration due to
earthquake acting downstream direction and corresponding inertia force in the
upstream direction.
¨ On water
o The horizontal acceleration of the dam and foundation towards the reservoir
causes a momentary increase in water pressure since the water resists the
movement owning its inertia. This additional water pressure, over and above the
static water pressure, is known as hydrodynamic pressure.
o Von Karman’s method: according to Von Karman, the hydrodynamic water
pressure is assumed to be parabolic, and its magnitude (𝑃4 )
𝑃õö = 0.555 ∙ 𝛾 ∙ 𝐾õ ∙ 𝐻?
jõ
o Acting at R÷ from bottom, where H is the depth of water in the reservoir.
• Silt pressure force
1 ?
𝑃0‡Pã = 𝐾- 𝛾02ø ℎô × 1
2
¨ Weight of silt adds to self-weight of dam
¨ 𝐾- – active earth pressure coefficient, ℎô – height of silt
• Wave pressure force (minor force)
¨ Winds blowing on the surface produces waves, due to which an extra wave pressure force is
exerted on the dam body.
¨ This wave pressure force depends upon the height of the wave (ℎ ), which ultimately
depends upon fetch.
ℎ (𝑚) = 0.032›𝑉 ‡™’ 𝐹 + 0.763 − 0.271 ∙ 𝐹T/j 𝐹 < 32km
ℎ (𝑚) = 0.032›𝑉 𝐹 𝐹 ≥ 32 km
‡™’
o 𝐹 – Fetch is the maximum distance from which the effect of wind is observed on
dam body. Expressed in km
18
 o 𝑉 ‡™’ – in km/h
¨ Wave pressure force
𝑃 = 2𝛾 ℎ?
o Acting at a distance of = 0.375ℎ above the reservoir surface.
• Ice pressure
¨ It is more important for dams constructed in cold countries, or at higher elevations.
¨ The ice formed on the water surface is subjected to expansion and contraction due to
temperature variations. The coefficient of thermal expansion of ice being five times more
than that of concrete, the dam face has to resist the force due to expansion of ice. This force
acts linearly along the length of the dam at reservoir level.
¨ Force is taken as 250 kN/m2 of area of contact of ice with the face of the dam.
c) Modes of failure: Stability requirements
Overturning ∑𝑀… ∑resisting moment
𝐹𝑂𝑆 = = ≮ 1.5
∑𝑀û ∑overturning moment
Ø Value ranges from 2 to 3
Sliding 𝜇∑𝑉
FOS =
∑𝐻
Ø µ varies from 0.65 to 0.75
Ø Value ranges between 1.5-3
Compression The normal stress at any point on the base will be the sum of the direct stress and
or crushing bending stress
ì
Direct stress = ä×T
S! ì4 Ïì4
Bending stress = ± "
=± #V
=± øV
á
∑𝑉 6𝑒
𝜎sw% ãœ4 = '1 + + ≤ 𝑓
𝐵 𝐵
𝑓 allowable compressive stress
Ø Calculation of eccentricity
∑S' m∑S(
𝑥̅ = ∑ì
ä
𝑒= ?
− 𝑥̅
Tension ä
If 𝑒 > Ï
the normal stress at the heel will be negative or tensile. No tension is
permitted at any point of the dam under any circumstance for moderately high
dams.
Ø Effect of tension cracks
Since concrete cannot resist the tension, a crack develops at the heel, which
modifies the uplift pressure diagram. Due to tension crack, the uplift pressure
increases in magnitude and net downward force reduces. The resultant force
thereby gets further shifted towards the toe and this leads to further lengthening
of the crack.
d) Principal stress in Dams
• The vertical stresses produced 𝑝,-. is not the maximum principal stress, it is just the maximum
value in the base plane. The value of principle stress 𝜎T
With tail water Worst condition will be when there is no tail water
𝜎T = 𝑝™ ∙ sec ? 𝜙 − 𝑝 tan? 𝜙 𝜎T = 𝑝™ ∙ sec ? 𝜙
𝜏sw% = (𝑝™ − 𝑝) ∙ tan 𝜙 𝜏sw% = 𝑝™ tan 𝜙
𝑝 = intensity of water pressure acting normal to the face of dam
𝑝™ = normal stress on the base
𝛼 = angle with vertical of the downstream face
e) Elementary profile analysis
19
 • It is a basic profile used to analyse gravity dams in simple way. Only three forces are considered
i.e. self-weight, hydrostatic force, uplift force. Tail water is not considered.
• Where, 𝐺• – specific gravity of concrete, 𝐶 – uplift coefficient
𝐻
Overturning 𝐵=
›2(𝐺• − 𝐶)
𝐻
Sliding 𝐵=
𝜇(𝐺• − 𝐶 )
𝐻
Tension 𝐵=
›𝐺• − 𝐶
¨ The width provided for the elementary profile should
be greater of the width from above equations.
Normal stress 𝑝sw% ãœ4 = 𝐻𝛾 (𝐺• − 𝐶)
Principal stress 𝜎T = 𝐻𝛾 (𝐺• − 𝐶 + 1)
𝜎"
⇒𝐻=
𝛾 (𝐺 − 𝐶 + 1)
Shear stress 𝜏œ = 𝛾 𝐻›𝐺• − 𝐶
• Limiting height
¨ The maximum value of principal stress should not exceed the allowable stress 𝜎- for the
material. In limiting case
𝜎- = 𝜎T = 𝐻𝛾 (𝐺• − 𝐶 + 1)
𝜎-
𝐻=
𝛾 (𝐺 − 𝐶 + 1)
𝜎-
𝐻=
𝛾 (𝐺 + 1)
¨ For finding limiting height H, it is usual not to consider the uplift hence 𝐶 = 0
¨ Low gravity dams: height H is than the value given by above equation.
¨ High gravity dams: height is more than the above limiting value, for such a dam, the section
is given extra slope to u/s and d/s sides below limiting height to bring compressive stress
within the limits.
7. Diversion Headworks
a) Introduction
• Any hydraulic structure which supplies water to the off-taking canal is called headwork. They
may be divided into two classes:
¨ Storage headwork: it comprises the construction of a dam across the river. It stores water
during the period of excess supplies in the river and releases it when demand overtakes
available supplies.
¨ Diversion headwork: It serves to divert the required supply into the canal from the river.
• A diversion headwork serves the following purpose
¨ It raises the water level in the river so that the commanded area can be increased.
¨ It regulates the intake of water into the canal.
¨ It controls the silt entry into the canal.
¨ It stores water for tiding over small periods of short supplies.
• Weir:
¨ It is a solid obstruction put across the river to raise its water level and divert the water into
the canal. If a weir also stores water for tiding over small periods of short supplies, it is
called storage weir. It is different from dam only in height and the duration of storage.
• Barrage

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 ¨ The function of barrage is similar to that of weir, but the heading up of water is effected by
gates alone. No solid obstruction is put across the river. The crest level in the barrage is
kept at a low level.
¨ During the flood the gates are raised to clear off the high flood level. When the flood
recedes, the gates are lowered and the flow is obstructed. There is less silting and better
control, however, barrages are much costlier than the weirs.
b) Components parts of diversion work
• Divide wall or divide groyne
¨ It is an embankment, protected on all sides by stones or concrete blocks. It is built at right
angle to the axis of the weir separating the weir and the under sluices. It performs following
functions
¨ Floor level of under sluice is lower than main weir, a divide wall is essential to separate the
two floors.
¨ If divide wall is not provided, currents approach the scouring sluice from all directions and
their effectiveness is reduced.
¨ It prevents cross-currents and flow parallel to weir, as these can cause formation of vortices
and result in deep scour.
¨ It provides a comparatively still pocket in front of canal head regulator. This helps in silt
deposit in the pocket and clear water into the canal.
¨ It serves as side wall for the fish ladders
• Fish ladder
¨ In big rivers, migrating fishes move from u/s to d/s in search of warm water in the
beginning of winter season. Before the monsoons they travel u/s in search of clear water. It
is therefore essential to make provision of some space in the construction of the weir for the
uninterrupted movements of such migratory fish.
¨ The difference of water levels on the upstream and downstream sides on the weir is split up
into water steps by means of baffle walls constructed across the inclined chute of fish
ladder.
• Scouring sluices
¨ Also called under sluice, maintains a deep channel in front of the head regulator and
dispose of heavy silt and a part of flood discharge on the d/s side of barrage.
¨ They preserve a clear and defined river channel approaching the regulator. They control silt
entry into the canal. They scour the silt disposed in the river bed.
• River training works
¨ They Include marginal bunds, guide banks, groynes etc. River training measures are
required to be adopted because rivers in Alluvial plain frequently alter their courses and
cause damage to land and property adjacent to their banks.
¨ Marginal bunds are earth embankments constructed parallel to the river on the upstream
side to protect the area from submergence due to rise of HFL
¨ Guide Banks are earthen embankments which confines the flood water of Alluvial rivers
with reasonable waterway and prevents the river from changing its course and outflanking
the work.
¨ Groynes are structures constructed transverse to the river flow extending from banks into
the river. They are constructed in order to protect the bank from which they are extended by
deflecting the current away from the bank.

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 Ø Weir
Ø Divide wall or divide
groyne
Ø Fish ladder
Ø Pocket or approach
channel
Ø Scouring sluices
Ø Silt prevention devices
Ø Canal head regulator
Ø River training works
(Marginal bunds and
guide banks)

8. Theories of seepage
a) Bligh’s Creep theory
• Design of impervious floor, or the apron is directly dependent on the possibilities of percolation in
the porous soil on which the apron is built. Bling assumed that the percolating water creep along
the contact of the base profile of the apron with the sub-soil, losing head enroute, proportional to
the length of its travel. He designated length of travel as creep length, which is sum of horizontal
and vertical length of creep.
Creep length 𝐿• = Σ𝐻 + Σ𝑉
𝐻
Loss of head per unit length 𝑐=
𝐿•
Percolation coefficient
H is total loss of head
𝐿•
Coefficient of creep 𝐶=
𝐻
• Design criteria
Ø Safety against piping:
The length of creep should be sufficient to provide a safe hydraulic gradient according
to the type of soil. Safe creep length
𝐿 = 𝐶𝐻
Ø Safety against uplift pressure
𝛾 ℎô = 𝑡𝛾 𝐺 ℎô = uplift pressure head at any
ô
ℎ = 𝑡𝐺 point
ô 𝑡 = thickness of floor at that point
ℎ − 𝑡 = 𝑡𝐺 − 𝑡 = 𝑡(𝐺 − 1)
ô
ℎ −𝑡 ℎ 𝐺 = specific gravity of floor material
𝑡= =
𝐺−1 𝐺−1 ℎ = ordinate of HGL measured
4 h above the top of the floor
t| =
3G − 1 4/3 = factor of safety
• Limitations
¨ Bligh made no distinction between horizontal and vertical creep.
¨ This method holds good so long as horizontal distance between the pile lines is greater than
twice their depth.
¨ Bligh did not explain the idea of exit gradient.
¨ Bligh makes no distinction between outer and inner faces of sheet piles or the intermediate
sheet piles.

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b) Lane’s Weighted creep theory
• Based on statistical investigations of dams, weirs and barrages all over the world, Lane observed
that vertical creep is more effective than horizontal creep. He therefore modified Bligh’s creep
theory by evolving Lanes weighted creep theory.
1
Weighted Creep length 𝐿 • = ∑𝐻 + Σ𝑉
3
𝐿 •≥𝑐 𝐻
Safety against piping
𝑐 – Lane’s creep coefficient, depends on the type of soil
c) Khosla’s theory of seepage
• Khosla gave following provisional conclusions
¨ The outer faces of the end sheet piles were
much more effective than inner ones and the
horizontal length of the floor.
¨ Intermediate piles if smaller in length than outer
ones are ineffective except for the local
redistribution of pressure.
¨ Undermining of the floor starts from the tail end.
If exit gradient is more than critical gradient, the
particles would move with the flow of water,
thus causing progressive degradation of sub-soil,
resulting in cavity and ultimate failure.
¨ It is absolutely essential to have a reasonably
deep vertical cutoff at the downstream end to
prevent undermining.
• After mathematically analyzing a simple case of horizontal floor with negligibly small thickness.
¨ Seepage Head at any point(x)
𝑃. = 𝜙. 𝐻
1 2𝑥
𝜙. = cos mT ' +
𝜋 𝑏
o Where, x is measured from center to left (-ve) and right (+ve)
¨ In upper half Bligh over estimates head than Khosla, and in lower half underestimates. i.e.
downstream half of the floor has more uplift pressure than that calculated by Bligh’s
method.
• For mirror image points, the principle of reversibility of flow is applied.
¨ As an upstream pile and downstream pile are mirror image of each other

¢ Ø Φö = 100 − Φöà
Ø Φ= × 100
õ
Ø Φ/ = 100 − ΦUà Ø ΦU = 100 − Φ/à
• Exit Gradient
¨ For the case of horizontal floor with cutoff at the downstream end, the exit gradient (𝐺/ ) is
given by
𝐻 1
𝐺/ =
𝑑 𝜋√𝜆

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 T>√T>1 V ø
¨ Where, 𝜆 = and 𝛼 =
? ’
9. River training & protection works
a) Meandering
• A river meandering through an alluvial plain has a
series of consecutive curve\s of reversed order
connected with short straight stretches called
crossing.
• Width of meandering belt 𝑀ä is the transverse
distance between apex point of one curve and apex point of reverse curve.
• Length of meandering 𝑀ð : It is air distance along river between tangent point of one curve and
tangent point of other curve of same order.
• Degree of Sinuosity: also called tortuosity, is ratio of curve length and the straight air distance.
b) Theories of meandering (MAINS)
Proponents of disturbance theory argue that any disturbance caused on the bed or
in the flow at the upstream end causes changes in the flow pattern in the
Disturbance
downstream direction leading to meandering. This disturbance can be differential
theory
deposition across the channel width in an overloaded stream, or transverse
oscillations in the flow, or an inclined entry into the channel.
Some investigators argue that helical motion or secondary circulation is somehow
responsible for occurrence of meandering. Since secondary flow is present in all
Helicoidal flow the channels, it is believed that secondary circulation has to become
theory unsymmetrical so as to cause meandering. This is probably caused by
unsymmetrical cross-section of the channel and/or by the changing resistance
characteristics of bank and bed along the channel length.
Schoklitsch (1937) and Inglis (1947, 1949) have argued that meandering is the
natural way of reducing excess energy (and hence excess slope) of the stream by
increasing its length.
Excess energy
Ø According to Indian engineers, the excess sediment load during floods tends
theory
to deposit on the bed and increase the slope. This deposition creates shoals on
the bed causing deviation in the flow. If the banks are erodible this deviation
in flow direction can initiate meandering.
Investigators have assumed that meanders occur as a result of unstable response
Instability theory
of the bed to a small perturbation.
c) River training:
• The expression river training implies various measures adopted on a river to direct and guide the
river flow, to train and regulate the river bed or to increase the low water depth.
• The purpose of river training is to stabilize the channel along a certain alignment.
d) Classification of river training work
• High water training: This is also called training for discharge. The river is trained to provide
sufficient and efficient cross-sectional area for the expeditious passage of maximum flood. It
concerns mainly with alignment and height of embankment for a given flood discharge.
• Low water training: In this case river is trained to provide sufficient depth for navigation during
low stage of river. This is also called training for depth and is usually achieved by contraction of
the width.
• Mean water training: In this case the river is trained to correct the configuration of river bed for
the efficient transport of sediment load in order to keep the channel in good shape. It can be called
training for sediment.
e) Types of river training works
• Guide bank system: (MAINS)

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 ¨ These are made for guiding the stream near a
structure so as to confine it in a reasonable width
of the river. It usually consists of a heavily built
embankment in the shape of bell mouth on both
sides of constricted channel. They are also
called Bell’s Bund.
¨ Design of a guide bank involves following
considerations
o The ultimate width to which all
alluvial river can be constricted is
computed from the relation. 20%
increase for bridge piers.
𝐿 = 4.75›𝑄
o Length of upstream guide bank = 1.25L to 1.5L
o Length of downstream guide bank = 0.25L
o U/S curved head: on the u/s end the curvature has a central angle of 120º to 140º.
The radius of curvature R can be 180 to 250m.
𝑅 = 0.45𝐿
o D/S curved head: on the d/s the river fans out to attain the normal width. A proper
shape ensures safety of approach embankment. Radius is half of the u/s radius
with a central angle of 45º to 60º.
• Groynes or spurs:
¨ Groynes are structures constructed transverse to the river flow and extends from the bank
into river up to a limit. These are also known as spurs, dikes and transverse dikes.
¨ Repelling groyne:
o It is constructed in such a way that it
points towards upstream at an angle of
10º to 30º degrees to the line normal to
the bank.
o The head of groyne causes the current to
be deflected in a direction nearly
perpendicular to itself. The success of the
groynes depends upon how quick still water pocket between groynes are filled
with sediment, which can be accomplished only when they are sufficiently long.
¨ Deflecting groyne:
o A deflecting groyne has a much shorter
length than repelling groyne and it is
generally taken in a river perpendicular to
the bank. It only deflects the flow.
¨ Attracting groyne:
o The attracting groyne is constructed in
such a way that it points downstream the
direction of normal flow.
o When groyne points downstream, it
causes scour holes to form closer to bank,
therefore, they tend to maintain deep
current close to the bank.
o The attracting groyne bear the full fury of
the frontal attack of the river on the u/s
face and has to be adequately strong.

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 ¨ Denehy’s groynes
o These are special groynes first provided at
Okhla barrage. The head of groynes has T
shape of which the front perpendicular arm
about 100 m in length is parallel to current.
These groyne aim at an economy in the
use of protection stone since only 100m
length of the groyne would suffice for a
length of 800m.
¨ Hockey Groyne
o It is a groyne with a curved head. It increases the
attracting tendency of the groyne and is not likely to
be helpful for bank protection.
• Levees or embankment:
¨ Marginal bund or levee is an earthen dike constructed roughly
parallel to the river rather than across the channel.
¨ Levees should be provided on areas which are low lying and has the danger of flooding.
10. Spillways & Energy dissipaters
a) Introduction
• A spillway is the overflow portion of dam, over which surplus discharge flows from the reservoir
to the downstream. It is therefore designed to carry flood water not required to be stored in the
reservoir safely to the river lower down.
• The surface of the spillway should also be such that it is able to withstand erosion or scouring due
to high velocities generated during the passage of a flood through the spillway.
• At the bottom of the channel, where the water rushes out to meet the natural river, is usually
provided with an energy dissipation device that kills most of the energy of the flowing water.
• These devices, commonly called as Energy dissipaters, are required to prevent the river surface
from getting dangerously scoured by the impact of the out falling water.
b) Types of spill ways
• Free over fall or straight drop spillway: This is the simplest type of spillway which is constructed
in the form of a low height weir having d/s face nearly vertical.
• Ogee or overflow spillway: this is the most common type of spillway provided on gravity dams.
The profile of the spillway if S shaped. The overflowing water is guided smoothly over the crest
and profile of the spillway so that the overflow water does not break contact with spillway
surface.
• Side channel spillway: A side channel spillway is one in which the control weir is placed
approximately parallel to the upper portion of the discharge channel.
• Chute or open channel spillway or trough spillway: It is one, whose discharge is conveyed from
the reservoir to the downstream river level through an open channel.
• Conduit or tunnel spillway: it is the one in which a closed channel is used to convey the discharge
around or under a dam. These spillways are designed to flow partly full.
• Drop inlet or shaft or morning glory spillway: A Shaft Spillway is one where water enters over a
horizontally positioned lip, drops through a vertical or sloping shaft, and then flows to the
downstream river channel through a horizontal or nearly horizontal conduit or tunnel.
• Siphon spillway:
c) Roughening devices
• These are installed at the downstream end of the channel and their main function is to dissipate
energy from water flow coming on to the downstream bed. Different types of roughening devices
generally used are

26
 ¨ Baffle wall: it is a sort of low weir constructed at the end of cistern to head up water to its
upstream to such a height that hydraulic jump is formed and to withstand the actual impact
of the high velocity jet to dissipate the energy.
¨ Friction blocks or arrows: they consist of rectangular blocks of concrete, built on d/s floor
of the falls below the glacis or cistern with the object to divide the bottom high velocity
water laterally. They just serve to reduce the bottom velocity of water leaving the pucca
floor of the fall.
¨ Dentated sill: it is provided at the end of cistern if high velocity jet persists to the end of the
cistern. The object of the sill is to deflect up the high velocity jet from near the bed and to
break it.
¨ Deflector: it is of uniform height, its object is to deflect up the high velocity jet near the bed
causing a reverse roller.
¨ Biff wall: it is provided at the end of cistern, causing a deep pool of water behind it in the
cistern. Its object is to deflect back the water from cistern to create super turbulence in it.
d) Energy dissipation below spillways
• Energy dissipaters are selected based on two parameters
¨ Jump height: it is fixed for a particular discharge intensity and height of a spillway.
¨ Tail water depth: calculated by actual discharge observations.
• There may be five conditions that govern the relationship between the JHC and TWC
¨ When TWC and JHC coincide
o This is the most ideal condition for jump formation. The hydraulic jump will be
formed at the toe of the spillway at all the discharge.
o A simple horizontal apron of a length 5(𝑦? − 𝑦T ) will be sufficient.
¨ JHC lies lower than TWC at all discharges
o Jump in such a case will be completely submerged and very little energy will be
dissipated unless arrangements are made to reduce the tail water dept.
o Using sloping apron above the bed level.
o Using low level bucket sharply upturned at the end. Roller bucket.
o Providing end sills with baffles so that energy is dissipated by impact and friction.
¨ JHC lies above than TWC at all discharges
o Tail water depth in natural river is not sufficient for jump.
o Providing cistern depressed below bed with sloping glacis upstream.
o Providing a cistern excavated in the rock to a depth required for the formation of
jump. Baffles may also be provided.
o Providing a sharply upturned bucket or ski jump bucket to deflect the jet of water
away from the main structure, if sound rock is available at ground surface.
o Providing a low secondary weir and baffles.
¨ JHC lies lower than TWC at small discharges and higher than TWC at large discharges
o In such a case a sloping apron partly above and partly below the bed is provided,
with a sufficient length of horizontal apron and end sill.
o The jump will form higher up on the apron at low discharges and lower down at
higher discharges.
¨ JHC lies above TWC at small discharges and lower at higher discharges
o This is just the reverse of above condition and protection measure similar to above
is provided.
o A sloping apron partly above and partly below the bed is provided, with a
sufficient length of horizontal apron and end sill.
o At low discharges, the jump will be formed lower down, while at higher
discharges, the jump will be formed higher up.
11. Miscellaneous

27
 a) True statements from Offline test 2019
• Rotating sprinklers used in sprinkler method of irrigation, rotate in the horizontal plane and
irrigate a circular area.
• Zig-zag method is a controlled flooding method in which the agriculture area is sub-divided into
small plots by low-bunds in a zig-zag manner
• The crop period is defined as the total period from the time of sowing of a crop to the time of
harvesting it. It is different from Base period.
• Bandhara is a minor irrigation system suitable for irrigating isolated areas, up to 500 hectares.
The bandhara is similar to weir which is constructed across a small stream to raise water level on
the upstream side to divert the water through the canal.
In this system, the water is directly taken from the main canal and supplied to the agricultural
land. The total area under a bandhara is known as Thal. Again it is divided into several zones,
which are known as Phad.
• When a dam is constructed across a river valley, to form storage reservoir then it is known as
storage head works.
When a barrage is constructed across a river to raise the water level then it is known as diversion
head works.
• The upstream curve head of guide banks extends up to 1.5L and down stream curved head
extends up to 0.25L from the centre line of barrage where L is the distance between abutments.
The straight portion of guide bank is known as shank.
• Inundation canal, are certain type of canal which gets water only during flood time in river, there
is no diversion structure made for this purpose. Cost of construction of these canals are low, since
silt and fine sand find its way into the canal, the water has good mineral qualities. Their duty is
low.
¨ To prevent breaching of the canal bank, it should be strengthened properly so that valuable
loss of irrigation and property is prevented due to breaching of canal section. There are four
methods of strengthening a canal bank viz
o External silting system
o Internal silting system
o Formation of berms by internal silting
o Formation of back berm.
•

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