Cell Structure and Organization

Cells
Cells are the smallest part of the body which make
tissues. Many chemical reactions occur continuously
CELLS ARE THE BASIC inside your cells to keep you alive. Thus they carry on all
BUILDING BLOCKS OF processes of life. They also consist of a mass of matter
LIVING ORGANISMS AS called protoplasm which is made of cytoplasm, cell
THEY REPRODUCE membrane & nucleus and has 70-90% water. The rest is
THROUGH A PROCESS OF
CELL DIVISION.
made of mineral salts & organic compounds;
carbohydrates, fats & proteins.
Part Description Location Function

Cytoplasm Runny jelly-like structure that makes up most of cell. Contains larger Enclosed by cell Contains microscopic organelles. Majority of metabolic reactions
suspended particles of fats & microscopic organelles. 90% water. membrane take place inside.
Contains dissolved proteins, sugars & enzymes.
mal and plant cells
Cell membrane Outer most layer of cell. Very thin (7 millionths of mm) & delicate. Made Around Controls movement of substances passing inside & outside of cell.
up of lipids & proteins. Partially/semi- permeable layer. Forms boundary cytoplasm Prevents cell contents from escaping. Food & oxygen goes in while
between cell contents & outside of cell. waste products come out; thus maintaining a chemical balance with
its surroundings medium.
Nucleus Largest organelle, surrounded by nuclear membrane. Circular/oval Inside cytoplasm Controls cell division, development, & cell activities. Contains genetic
structure containing DNA in form of Chromosomes, which become material; genes, which are made of a chemical, DNA, which control
condensed during cell division, & thus can be seen. all metabolism/metabolic reactions.

Chromatin Long thread-like structures within nucleus. Each thread made up of Inside nucleus Controls cell division. When condensed, become highly coiled
protein & compound; DNA structures; chromosomes.

DNA Stores hereditary information. Inside nucleus Contains instructions that a cell needs for carrying out all the
chemical reactions within itself.

Ribosomes Small, circular structures & sites attached to membranes or lying free. Inside cytoplasm Proteins (digestive enzymes or hormones) synthesis. Ribosomes
Found along network of tubules: ER attached to ER: make proteins that are transported out cell. Free
ribosomes: make proteins which are used within cytoplasm.

Endoplasmic Rough ER (RER) have ribosomes attached to its surface. Smooth ER Inside cytoplasm RER transports proteins made by ribosomes to Golgi apparatus for
Reticulum (ER) (SER) have no ribosomes attached, more tubular & connected to rough secretion out of cell. SER synthesizes fats and steroids involved in
ER, synthesizes substances such as fats and steroids, converts harmful detoxification.
substances to harmless materials.

Golgi Disc-shaped. Consists of stacks of flattened membranous sacs and Inside Cytoplasm Stores and modifies substances made by ER. Packs these
apparatus/body vesicles involved in processing, packaging & secretion. substances in vesicles for secretion out of cell.

Mitochondria Rod-shaped/Spherical structures. Powerhouse of cells. Quantity present Inside cytoplasm Generates energy which is produced on folded inner membrane by
depend on cell’s activities; muscle cells have more mitochondria than internal/cellular respiration. Energy is stored in chemical form known
other body parts. as adenosine tri-phosphate(ATP).

Cell wall Rigid, tough, non-living layer made of carbohydrate called cellulose Around outside Prevent plant cells from bursting. Allows water & salts to pass
lant cells only (tough material which help cell maintain its shape) surrounding the cell of plant cells through (freely permeable)
membrane.

Sap Vacuole Fluid-filled space/cavities surrounded by a membrane, known as Inside cytoplasm Contains salts, sugars, & ions. Helps to keep cells firm by absorbing
TONOPLAST. Many small unconsidered temporary vacuoles in animal of plant cells water.
cells used to store food+water

Chloroplast Organelle containing green chemical pigment known as chlorophyll In cytoplasm of Traps light energy for photosynthesis.
some cells

Centrioles A small body close to the nucleus that plays a part in cell division. Near nucleus Helps in cell division.
mal cells only Generally absent in plants.
 Plant Cell Animal Cell
TURGIDITY IN PLANT
CELL

Plant cell take in

water, producing an
internal pressure that
pushes against the cell
wall. The cell
becomes inflated, like
Differences between animal & plant cell Similarities in animal & plant cell a balloon blown up
Animal cells store sugars in glycogen form but plant
cells store it as starch. Animal cells have an irregular
Both types of cells contain Mitochondria these are
structures that convert chemical energy in foods to inside a box. In this
shape but plant cells have a regular shape. energy that could be used in moving, dividing etc. it
is evidence that the cell is an Active Cell.
condition, a cell is
turgid/in a state of
turgor. When all the
Inside a Nucleus cells of a plant are
turgid they push
Chromatin here, is the uncondensed form of
against each other,
chromosome before the cell undergoes division process. helping to support the
The nucleus is also surrounded by a membrane known plant.
as nuclear membrane. Turgidity in
plant cell
Cell Division

Calculating magnifications
On an average all animal cells are smaller than plant cells. Their
size is measured in micrometers. Typical animal cell would be 10
– 20 micrometers in diameter whereas a typical plant cell would
be 50 – 100 micrometers. Photographs and diagrams of cells
should always show their size, either as a scale bar calibrated in
micrometers or as a magnification. Magnification of drawing can
be calculated from the magnification of the photograph given.
Magnification of drawing= magnification of the photograph × length of drawing ÷
length of cell in a photograph
The lengths must be in the same units. So to convert the length into micrometers,
multiply it by 1000.
Specialized Cells
When an animal or a plant grows from an embryo, its cell becomes specialized in
structure in order to carry out a particular function. This specialization is called
DIFFERENTIATION or DIVISION OF LABOUR. The process of
differentiation occurs under a controlled action of genes. There are many examples
of cells that are specialized for very different functions.
Root hair cells
These cells are found just behind the growing tips of the roots
of a plant. They are situated where most
of the soil water is absorbed by the root.
Each root hair is long, narrow, out-
grown (protrusion) & thin; their hair-
like projection grows between the soil
particles to increase the surface area
for absorption of water & minerals.
The walls of the root hair cell are thin & only have cellulose,
therefore water can easily be absorbed. They have a large
vacuole containing a concentrated cell sap solution to get
increased & efficient absorption of water. The cell
membrane is able to control which dissolved substances can
enter the cell.
Red blood cells
These are common most cells in the blood. There are about 6 million RBCs in a
single mm3 of blood. Their function is to carry oxygen around the body, taking
up oxygen in the lungs and transporting it to all the respiring tissues. RBCs are
developed from the progenitor cells in the bone marrow. On maturing, they
become biconcave & flattened in shape, which increases total surface area for
diffusion (at faster rate) of O2 into & out of RBC. Their cytoplasm contains a
pigment; hemoglobin, which combines with O2 as blood flows through lungs &
then releases O2 when blood flows through other body parts. The absence of
nucleus & mitochondria maximizes space available for hemoglobin and allows
the cell to squeeze easily in tiny capillaries.
Xylem Vessels
These cells conduct water & ions & provide mechanical support.
Dead, long, narrow, cylindrical tube & hollow cells that
transport water and mineral throughout the plant, from root to
the leaves. Xylem develops from living cells that have cellulose cell
walls and cytoplasm, but as they mature, they become elongated and
the end walls between them breaks down. The xylem then becomes
impregnated by a woody material; LINGNIN, which is impermeable to water. The
cells then die, forming continuous hollow tubes. The lignification of xylem makes
them very strong, enables them to carry water and minerals and prevents
them from collapsing and also supports the stem of a plant; thus increasing its
mechanical strength & thickening the cell wall. Its narrow lumen allows water
to move upstream by capillary action.
Ciliated cells
These cells form the lining of the nose & windpipe, & the tiny cytoplasmic hairs
called CILIA, are in continual flicking movement, which creates a stream of fluid
(MUCUS) that carries dust & bacteria through the bronchi & trachea, away
from the lungs.
Palisade mesophyll cells
These are found underneath the upper epidermis of plant leaves. They are
columnar (quite long) & packed with chloroplasts to trap light energy. Their
function is to make food for the plant by photosynthesis using CO2, H20 and
light energy.
Nerve cells
These cells are specialized cells for conducting electrical impulses along the
fibre, to & from the brain & spinal cord. The fibres are often very long &
connect distant parts of the body to Central Nervous System e.g. the foot &
spinal column. Chemical reactions cause the impulses to travel along the fibre.
Sperm cells
These cells are male sex cells. The front of the cell is oval-
shaped & contains a nucleus which carries genetic
information. There is a tip, called an ACROSOME, which
secretes enzymes to digest the cells around an egg and
the egg membrane. Behind this is a mid-piece which is
packed with mitochondria to provide energy for
movement. The tail moves with a whip-like action
enabling the sperm to swim. Their function is reproduction, achieved by
fertilizing an egg cell.
Egg cells
Egg cells (ova, singular: ovum) are larger than sperm
cells and are spherical. They have a large amount of
cytoplasm, containing yolk droplets made up of protein
and fat. The nucleus carries genetic information. The
function of the egg cell is reproduction.
Tissues
A simple tissue is a group of cells with similar structures working together to
perform a specific function. Examples in animals include epithelial and muscular
tissue. Examples in plant include epidermal tissue.
A complex tissue is formed when different cells work together e.g. blood, xylem &
phloem. Examples in animals include connective tissues (which is found inside an
organ or between organs), nervous tissues, glandular tissues & bone tissues.
Examples in plant include vascular tissues, which is made up of xylem and phloem
tissues.

Cells forming an epithelium

A thin layer of tissue, e.g. the lining of the mouth cavity. Different types
of epithelium form the internal lining of the windpipe, air passages food
canal, etc., and protect these organs from physical or chemical damage.
Cells forming a small tube
Tubules such as this carry liquids from one part of an organ to
another.
One kind of muscle cell
Blood
Forms a sheet of muscle tissue. Blood vessels, nerve fibres
and connective tissues will also be present. Contractions of BLOOD IS ACTUALLY A LIQUID TISSUE,
WITH THE FUNCTION OF TRANSPORTING
this kind of muscle help to move food along the food canal SUBSTANCES AROUND THE BODY. RBCS,
WBCS & PLATELETS ARE SOME OF THE
or close down small blood vessels. COMPONENTS OF BLOOD.

Cells forming part of a gland

The cells make chemicals which are released into the central space & carried away
by a tubule. Hundreds of cell groups like this would form a gland like the salivary
gland.
Organs
An organ is a group of different tissues working together
to perform a particular function. For instance, the stomach
is an organ that contains tissues made from epithelial cells,
gland cells and muscle cells. The function of this organ is
to temporarily store food, digest & churn it. (The glandular
tissue secretes digestive juices to digest food. The
muscular tissue causes the stomach to contract & mix the
food with the digestive juices. The connective tissue
connects the other tissues together. The nervous tissue
coordinates the actions of the stomach).These cells are supplied with food & O2
brought by blood vessels. The stomach also has a nerve supply.
The heart, lungs, intestines, brain, skin and eyes are further examples of organs in
animals.
In flowering plants, the root, stem and leaves are the organs. A leaf is an organ for
photosynthesis. The tissues of the leaf include epidermis, palisade tissue, spongy
tissue, xylem and phloem.
Organ systems
An organ system is a group of organs working together to perform a specific or
closely related function in an organism.
 The respiratory system, including the trachea & lungs, has the function of
exchanging O2 & CO2 between the air and blood.
 The circulatory system, made up of the heart & blood vessels, transports 02
& other materials around the body.
 The excretory system, including the kidneys &
bladder, removes waste products from the blood.
 The digestive system consists of the gut or
alimentary canal made up of organs such as the
pancreas & liver. Its function is to digest food &
absorb the products of digestion into the blood.
 The nervous system, consisting of the brain,
spinal cord & nerves, coordinates actions in the
body.
 The endocrine system, consisting of glands secreting chemical messengers
called HORMONES.
 The male & female reproductive systems. The male system produces
sperm and the female system produces eggs & allows the development of
the EMBRYO.