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FMDS-05-33 (04.2020) - Electrical Energy Storage Systems
FMDS-05-33 (04.2020) - Electrical Energy Storage Systems
Table of Contents
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5-33 Electrical Energy Storage Systems
Page 2 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets
List of Figures
Fig. 2.3.1. ESS locations by preference (*see 2.3.2.2.1) ............................................................................... 5
Fig. 2.3.2.2.1. Exterior ESS enclosures with fire barrier ............................................................................... 5
Fig. 2.4.1.1. Thermal barriers to reduce fire risk area .................................................................................... 7
Fig. 2.5.3.1. ESS management levels ............................................................................................................ 9
Fig. C.2.1.1. Cylindrical cell form ................................................................................................................. 17
Fig. C.2.1.2. Prismatic cell form ................................................................................................................... 17
Fig. C.2.1.3. Pouch cell form ....................................................................................................................... 18
Fig. C.2.2(A). Module configuration ............................................................................................................. 18
Fig. C.2.2(B). Typical enclosed module ....................................................................................................... 19
Fig. C.2.3 Typical rack configuration with miltiple modules ......................................................................... 20
Fig. C.2.4(A). Exterior enclosure with multiple racks ................................................................................... 21
Fig. C.2.4(B). ESS architecture diagram ..................................................................................................... 21
1.0 SCOPE
This data sheet describes loss prevention recommendations for the design, operation, protection, inspection,
maintenance, and testing of electrical energy storage systems (ESS) that use lithium-ion batteries. Energy
storage systems can include batteries, battery chargers, battery management systems, thermal management
and associated enclosures and auxiliary systems. The focus of this data sheet is primarily on lithium-ion
battery technology.
This data sheet does not cover the following types of electrical energy storage:
A. Mechanical: pumped hydro storage (PHS); compressed air energy storage (CAES); flywheel energy
storage (FES)
B. Electrochemical: flow batteries; sodium sulfide
C. Chemical energy storage: hydrogen; synthetic natural gas (SNG)
D. Electrical storage systems: double-layer capacitors (DLS); superconducting magnetic energy storage
E. Thermal storage systems
This data sheet also does not cover batteries, battery chargers, and associated systems related to backup
power in UPS systems or DC power for circuit breaker protection, etc. Information related to batteries used in
backup power systems can be found in Data Sheet 5-23, Emergency and Standby Power Systems; Data
Sheet 5-19, Switchgear and Circuit Breakers; and Data Sheet 5-32, Data Centers.
1.1 Changes
April 2020. Interim revision. The following substantive changes have been made to the document:
A. Added recommendations for selection of ESS components.
B. Updated location recommendations to reflect current technology.
C. Added recommendations for construction of dedicated buildings.
D. Added recommendations for mechanical ventilation.
E. Added recommendations for separation distance between racks.
F. Added recommendation for water supply duration.
G. Added recommendations for battery management system safety functions.
H. Added recommendations for online condition monitoring.
I. Added recommendation for post-incident fire watch.
J. Expanded support material related to FM Global Research on sprinkler protection and separation
distance.
1.2 Hazards
correctly. Hot vented gas, when directed toward adjacent cells, may propagate thermal runaway to those
cells. Without prompt action, such as disconnection from the electrical circuit, thermal runaway can cascade
from cell to cell, causing much more damage.
2.3.1 Location
2.3.1.1 Locate energy storage systems in accordance with one of the following, listed in order of preference:
A. In an enclosure outside and away from critical buildings or equipment in accordance with 2.3.2 (Figure
2.3.1, location 1)
B. In a dedicated building containing only ESS and associated support equipment in accordance with
2.3.3 (Figure 2.3.1, location 2)
C. In a dedicated exterior cutoff room that is accessible for manual firefighting operations and is constructed
in accordance with 2.3.4 (Figure 2.3.1, location 3)
D. In a dedicated interior corner cutoff room that is accessible for manual firefighting and is constructed
in accordance with 2.3.4 (Figure 2.3.1, location 4)
E. In a dedicated interior cutoff room that is accessible for manual firefighting and is constructed in
accordance with 2.3.4 (Figure 2.3.1, location 5)
2.3.2.3 Where enclosure vents or other penetrations are provided, ensure they are arranged and directed
away from surrounding equipment and buildings.
In a fire, these enclosures may have vents or penetrations that could allow hot gas and products of combustion
to escape the enclosure, causing an exposure to adjacent equipment or buildings. Penetrations could include
electrical cabling, doors, HVAC units, etc.
2.3.3 Dedicated ESS Building or Enclosure Larger Than 500 ft2 (46.5 m2)
Treat any pre-fabricated container or enclosure that is larger than 500 ft2 (46.5 m2) as a building.
2.3.3.1 Construct a dedicated ESS building of noncombustible materials.
2.3.3.2 Provide a minimum space separation between dedicated ESS buildings and other facility buildings
or critical site utilities or equipment in accordance with Data Sheet 1-20 using hazard category 3 for the
exposing building occupancy.
2.3.3.3 Provide damage-limiting construction (DLC).
2.3.3.3.1 Design DLC in accordance with Data Sheet 1-44, Damage-Limiting Construction, using propane
as the representative gas.
2.3.3.4 Install ESS with minimum separation distance in accordance with 2.3.5.
2.3.3.5 Provide mechanical ventilation at a rate of at least 1 cfm/ft2 (0.3 m3/min/m2) of floor area (see 2.5.5).
2.3.3.6 Design HVAC systems to maintain temperatures within operating limits in the event of a single
component failure.
2.3.3.6.1 Arrange the HVAC system to alarm to a constantly-attended location or specific operations personnel
if any part of the system fails.
2.4 Protection
2.4.1 Provide automatic sprinkler protection designed to a 0.3 gpm/ft2 (12 mm/min) over 2500 ft2 (230 m2)
or the room area, whichever is larger, with an additional allowance of 250 gal/min (946 L/min) for hose
streams.
2.4.1.1 Where the sprinkler demand area requires a water supply greater than what is available, provide
the following:
A. Install noncombustible floor-to-ceiling partitions with penetrations protected by FM Approved fire stops
between adjacent racks perpendicular to the rack door or opening to prevent fire spread. Ensure the
partitions extend at least 12 in. (0.3 m) from the face of the rack. See Figure 2.4.1.1. Determine the
horizontal distance between thermal barriers based on how many racks can be protected by the available
water supply.
B. Install a solid metal partition on the back (non-aisle) of each rack to prevent heat transfer to adjacent
racks in the next row. Where the rack design incorporates a solid metal back (no ventilation openings),
additional partitions are not needed. (See Figure 2.4.1.1.)
Testing of a 125 kWh ESS utilizing NMC lithium ion batteries demonstrated that the fire growth ultimately
exceeded the 2500 ft2 design area. Therefore, the sprinkler design should be designed for the larger demand
area. Video of the sprinkler test can be found on the FM Global YouTube channel: https://youtu.be/HLLXu-
2IUpQ
2.4.2 Ensure the water supply is capable of providing sprinkler water and hose stream requirements for the
duration of the fire event (see Section 3.2). The expected duration will depend on the number of racks in
a single fire area. The fire area is comprised of a row or rows of racks where minimum separation is not
provided in accordance with 2.3.5. The duration should be estimated as 45 minutes times the number of
adjacent ESS racks.
2.4.3 Provide a smoke detection system within the enclosure, cutoff room, or ESS area designed and installed
in accordance with Data Sheet 5-48, Automatic Fire Detection.
2.5.2.3 Provide temperature monitoring with high alarm for ESS room, building, or enclosure. Have alarms
routed to a continuously attended location or specific operations personnel.
2.5.4.3 Provide transformer electrical protection in accordance with Data Sheet 5-4, Transformers or 5-20,
Electrical Testing, as applicable.
2.6.1 Operation
2.6.1.1 Install, operate, and maintain batteries and battery management systems in accordance with
manufacturer’s recommendations.
2.6.1.2 As part of commissioning, verify proper operation of all monitoring and protective devices.
A. Inspect the battery system thoroughly for indication of overheating, abnormal vibration, abnormal noise,
or malfunction. This should occur daily for a minimum of one week of normal operation.
B. Perform infrared scanning and check battery operating and monitoring parameters to determine if any
damage was sustained in shipping and installation.
2.6.2.1 General
2.6.2.1.1 Perform electrical system inspection and testing of ESS systems in accordance with Data Sheet
5-20.
2.6.2.3 Establish a battery replacement program for aged batteries. Review the battery replacement program
regularly and include, at a minimum, the following components:
A. The OEM design life expectancy of the ESS batteries. This will be a number in years that the system
is expected to perform adequately. After this point, the batteries should be replaced. This establishes the
replacement timeline.
B. Regular monitoring of the ESS SOH, which is the percent of remaining capacity based on design
capacity. This information should be available through the BMS, which continuously tracks SOH.
Unexpected component malfunctions or failures and operating outside design parameters can age
batteries faster than when operating within design limits. The BMS will be able to monitor these unexpected
issues and adjust the SOH of the system.
C. Regular review of the replacement program, ensuring there is a method of adjusting the replacement
timeline. The plan should allow for adjusting the replacement timeline if feedback from the BMS shows
the SOH indicates accelerated aging. The following factors justify earlier replacement:
1. Significant changes or trends in the condition monitoring data that indicate development problems
with the battery system
2. Advice from the OEM of design problems that require replacement
3. Operating experience and failure history that indicates the battery should be replaced
4. Exposure to severe operating conditions
D. A method of managing changes. This should consider major changes that affect the life expectancy
and replacement timeline of the ESS. Changes could include replacement of the BMS, modifying the
thermal management system, and changes in application or operational modes (e.g., modifying the BMS
to operate based on an arbitrage mode vs. electric supply capacity).
2.7 Training
2.7.1 Have operation personnel trained by the supplier/manufacturer of the ESS equipment.
2.7.2 Provide other training in accordance with Data Sheet 10-8, Operators.
2.8.1 Housekeeping
2.8.1.1 Do not store combustible material in ESS enclosures, buildings, or cutoff rooms.
The OEM or integrator should provide guidance on decommissioning, removal of damaged equipment, and
proper disposal in accordance with local regulations.
2.9 Utilities
2.9.1 In extreme environments, provide an emergency power supply to the HVAC systems. An extreme
environment is one that could allow cell-level temperatures to rise or fall outside the normal operating
temperature range of 32°F (0°C) to 212°F (100°C) despite BMS control.
2.9.2 Ensure ESS enclosures with common HVAC components, such as a common condensing unit (cooling
tower), are designed to shut down the ESS in the event of a component failure.
3.2 Fire Protection and Minimum Separation Distances for Indoor Installations
Thermal runaway events create a large amount of heat. The heat, coupled with plastic construction
components, can lead to a very large fire. Although fire protection may not be practical in exterior installations,
it is the best method of cooling a fire involving ESS.
Limited research has been performed on lithium ion-based ESS systems to assess fire propagation
characteristics and protection schemes. The report Development of Sprinkler Protection Guidance for Lithium
Ion Based Energy Storage Systems, published in June 2019 on the FM Global Website, is the basis for
recommendations on fire protection and separation distances from both noncombustible and combustible
materials. However, it must be recognized that the research was limited in scope, and the effect of rack design,
materials-of-construction, battery specifications and chemistry, and other design features are not well
understood. Because of these issues, it does not appear possible to extrapolate the results obtained with
the tested lithium iron phosphate (LFP) and Li-nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) systems to other ESS.
The recommendations in DS 5-33 represent the current state of knowledge. The data sheet will be updated
as additional information is available.
In addition, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) recently published the first fire protection standard
for ESS, NFPA 855, Standard for the Installation of Stationary Energy Storage Systems.
Link to Development of Sprinkler Protection Guidance for Lithium Ion Based Energy Storage Systems:
https://www.fmglobal.com/research-and-resources/research-and-testing/research-technical reports
C. Limited Discharge. FM Global research has shown that ESS fires can reignite hours after the initial
event is believed to be extinguished. As gaseous protection systems can only be discharged once, the
subsequent reignition would occur in an unprotected occupancy.
3.4 Electrical
4.0 REFERENCES
4.1 FM Global
Data Sheet 1-20, Protection Against Exterior Fire Exposure
Data Sheet 1-21, Fire Resistance of Building Assemblies
Data Sheet 4-5, Portable Extinguishers
Data Sheet 5-4, Transformers
Data Sheet 5-19, Switchgear and Circuit Breakers
Data Sheet 5-20, Electrical Testing
Data Sheet 5-23, Emergency and Standby Power Systems
Data Sheet 5-32, Data Centers and Related Facilities
Data Sheet 5-48, Automatic Fire Detection
Data Sheet 9-0, Asset Integrity
Data Sheet 10-1, Pre-Incident Planning
Data Sheet 10-2, Emergency Response
Data Sheet 10-8, Operators
4.2 Other
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). Guide for the Ventilation and Thermal Management
of Batteries for Stationary Applications. IEEE 1635-2012.
Supplemental reserves: Operation of an electric grid requires reserve capacity that can be called upon
when some portion of the normal electric supply resources becomes unavailable unexpectedly. Stored energy
reserves are usually charged energy backups that have to be available for discharge when required to ensure
grid stability. Other reserves typically fall into spinning and non-spinning categories:
Spinning reserve: The amount of additional capacity that is currently in operation. For example, if a
location with a maximum steam generator output of 500 MW is currently operating at 250 MW, there is
250 MW of spinning reserve.
Non-spinning reserve: The amount of additional capacity that is not currently in operation and would
need to be started in order to provide power output. This is the sum of potential reserve power that is
capable of being started and put on the grid. This should not be confused with capacity that is offline and
being maintained or otherwise not able to start up and add power to the grid.
State of charge (SOC): The real-time amount of energy stored in the system, compared to the rated capacity.
A function of voltage. The SOC could be expressed as a percentage value. This would mean that a fully
charged battery would have 100% SOC, and a fully discharged battery would have 0% SOC.
State of health (SOH): A quantitative value (expressed in percentage) depicting the current condition of
the battery compared to its condition when new. The SOH is evaluated by the battery management system
(BMS) by monitoring operational variables such as voltage, current, temperature, and internal resistance.
Since a battery’s performance degrades with time, the SOH value starts at 100% for a new battery and
reduces with time. This indication is critical in evaluating and monitoring.
Upgrade deferral: Upgrade deferral involves delaying, and in some cases avoiding entirely, utility
investments in system upgrades by using relatively small amounts of storage. Consider a transmission system
with peak electric loading that is approaching the system’s load-carrying capacity (design rating). In some
cases, installing a small amount of energy storage downstream from the nearly overloaded transmission node
could defer the need for the upgrade for a few years.
Voltage support: Stable operation of the power grid requires operators to maintain voltage within specified
limits. This requires the control of reactive power (VAR) in the grid. Note that no (or low) real power is required
from an EES system operating within a voltage/VAr support application, so cycles per year are not
appropriate for this application, and storage system size is indicated in reactive power (MVAr) rather than
MW.
C.1 Introduction
Energy storage has been around for many years in five predominant forms: electrochemical, mechanical,
thermal, electrical, and chemical. This data sheet addresses only lithium-ion battery ESS, which is an
electrochemical type.
Lithium-ion battery energy storage systems are relatively new, but are quickly becoming the most common
type of electromechanical energy storage. These systems offer a method of storing electrical energy that
can be used to supplement conventional power generation (e.g., coal and fossil fuels), reduce peak energy
demand swings, support high-voltage energy grids, and also support green energy production, such as wind
and solar, that are dependent on natural sources and therefore cannot produce power at all times.
Lithium-ion battery (LIB) energy storage systems (ESS) come in a variety of types, sizes, applications, and
locations. The use of the technology is continually expanding, becoming more available for a range of energy
storage applications, from small residential support systems to large electrical grid systems. LIB ESS consist
of many basic components. Cells or batteries are the building blocks of an LIB ESS. Several cells connected
together form a module, and several linked modules form a rack or string. Several racks or strings form an
energy storage system.
The design of ESS is dependent on the user’s voltage, amperage, and power requirements; the system’s
application; the useful life of the system; and the costs of the system. ESS are designed, manufactured, and
assembled by either ESS manufacturers or ESS Integrators. ESS manufacturers manufacture and assemble
all components from the cells all the way through to the enclosure as a full package. Integrators will typically
purchase batteries and other components and manufacture certain parts and design and assemble the system
for their customers. In either case, original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) and integrators use a battery
management system (BMS) to control the operation and safety of the ESS, which is critical to prevent
abnormal operation. The design and operation of the BMS is proprietary to the OEM or integrator and, at
this point, there is limited opportunity to affect its design. The design can include hardware and software
components. It is critical to understand all operation and safety functions of the ESS as described within this
document.
ESS are typically installed within a building, or outside a building within an enclosure. Exterior installations
vary and depend primarily on the size of the system. Small systems may be installed in a NEMA-rated
enclosure, while larger systems will be installed within a shipping-type metal container. For very large
systems, a stand-alone building may be used to house the ESS.
When installed within a building, ESS are typically located in electrical cabinets within a general space or
in a designated room. All the support systems for the ESS are provided by the building support systems or
are specifically designed for the room, depending on the needs of the ESS. When installed outside a building,
they are provided with thermal management systems (i.e., HVAC) designed for the enclosure. Other auxiliaries
are found in both installations: electrical support (e.g., inverters/converters, AC electrical systems including
disconnects, voltage/amperage monitors, load monitors, etc.) and fire protection.
C.2.1 Cells
Lithium-ion cells are constructed similar to other battery cells, consisting of an anode, a cathode, electrolyte,
insulators, terminals, pressure vent, and a container sometimes called a “case” or “can.”
Each cell consists of a cathode and an anode separated by a thin dielectric layer called the “separator.” A
li-ion cell uses the movement of lithium-ions between positive and negative electrodes for energy storage.
Lithium never exists in metallic form, so inherent instability of metallic lithium is mitigated. A typical li-ion cell
generates from 3.6 to 4.2 V. Also, the secondary electrolyte interphase layer (SEI), which forms on the anode
surfaces, is an ionically conductive and electronically insulating layer. This layer facilitates the working of
li-ion technology. Failure of SEI leads to heat generation and thermal runaway.
Li-ion cells include a wide variety of chemistries pertaining to the chemical composition of the anode and
cathode that affect the performance and cost. For cathode composition, Li-nickel manganese cobalt oxide
(NMC) and Li-nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA) chemistries have known to be very stable at the same time
providing high energy density. For anode composition, most popular is partially graphitized carbon. Lithium
titanate (LTO) is typically used in high safety applications because it benefits from higher stability. However,
LTO cells have approximately 30% lower energy density values compared to other compositions.
The term “cell” is often interchangeable with “battery” when talking about small-format applications. For
example, a cylindrical cell with a top positive terminal and bottom negative terminal is used in many
applications and called a battery. Cells actually come in a variety of forms. The three most common forms
are cylindrical cell, prismatic cell, and pouch cell.
Positive terminal
Cover
Insulating Anode
ring (negative plate)
Positive
tab
Case
Separator
Cathode
Negative tab (positive plate)
Positive terminal
Anode
Top plate
Anode tab
Pressure vent
Separator
Cathode
Can case
Anode tab
Cathode tab
Top insulator
Cathode
Anode
Aluminum
laminate film
C.2.2 Modules
The next order of structure is the lithium-ion module or pack. This is an assembly of multiple cells that are
electrically arranged in series, parallel, or a combination of both to meet the output voltage and amperage
necessary for the installation. See Figure C.2.2(A) and (B).
Heatsink plates
C.2.3 Racks
A rack consists of multiple modules, typically connected in series to develop a high DC voltage that is fed
to the inverter/charger. The rack also consists of switching components (circuit breaker, isolator, and
contactor) to isolate the rack during a contingency. See Figure C.2.3.
C.2.4 Systems
A large capacity ESS consists of multiple racks connected in parallel and feeding the inverter/charger. The
ESS also includes the battery management system (BMS) that controls the batteries’ basic functionality, safe
operating conditions, and contingency response. An ESS also includes auxiliary systems such as HVAC
and fire protection. See Figure C.2.4(A).
Figure C.2.4(B) shows the typical components within an ESS. Most of these components will be standard
in every system despite the size or applications. .
Li-ion ESS
Battery Pack
Controller
(electronics) Battery Module
Controller
(software) Frame assembly LV bus Active cooling Cell controller Li-ion Cell
Communication
systems Cooling Circuit board+
medium (air) electronics
Sensors
Pump/fan Sensors
Thermal
management
system
Battery pack
switch
C.4.1 Overvoltage
If the charging voltage is increased beyond the recommended upper cell voltage, excessive current could
flow, giving rise to two problems:
1. Lithium plating (dentrite growth): Lithium-ions accumulate on the surface of the anode where they are
deposited as metallic lithium. This is known as lithium plating. The consequence is an irreversible capacity
loss and, since the plating occurs in dendritic form, it can ultimately result in a short circuit between the
electrodes. The quantity of lithium available is not sufficient to present a water reactivity hazard and
therefore lithium plating is not typically considered a concern for lithium-ion batteries, while dendrite growth
is considered a short circuit hazard.
2. Overheating: Excessive current also causes increased Joule heating of the cell, accompanied by an
increase in temperature.
C.4.2 Undervoltage/Over-Discharge
Allowing the cell voltage to fall below about 2 V by over-discharging or storage for extended period results
in progressive breakdown of the electrode materials.
• Anodes: At low voltage, the anode copper current collector dissolves into the electrolyte. As the voltage is
increased (by charging), the copper ions which are dispersed throughout the electrolyte are precipitated as
metallic copper wherever they happen to be, not necessarily back on the current collector foil. This is a
dangerous situation which can ultimately cause a short circuit between the electrodes.
• Cathodes: Keeping the cells for prolonged periods at voltages below 2 V results in the gradual breakdown
of the cathode over many cycles with the release of oxygen by the lithium cobalt oxide and lithium manganese
oxide cathodes and a consequent permanent capacity loss. With lithium iron phosphate cells, this can
happen over a few cycles.