FM Global

Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets 5-33

January 2017
Interim Revision April 2020
Page 1 of 23

ELECTRICAL ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS

Table of Contents
Page

1.0 SCOPE ..................................................................................................................................................... 3

1.1 Changes ............................................................................................................................................ 3
1.2 Hazards ............................................................................................................................................. 3
1.2.1 Thermal Runaway ................................................................................................................... 3
1.2.2 Electrical Fire ........................................................................................................................... 4
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................................ 4
2.1 FM Approved Equipment ................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Energy Storage System (ESS) Selection .......................................................................................... 4
2.3 Construction and Location ................................................................................................................. 4
2.3.1 Location ................................................................................................................................... 4
2.3.2 ESS Enclosures ...................................................................................................................... 4
2.3.3 Dedicated ESS Building or Enclosure Larger Than 500 ft2 (46.5 m2) ................................... 6
2.3.4 ESS Cutoff Rooms ................................................................................................................. 6
2.3.5 Separation Distances .............................................................................................................. 6
2.4 Protection ........................................................................................................................................... 6
2.5 Equipment and Processes ................................................................................................................ 7
2.5.1 Electrical System Protection .................................................................................................... 7
2.5.2 Equipment Protection .............................................................................................................. 7
2.5.3 Battery Management System Safety Functions ...................................................................... 8
2.5.4 Power Conversion Equipment ................................................................................................. 9
2.5.5 Mechanical Ventilation ........................................................................................................... 10
2.6 Operation and Maintenance ............................................................................................................ 10
2.6.1 Operation ............................................................................................................................... 10
2.6.2 Equipment Maintenance ........................................................................................................ 10
2.7 Training ............................................................................................................................................ 11
2.8 Human Factors ................................................................................................................................ 11
2.8.1 Housekeeping ........................................................................................................................ 11
2.8.2 Emergency Response and Pre-Incident Planning ................................................................ 11
2.9 Utilities ............................................................................................................................................. 12
3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................... 12
3.1 Construction and Location ............................................................................................................... 12
3.1.1 Space Separation Between Exterior Enclosures .................................................................. 12
3.2 Fire Protection and Minimum Separation Distances for Indoor Installations .................................. 12
3.3 Gaseous Protection Systems .......................................................................................................... 12
3.4 Electrical .......................................................................................................................................... 13
3.4.1 Battery and ESS Aging ......................................................................................................... 13
4.0 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 13
4.1 FM Global ...................................................................................................................................... 13
4.2 Other .............................................................................................................................................. 13
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS ...................................................................................................... 13
APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY ...................................................................................... 15
APPENDIX C REFERENCE INFORMATION .............................................................................................. 16
C.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 16
C.2 ESS Components ........................................................................................................................... 16
C.2.1 Cells ...................................................................................................................................... 16
C.2.2 Modules ................................................................................................................................ 18

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C.2.3 Racks .................................................................................................................................... 19

C.2.4 Systems ................................................................................................................................ 19
C.3 ESS Applications ............................................................................................................................. 19
C.3.1 Bulk Energy Services ............................................................................................................ 19
C.3.2 Ancillary Services .................................................................................................................. 19
C.3.3 Transmission and Distribution Services ................................................................................ 20
C.3.4 Customer Energy Services ................................................................................................... 21
C.4 Failure Modes ................................................................................................................................. 22
C.4.1 Overvoltage ........................................................................................................................... 22
C.4.2 Undervoltage/Over-Discharge .............................................................................................. 22
C.4.3 Low Temperature .................................................................................................................. 22
C.4.4 High Temperature ................................................................................................................. 22
C.4.5 Thermal Runaway ................................................................................................................. 23
C.4.6 Mechanical Fatigue ............................................................................................................... 23
C.4.7 Cycle Life and Role of BMS ................................................................................................. 23
C.5 Fire Protection Technologies ........................................................................................................... 23

List of Figures
Fig. 2.3.1. ESS locations by preference (*see 2.3.2.2.1) ............................................................................... 5
Fig. 2.3.2.2.1. Exterior ESS enclosures with fire barrier ............................................................................... 5
Fig. 2.4.1.1. Thermal barriers to reduce fire risk area .................................................................................... 7
Fig. 2.5.3.1. ESS management levels ............................................................................................................ 9
Fig. C.2.1.1. Cylindrical cell form ................................................................................................................. 17
Fig. C.2.1.2. Prismatic cell form ................................................................................................................... 17
Fig. C.2.1.3. Pouch cell form ....................................................................................................................... 18
Fig. C.2.2(A). Module configuration ............................................................................................................. 18
Fig. C.2.2(B). Typical enclosed module ....................................................................................................... 19
Fig. C.2.3 Typical rack configuration with miltiple modules ......................................................................... 20
Fig. C.2.4(A). Exterior enclosure with multiple racks ................................................................................... 21
Fig. C.2.4(B). ESS architecture diagram ..................................................................................................... 21

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1.0 SCOPE
This data sheet describes loss prevention recommendations for the design, operation, protection, inspection,
maintenance, and testing of electrical energy storage systems (ESS) that use lithium-ion batteries. Energy
storage systems can include batteries, battery chargers, battery management systems, thermal management
and associated enclosures and auxiliary systems. The focus of this data sheet is primarily on lithium-ion
battery technology.
This data sheet does not cover the following types of electrical energy storage:
A. Mechanical: pumped hydro storage (PHS); compressed air energy storage (CAES); flywheel energy
storage (FES)
B. Electrochemical: flow batteries; sodium sulfide
C. Chemical energy storage: hydrogen; synthetic natural gas (SNG)
D. Electrical storage systems: double-layer capacitors (DLS); superconducting magnetic energy storage
E. Thermal storage systems
This data sheet also does not cover batteries, battery chargers, and associated systems related to backup
power in UPS systems or DC power for circuit breaker protection, etc. Information related to batteries used in
backup power systems can be found in Data Sheet 5-23, Emergency and Standby Power Systems; Data
Sheet 5-19, Switchgear and Circuit Breakers; and Data Sheet 5-32, Data Centers.

1.1 Changes
April 2020. Interim revision. The following substantive changes have been made to the document:
A. Added recommendations for selection of ESS components.
B. Updated location recommendations to reflect current technology.
C. Added recommendations for construction of dedicated buildings.
D. Added recommendations for mechanical ventilation.
E. Added recommendations for separation distance between racks.
F. Added recommendation for water supply duration.
G. Added recommendations for battery management system safety functions.
H. Added recommendations for online condition monitoring.
I. Added recommendation for post-incident fire watch.
J. Expanded support material related to FM Global Research on sprinkler protection and separation
distance.

1.2 Hazards

1.2.1 Thermal Runaway

Typically, thermal runaway originates in a cell with an internal short due to internal cell defects, mechanical
failures (e.g., vibration or expansion contraction cycles) that can lead to mechanical damage, external
heating, overvoltage charging, or failure of the battery management system (or cell controller). Thermal
runaway leads to high temperatures and gas buildup, with the potential for an explosive rupture of the battery
cell that can lead to fire and/or explosion. To date there is no publicly available test data that confirms the
effectiveness of any active fire protection for energy storage systems. Automatic sprinkler protection is
recommended to limit fire spread to the surrounding structure, equipment, and building contents.
During a thermal runaway event, the cell produces flammable gas that builds up within the cell enclosure
or the room where ESS are installed. Most manufacturers of outdoor enclosures include a specially designed
vent that opens and releases the gas. In some cases, this vent can become obstructed or may not open

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correctly. Hot vented gas, when directed toward adjacent cells, may propagate thermal runaway to those
cells. Without prompt action, such as disconnection from the electrical circuit, thermal runaway can cascade
from cell to cell, causing much more damage.

1.2.2 Electrical Fire

As with other electrical systems, electrical fires are a concern and can cause property damage and, in severe
cases, could initiate a thermal runaway event due to localized overheating.
Unlike lithium batteries, lithium-ion batteries are not water-reactive.

2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS

2.1 FM Approved Equipment

2.1.1 Use FM Approved equipment, materials, and services whenever they are applicable and available.
For a list of products and services that are FM Approved, see the Approval Guide, an online resource of FM
Approvals.

2.2 Energy Storage System (ESS) Selection

2.2.1 Verify with the manufacturer or integrator that the ESS design, including cell type, battery management
system (BMS), etc., is appropriate for the application. Cells/ESS should be selected based on speed of
charge/discharge required for the specific end-use.
2.2.2 Establish a management of change procedure to ensure that batteries or BMS components are
compatible with modified system requirements or that replacements are appropriate to the existing system
requirements.
2.2.3 Do not use refurbished or previously used ESS components, including cells or modules.

2.3 Construction and Location

2.3.1 Location
2.3.1.1 Locate energy storage systems in accordance with one of the following, listed in order of preference:
A. In an enclosure outside and away from critical buildings or equipment in accordance with 2.3.2 (Figure
2.3.1, location 1)
B. In a dedicated building containing only ESS and associated support equipment in accordance with
2.3.3 (Figure 2.3.1, location 2)
C. In a dedicated exterior cutoff room that is accessible for manual firefighting operations and is constructed
in accordance with 2.3.4 (Figure 2.3.1, location 3)
D. In a dedicated interior corner cutoff room that is accessible for manual firefighting and is constructed
in accordance with 2.3.4 (Figure 2.3.1, location 4)
E. In a dedicated interior cutoff room that is accessible for manual firefighting and is constructed in
accordance with 2.3.4 (Figure 2.3.1, location 5)

2.3.2 ESS Enclosures

2.3.2.1 Provide a minimum space separation between ESS enclosures and adjacent buildings or critical site
utilities or equipment in accordance with Data Sheet 1-20, Protection Against Exterior Fire Exposure, using
hazard category 3 for the exposing building occupancy.
2.3.2.2 Provide a minimum space separation of 20 ft (6 m) between adjacent ESS enclosures with
noncombustible walls. If the walls are combustible, provide separation between adjacent ESS enclosures
in accordance with Data Sheet 1-20.
2.3.2.2.1 If the space separation between ESS enclosures is less than 20 ft (6 m), provide a thermal barrier,
rated a minimum 1 hour, on the inside or outside of the enclosure, in accordance with Data Sheet 1-21. See
Figure 2.3.2.2.1 for an example of an adequate thermal barrier between adjacent enclosures.

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Fig. 2.3.1. ESS locations by preference (*see 2.3.2.2.1)

Fig. 2.3.2.2.1. Exterior ESS enclosures with fire barrier

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2.3.2.3 Where enclosure vents or other penetrations are provided, ensure they are arranged and directed
away from surrounding equipment and buildings.
In a fire, these enclosures may have vents or penetrations that could allow hot gas and products of combustion
to escape the enclosure, causing an exposure to adjacent equipment or buildings. Penetrations could include
electrical cabling, doors, HVAC units, etc.

2.3.3 Dedicated ESS Building or Enclosure Larger Than 500 ft2 (46.5 m2)
Treat any pre-fabricated container or enclosure that is larger than 500 ft2 (46.5 m2) as a building.
2.3.3.1 Construct a dedicated ESS building of noncombustible materials.
2.3.3.2 Provide a minimum space separation between dedicated ESS buildings and other facility buildings
or critical site utilities or equipment in accordance with Data Sheet 1-20 using hazard category 3 for the
exposing building occupancy.
2.3.3.3 Provide damage-limiting construction (DLC).
2.3.3.3.1 Design DLC in accordance with Data Sheet 1-44, Damage-Limiting Construction, using propane
as the representative gas.
2.3.3.4 Install ESS with minimum separation distance in accordance with 2.3.5.
2.3.3.5 Provide mechanical ventilation at a rate of at least 1 cfm/ft2 (0.3 m3/min/m2) of floor area (see 2.5.5).
2.3.3.6 Design HVAC systems to maintain temperatures within operating limits in the event of a single
component failure.
2.3.3.6.1 Arrange the HVAC system to alarm to a constantly-attended location or specific operations personnel
if any part of the system fails.

2.3.4 ESS Cutoff Rooms

2.3.4.1 For multiple racks installed in a single row or back-to-back, install solid, noncombustible fire barriers
between adjacent racks.
2.3.4.2 Provide a minimum 1-hour fire-rated room, floors, walls, and ceiling in accordance with Data Sheet
1-21.
A. Provide FM Approved fire doors with the same room rating.
B. Provide FM Approved fire barriers for all floor, ceiling, and wall penetrations.
2.3.4.3 Install ESS with minimum separation in accordance with 2.3.5.
2.3.4.4 Provide mechanical ventilation in an ESS cutoff room at a rate of at least 1 cfm/ft2 (0.3 m3/min/m2)
of floor area. (See 2.5.5)
2.3.4.5 Provide damage-limiting construction.
2.3.4.5.1 Design DLC in accordance with Data Sheet 1-44, Damage-Limiting Construction, using propane
as the representative gas.

2.3.5 Separation Distances

2.3.5.1 Provide 6 ft (1.8 m) minimum separation from noncombustible materials, noncombustible construction
elements, and between the aisle faces of adjacent racks.
2.3.5.2 Provide 9 ft (2.7 m) minimum separation from combustibles and combustible construction elements.

2.4 Protection
2.4.1 Provide automatic sprinkler protection designed to a 0.3 gpm/ft2 (12 mm/min) over 2500 ft2 (230 m2)
or the room area, whichever is larger, with an additional allowance of 250 gal/min (946 L/min) for hose
streams.
2.4.1.1 Where the sprinkler demand area requires a water supply greater than what is available, provide
the following:

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A. Install noncombustible floor-to-ceiling partitions with penetrations protected by FM Approved fire stops
between adjacent racks perpendicular to the rack door or opening to prevent fire spread. Ensure the
partitions extend at least 12 in. (0.3 m) from the face of the rack. See Figure 2.4.1.1. Determine the
horizontal distance between thermal barriers based on how many racks can be protected by the available
water supply.
B. Install a solid metal partition on the back (non-aisle) of each rack to prevent heat transfer to adjacent
racks in the next row. Where the rack design incorporates a solid metal back (no ventilation openings),
additional partitions are not needed. (See Figure 2.4.1.1.)

Fig. 2.4.1.1. Thermal barriers to reduce fire risk area

Testing of a 125 kWh ESS utilizing NMC lithium ion batteries demonstrated that the fire growth ultimately
exceeded the 2500 ft2 design area. Therefore, the sprinkler design should be designed for the larger demand
area. Video of the sprinkler test can be found on the FM Global YouTube channel: https://youtu.be/HLLXu-
2IUpQ
2.4.2 Ensure the water supply is capable of providing sprinkler water and hose stream requirements for the
duration of the fire event (see Section 3.2). The expected duration will depend on the number of racks in
a single fire area. The fire area is comprised of a row or rows of racks where minimum separation is not
provided in accordance with 2.3.5. The duration should be estimated as 45 minutes times the number of
adjacent ESS racks.
2.4.3 Provide a smoke detection system within the enclosure, cutoff room, or ESS area designed and installed
in accordance with Data Sheet 5-48, Automatic Fire Detection.

2.5 Equipment and Processes

2.5.1 Electrical System Protection

2.5.1.1 Perform a system short circuit and protection coordination study to ensure the adequacy of rating
and relay settings for existing circuit breakers when the electrical energy storage system adds power to the
existing electrical system at a facility. For additional information on short circuit and protection coordination,
see Data Sheet 5-20, Electrical Testing.

2.5.2 Equipment Protection

2.5.2.1 Provide a disconnect device for maintenance needs or abnormal events for each rack.
2.5.2.2 Provide a method of manual, remote, and local disconnect for the ESS. A remote disconnect should
be in an accessible area that is monitored 24/7. A local disconnect should be provided adjacent to the ESS
space.

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2.5.2.3 Provide temperature monitoring with high alarm for ESS room, building, or enclosure. Have alarms
routed to a continuously attended location or specific operations personnel.

2.5.2.4 ESS Rack

2.5.2.4.1 Provide DC ground fault protection for grounded battery systems. For ungrounded battery systems,
provide DC ground fault monitoring with alarming function. Have the alarm routed to a constantly-attended
location or specific operations personnel.
2.5.2.4.2 Provide overcurrent protection against overload and short-circuit faults.
2.5.2.4.3 Provide overvoltage and under-voltage protection against overcharging and over-discharging.

2.5.3 Battery Management System Safety Functions

2.5.3.1 Provide battery management systems with the following safety functions:
A. High cell temperature trip (cell level): This function isolates the module or battery rack when detecting
cell temperatures that exceed limits. A common design is to have modules hard-wired in series within a
rack. Therefore, the smallest unit that can be isolated is generally the rack. Where a design accommodates
it, isolating a module is acceptable.
B. Thermal runaway trip (cell level): This function trips the entire system when a cell is detected to have
entered a thermal runaway condition. In scenarios involving a thermal runaway, this function is the first
to activate when thermal runaway conditions are detected.
C. Rack switch fail-to-trip (rack level): This function identifies any failure from the pack switch to trip once
a trip command is initiated. The rack switch is also known as the “pack switch.” It is a switch that
disconnects a single rack in response to an abnormal condition. The rack switch is shown separately from
the “master” level in Figure 2.5.3.1 for clarity. It is generally incorporated into the BMS.
D. Inverter/charger fail-to-trip (supervisor level): This function initiates a trip command to an upstream
breaker to isolate the ESS if the inverter/charger fails to respond to a trip command. The “supervisor”
control system controls the entire system, including the combination of racks, the environmental support
systems, and the charging/discharging status. The supervisor level should isolate the ESS if the inverter/
charger fails to trip on an appropriate signal, or if communication is disrupted between the inverter/charger
and the supervisor control.
See Figure 2.5.3.1 for explanation of management levels.

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FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 9

Fig. 2.5.3.1. ESS management levels

2.5.3.2 Online Condition Monitoring

2.5.3.2.1 Provide online condition monitoring systems that will monitor battery room temperature and the
following parameters, at a minimum, at the battery module and/or cell level:
• Charging and discharging voltage and current
• Temperature
• Internal ohmic (resistance)
• Capacity
• State of charge (SOC)
• State of health (SOH)
• Alarm or fault log
2.5.3.2.2 Provide online condition monitoring systems with the following features:
A. The ability to transmit data to a constantly-attended location or specific operations personnel
B. The ability to generate alarms when unusual conditions are detected
C. The ability to analyze monitored parameters and generate a summary of the condition of the battery
D. Security to prevent unauthorized changes of critical parameter limits, such as voltage, temperature, and
current, which are essential to maintain reliable lithium-ion battery operation.
E. Self-diagnostic capability

2.5.4 Power Conversion Equipment

2.5.4.1 Provide overcurrent protection against overload and short-circuit faults on the AC side.
2.5.4.2 Provide surge arrestors on the AC side for voltage transient “voltage spike” protection. For additional
information on voltage transient protection, see Data Sheet 5-11.

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2.5.4.3 Provide transformer electrical protection in accordance with Data Sheet 5-4, Transformers or 5-20,
Electrical Testing, as applicable.

2.5.5 Mechanical Ventilation

2.5.5.1 Locate the ventilation system to take suction at or near the ceiling.
2.5.5.2 Install a combustible gas detector that will alarm at the presence of flammable gas (yes/no), shut
down the ESS, and cause the switchover to full exhaust of the ventilation system.
2.5.5.2.1 Combustible gas detection in the ventilation system is not needed where combustible gas detection
arranged for rack shutdown is provided in each ESS rack as part of the battery management system.
2.5.5.3 Remove exhaust air through a system of blowers, fans, and ductwork terminating outdoors away
from air inlets, doorways, and other openings.
2.5.5.4 Construct ductwork of noncombustible materials.
2.5.5.5 Provide make-up air inlets in exterior walls, in a remote location from exhaust outlets to prevent
entrainment of exhaust gases.
2.5.5.6 Provide ventilation systems arranged to recirculate air into the room with an FM Approved combustible
gas detector arranged to stop recirculation and return to full exhaust when flammable gas is detected in the
ductwork.
2.5.5.6.1 Arrange the ventilation system controls to alarm to a constantly-attended location or specific
operations personnel.

2.6 Operation and Maintenance

2.6.1 Operation
2.6.1.1 Install, operate, and maintain batteries and battery management systems in accordance with
manufacturer’s recommendations.
2.6.1.2 As part of commissioning, verify proper operation of all monitoring and protective devices.
A. Inspect the battery system thoroughly for indication of overheating, abnormal vibration, abnormal noise,
or malfunction. This should occur daily for a minimum of one week of normal operation.
B. Perform infrared scanning and check battery operating and monitoring parameters to determine if any
damage was sustained in shipping and installation.

2.6.2 Equipment Maintenance

2.6.2.1 General
2.6.2.1.1 Perform electrical system inspection and testing of ESS systems in accordance with Data Sheet
5-20.

2.6.2.2 Battery Management System

2.6.2.2.1 Develop and implement a maintenance program for the BMS that includes at least the following:
A. Periodic system self-test to ensure all critical systems are available and operational.
B. Periodic pack switch maintenance. This may involve cycling the switch to ensure mechanical integrity
and tightness of cable connections by torqueing to specifications.
C. HVAC maintenance. This may include change of air filters at periodic intervals. These intervals may
vary depending on the location of the site. Dusty locations may require more frequent air filter replacement.
Other HVAC maintenance items may include coolant check, compressor/heater core check and duct/cable
check.
D. Periodic check of spare battery modules to ensure they are maintained in charged state.
E. Periodic tracking of state-of-health (SOH) values, which is the percent of remaining capacity (based
on design capacity) in the battery packs.

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2.6.2.3 Establish a battery replacement program for aged batteries. Review the battery replacement program
regularly and include, at a minimum, the following components:
A. The OEM design life expectancy of the ESS batteries. This will be a number in years that the system
is expected to perform adequately. After this point, the batteries should be replaced. This establishes the
replacement timeline.
B. Regular monitoring of the ESS SOH, which is the percent of remaining capacity based on design
capacity. This information should be available through the BMS, which continuously tracks SOH.
Unexpected component malfunctions or failures and operating outside design parameters can age
batteries faster than when operating within design limits. The BMS will be able to monitor these unexpected
issues and adjust the SOH of the system.
C. Regular review of the replacement program, ensuring there is a method of adjusting the replacement
timeline. The plan should allow for adjusting the replacement timeline if feedback from the BMS shows
the SOH indicates accelerated aging. The following factors justify earlier replacement:
1. Significant changes or trends in the condition monitoring data that indicate development problems
with the battery system
2. Advice from the OEM of design problems that require replacement
3. Operating experience and failure history that indicates the battery should be replaced
4. Exposure to severe operating conditions
D. A method of managing changes. This should consider major changes that affect the life expectancy
and replacement timeline of the ESS. Changes could include replacement of the BMS, modifying the
thermal management system, and changes in application or operational modes (e.g., modifying the BMS
to operate based on an arbitrage mode vs. electric supply capacity).

2.7 Training
2.7.1 Have operation personnel trained by the supplier/manufacturer of the ESS equipment.
2.7.2 Provide other training in accordance with Data Sheet 10-8, Operators.

2.8 Human Factors

2.8.1 Housekeeping
2.8.1.1 Do not store combustible material in ESS enclosures, buildings, or cutoff rooms.

2.8.2 Emergency Response and Pre-Incident Planning

2.8.2.1 Develop an emergency response plan to address the potential fire hazards associated with energy
storage systems. Refer to Data Sheet 10-2, Emergency Response, for general guidelines on establishing and
maintaining an emergency response plan.
2.8.2.2 Develop a pre-incident plan with the fire service in accordance with Data Sheet 10-1, Pre-Incident
Planning. Arrange and prepare the plan with documented procedures to expedite safe entry and emergency
response to fires in the battery storage area, including the following:
• Manual disconnection
• Access routes
• Manual fire protection methods
• Manual smoke ventilation (if provided)
• SDS for battery cells
2.8.2.3 Develop a post-incident recovery plan that addresses the potential for reignition of ESS, as well as
removal and disposal of damaged equipment.
A fire watch should be present until all potentially damaged ESS equipment containing Li-ion batteries is
removed from the area following a fire event. The water supply should be replenished as quickly as feasible.
Fires involving Li-ion batteries are known to reignite. Li-ion batteries involved in or exposed to fires should
be adequately cooled to prevent reignition.

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The OEM or integrator should provide guidance on decommissioning, removal of damaged equipment, and
proper disposal in accordance with local regulations.

2.9 Utilities
2.9.1 In extreme environments, provide an emergency power supply to the HVAC systems. An extreme
environment is one that could allow cell-level temperatures to rise or fall outside the normal operating
temperature range of 32°F (0°C) to 212°F (100°C) despite BMS control.
2.9.2 Ensure ESS enclosures with common HVAC components, such as a common condensing unit (cooling
tower), are designed to shut down the ESS in the event of a component failure.

3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 Construction and Location

3.1.1 Space Separation Between Exterior Enclosures

The enclosure, being constructed of steel or other metal, will conduct heat and radiate it away from the
enclosure. An uncontrolled fire within one of the enclosures is expected to cause a substantial amount of
radiation and conduction through the metal sides of the enclosure and will be able to ignite a fire in adjacent
enclosures if not separated by the recommended distance. There are alternative options in lieu of space
separation that will minimize the potential for fire spread until the fire service arrives.

3.2 Fire Protection and Minimum Separation Distances for Indoor Installations
Thermal runaway events create a large amount of heat. The heat, coupled with plastic construction
components, can lead to a very large fire. Although fire protection may not be practical in exterior installations,
it is the best method of cooling a fire involving ESS.
Limited research has been performed on lithium ion-based ESS systems to assess fire propagation
characteristics and protection schemes. The report Development of Sprinkler Protection Guidance for Lithium
Ion Based Energy Storage Systems, published in June 2019 on the FM Global Website, is the basis for
recommendations on fire protection and separation distances from both noncombustible and combustible
materials. However, it must be recognized that the research was limited in scope, and the effect of rack design,
materials-of-construction, battery specifications and chemistry, and other design features are not well
understood. Because of these issues, it does not appear possible to extrapolate the results obtained with
the tested lithium iron phosphate (LFP) and Li-nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) systems to other ESS.
The recommendations in DS 5-33 represent the current state of knowledge. The data sheet will be updated
as additional information is available.
In addition, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) recently published the first fire protection standard
for ESS, NFPA 855, Standard for the Installation of Stationary Energy Storage Systems.
Link to Development of Sprinkler Protection Guidance for Lithium Ion Based Energy Storage Systems:
https://www.fmglobal.com/research-and-resources/research-and-testing/research-technical reports

3.3 Gaseous Protection Systems

Generally, gaseous protection systems are not recommended for ESS applications for the following reasons:
A. Efficacy relative to the hazard. As of 2019, there is no evidence that gaseous protection is effective
in extinguishing or controlling a fire involving energy storage systems. Gaseous protection systems may
inert or interrupt the chemical reaction of the fire, but only for the duration of the hold time. The hold time
is generally ten minutes, not long enough to fully extinguish an ESS fire or to prevent thermal runaway from
propagating to adjacent modules or racks.
B. Cooling. FM Global research has shown that cooling the surroundings is a critical factor to protecting
the structure or surrounding occupancy because there is currently no way to extinguish an ESS fire with
sprinklers. Gaseous protection systems do not provide cooling of the ESS or the surrounding occupancy.

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C. Limited Discharge. FM Global research has shown that ESS fires can reignite hours after the initial
event is believed to be extinguished. As gaseous protection systems can only be discharged once, the
subsequent reignition would occur in an unprotected occupancy.

3.4 Electrical

3.4.1 Battery and ESS Aging

Li-ion battery aging depends on several factors, such as number of charge/discharge cycles, depth of
discharge, charging/discharging rate, state of charge, calendar time, and operating temperature. The capacity
of a li-ion battery will degrade approximately 50% to 80% depending on design and the sizing margin when
battery age is close to end-of-life. In addition, the internal resistance value of an aged battery substantially
increases from 2 to 3 times initial value at a fixed ampere-hour rate at the cell level, resulting in increased
likelihood of thermal runaway.
Industry practice is that the BMS measures the state of health by design to track condition of the batteries
due to aging. The state of health is based on actual capacity relative to the initial rated capacity of battery as
minimum. It may also take into consideration the internal resistance, total energy throughput, number of
cycles, etc. The BMS provides indicator (alarm) for replacement based on the state of health information.
In absence of established replacement criteria, consult the OEM for guidance.

4.0 REFERENCES

4.1 FM Global
Data Sheet 1-20, Protection Against Exterior Fire Exposure
Data Sheet 1-21, Fire Resistance of Building Assemblies
Data Sheet 4-5, Portable Extinguishers
Data Sheet 5-4, Transformers
Data Sheet 5-19, Switchgear and Circuit Breakers
Data Sheet 5-20, Electrical Testing
Data Sheet 5-23, Emergency and Standby Power Systems
Data Sheet 5-32, Data Centers and Related Facilities
Data Sheet 5-48, Automatic Fire Detection
Data Sheet 9-0, Asset Integrity
Data Sheet 10-1, Pre-Incident Planning
Data Sheet 10-2, Emergency Response
Data Sheet 10-8, Operators

4.2 Other
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). Guide for the Ventilation and Thermal Management
of Batteries for Stationary Applications. IEEE 1635-2012.

APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Arbitrage: See electrical energy time-shift.
Black start: Storage systems provide an active reserve of power and energy within the grid and can be
used to energize transmission and distribution lines and provide station power to bring power plants online
after a catastrophic failure of the grid. The ESS can be used to energize transmission and distribution lines,
provide startup power for one or more diesel generators and/or (larger) power plants, and provide a reference
frequency.
Battery management system (BMS): The supervisory system that ensures basic functionality of the battery
pack while maintaining safe operating conditions and acting appropriately in contingencies. One of the main
functions of the BMS is to keep the cells operating within their designed operating parameters to prevent
thermal runaway.
Capacity: Specific energy in ampere-hours (Ah). Ah is the discharge current a battery can deliver over time
and is a measure of the charge stored in the battery. This can also be measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh)
or megawatt-hours (MWh).

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Cell: The smallest electrochemical component that can store energy.

Congestion relief: Congestion occurs when available, least-cost energy cannot be delivered to all or some
loads because transmission/distribution facilities are not adequate to deliver that energy. Electricity storage
can be used to avoid congestion-related costs and charges, especially if the costs become onerous due
to significant transmission system congestion. The EES system can be charged when there is no congestion
and discharged when congestion occurs.
Demand charge management: Demand charges are based on the highest 15-minute average usage
recorded on the meter within a given month. If a facility tends to use a lot of power over short periods, demand
charges will comprise a larger part of the utility bill. Demand charge management (similar to electric energy
time-shift) involves the implementation of energy storage to reduce the peak demand and reduce costs.
Energy storage system (ESS): Any system through which electrical energy can be stored and reused when
needed.
ESS enclosure: An ESS enclosure is a packaged ESS structure of less than 500 ft2, typically an ISO shipping
container or pre-fabricated structure of similar size.
Electrical energy time-shift: Electric energy time-shift involves purchasing inexpensive electric energy,
available during periods when prices or system marginal costs are low, to charge the storage system so the
energy can be used or sold at a later time when the price or costs are high. If difference in energy prices
is the main driver and energy is stored to compensate for (for example) diurnal energy consumption patterns,
this application is often referred to as “arbitrage.”
Electric supply capacity: Depending on the circumstances in a given electric supply system, energy storage
could be used to defer and/or reduce the need to buy new central station generation capacity and/or
purchasing capacity in the wholesale electricity marketplace. In this application, the EES system supplies
part of the peak capacity when the demand is high, thus relieving the generator by limiting the required
capacity peak.
LFP: Lithium iron phosphate battery chemistry.
Load following/ramping for renewables: Load following is characterized by power output that typically
changes as frequently as every few minutes. The output differs in response to the changing balance between
electric supply and load within a specific region or area. The ESS is used to supply (discharge) or absorb
(charge) power to compensate for load variations or variations in renewable generation.
Module: A combination of series and parallel connected cells. Modules may also be provided with a smaller
version of the BMS to control the cells within and communicate with the system BMS.
NMC: Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide battery chemistry.
Power quality: Power quality is a measure of the level of voltage and/or frequency disturbances. Demand
fluctuations on a short timescale (few minutes to fraction of a second) can cause power quality issues on
the power grid. ESS systems can respond to these short timescale fluctuations to alleviate the effect of the
disturbances and provide improved power quality.
Power reliability: The application of energy storage in various operational regimes to improve the overall
reliability of power systems. For example, ESS can balance small sections of the grid to achieve a good match
between generation and load. Storage devices can provide frequency regulation to maintain the balance
between the network’s load and the power generated. The end result is a more reliable power supply for
industrial facilities.
Rack: A rack (sometimes called a “pack” or a “string”) consists of multiple modules typically connected in
series to develop a high DC voltage that is fed to the inverter/charger. The rack also consists of switching
components (circuit breaker, isolator, and contactor) to isolate the rack during a contingency.
Regulation frequency response: Frequency response operation requires the ESS to react to system needs
in even shorter time periods (seconds to less than a minute) when there is a sudden loss of a generation
unit or a transmission line or sudden energization of a large load. The primary reasons for including regulation
in the power system are to maintain the grid frequency and to comply with the North American Electric
Reliability Council’s Real Power Balancing Control Performance (BAL001) and Disturbance Control
Performance (BAL002) standards.
Retail energy time shift: See electric energy time-shift.

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Supplemental reserves: Operation of an electric grid requires reserve capacity that can be called upon
when some portion of the normal electric supply resources becomes unavailable unexpectedly. Stored energy
reserves are usually charged energy backups that have to be available for discharge when required to ensure
grid stability. Other reserves typically fall into spinning and non-spinning categories:
Spinning reserve: The amount of additional capacity that is currently in operation. For example, if a
location with a maximum steam generator output of 500 MW is currently operating at 250 MW, there is
250 MW of spinning reserve.
Non-spinning reserve: The amount of additional capacity that is not currently in operation and would
need to be started in order to provide power output. This is the sum of potential reserve power that is
capable of being started and put on the grid. This should not be confused with capacity that is offline and
being maintained or otherwise not able to start up and add power to the grid.
State of charge (SOC): The real-time amount of energy stored in the system, compared to the rated capacity.
A function of voltage. The SOC could be expressed as a percentage value. This would mean that a fully
charged battery would have 100% SOC, and a fully discharged battery would have 0% SOC.
State of health (SOH): A quantitative value (expressed in percentage) depicting the current condition of
the battery compared to its condition when new. The SOH is evaluated by the battery management system
(BMS) by monitoring operational variables such as voltage, current, temperature, and internal resistance.
Since a battery’s performance degrades with time, the SOH value starts at 100% for a new battery and
reduces with time. This indication is critical in evaluating and monitoring.
Upgrade deferral: Upgrade deferral involves delaying, and in some cases avoiding entirely, utility
investments in system upgrades by using relatively small amounts of storage. Consider a transmission system
with peak electric loading that is approaching the system’s load-carrying capacity (design rating). In some
cases, installing a small amount of energy storage downstream from the nearly overloaded transmission node
could defer the need for the upgrade for a few years.
Voltage support: Stable operation of the power grid requires operators to maintain voltage within specified
limits. This requires the control of reactive power (VAR) in the grid. Note that no (or low) real power is required
from an EES system operating within a voltage/VAr support application, so cycles per year are not
appropriate for this application, and storage system size is indicated in reactive power (MVAr) rather than
MW.

APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY

The purpose of this appendix is to capture the changes that were made to this document each time it was
published. Please note that section numbers refer specifically to those in the version published on the date
shown (i.e., the section numbers are not always the same from version to version).
April 2020. Interim revision. The following substantive changes have been made to the document:
A. Added recommendations for selection of ESS components.
B. Updated location recommendations to reflect current technology.
C. Added recommendations for construction of dedicated buildings.
D. Added recommendations for mechanical ventilation.
E. Added recommendations for separation distance between racks.
F. Added recommendation for water supply duration.
G. Added recommendations for battery management system safety functions.
H. Added recommendations for online condition monitoring.
I. Added recommendation for post-incident fire watch.
J. Expanded support material related to FM Global Research on sprinkler protection and separation
distance.
January 2017. This is the first publication of this document.

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APPENDIX C REFERENCE INFORMATION

C.1 Introduction
Energy storage has been around for many years in five predominant forms: electrochemical, mechanical,
thermal, electrical, and chemical. This data sheet addresses only lithium-ion battery ESS, which is an
electrochemical type.
Lithium-ion battery energy storage systems are relatively new, but are quickly becoming the most common
type of electromechanical energy storage. These systems offer a method of storing electrical energy that
can be used to supplement conventional power generation (e.g., coal and fossil fuels), reduce peak energy
demand swings, support high-voltage energy grids, and also support green energy production, such as wind
and solar, that are dependent on natural sources and therefore cannot produce power at all times.
Lithium-ion battery (LIB) energy storage systems (ESS) come in a variety of types, sizes, applications, and
locations. The use of the technology is continually expanding, becoming more available for a range of energy
storage applications, from small residential support systems to large electrical grid systems. LIB ESS consist
of many basic components. Cells or batteries are the building blocks of an LIB ESS. Several cells connected
together form a module, and several linked modules form a rack or string. Several racks or strings form an
energy storage system.
The design of ESS is dependent on the user’s voltage, amperage, and power requirements; the system’s
application; the useful life of the system; and the costs of the system. ESS are designed, manufactured, and
assembled by either ESS manufacturers or ESS Integrators. ESS manufacturers manufacture and assemble
all components from the cells all the way through to the enclosure as a full package. Integrators will typically
purchase batteries and other components and manufacture certain parts and design and assemble the system
for their customers. In either case, original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) and integrators use a battery
management system (BMS) to control the operation and safety of the ESS, which is critical to prevent
abnormal operation. The design and operation of the BMS is proprietary to the OEM or integrator and, at
this point, there is limited opportunity to affect its design. The design can include hardware and software
components. It is critical to understand all operation and safety functions of the ESS as described within this
document.
ESS are typically installed within a building, or outside a building within an enclosure. Exterior installations
vary and depend primarily on the size of the system. Small systems may be installed in a NEMA-rated
enclosure, while larger systems will be installed within a shipping-type metal container. For very large
systems, a stand-alone building may be used to house the ESS.
When installed within a building, ESS are typically located in electrical cabinets within a general space or
in a designated room. All the support systems for the ESS are provided by the building support systems or
are specifically designed for the room, depending on the needs of the ESS. When installed outside a building,
they are provided with thermal management systems (i.e., HVAC) designed for the enclosure. Other auxiliaries
are found in both installations: electrical support (e.g., inverters/converters, AC electrical systems including
disconnects, voltage/amperage monitors, load monitors, etc.) and fire protection.

C.2 ESS Components

For the purposes of understanding how these systems are built, the following is a description of the
components from the cell level to the system level.

C.2.1 Cells
Lithium-ion cells are constructed similar to other battery cells, consisting of an anode, a cathode, electrolyte,
insulators, terminals, pressure vent, and a container sometimes called a “case” or “can.”
Each cell consists of a cathode and an anode separated by a thin dielectric layer called the “separator.” A
li-ion cell uses the movement of lithium-ions between positive and negative electrodes for energy storage.
Lithium never exists in metallic form, so inherent instability of metallic lithium is mitigated. A typical li-ion cell
generates from 3.6 to 4.2 V. Also, the secondary electrolyte interphase layer (SEI), which forms on the anode
surfaces, is an ionically conductive and electronically insulating layer. This layer facilitates the working of
li-ion technology. Failure of SEI leads to heat generation and thermal runaway.

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Li-ion cells include a wide variety of chemistries pertaining to the chemical composition of the anode and
cathode that affect the performance and cost. For cathode composition, Li-nickel manganese cobalt oxide
(NMC) and Li-nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA) chemistries have known to be very stable at the same time
providing high energy density. For anode composition, most popular is partially graphitized carbon. Lithium
titanate (LTO) is typically used in high safety applications because it benefits from higher stability. However,
LTO cells have approximately 30% lower energy density values compared to other compositions.
The term “cell” is often interchangeable with “battery” when talking about small-format applications. For
example, a cylindrical cell with a top positive terminal and bottom negative terminal is used in many
applications and called a battery. Cells actually come in a variety of forms. The three most common forms
are cylindrical cell, prismatic cell, and pouch cell.

C.2.1.1 Cylindrical Cells

This is the most widely used packaging style for batteries and provides good mechanical stability. Most
cylindrical cells feature a pressure-relief mechanism, and the simplest design uses a membrane seal that
ruptures under high pressure. Some Li-ion cells connect the pressure relief valve to an electrical fuse that
permanently opens the cell if an unsafe pressure builds up. See Figure C.2.1.1.

Positive terminal
Cover

Insulating Anode
ring (negative plate)

Positive
tab

Case

Separator

Cathode
Negative tab (positive plate)

Fig. C.2.1.1. Cylindrical cell form

C.2.1.2 Prismatic Cells

Prismatic cells provide a firm enclosure to the electrochemical cell within. These cells are found in computer
tablets and laptops ranging from 800 mAh to 4,000 mAh. No universal format exists and each manufacturer
designs its own. Prismatic cells are also available in large formats. Packaged in welded aluminum housings,
the cells deliver capacities of from 20 to 50 Ah and are primarily used for ESS applications. See Figure C.2.1.2.

Positive terminal
Anode
Top plate
Anode tab

Pressure vent

Separator
Cathode
Can case

Fig. C.2.1.2. Prismatic cell form

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C.2.1.3 Pouch Cells

A pouch cell uses laminated architecture in a bag. The pouch cell makes most efficient use of space. It is
light and cost-effective, but exposure to humidity and high temperature can shorten its life. No standardized
pouch cells exists; each manufacturer designs its own. The pouch cell is used for similar applications as
the prismatic cell. See Figure C.2.1.3.

Anode tab
Cathode tab

Top insulator

Cathode

Anode
Aluminum
laminate film

Fig. C.2.1.3. Pouch cell form

C.2.2 Modules
The next order of structure is the lithium-ion module or pack. This is an assembly of multiple cells that are
electrically arranged in series, parallel, or a combination of both to meet the output voltage and amperage
necessary for the installation. See Figure C.2.2(A) and (B).

Control Pressure plate

electronics
Electronics
cover plate

Heatsink plates

Lithium Ion prismatic cell

Fig. C.2.2(A). Module configuration

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Fig. C.2.2(B). Typical enclosed module

C.2.3 Racks
A rack consists of multiple modules, typically connected in series to develop a high DC voltage that is fed
to the inverter/charger. The rack also consists of switching components (circuit breaker, isolator, and
contactor) to isolate the rack during a contingency. See Figure C.2.3.

C.2.4 Systems
A large capacity ESS consists of multiple racks connected in parallel and feeding the inverter/charger. The
ESS also includes the battery management system (BMS) that controls the batteries’ basic functionality, safe
operating conditions, and contingency response. An ESS also includes auxiliary systems such as HVAC
and fire protection. See Figure C.2.4(A).
Figure C.2.4(B) shows the typical components within an ESS. Most of these components will be standard
in every system despite the size or applications. .

C.3 ESS Applications

ESS applications include bulk energy, transmission, distribution (before meter) and commercial or industrial
customer (after meter).

C.3.1 Bulk Energy Services

Bulk electrical energy storage is used to store relatively large amounts of energy in order to make it available
(often locally) at another, usually more convenient, time. Applications include the following:
• Electric energy time-shift (arbitrage)
• Electric supply capacity

C.3.2 Ancillary Services

Systems used as ancillary services are used to facilitate and support the electricity grid’s ability to provide
a continuous flow of electricity and match supply and demand. Providing startup power after a total blackout
is also considered an ancillary service. Applications include the following:
• Regulation/frequency response
• Spinning, non-spinning, and supplemental reserves
• Voltage support
• Black start
• Load following/ramping for renewables

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Fig. C.2.3 Typical rack configuration with miltiple modules

C.3.3 Transmission and Distribution Services

Strategically placed electrical energy storage used within a transmission or distribution infrastructure service
may act as an energy buffer and thereby defer grid upgrades. Applications include the following:
• Upgrade deferral
• Congestion relief
• Voltage support

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Fig. C.2.4(A). Exterior enclosure with multiple racks

Li-ion ESS

Enclosure HVAC Inverter/converter/

charger

Fire Heater Electrical

suppression protection
Compressor
Circuit boards+
Toxic gas vents electronics
Fan/pump

Corrosion Cooling system

prevention Control system

Battery Pack

BMS HV bus/connectors Frame assembly

Controller
(electronics) Battery Module

Controller
(software) Frame assembly LV bus Active cooling Cell controller Li-ion Cell

Communication
systems Cooling Circuit board+
medium (air) electronics

Sensors
Pump/fan Sensors

Thermal
management
system

Battery pack
switch

Fig. C.2.4(B). ESS architecture diagram

C.3.4 Customer Energy Services

EES used within customer energy management is used to provide a customer related service. This can be
enhancing the power quality, improving reliability and/or realizing additional profits for a customer. Applications
include the following:
• Power quality
• Power reliability
• Retail energy time-shift
• Demand charge management

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C.4 Failure Modes

The performance of lithium-ion cells is dependent on both temperature and operating voltage. There is a
safe operating window in which these cells can work. This window is a function of cell voltage and temperature.
The cell should operate between 32°F (0°C) and 212°F (100°C) while maintaining a voltage from 2 V to 4
V. Should a failure occur and the cell temperature fall below 32°F (0°C), lithium plating will occur during the
charging cycle, leading to shorting. Operating above 212°F (100°C) can lead to SEI thermal layer breakdown,
and when coupled with operating above 6 V can lead to electrolyte leakage and subsequent vapor ignition.
When operating at extreme temperatures (over 392°F [200°C]) the cathode active material will break down,
causing even further damage. When operating below 2 V, the copper will dissolve, leading to shorting. When
operating above 4 V and between 32°F (0°C) and 212°F (100°C), lithium plating will occur during charging,
which will lead to overheating.
This section describes the failure modes for li-ion cells. These failure modes can be split into four broad
categories depending on the critical variable triggering the failure: voltage, temperature, mechanical fatigue,
and cycling/aging.

C.4.1 Overvoltage
If the charging voltage is increased beyond the recommended upper cell voltage, excessive current could
flow, giving rise to two problems:
1. Lithium plating (dentrite growth): Lithium-ions accumulate on the surface of the anode where they are
deposited as metallic lithium. This is known as lithium plating. The consequence is an irreversible capacity
loss and, since the plating occurs in dendritic form, it can ultimately result in a short circuit between the
electrodes. The quantity of lithium available is not sufficient to present a water reactivity hazard and
therefore lithium plating is not typically considered a concern for lithium-ion batteries, while dendrite growth
is considered a short circuit hazard.
2. Overheating: Excessive current also causes increased Joule heating of the cell, accompanied by an
increase in temperature.

C.4.2 Undervoltage/Over-Discharge
Allowing the cell voltage to fall below about 2 V by over-discharging or storage for extended period results
in progressive breakdown of the electrode materials.
• Anodes: At low voltage, the anode copper current collector dissolves into the electrolyte. As the voltage is
increased (by charging), the copper ions which are dispersed throughout the electrolyte are precipitated as
metallic copper wherever they happen to be, not necessarily back on the current collector foil. This is a
dangerous situation which can ultimately cause a short circuit between the electrodes.
• Cathodes: Keeping the cells for prolonged periods at voltages below 2 V results in the gradual breakdown
of the cathode over many cycles with the release of oxygen by the lithium cobalt oxide and lithium manganese
oxide cathodes and a consequent permanent capacity loss. With lithium iron phosphate cells, this can
happen over a few cycles.

C.4.3 Low Temperature

The effect of reducing the operating temperature is to reduce the rate at which the active chemicals in the
cell are transformed. This translates to a reduction in the current-carrying capacity of the cell, both for charging
and discharging. In other words, its power-handling capacity is reduced. The reduced reaction rate slows
down and restricts the movement of the lithium-ions. Since the electrodes cannot accommodate the current
flow, the result is reduced power and lithium plating of the anode, with irreversible capacity loss.

C.4.4 High Temperature

Operating at high temperatures can result in the destruction of the cell. The Arrhenius effect helps to get
more power out of the cell by increasing the reaction rate, but higher currents give rise to higher I2R heat
dissipation and thus even higher temperatures. This positive temperature feedback could result in thermal
runaway unless heat is removed faster than it is generated.

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C.4.5 Thermal Runaway

Several stages are involved in the buildup to thermal runaway, with each one capable of causing more damage
than the previous stage.
A. Breakdown of SEI layer. This could be caused by overheating or mechanical impingement or can start
at a relatively low temperature of 80|SNC. Once this layer is breached the electrolyte reacts with the carbon
anode and leads to electrolytic breakdown and cathode breakdown. These reactions are exothermic and
further increases the temperature.
B. Electrolyte breakdown. Heat from anode reaction causes the breakdown of the organic solvents used in
the electrolyte releasing flammable hydrocarbon gases (Ethane, Methane and others) but no oxygen. The
gas generation due to the breakdown of the electrolyte causes pressure to build up inside the cell. The
pressure release vent in the cells are designed to release the gases and relieve internal pressure.
C. Separator melting. At elevated temperature, the polymer separator melts, allowing the short circuits
between the electrodes.
D. Cathode breakdown. Heat from the electrolyte breakdown causes breakdown of the metal oxide cathode
material releasing oxygen which enables burning of both the electrolyte and the gases inside the cell.
It should be noted that several studies have been undertaken to evaluate the avoidance of thermal runaway
by adequate thermal management. This is critical because it forms the basis of mitigation measures against
thermal runaway propagation.

C.4.6 Mechanical Fatigue

The electrodes of lithium cells expand and contract during charging and discharging. The cyclic stresses
on the electrodes can eventually lead to cracking of the particles making up the electrode, resulting in
increased internal impedance as the cell ages. In the worst case, the SEI layer could break down, leading
to overheating and immediate cell failure. Alternatively, internal ground fault due to insulation failure between
electrodes and enclosure could also cause cell failure.
Similarly, the slow deterioration of the electrolyte each time it is heat cycled could lead to release of small
amounts of gases resulting in swelling of the cell and ultimately rupture of the cell casing.
Leakage of enclosure can lead to oxygen/moisture ingress causing electrolyte decomposition. Typically seals
and weld failure can cause enclosure failure.
Other mechanical failure modes are drop, puncture, nail penetration, impact, and unsafe operation.

C.4.7 Cycle Life and Role of BMS

As discussed above, the excursions outside of the recommended operating window can cause irreversible
capacity loss in the cells and potentially unsafe events if not managed properly. The cumulative effect of such
excursions could affect the lifetime of the cell or, in the worst case, cause sudden failure. One of the main
functions of the BMS is to keep the cells within their designed operating window. This is typically implemented
using safety devices and controlling the operating conditions and environment.

C.5 Fire Protection Technologies

To date there is no publicly available test data that confirms the effectiveness of any active fire protection
for energy storage systems, and there are no fire protection systems FM Approved for this application. The
ability of active fire protection to stop or prevent Li-ion battery thermal runaway reactions has not been shown.
At the same time, some manufacturers are providing active protection systems as an integrated component
of the ESS.

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