INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

INTRODUCTION

The Indus Valley Civilization was identified in 1920-21 when engraved seals were found buried
in the ground in the Punjab province of Pakistan at a site called Harappa. More finding at Harappa
revealed the size and complexity of this ancient city. Through archeological and historical
research, we can say for certain that a highly developed urban civilization used to live in the Indian
subcontinent over five thousand years ago. Other ancient cites were also unearthed as well along
the banks of Indus River, Including the equally large city of Mohenjodaro.

EARLIEST KNOWN CIVILIZATION OF THE SUBCONTINENT

Indus civilization, also called Indus Valley civilization or Harappa civilization is the earliest
known urban cultural of the Indian subcontinent. The dates of the civilization appear to be about
2500-1700 BCE. Through the manuscripts, the numerous seals, statuary and pottery during
discovered the excavations at Harappa and Mohenjodaro have enabled the scholars to construct a
reasonably plausible account of the Indus Valley civilization. Some kind of centralized state,
certainly fairly extensive town planning is suggested by the layout of the great cities of Harappa
and Mohenjodaro. The Harrapan civilization is referred to as Bronze Age civilization.

ORIGIN

Human civilization as elsewhere in the world had gradually evolved through the stages of hunting
and food gathering, domestication of animals, cultivation of crops, formation of rural settlements,
and craft production. The tools and implements used at each stage too evolved over time. The
ancient people of this great civilization adopted these tactics and used metallic tools which
facilitated the rise of the earliest civilizations in the Indian subcontinent.

The time-span of the Indus civilization was quite large. Scholars generally talk of three broad
phases in its development and decline – early mature and late Harappan. In all probability, the
earliest settlements in the Indus plains had appeared before 2600 B.C. All of these, however, were
village settlements, or very small towns. By about 2300 B.C. cities began to develop. The largest

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of these was Mohenjodaro, with Harappa as the second. The third important urban settlement was
that of Chanhudaro in Sindh. This process of the urbanization took place in a short phase and lasted
till about 1800 B.C.

TOWN PLANNING

Town planning is the unique feature of the Indus civilization. Their town planning proves that they
lived in a highly civilized and developed life. The people of the Indus civilization were the first to
build a planned cities with scientific drainage systems. The great ancient cities were built on a
uniform plan. A few cities have citadels built on higher platform surrounded by massive brick
wall. The cities without citadels are found on high mounds.

Some unique features of town planning of Indus civilization are listed below:

• Streets

The streets were straight and cut each other at right angles. They were 13 to 34 feet wide and were
well lined. The streets and roads divided the city into rectangular blocks.
Archeologists have discovered a lamp post at intervals. This suggests the existence of street lights.
Even the dustbins were also provided on the streets. All these prove the presence of good municipal
administration.

• Drainage system

One of the most remarkable and quit astonishing features of the Indus civilization is that the city
was provided with an excellent closed drainage system. Each house had its own drainage and soak
pit which was connected to public drainage.

Brick laid channels flowed through every street. They were covered and had manholes at intervals
for cleaning and clearing purposes. Thus, Indus people had a perfect underground drainage system.
No other contemporary civilization gave so much attention to cleanliness.

• The Great Bath

The striking feature of the Mohenjodaro is the great bath. It consists of a large quadrangle. In the
center, there is a huge swimming pool with remains of galleries and rooms on all four sides. The
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water was discharged by a huge drain with corbelled roof more than 6 ft in depth. The great bath
had 8 ft thick outer walls. This solid construction has successfully with stood the natural ravages
for 5000 years. Which itself speaks for their great engineering capabilities.

• Buildings

Houses and other buildings were built on the side of roads by the people of the Indus Valley
civilization. They built terraced houses of burnt bricks. Every house had two or more rooms. The
houses were designed around an inner courtyard and contained pillared halls, bath rooms, paved
floors, kitchen, well etc. Besides residential quarters, elaborate structures have also been found.
One of these buildings has got the biggest hall measuring 80 ft long and 80 ft wide. It might have
been a palace, or temple or hall for holding meetings. The workmen quarters are also found. There
was an excellent system of water supply. There were public wells by the side of streets. Every big
house had its own well.

ECONOMIC LIFE

The civilization of the Indus Valley was very successful. The main source of income for them was
agriculture, animal husbandry, industry, trade and commerce. Pots, weaving tools, and pieces of
metals were also found by archaeologists, indicating that they traded these goods with other cities.
Seals belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization also shows their involvement in exports. The main
occupation of the Indus Valley people was agriculture, and the second was the domestication of
animals. The land received a good amount of rainfall and was rich in natural vegetation. The Indus
Valley Civilization’s economy was largely based on agriculture and animal husbandry. The land
they lived in was quite fertile and was rich in vegetation. It received a good amount of rainfall,
which helped the people grow wheat, barley, pea, mustard, etc.

• Agriculture

Agriculture was the main profession of the people of Indus Valley. The land was pretty fertile
when the Harappans used to live there. In the cities of Harappa and Mohenjodaro, leftovers of
large granaries were found that suggest that their production was more than their

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requirements Barley and wheat were grown by them on a large scale. They also grew some other
crops such as pulses, cotton, cereals, dates, melons, pea, etc. There was no clear evidence of rice,
but some grains of rice were found in Rangpur and Lothal. The Indus Valley Civilization is said
to be an agro-commercial civilization as most of the people were peasants. The Harappan were the
first people to grow cotton.

• Craft and Industries

The Indus Valley people were highly skilled. They made pottery, metal vessels, tools and weapons,
weaving and spinning, dyeing and other crafts. The people of this civilization belonged to the
bronze age and used tools made of stone, but they knew about gold, silver, copper, lead, and
bronze. There tools and weapons were simple in form They comprised of flat -axes, chisels,
arrowhead, spearheads, knives, saws, razors, and fish-hooks. People also made copper and bronze
vessels. They made small plates and weights of lead, and gold and silver jewelry of considerable
sophistication. They were skilled in the bronze, gold and silver craft. They also did trade with other
cities by tools, artifacts, gold and silver jewelries.

• Trade and Commerce

The archaeological remains such as enormous granaries, multiple seals of clay, instruments to
measure weight were found by archaeologists in Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and Lothal, suggesting
that the people of Indus Valley were involved in trade and export. To produce crafts, they needed
a variety of raw materials. Clay was available locally, but they had to acquire metal outside the
alluvial plain. Raw materials were brought into town through trade routes by traders and craftsmen.
They were then used to make jewelry, pottery, and metalware. Bullock carts were used to transport
goods from one place to another. They also used the river routes along the Indus and its tributaries
for transportation.

RELEGIOUS LIFE

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The Harappan religion remains a topic of speculation. It has been widely suggested that the
Harappans worshipped a mother goddess who symbolized fertility. In contrast to Egyptian and
Mesopotamian civilizations, the Indus Valley Civilization seems to have lacked any temples or
palaces that would give clear evidence of religious rites or specific deities. Depicting from the
seals and tablets found in the ancient city, the Indus Valley religion is polytheistic and is similar
to Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. There are many seals to support the evidence of the Indus
Valley Gods. Some seals show animals. Other seals depict a tree which the Indus Valley believed
to be the tree of life.

DECLINE

The Indus Valley Civilization declined around 1800 BCE, and scholars debate which factors
resulted in the civilization’s demise. One theory suggested that a nomadic, Indo-European tribe
called the Aryans invaded and conquered the Indus Valley Civilization, though more recent
evidence tends to contradict this claim. Many scholars believe that the collapse of the Indus Valley
Civilization was caused by climate change. Some experts believe the drying of the Saraswati River,
which began around 1900 BCE, was the main cause for climate change, while others conclude that
a great flood struck the area. Various elements of the Indus Civilization are found in later cultures,
suggesting the civilization did not disappear suddenly due to an invasion. By around 1700 BCE,
most of the Indus Valley Civilization cities had been abandoned.

SOCIAL AND SOCIETY STRUCTURE OF PAKISTAN

INTRODUCTION

A social class is a set of concepts in the social sciences and political theory centered on models of
social stratification that occur in a class society, in which people are grouped into a set of
hierarchical social categories, the most common being the upper, middle and lower classes.

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 Or

A social class is a homogeneous group of people formed on the basis of education, income,
occupation, place of residence.

TYPES OF SOCIAL CLASSES

Social classes of Pakistan include:

• The Upper class

• The middle class
• The working class

Upper social class

The upper social class of Pakistan have the high level of income, they have high paying profession
and they live in the most posh place of Pakistan. They are the 2% of the total society of Pakistan.

Approximately 3.7 million people out of 220 million population owns 60% to 70% of money of
the country. These people are the big business men and top management of the country.

The Middle social class

The middle social class people are 53% of the whole population of the country. They are hard
workers for their goals. Their income is not so high. They are small to medium size business men
and low-ranking govt. officers. They live comfortably than poor class but are financially lower
than upper class.

The Working social class

The working social class are 20% of the total population. They are not much educated. Their
income is low. They live in small houses, hardly having 2 rooms.

The working social class include small shop owners, poor farmers, low grade govt. staff (peon,
drivers etc.) They could be skilled, semi-skilled or unskilled.

PAKISTANI CULTURE AND SOCIETY

• Religion and beliefs

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Pakistan is a Muslim majority country. 97% of its population consists of Muslims of which 77%
are Sunni and 20% are Shia. Remaining 3% of the population are composed of Hindus,Christians
and others. Islam is practiced by the majority of Pakistanis and governs their personal, political,
economic and legal lives. Among certain obligations for Muslims are to pray five times a day - at
dawn, noon, afternoon, sunset, and evening.

• Major Celebrations/Secular Celebrations

Pakistan also has 6 formal national holidays which fall on:

• 23rd March (Pakistan Day), 1st May (May Day), August 14th (Independence Day), 6th
September (Defense of Pakistan Day), 11th September (Death of Ali Jinnah) and 15th
December (Birthday of Ali Jinnah)
• The most famous festival in Pakistan is undoubtedly the seasonal kite flying festival
of ‘Basant’ which marks the beginning of Spring and falls late January or early February.
Unfortunately, however, this festival has been banned in many areas for the immediate
future due to accidents and deaths associated with the festival. It is hoped that the
implementation of relevant safety measures will enable this much-loved festival to
resume.
• Another much loved festival is the annual ‘Utchal’ festival which is held on the 15th –
16th July to celebrate the harvesting of wheat and barley.
• The Family

The extended family is the basis of the social structure and individual identity. It includes the
nuclear family, immediate relatives, distant relatives, tribe members, friends, and neighbors.
Loyalty to the family comes before all other social relationships, even business. Nepotism is
viewed positively, since it guarantees hiring people who can be trusted, which is crucial in a
country where working with people one knows and trusts is of primary importance. The family is
more private than in many other cultures. Female relatives are protected from outside influences.
It is considered inappropriate to ask questions about a Pakistani's wife or other female relatives.
Families are quite large by western standards, often having up to 6 children

• Social Stratification

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Although there is no caste system in Pakistan, Shi’as, Baluchis and Pashtuns are more likely to
live in poverty due to their ethnic and religious differences.

• Gender Roles

Traditional gender roles in Pakistan are fairly marked in that women are far more likely to stay in
the home than go out to work. Although women have the right to work in any profession or to
manage their own businesses, the majority that do work are typically employed in roles such as
nursing or teaching. It is worth noting that women are very well represented in government as
demonstrated by the appointment of Benazir Bhutto to prime minister in 1988. Women are also
represented as ministers and ambassadors and a number of female judges preside within the high
courts. Pakistani women also have the same rights to vote and receive an education as
men. Unfortunately, crimes against women appear to be on the increase but government
interventions are being put in place to try and reverse this issue.

• Meeting & Greeting

Greetings are often between members of the same sex; however, when dealing with people in the
middle class, greetings may be across gender lines. Men shake hands with each other. Once a
relationship is developed, they may hug as well as shake hands. Women generally hug and kiss
to another Woman. Pakistanis take their time during greetings and ask about the person's health,
family, and business success.

• Traditional Clothes
Traditional clothes of Pakistan are shalwar and kameez for both men and women. Men
wear shalwar kameez, kurta, Pakistani Waistcoat, achkan and sherwani, churidar or
pajama. Other items of clothing include the jama and the angarkha. Headgear includes the
Jinnah Cap also called Karakul, Fez also called Rumi Topi and Taqiyah (cap). Peshawari
chappal and Khussa are popular foot wear.

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The arts of Pakistan

Pakistan’s cultural heritage dates to more than 5,000 years ago, to the period of the Indus
civilization. However, the emphasis on Islamic ideology has brought about a strong identification
with Islamic culture—not only that of the Indian subcontinent but of the broader Islamic world.
Literature, notably poetry, is the richest of all Pakistani art forms; music and, especially, modern
dance have received less attention. The visual arts too play little part in popular folk culture.
Painting and sculpture, however, have made considerable progress as expressions of an
increasingly sophisticated urban culture.

Pakistan shares with the other parts of South Asia the great Mughal heritage in art, literature,
architecture, and manners. The ruins of Mohenjo-daro, the ancient city of Taxila, and the Rohtas
Fort of Shīr Shah of Sūr are but a few of the places in Pakistan that have been named
UNESCO World Heritage sites. The Mosque of the Pearls, Badshahi Mosque, and Shalimar
Garden, all in Lahore, are among the country’s architectural gems.

ETHINICITY OF PAKISATN

What is Ethnicity?

An ethnic group or an ethnicity is a grouping of people who identify with each other on the basis
of shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups. Ethnicity is considered to be shared
characteristics such as culture, language, religion, and traditions, which contribute to a person or
group's identity. This shows that ethnicity is not necessarily genetic.

DIVERSE ETHNICITY OF THE PEOPLE OF PAKISTAN

Most believe that the large majority of Pakistanis belong to the Indo-Aryan ethnic group. There
are a substantial number of Iranic people and smaller numbers of Dravidians. These major ethnic
groups are further broken down into several smaller ethnic groups: Pakistan's census and rough
estimates vary, but the consensus is that the Punjabis are by far the largest group, and that Pukhtuns
(also known as Pashtuns) and Sindhis are the next two largest groups The Punjabi population is
estimated to comprise 44.15% of the national total. The Pukhtuns are the second-largest group at
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roughly 15.42%, followed by Sindhis at 14.1%. Seraikis, a group seen as transitional between
Punjabis and Sindhis, make up 10.53% of the population. The remaining groups that comprise
large percentages include the Muhajirs at 7.57% and the Balochis at 3.57%. The other main ethnic
groups include the Brahui, Kashmiri, Hindko Pukhtuns, and the various peoples of the Northern
Areas, who all together total roughly 4.66% of the total population.

In addition, over five million Afghan refugees came to Pakistan during the Soviet invasion of
Afghanistan, and it is estimated that over three million remain, with a large proportion settling
permanently in Pakistan. If added to the census, Afghan refugees would boost the percentage of
the Pukhtuns and "others" categories.

LANGUAGE AND ETHNICITY

PUNJABIS

Punjabis are an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group associated with the Punjab region in South
Asia. They are the largest ethnic group of Pakistan.

Traditionally, Punjabi identity is primarily linguistic, geographical and cultural. Its identity is
independent of historical origin or religion and refers to those who reside in the Punjab region or
associate with its population and those who consider the Punjabi language their mother tongue.
Integration and assimilation are important parts of Punjabi culture, since Punjabi identity is not
based solely on tribal connections.

PASHTUNS (OR PUKHTUNS)

Pashtuns are an Iranic ethnolinguistic group and are Pakistan's second largest ethnicity. They
speak Pashto as their first language and are divided into multiple tribes such
as Afridi, Yousafzai and Khattak, which are notably the main Pashtun tribes in Pakistan. They
make up an estimated 32 million of Pakistan's total population and are mostly adherent to Sunni
Islam. Notable Pashtuns include former president Ayub Khan, prime minister Imran Khan,
cricketers Shahid Afridi and Shaheen Afridi.

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SINDHIS

The Sindhi are the second largest ethnic group in Pakistan. Most of them live in the Sind province,
which lies in the southeastern portion of the country, bordering India and the Indian Ocean. The
Sindhi, named after the Sindhu (Indus) River, are said to be one of the oldest people groups in
Pakistan. Most of them have lived there for centuries and call themselves the pukka, or "real"
Sindhi. Some have traced their origin back to the Arab invaders who introduced Islam to Pakistan
in 711 A.D. Sindhis are predominantly Muslim, but have a minority Hindu population, making up
the largest Hindu minority population in Pakistan. Sindhi Muslim culture is highly influenced
by Sufi doctrines and principles and some of the popular cultural icons of Sindh are Shah Abdul
Latif Bhitai, Lal Shahbaz Qalandar, Jhulelal and Sachal Sarmast.

SARAIKIS

Saraiki, or Multani, are an Aryan people representing about ten percent of the country’s population.
The majority of the Saraiki can be found in Southern Punjab, mainly Multan, Bahawalpur, and
Dera Ghazi Khan. The Saraiki’s rich culture is an amalgamation of their own language and
traditions, Indus Valley culture, as well as Persian and Muslim influences.

The Saraiki ethnic group is settled in the site of the ancient Indus Valley civilization, more than
40,000 years ago. According to the famous Pakistani archaeologist Ahmad Hassan Dani, the word
Saraiki comes from Sauvira, which is an ancient kingdom of the Indus Valley mentioned in the
Sanskrit text Mahabharata. They were primarily Hindu but witnessed the spread of Islam in the
region after it was conquered by the Arab Muslims in 712 CE. Saraiki region became a vital center
of Muslim culture, and most of its population was eventually indoctrinated.

MUHAJIR

Muhajirs (meaning "migrants"), also called "Urdu-speaking people" are a collective multiethnic
group who emerged through the migration of Indian Muslims from various parts of India to

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Pakistan starting in 1947, as a result of the world's largest mass migration. The majority of
Muhajirs are settled in Sindh mainly in Karachi, Hyderabad, Sukkur and Mirpur Khas. Sizable
communities of Muhajirs are also present in cities including Lahore, Multan, Islamabad,
and Peshawar. Muhajirs held a dominating position during the early nation building years of
Pakistan and most of Pakistan's founder were Muhajirs. The term Muhajir is also used for
descendants of Muslims who migrated to Pakistan after the 1947 partition of India. Notable
Muhajirs include Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Liaquat Ali Khan, Pervez Musharraf, Hakeem
Muhammad Saeed and Abdul Sattar Edhi.

BALOCH

The Baloch are an Iranic ethnolinguistic group, and are principally found in the south of
Balochistan province of Pakistan. Despite living in the southeastern side towards the Indian
subcontinent for centuries, they are classified as a northwestern Iranian people in accordance
to their language which belongs to the northwestern subgroup of Iranian languages. In Pakistan
the Baloch people are divided into two groups, the Sulaimani and the Makrani, separated from
each other by a compact block of Brahui tribes.

Hindkowans
Hindkowans, also known as the Hindki, are an Indo-Aryan linguistic-cultural group, primarily
native to the Hazara, Pothohar and Azad Kashmir regions of Pakistan. Hindkowans speak
various Hindko dialects of Lahnda (Western Punjabi).

Hindkowans are mainly found in the Pakistani cities

of Peshawar, Nowshera, Swabi, Mansehra, Abbottabad, Haripur and Attock. Prior to
the formation of Pakistan, these areas were dominated by Hindko speakers. Those who reside in
urban centers of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan such as Peshawar, Kohat, Nowshera
and Swabi are alternatively termed as "Kharian/Kharay" or city-dweller. Other Hindko-speakers,
including members of the Muslim, Hindu and Sikh faiths, reside in Afghanistan and are known
as Hindki.

Brahuis

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The Brahui, Brahvi or Brohi, are an ethnic group principally found in Balochistan, Pakistan. They
speak the Brahui language, which belongs to the Dravidian language family, although ethnically
they tend to identify as Baloch.

They are a small minority group in Afghanistan, where they are native, but they are also found
through their diaspora in Middle Eastern states. They mainly occupy the area in Balochistan
from Bolan Pass through the Bolan Hills to Ras Muari on the Arabian sea, separating the Baloch
people living to the east and west. The Brahuis are almost entirely Sunni Muslims.

ETHNIC PROBLEMS OF PAKISATN

Ethnic conflicts have been a key feature since the dawn of the modern nation-state system.
Pakistan’s history is also witness to several ethnicity-based conflicts, one of which also led to the
dismemberment of the country in 1971. Pakistan is still facing a low-key conflict in the province
of Balochistan, which gnaws at the country’s overall development. Therefore, it becomes
important to understand the causes, dynamics and aspects of ethnic conflicts.

Ethno-linguistic movements have a range of goals mostly political in orientation. These ends, inter
alia, include demands for self-governance, autonomy, better access to resources and power and
respect for the group’s identity and culture. Ethnic conflict arises if ethnic groups compete for the
same goals — power, access to resources, or territory. The conflict in Balochistan is a typical case
in point. Violent ethnic conflicts are caused mainly by social and political systems that lead to
inequality and grievances and do not offer forums for the peaceful expression of differences.
Ethnic identity is the underlying cause of conflicts. In ethnic conflicts the goals of at least one
party are defined in ethnic terms, and the conflict, its causes, and potential remedies are perceived
along ethnic lines. The conflict is usually not about ethnic differences per se but over political,
economic, social, cultural, or territorial matters.

CONCULISION

Pakistan is the land of diverse culture, traditions, languages and ethnic groups. People of different
ethnic groups have their own identity, cultures, traditions, language and religion. Although with
so many differences but they should be thrown aside and we should act as one single nation when
it comes for the glory and prosperous of Pakistan.

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