Module 2

II. Classical Asian Thoughts (Self)

A. Hinduism
B. Buddhism
C. Daoism
D. Confucianism

Overview

This is the part of the lesson where the major Asian thoughts are discussed citing their
differences but limiting the topic on the concept of “Self”.

Activity 1. Engaged Participation. Check the assignment of the students on Classical

Asian Thoughts of Hinduism, Buddhism, Daoism/Taoism, Confucianism.

Learning Outcomes

1. Through a Venn Diagram, compare and contrast the ideas of Hinduism, Buddhism,
Daoism and Confucianism on the concept of “Self”; and
2. Demonstrate the main arguments of Hinduism, Buddhism, Daoism and Confucianism on
the concept of “self” through an Infographic.

Content/Discussion

Classical Asian Thoughts (Self)

Buddhism
A. Basic Information
 The world's fourth-largest religion with over 520 million followers, or over 7% of the
global population, known as Buddhists.
 Encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on
original teachings attributed to the Buddha and resulting interpreted philosophies.
 A faith that was founded by Siddhartha Gautama (“the Buddha”) more than 2,500
years ago in India.
 With about 470 million followers, scholars consider it as one of the major world
religions.
 Its practice has historically been most prominent in East and Southeast Asia, but its
influence is growing in the West.
 Many Buddhist ideas and philosophies overlap with those of other faiths.
B. Beliefs
 Followers of Buddhism do not acknowledge a supreme god or deity. They instead
focus on achieving enlightenment—a state of inner peace and wisdom. When
followers reach this spiritual echelon, they are said to have experienced nirvana.
 The religion’s founder, Buddha, is considered an extraordinary man, but not a god.
The word Buddha means “enlightened.”
 The path to enlightenment is attained by utilizing morality, meditation, and wisdom.
Buddhists often meditate because they believe it helps awaken truth.
 There are many philosophies and interpretations within Buddhism, making it a
tolerant and evolving religion.
 Some scholars do not recognize Buddhism as an organized religion, but rather, a

FLORALICE BASCO RENGEL – JOSOL PSIE 3 – ASIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT 2

 “way of life” or a “spiritual tradition.”
 Buddhism encourages its people to avoid self-indulgence but also self-denial.
 Buddha’s most important teachings, known as The Four Noble Truths, are
essential to understanding the religion.
 Buddhists embrace the concepts of karma (the law of cause and effect) and
reincarnation (the continuous cycle of rebirth).
 Followers of Buddhism can worship in temples or in their own homes.
 Buddhist monks, or bhikkhus, follow a strict code of conduct, which includes
celibacy.
 There is no single Buddhist symbol, but a number of images have evolved that
represent Buddhist beliefs, including the lotus flower, the eight-spoked dharma
wheel, the Bodhi tree, and the swastika (an ancient symbol whose name means
"well-being" or "good fortune" in Sanskrit). 
C. Dharma
 Buddha’s teachings are known as “dharma.” He taught that wisdom, kindness,
patience, generosity and compassion were important virtues.
D. Moral Precepts
Specifically, all Buddhists live by five moral precepts, which prohibit:
1) 1) Killing living things
2) 2) Taking what is not given
3) 3) Sexual misconduct
4) 4) Lying
5) 5) Using drugs or alcohol
E. Noble Truths
The Four Noble Truths, which Buddha taught, are:
1) The truth of suffering (dukkha)
2) The truth of the cause of suffering (samudaya)
3) The truth of the end of suffering (nirhodha)
4) The truth of the path that frees us from suffering (magga)
 Collectively, these principles explain why humans hurt and how to overcome
suffering.
 The Buddha taught his followers that the end of suffering, as described in the fourth
Noble Truths, could be achieved by following an Eightfold Path. 
F. Eightfold Path
In no particular order, the Eightfold Path of Buddhism teaches the following ideals for
ethical conduct, mental discipline, and achieving wisdom:
1) Right understanding (Samma ditthi)
2) Right thought (Samma sankappa)
3) Right speech (Samma vaca)
4) Right action (Samma kammanta)
5) Right livelihood (Samma ajiva)
6) Right effort (Samma vayama)
7) Right mindfulness (Samma sati)
8) Right concentration (Samma samadhi)
G. The Five Skandhas
The Buddha taught that an individual is a combination of five aggregates of existence,
also called the Five Skandhas or the five heaps:
1. Form
2. Sensation
3. Perception

FLORALICE BASCO RENGEL – JOSOL PSIE 3 – ASIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT 2

 4. Mental Formations
5. Consciousness
 Various schools of Buddhism interpret the skandhas in somewhat different ways.
Generally, the first skandha is our physical form. The second is made up of our
feelings -- both emotional and physical -- and our senses -- seeing, hearing,
tasting, touching, smelling.
 The third skandha, perception, takes in most of what we call thinking --
conceptualization, cognition, reasoning. This also includes the recognition that
occurs when an organ comes into contact with an object. Perception can be
thought of as "that which identifies." The object perceived may be a physical object
or a mental one, such as an idea.
 The fourth skandha, mental formations, includes habits, prejudices, and
predispositions. Our volition, or willfulness, is also part of the fourth skandha, as
are attention, faith, conscientiousness, pride, desire, vindictiveness, and many
other mental states both virtuous and not virtuous. The causes and effects of
karma are especially important to the fourth skandha.
 The fifth skandha, consciousness, is awareness of or sensitivity to an object, but
without conceptualization. Once there is awareness, the third skandha might
recognize the object and assign a concept-value to it, and the fourth skandha might
react with desire or revulsion or some other mental formation. The fifth skandha is
explained in some schools as a base that ties the experience of life together.
H. The Self Is No-Self
 What is most important to understand about the skandhas is that they are empty.
They are not qualities that an individual possesses because there is no-self
possessing them. This doctrine of no-self is called anatman or anatta.

 According to the anatta doctrine of Buddhism, at the core of all human beings and
living creatures, there is no "eternal, essential and absolute something called a
soul, self or atman". Buddhism, from its earliest days, has denied the existence of
the "self, soul" in its core philosophical and ontological texts.

 Very basically, the Buddha taught that "you" are not an integral, autonomous entity.
The individual self, or what we might call the ego, is more correctly thought of as a
by-product of the skandhas.

 Among all the Buddha's teachings, those on the nature of the self are the hardest to
understand, yet they are central to spiritual beliefs. In fact, "fully perceiving the
nature of the self" is one way to define enlightenment.

 On the surface, this appears to be nihilistic teaching. But the Buddha taught that if
we can see through the delusion of the small, individual self, we experience that
which is not subject to birth and death.
I. Two Views
 Beyond this point, Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism differ on how
anatman is understood. In fact, more than anything else, it is the different
understanding of self that defines and separates the two schools.

 Very basically, Theravada considers anatman to mean that an individual's ego or

personality is a fetter and delusion. Once freed of this delusion, the individual may

FLORALICE BASCO RENGEL – JOSOL PSIE 3 – ASIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT 2

 enjoy bliss of Nirvana.

 Mahayana, on the other hand, considers all physical forms to be void of intrinsic self,
teaching called shunyata, which means "emptiness". The ideal in Mahayana is to
enable all beings to be enlightened together, not only out of a sense of
compassion but because we are not really separate, autonomous beings.
Hinduism
A. Basic Information
 Hinduism is the world’s oldest religion, according to many scholars, with roots and
customs dating back more than 4,000 years.
 Today, with about 900 million followers, Hinduism is the third-largest religion behind
Christianity and Islam.
 Roughly 95 percent of the world’s Hindus live in India.
 Because the religion has no specific founder, it is difficult to trace its origins and
history.
 Hinduism is unique in that it is not a single religion but a compilation of many
traditions and philosophies.
B. Concepts
 Hinduism embraces many religious ideas. For this reason, It is sometimes referred
to as a “way of life” or a “family of religions”, as opposed to a single, organized
religion.
 Most forms of Hinduism are henotheistic, which means they worship a single deity,
known as “Brahman,” but still recognize other gods and goddesses. Followers
believe there are multiple paths to reaching their god.
 Hindus believe in the doctrines of samsara (the continuous cycle of life, death, and
reincarnation) and karma (the universal law of cause and effect).
 One of the key thoughts of Hinduism is “atman,” or the belief in soul. This philosophy
holds that living creatures have a soul, and they are all part of the supreme soul. The
goal is to achieve “moksha”, or salvation, which ends the cycle of rebirths to become
part of the absolute soul.
 One fundamental principle of the religion is the idea that people’s actions and
thoughts directly determine their current life and future lives.
 Hindus strive to achieve dharma, which is a code of living that emphasizes good
conduct and morality.
 Hindus revere all living creatures and consider the cow a sacred animal.
 Food is an important part of life for Hindus. Most do not eat beef or pork, and many
are vegetarians.
 Hinduism is closely related to other Indian religions, including Buddhism, Sikhism,
and Jainism.
C. The Five Tensile Strands
Across the sweep of Indian religious history, at least five elements have given shape
to the Hindu religious tradition:
1) Doctrine
2) Practice
3) Society
4) Story
5) Devotion
These five elements, to adopt a typical Hindu metaphor, are understood as relating to

FLORALICE BASCO RENGEL – JOSOL PSIE 3 – ASIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT 2

 one another as strands in an elaborate braid. Moreover, each strand develops out of a
history of conversation, elaboration, and challenge. Hence, in looking for what makes
the tradition cohere, it is sometimes better to locate central points of tension than to
expect clear agreements on Hindu thought and practice.
D. Symbols
 There are two primary symbols associated with Hinduism, the om and the
swastika.
 The word swastika means "good fortune" or "being happy" in Sanskrit, and the
symbol represents good luck. (A diagonal version of the swastika later became
associated with Germany’s Nazi Party when they made it their symbol in 1920.)
 The om symbol is composed of three Sanskrit letters and represents three sounds
(a, u and m), which when combined are considered a sacred sound. The om
symbol is often found at family shrines and in Hindu temples.
Daoism/Taoism
A. Basic Information
 Taoism, also known as Daoism, is an indigenous Chinese religion often
associated with the Daode Jing (Tao Te Ching), a philosophical and political text
purportedly written by Laozi (Lao Tzu) sometime in the 3rd or 4th centuries B.C.E.
 Taoism is both a philosophy and a religion (contributed to the folk religion of the
people primarily in the rural areas of China and became the official religion of the
country under the Tang Dynasty). 
 A philosophical tradition of Chinese origin which emphasizes living in harmony with
the Dao/Tao.
 The Dao/Tao is a fundamental idea in most Chinese philosophical schools; in
Daoism/Taoism, however, it denotes the principle that is the source, pattern, and
substance of everything that exists. 
 Dao/Tao means the “the way”.
 Dao is the origin of everything and the ultimate aim of all Daoists/Taoists.
 The Dao is Heaven, Earth, Humanity.
 The Dao cannot be defined because it exists beyond all forms.
 In the words of the great Daoist/Taoist sage, Lao Zi: ‘That which can be named is
not the true Dao’.
 The Dao/Tao teaches wu-wei, the way of no-action and no-selfishness which
means to live in a plain and modest way and not to struggle for material gain.
 Taoist ideas have become popular throughout the world through Tai Chi Chuan,
Qigong, and various martial arts.
 Taoism is an ancient tradition of philosophy and religious belief that is deeply
rooted in Chinese customs and worldview. 
 The heart of the earliest Chinese vision of the cosmos is the Dao/Tao, the origin of
all.
B. Ancient Roots and Formal Beginnings
Daoism can be traced back to Shamanism, which spread into Mongolia and China at
least ten thousand years ago. Two mythological figures from those early days are the
divine brother and sister Fu Hsi and Nu Kua. Together they created human progeny
and created all aspects of civilization, such as writing, agriculture, medicine, and
astrology. They were the first two of the three August Ones of Chinese mythology.
Later came the Yellow emperor, bringer of order and the first recorded ruler. Legend

FLORALICE BASCO RENGEL – JOSOL PSIE 3 – ASIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT 2

 puts his rule around 2500 BCE. He is revered as the one who introduced divine
knowledge into human society, especially the arts of medicine.

The influence of the Shamans in Ancient China waned from the beginning of the first
millennium BCE. During this period, the great Lao Zi is supposed to have lived, and
written the Dao De Jing (Tao Te-Ching), the most important book of Daoist wisdom.
Daoism was formally established as a religion under the East Han Dynasty, about
2,000 years ago. Since then, Daoism/Taoism has been one of the main components
of Chinese culture and has exerted great influence on the Chinese way of thinking,
working and acting.
C. Beliefs
 Core Belief: Taoist thought focuses on genuineness, longevity, health, immortality,
vitality, wu wei (non-action, a natural action, a perfect equilibrium with tao),
detachment, refinement (emptiness), spontaneity, transformation, and omni-
potentiality.
 Ten Main Beliefs:
1. Humanity. The primary focus of Taoism is based on the man’s spiritual existence
where his humanity is believed to be like a bamboo stick as it is straight and simple
by design but has a vacant center that yearns to be filled, yet it is flexible enough
to overcome resistance and to resist the blows of nature.
2. Yin Yang. A basic belief of Taoist teachings uses the universal energy of chi, the
life-giving force drawn from the dynamic interchange of polar forces yin and yang.
The flow of chi as considered as an essential element of life’s flow or continuity, is
believed to support and give prosperity, good fortune, and health, whilst it
simultaneously blocks sickness, conflicts, and difficulties. Most of the Taoists
believe that it is the constant flow of chi that guarantees the welfare of individuals
and the world around them by using the combination of Taoist doctrine with an
active expression of Chinese spirituality. The effects of Tao (the way) create the
origin by generating duality that is yin and yang, light and shadow, as every action
creates a counteraction by itself, it is natural and unavoidable movement.
3. Man’s Will. The man’s will is not considered as the root problem in Taoism.
Rather, it is believed that the man must place his will in the harmony with the
natural universe. Taoist philosophy believes that the Universe already works in
harmony in its own ways but if a person exerts his will against the world, then he
would disrupt the harmony that already exists so he should go with the flow of life.
4. Three Jewels of Tao
(i) Compassion, kindness, and love
(ii) Moderation, simplicity, and frugality
(iii) Humility and modesty
5. Five basic movements. In classic Taoism, matter and energy are considered to
be governed by five basic movements. The strength and influence of these
movements wax and wane over the course of a year with wood peaking during the
spring, fire during the summer, metal in the autumn and water in the winter and
finally the earth asserts its presence most powerfully during the periods of the start
of each season.
6. Belief in Deity. Taoists believe that the supreme being (ultimate truth) is beyond
words or any conceptual understanding but they name it as the Tao or the Way.
The power of this way is referred as the Te. These Tao and Te are the central
concepts of Taoism. Tao is described as the divine way of the universe. Te is the
power of Tao and it is the power to bring Tao into realization. It includes the belief

FLORALICE BASCO RENGEL – JOSOL PSIE 3 – ASIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT 2

 that human interference can be damaging.
7. Incarnation and Death. Taoists do not believe that the God resembled a human
and neither do they have any particular meaning for death. Taoism teaches that
humans should accept life and death as complementary and important aspects of
the Tao or the Way. Death should not be feared but it should also not be desired.
Life and Death in Taoism are like yin and yang that is from being to non-being.
8. Good and Evil. Good and evil do not have any particular position in the eyes of
Taoism rather Taoists see the interdependence of all the dualities. To understand
the notion of good and evil like Taoists does, one need to be able to differentiate
between the “concept” of evil and the “reality” of evil. Taoists believe that when
someone labels something as being good then they automatically create an evil.
Any action as expected to have some negativities (yin) and some positivity (yang).
9. Salvation. Taoists do not believe in salvation, and they do not have any salvific
practice. They believe that there is nothing that one should be saved from and the
belief in salvation means that one believes in damnation in the same manner as
the belief in good results in the belief in the evil. They believe that not excessively
pursuing material wealth or prestige will lead one to a joyful life.
10. Immortals. The primary importance of all the spiritual beings is given to the
Immortals or Xian as known in Chinese. In the Chuang-Tzu, these perfect beings
are known to dwell far away in an untroubled place, where they experience an
effortless existence. They are believed to be ageless and are believed to eat
nothing but air, drink nothing but dew, and enjoy the power of flight. These
powerful beings are believed to be revered in the group of Eight Immortals, who
are said to have been born in the Tang Dynasty.
D. Symbolism and Mythology
Symbolism:
 Daoists prefer to convey their ecstatic insights in images and parables.
 The Dao is low and receiving as a valley, soft and life-giving as water, and it is the
“mysterious female,” the source of all life, the Mother of the Ten Thousand Things.
 Human beings should become weak and yielding as water that overcomes the
hard and the strong and always takes the low ground; they should develop their
male and female sides but “prefer femininity,” “feed on the mother,” and find within
themselves the well that never runs dry.
 Dao is also the axis, the ridgepole, the pivot, and the empty centre of the hub.
 The sage is the “useless tree” or the huge gourd too large to be fashioned
into implements.
 A frequent metaphor for the working of the Dao is the incommunicable ability to be
skillful at a craft.
 Skilled artisans do not ponder their actions, but, in union with the dao of their
subjects, they do their work reflexively and without conscious intent.
Mythology:
 Much ancient Chinese mythology has been preserved by the Daoists, who drew
on it to illustrate their views.
 A chaos (hundun) myth is recorded as a metaphor for the undifferentiated primal
unity; the mythical emperors (Huangdi and others) are extolled for wise Daoist rule
or blamed for introducing harmful civilization.
 Dreams of mythical paradises and journeys on clouds and flying dragons
are metaphors for the wanderings of the soul, the attainment of the Dao, and the
identity of dream and reality.
 Daoists have transformed and adapted some ancient myths to their beliefs. Thus,

FLORALICE BASCO RENGEL – JOSOL PSIE 3 – ASIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT 2

 the Queen Mother of the West (Xiwangmu), who was a mountain spirit, pestilence
goddess, and tigress, became a high deity—the Fairy Queen of all Immortals.
E. Principles
Four main principles of Daoism guide the relationship between humanity and nature:
1. Follow the Earth. The Dao De Jing says: “Humanity follows the Earth, the Earth
follows Heaven, Heaven follows the Dao, and the Dao follows what is natural”.
Daoists therefore obey the Earth. The Earth respects Heaven, Heaven abides by
the Dao, and the Dao follows the natural course of everything. Humans should
help everything grow according to its own way. We should cultivate the way of no-
action and let nature be itself.
2. Harmony with nature. In Daoism, everything is composed of two opposite forces
known as Yin and Yang. The two forces are in constant struggle within everything.
When they reach harmony, the energy of life is created. Someone who
understands this point will not exploit nature but will treat it well and learn from it. It
is obvious that in the long run, the excessive use of nature will bring about
disaster, even the extinction of humanity.
3. Too much success. If the pursuit of development runs counter to the harmony of
balance of nature, even if it is of great immediate interest and profit, people should
restrain themselves from it. Insatiable human desire will lead to the over-
exploitation of natural resources. To be too successful is to be on the path to
defeat.
4. Affluence in biodiversity. Daoism has a unique sense of value in that it judges
affluence by the number of different species. If all things in the universe grow well,
then a society is a community of affluence. If not, this kingdom is on the decline.
This view encourages both government and people to take good care of nature.
This thought is a special contribution by Daoism to the conservation of nature.
F. Self, Life, and Death
 Daoism/Taoism is a philosophical and religious tradition that emphasizes living in
harmony with the Dao/Tao. The term Dao/Tao means "way", "path" or "principle",
and can also be found in Chinese philosophies and religions other than Taoism.
This philosophical Taoism, individualistic by nature, is not institutionalized.
 Daoism/Taoism does not have a God in the way that the Abrahamic religions do.
There is no omnipotent being beyond the cosmos, who created and controls the
universe. In Taoism, the universe springs from the Tao, and the Tao impersonally
guides things on their way.
 Daoism/Taoism regards life as the most valuable thing and pursues immortality.
Life can be prolonged through meditation and exercise. People should train their
will, discard selfishness, and seek to be a model of virtue. With high moral sense
and good exercise, one can maintain energy throughout one’s life. To achieve
this, Daoism stresses the need for a peaceful and harmonious environment as a
very important external condition.
 Taoism teaches that each person should live according to their own nature. By
accepting yourself – your good and your bad qualities – you are living according
to Taoist beliefs. Accepting yourself also means acknowledging that sometimes
your personality will change.
 The Chinese word for food or dishes, cai originally means green vegetables. The
invention of the vegetarian food tofu was credit to a Taoist. Taoist religious orders
and literatures often encourage practitioners to be vegetarian to minimize harms,
because all life forms are considered sentient.

FLORALICE BASCO RENGEL – JOSOL PSIE 3 – ASIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT 2

  Karma is an important concept in Daoism/Taoism. In the third stage
of karma doctrine development, ideas of rebirth based on karma were added. One
could be reborn either as another human being or another animal, according to
this belief.
 In Daoism/Taoism, the ultimate goal is to let go of organized societies and human
constructs, and to become on with nature. It is frowned upon to see oneself as
more than something else (think you have a higher "spiritual value" than some
other living thing), and to exist as part of large thing.
 Daoism/Taoism places great value in life. It does not focus on life after death, but
on health and longevity by living a simple life and having inner peace. It is said that
the human body is filled with spirits, gods, or demons. When people die, it is
believed that they should do rituals to let the spirits guard the body.
 The constant and unmistakable teaching of the Tao Te Ching is that humans are
indeed capable of intervening in life's events, but the evidence of life,
which humans constantly ignore, is that such intervention is destructive to all
involved, and that we therefore have a moral duty to refrain from taking such
actions.
Confucianism
A. Basic Information
 Confucianism, the way of life propagated by Confucius in the 6th–5th century BCE
and followed by the Chinese people for more than two millennia.
 Although transformed over time, it is still the substance of learning, the source of
values, and the social code of the Chinese.
 Its influence has also extended to other countries, particularly Korea, Japan, and
Vietnam.
 Confucianism, a Western term that has no counterpart in Chinese, is a worldview,
a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life.
 Sometimes viewed as a philosophy and sometimes as a religion, Confucianism
may be understood as an all-encompassing way of thinking and living that entails
ancestor reverence and a profound human-centred religiousness.
 East Asians may profess themselves to be Shintōists, Daoists, Buddhists,
Muslims, or Christians but by announcing their religious affiliations, seldom do they
cease to be Confucians.
B. Thoughts
“Simply by being a good son and friendly to his brothers a man can exert an
influence upon government!” to show that what a person does in the confines of his
home is politically significant. That maxim is based on the Confucian conviction that
cultivation of the self is the root of social order, and that social order is the basis for
political stability and enduring peace.
The assertion that family ethics is politically efficacious must be seen in
the context of the Confucian conception of politics as “rectification” (zheng). Rulers
should begin by rectifying their own conduct; that is, they are to be examples who
govern by moral leadership and exemplary teaching rather than by force.
Government’s responsibility is not only to provide food and security but also to
educate the people. Law and punishment are the minimum requirements for order; the
higher goal of social harmony, however, can be attained only by virtue expressed
through ritual performance. To perform rituals, then, is to take part in a communal act

FLORALICE BASCO RENGEL – JOSOL PSIE 3 – ASIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT 2

 to promote mutual understanding.
One of the fundamental Confucian values that ensures the integrity  of ritual
performance is xiao (filial piety). Indeed, Confucius saw filial piety as the first step
toward moral excellence, which he believed lay in the attainment of the cardinal virtue,
ren (humanity). To learn to embody the family in the mind and the heart is to become
able to move beyond self-centeredness or, to borrow from modern psychology, to
transform the enclosed private ego into an open self. Filial piety, however, does not
demand unconditional submissiveness to parental authority but recognition of and
reverence for the source of life. The purpose of filial piety, as the ancient Greeks
expressed it, is to enable both parent and child to flourish. Confucians see it as an
essential way of learning to be human.
Confucians, moreover, are fond of applying the family metaphor to the
community, the country, and the cosmos. They prefer to address the emperor as the
son of heaven (tianzi), the king as ruler-father, and the magistrate as the “father-
mother official,” because to them the family-centered nomenclature implies a political
vision. When Confucius said that taking care of family affairs is itself active
participation in politics, he had already made it clear that family ethics is not merely a
private concern; the public good is realized by and through it.
Confucius defined the process of becoming human as being able to “discipline
yourself and return to ritual”. The dual focus on the transformation of the self
(Confucius is said to have freed himself from four things: “opinionatedness,
dogmatism, obstinacy, and egoism” and on social participation enabled Confucius to
be loyal (zhong) to himself and considerate (shu) of others. It is easy to understand
why the Confucian “golden rule” is “Do not do unto others what you would not want
others to do unto you!”. Confucius’s legacy, laden with profound ethical implications, is
captured by his “plain and real” appreciation that learning to be human is a communal
enterprise:
Persons of humanity, in wishing to establish themselves, also establish others,
and in wishing to enlarge themselves, also enlarge others. The ability to take as
analogy what is near at hand can be called the method of humanity.
C. Concept of Self
The Confucian self is teleologically directed towards the virtue of humanity (ren)
towards sagehood (junzi). While the “self” embodies the highest transcendence within
its own reality, it broadens to embody an ever-expanding circle of human-relatedness
in terms of family, community, country, and the world.
Recent debates over morally controversial issues have often been cast as a tension
between individual autonomy and the state, representing the community. Notably, one
of the values identified in the White Paper is "Nation before community and society
above self". 
Self-Realization and Virtue.
As a normative ethical theory, Confucianism is a system of virtue ethics, which
focuses on the question of what a good person is and how a good person is
developed. The self, in Confucian thought, is teleologically directed. The goal of one's
existence is to seek the virtue of humanity (ren) and eventually to become
a sage (junzi). A sage is necessarily wise, strong, sensitive, intelligent, creative, and
more.
Every person has the potential to fully realize his humanity, and one is
constantly in the process of learning to be "more authentically or more fully human".
To this end, Confucianism places a strong emphasis on education as a means of self-
cultivation. One learns for the sake of the self. This self-cultivation is a precondition for

FLORALICE BASCO RENGEL – JOSOL PSIE 3 – ASIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT 2

 harmonizing human relations. Nevertheless, "the self-worth cultivating is never the
private possession of a single individual but a sharable experience that underlies
common humanity", as explained by Tu Wei Ming in Confucian Thought: Selfhood as
Creative Transformation at 57.
The Self as a Centre of Relationships.
Perhaps the most significant aspect of Confucian thought is the contextualized
self. Ontologically, a person's selfhood embodies the highest transcendence within its
own reality. Selfhood is seen as endowed by Heaven (tian). However, it broadens to
embody an ever-expanding circle of human-relatedness.
The concentric circles that define the self in terms of family, community, country,
and the world are undoubtedly social groups, but, in the Confucian perspective, they
are also realms of selfhood that symbolize the authentic human possibility for self-
cultivation. The self as a center of relationships in the human community must
recognize that it is an integral part of a holistic presence and, accordingly, work its way
through what is near at hand.
Relationships are important, and individuals must act with propriety. Confucian
thought enjoins individuals to help others establish and enlarge themselves as a
corollary of one's self-establishment and self-enlargement:
 Wishing to establish oneself, one establishes others.
Wishing to enlarge oneself, one enlarges others.
An overemphasis on one's own desires and interests is in fact seen as
antithetical to self-cultivation. Selfishness or self-centeredness is seen as the real
threat to maturation of the self. In Mencius' terms, a privatization of the self is the
frustration of the great body by the small one. Tu writes in the chapter, "Jen as a
Living Metaphor in the Confucian Analects" at 83:
The self as a center of relationships rather than as an isolable individual is such a
fundamental premise in the Analects that man as "an ultimately autonomous being" is
unthinkable, and the manifestation of the authentic self is impossible "except in
matrices of human converse."
The ultimate goal is harmony: to structure human life so as to correspond to the
order of the universe, to harmonize one's nature with society and Heaven. However,
being a humanistic philosophy, "Heaven" does not refer to a transcendent Creator
God.
D. Beliefs About Social Relationships
Confucius was not interested in individual salvation or individual rights. What he
cared about most was the collective well-being of society. He promoted virtues such
as courtesy, selflessness, obedience, respect, diligence, communal obligation,
working for a common good, social harmony, and empathy. The code of behavior he
described was based on a system of harmonious, subordinate relationships based on
the notions of filial piety, well-ordered family, a well-ordered state, and a well-ordered
world.
Confucians stress that a person’s worth is determined by public actions. The
concept of li defines a set of social relationships and clearly described how people are
supposed to behave towards one another. Fealty in Confucian terms takes five forms:
(1) subject to ruler; (2) son to a father; (3) younger brother to older brother; (4) wife to
husband (woman to man); and (5) younger person to older person. Under the concept
the li, the dominate person receives respect and obedience from the subordinate
person but is by no means a dictator. He is supposed to reciprocate with love,
goodwill, support, and affection towards the subordinate person.
The Confucian code of subordinate relationships also extended to professions,

FLORALICE BASCO RENGEL – JOSOL PSIE 3 – ASIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT 2

 with scholars at the top; peasant farmers in the middle; and artisans and merchants at
the bottom. Confucian scholars grew their fingernails long to show they did not do
physical labor. Under Confucian leadership, crimes were often dealt with by ostracism
and humiliation rather than physical punishment.

Evaluation. 
Activity 2. Venn Diagram. Through a Venn Diagram, compare and contrast the ideas
of Hinduism, Buddhism, Daoism and Confucianism on the concept of “Self”.
Rubrics for the evaluation of presentation:
Organization of Thought = 30%
Discussion = 20%
Report Content = 50%
Total = 100%

Activity 3. Infographics. Demonstrate the main arguments of Hinduism, Buddhism,

Daoism and Confucianism on the concept of “self” through an Infographic.
Rubrics for evaluation:
Design = 25%
Organization of Thought = 25%
Content/Idea = 50%
Total = 100%

References
Kasulis, Thomas P., 1997. ‘The Buddhist concept of Self.’
Collins, Steven, 1982. Selfless Persons: Imagery and Thought in Theravada Buddhism.
Confucius: The Analects, 1993. Translated and with an introduction and notes by Raymond
Watson.
Hinduism: The World’s Third Largest Religion, Religioustolerance.org. (August 26, 2020).
Lao-tzu, 1993. Tao Te Ching. Introduced by Burton Watson. Translated by Stephen Addiss and
Stanley Lombardo.
O'Brien, Barbara. "The Buddhist Teachings of Self and No-Self." Learn Religions, Feb. 11,
2020, learnreligions.com/what-is-the-self-450193. (August 26, 2020).

FLORALICE BASCO RENGEL – JOSOL PSIE 3 – ASIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT 2

FLORALICE BASCO RENGEL – JOSOL PSIE 3 – ASIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT 2