Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Generic Strategies and Performance - Evidence From Manufacturing Firms
Generic Strategies and Performance - Evidence From Manufacturing Firms
www.emeraldinsight.com/1741-0401.htm
IJPPM
60,3 Generic strategies and
performance – evidence from
manufacturing firms
222
M.K. Nandakumar
Indian Institute of Management, Kozhikode, India
Received October 2009
Revised June 2010 Abby Ghobadian
Accepted June 2010
Henley Business School, Henley-on-Thames, UK, and
Nicholas O’Regan
Bristol Business School, UWE Bristol, Bristol, UK
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between business-level strategy
and organisational performance and to test the applicability of Porter’s generic strategies in explaining
differences in the performance of organisations.
Design/methodology/approach – The study was focussed on manufacturing firms in the UK
belonging to the electrical and mechanical engineering sectors. Data were collected through a postal
survey using the survey instrument from 124 organisations and the respondents were all at CEO level.
Both objective and subjective measures were used to assess performance. Non-response bias was
assessed statistically and it was not found to be a major problem affecting this study. Appropriate
measures were taken to ensure that common method variance (CMV) does not affect the results of this
study. Statistical tests indicated that CMV problem does not affect the results of this study.
Findings – The results of this study indicate that firms adopting one of the strategies, namely
cost-leadership or differentiation, perform better than “stuck-in-the-middle” firms which do not have a
dominant strategic orientation. The integrated strategy group has lower performance compared with
cost-leaders and differentiators in terms of financial performance measures. This provides support for
Porter’s view that combination strategies are unlikely to be effective in organisations. However, the
cost-leadership and differentiation strategies were not strongly correlated with the financial
performance measures indicating the limitations of Porter’s generic strategies in explaining
performance heterogeneity in organisations.
Originality/value – This study makes an important contribution to the literature by identifying
some of the gaps in the literature through a systematic literature review and addressing those gaps.
Keywords Manufacturing industries, Management strategy, Mechanical engineering,
Organizational performance, Electrical engineering, United Kingdom
Paper type Research paper
1. Introduction
The extant literature suggests that organisational strategies can be broadly classified
into three different levels namely the corporate-level strategy, business-level strategy
International Journal of Productivity and functional-level strategy (Hax and Majluf, 1984; Grant and King, 1982; Bourgeois,
and Performance Management 1980). The corporate-level strategy is concerned with domain selection, that is to say,
Vol. 60 No. 3, 2011
pp. 222-251 the vertical, horizontal, and market scope and linkage and level of integration among
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited different businesses (Bourgeois, 1980; Rumelt, 1974). The business-level strategy is
1741-0401
DOI 10.1108/17410401111111970 concerned with domain navigation, that is to say how the firm competes effectively in
an industry (Hambrick, 1980; Beard and Dess, 1981). Functional-level strategies focus Generic
on the maximisation of resource productivity within each specific function and they are strategies and
generally derived from the business strategy (Schendel and Hofer, 1979).
Corporate-level strategy is too aggregated for understanding the strategic response performance
to environmental influences such as competitive moves, technological changes, entry
and exit of competitors, while a key function of strategy is to integrate activities of key
functions and as such functional level strategies are not particularly important 223
(Venkatraman, 1989). Not surprisingly, business strategy provides the focus for a
significant majority of the strategy research studies.
Generic business strategies can be organised broadly into two groups namely
typologies and taxonomies. Typologies are inductively driven qualitative
characterisation of the “strategic behaviour of business organisation”, where the
strategic types are rooted in a set of parsimonious classificatory dimensions or
conceptual criteria (Venkatraman, 1989, p. 943). The strategic management literature
outlines a number of typologies (e.g. Miles and Snow, 1978; Abell, 1980; Porter, 1980;
Miles, 1982). Taxonomies are empirically derived based on the measurement of a few
indicators of firms’ strategic behaviour and they represent the existence of internally
consistent configurations. Prominent taxonomies include Miller and Friesen (1978) and
Galbraith and Schendel (1983). Their development is sensitive to the choice of
underlying dimensions as well as the analytical method used to extract the taxonomies
(Hambrick, 1984; Miller and Friesen, 1984).
While taxonomies serve to capture the comprehensiveness and integrative nature of strategy
through their internal coherence, they do not reflect the “within-group” differences along the
underlying dimensions (Venkatraman, 1989, p. 943).
Typologies are theoretically derived dimensions which rely on identifying and
measuring the key traits of the strategy and assessing differences and similarities
across a profile consisting of a set of characteristics that collectively describe the
strategy (Robinson and Pearce, 1988; Venkatraman, 1989). This type of strategy
classification has attracted greater attention because it aids the understanding and
focus on the ordering of information. Hence, in this study the focus will be on
typologies.
2. Strategy typologies
In this section we will provide a summary of key typologies. The range of strategic
behaviours and their key characteristics for each typology are summarised in Table I.
A number of studies that have operationalised business-level generic strategies
have been published in leading academic journals (e.g. Hambrick, 1982; Dess and
Davis, 1984; Miller, 1987; Conant et al., 1990; Jennings and Lumpkin, 1992; Jennings
and Seaman, 1994; Marlin et al., 1994; Frambach et al., 2003; Andrews et al., 2006). Most
of these studies have operationalised business-level strategies using either Miles and
Snow (1978) typology or Porters (1980) typology. Even the recently published studies
in leading academic journals have used these typologies to operationalise
business-level strategies (e.g. Kim et al., 2004; Jermias and Gani, 2004; Allen et al.,
2006; Desarbo et al., 2005; Moore, 2005). This indicates that these typologies are
contemporary and are effective in explaining performance heterogeneity among
organisations.
IJPPM
Author(s) Typologies/taxonomies Characteristics
60,3
Buzzell et al. (1975) (1) Building (1) Improving market share by
introducing new products, increasing
marketing efforts etc.
(2) Holding (2) Maintaining existing level of
224 market share
(3) Harvesting (3) Achieving high short-term
earnings and cash flow by permitting
market share to decline
Utterback and (1) Performance maximising (1) Emphasis in product and/or
Abernathy (1975) service performance; technology, and
product R&D emphasised
(2) Sales maximising (2) Marketing emphasis to increase
total sales and market share of firm
(3) Cost minimising (3) Emphasis placed on process
technology/R&D to decrease total
cost of production
Hofer and Schendel (1) Share increasing (1) High investment to increase share
(1978) of market
(2) Growth (2) Maintain position in expanding
markets, investment at industry
norms
(3) Profit (3) Investment at industry norms,
cost controls to “throw off cash”
(4) Market concentration and asset (4) Realignment of resources to
reduction focused, smaller segments
(5) Turnaround (5) Improve strategic posture, may
require investment
(6) Liquidation (6) Generate cash while withdrawing
from market
Miles and Snow (1978) (1) Defenders (1) Organisations which have narrow
product-market domains
(2) Analysers (2) Organisations which operate in
two types of product-market
domains, one relatively stable, the
other changing
(3) Prospectors (3) Organisations which almost
continually search for market
opportunities, and they regularly
experiment with potential responses
to emerging environmental trends
(4) Reactors (4) Organisations in which top
managers frequently perceive change
and uncertainty occurring in their
organisational environments but are
unable to respond effectively
Vesper (1979) (1) Multiplication (1) Expansion of market share by
multiplying present market
structures
Table I. (2) Monopolising (2) Eliminate competition, establish
Typologies of barriers to entry, and control
business-level generic resources
strategies (continued)
Author(s) Typologies/taxonomies Characteristics
Generic
strategies and
(3) Specialisation (3) Specialise in products and/or
production process
performance
(4) Liquidation (4) Give up business and market
position
Abell (1980) (1) Dimensions of scope of offerings (1) Scope of a business in terms of
customers it serves, the customer 225
functions it serves or the technologies
it utilises
(2) Extent of differentiation across (2) Extent to which the company
product-market segments differentiates its offering across
segments like customer groups,
customer functions and technologies
(3) Degree of competitive (3) Degree to which a company
differentiation differentiates itself from its
competitors
Wissema et al. (1980) (1) Explosion (1) Improve competitive position in
short-term
(2) Expansion (2) Improve competitive position in
long term
(3) Continuous growth (3) Maintain position in expanding
markets, normal investment
(4) Slip (4) Give up market share to generate
cash in growing market
(5) Consolidation (5) Give up market share to generate
cash in stable market
(6) Contraction (6) Liquidate assets and terminate
market position
Porter (1980) (1) Cost leadership (1) Efficiency, experience curve
policies, overhead control, and other
cost reductions
(2) Differentiation (2) Creating uniqueness in product
and/or service
(3) Focus (3) Focusing on specific buyer group,
or market
Miles (1982) (1) Domain defence (1) Preservation of traditional
product-market through (i) creation
and control of vital information and
(ii) lobbying and co-opting of
influential elements of the
institutional environment
(2) Domain offence (2) Improvement of economic
performance in traditional product-
market through (i) product
innovation and (ii) market
segmentation
Galbraith and Schendel Strategy types for consumer
(1983) products:
(1) Harvest (1) Strategy of disinvestment. Firms
using this strategy type show a clear
and consistent effort to harvest the
business by their actions
(continued) Table I.
IJPPM Author(s) Typologies/taxonomies Characteristics
60,3 (2) Builder (2) Strategies of firms with strong
commitments to their products,
promotion and R&D. Builder
strategies are used by firms
attempting to rapidly expand sales
226 and/or gain market share position
(3) Cashout (3) Firms following this strategy may
utilise advertising and promotion to
inflate their product’s perceived
worth to command higher prices,
higher margins and hence higher
profits. Firms operating in declining
markets may employ a form of
promotional hype in order to extend
the life of their product
(4) Niche or specialisation (4) Firms follow a specialisation
strategy emphasising high quality
product or service characteristics.
They give importance to R&D efforts
and new product introductions
(5) Climber (5) Firms display narrow product
bases, low prices and inferior quality
postures
(6) Continuity (6) Corresponds to continuity or
Status quo strategy
Galbraith and Schendel Strategy types for industrial
(1983) products:
(1) Low commitment (1) This is a strategy of low
commitment. This strategy type
coincides with the harvest strategy
type for consumer products
(2) Growth (2) A growth strategy for firms with a
strong commitment to their products.
Investment is very high and there is a
strong commitment to expand
market position
(3) Maintenance (3) This is a hybrid strategy
combining the characteristics of a
continuity strategy with those of a
cost reduction strategy
(4) Niche or specialisation (4) Specialisation strategy similar to
that of consumer goods
organisations. Superior quality
posture, high pricing policies and
narrow product line with only
marginal emphasis on promotional
activities are some of the
characteristics of this strategy
Herbert and Deresky (1) Develop (1) The basic strategy is to grow
(1987) through locating and exploiting new
product and market opportunities
Table I. (continued)
Author(s) Typologies/taxonomies Characteristics
Generic
strategies and
(2) Stabilise (2) The basic strategy is to maintain
its competitive position through
performance
efficient asset utilisation and/or
market segmentation
(3) Turnaround (3) The basic strategy is to arrest and
reverse the declining fortunes of the 227
business as quickly as possible
(4) Harvest (4) The basic strategy is to disinvest
while retaining interim operational
viability in order to generate at least
minimum returns toward financial
target such as cash flow or ROA and
to attract buyers
Douglas and Rhee (1) Broad-liner (1) Focus on high product quality and
(1989) consistent with their broad market
scope/product quality strategy; these
types of organisations have high
levels of market share and ROI
(2) Innovator (2) They have extremely high
proportion of new products in their
product line and they emphasise
innovativeness rather than
marketing effort
(3) Integrated Marketer (3) Exhibit some characteristics of
broad-liner like broad market scope
and above average quality. They also
exhibit high customer concentration
and a high degree of vertical
integration
(4) Low Quality (4) Low product quality, narrow
market scope and have below
average market share
(5) Nicher (5) Adopt a highly focused market
niche strategy and target a small
number of highly concentrated
customers. They focus on high
product quality and target a premium
high quality segment
(6) Synergist (6) They have a relatively narrow
market scope, but product quality
and percentage of new products were
below average
In the investigator inference approach, the researcher conducts interviews with the
managers of the organisation and uses all the available information about the
organisation contained in annual reports, government documents and press releases
228 and assesses the organisation’s strategy. This information is processed using a
typological framework and the strategy of the organisation is identified.
In the self-typing approach, senior managers of the organisation are asked to
characterise the organisation’s strategies. According to Conant et al. (1990) there could
be two types of self-typing. In the normal self-typing approach, respondents are asked
to classify their organisation as a particular strategic type based on paragraph
descriptions of various strategy typologies explained earlier. The other one is the
self-typing approach complemented by investigator-specified decision rules. In this
approach, the extent to which a firm’s strategy is conformed to a particular strategic
type is assessed using multi-item Likert-type scales intended to measure each of the
strategic types in a particular typology.
In the external assessment approach, the self-typing measures of strategy are
confirmed by obtaining the ratings of individuals external to the organisation like
competitors, consultants, industry analysts and expert panels. While using objective
indicators, there is no reliance on the perceptions of either the managers of the
organisation or external individuals. Instead the objective indicators approach uses
quantifiable published data like the product-market data.
In order to examine the operationalisation of business-level strategy using strategy
typologies, a systematic literature review of the papers published in leading academic
journals was conducted. The literature suggests that the most prominent of the
strategic typologies are those by Miles and Snow (1978) and Porter (1980) (Bantel and
Osborn, 1995). Hence, only those studies which have operationalised business-level
strategy using the Miles and Snow typology and Porter’s typology were selected for
the literature review. The contents pages of Strategic Management Journal, Academy
of Management Journal, Academy of Management Review, Journal of Management,
Journal of Management Studies, Long Range Planning and British Journal of
Management were thoroughly searched to identify the articles in which business-level
strategy was operationalised. The electronic databases namely Business Source
Complete, JSTOR and Emerald were also searched in the title, author supplied key
words and abstract using the key words like “business-level strategy”, “strategy”,
“porter” and “Miles and Snow”.
Some scholars have raised concerns about the effectiveness of Porter’s generic
strategies (e.g. Miller, 1992; Bowman, 2008) and some others have proposed alternative
strategy frameworks (e.g. Treacy and Wiersema, 1997; Kim and Mauborgne, 2005).
However, the literature contends that Porter’s (1980) strategy framework has “spurred
Figure 1.
The relationship between
business-level strategy
and performance
the most theoretical refinement and empirical analysis” (Dess et al., 1995, p. 375). Generic
Hence, in this study Porter’s (1980) typology was used to operationalise business-level strategies and
strategy. A large number of studies like Homburg et al. (1999); Marlin et al. (1994); Lee
and Miller (1996); Kabadayi et al. (2007); Helms et al. (1992); Auzair and performance
Langfield-Smith (2005) and Wai-Kwong et al. (2001) have operationalised Porter’s
generic strategies using only cost-leadership and differentiation constructs. Hence,
cost-leadership and differentiation constucts were used to operationalise generic 233
strategies in this study. According to Porter a firm can become “stuck in the middle”
for one of the two reasons (Kim et al., 2004):
(1) if it fails to develop a strategy in at least one of the three directions, it may
become stuck in the middle leading to poor performance; and
(2) if it tries to pursue more than one generic strategy simultaneously they can
become stuck in the middle.
5. Research methodology
The constructs used for measurement, sampling procedure, data collection method and
issues relating to common method variance are discussed in this section. Data was
collected through a postal survey using a survey instrument; seven-point Likert-type
IJPPM scales were used to measure the constructs. Business-level strategy was measured using
60,3 cost-leadership and differentiation dimensions and the measurement scale was adapted
from Luo and Zhao (2004). The items in the scale highlighted various competitive
activities and the respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which their firms
focussed on these activities in comparison to their main competitors in the last five years.
The adapted measurement scale was sent to ten strategy scholars for review and based
234 on their comments the scale was modified. In this study organisational performance was
measured using subjective and objective measures. Subjective measures are objective
fulfilment and relative competitive performance and objective measures are return on
assets (ROA) and return on sales (ROS). The measurement scales for objective fulfilment
and relative competitive performance were adapted from Ramanujam and Venkatraman
(1987). Objective fulfilment is defined as the extent to which the organisation has
achieved its short-term and long-term performance objectives and minimised the
problems. Respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which their organisation has
fulfilled its objectives in the last five years. Relative competitive performance is defined
as the extent to which organisational performance has either improved or deteriorated in
terms of sales, profit, market share, return on assets, return on equity, return on sales,
current ratio, overall firm performance and competitive position. The respondents were
asked to compare their performance in the last five years with their main competitors
based on these nine factors. The literature provides strong support for the technique of
subjective performance measurement (e.g. Dess and Robinson, 1984; Pearce et al., 1987;
Priem et al., 1995; Brews and Hunt, 1999). Moreover, in many studies examining the
impact of generic strategies on performance, subjective performance measures have been
extensively used. For example, Homburg et al. (1999) have measured performance using
three dimensions:
(1) adaptiveness;
(2) effectiveness; and
(3) efficiency.
In many other similar studies like Lee and Miller (1996), Kabadayi et al. (2007) and
Wai-Kwong et al. (2001) subjective performance measures have been used. The
measurement scales used in this study are shown in the Appendix. In the questionnaire
the sub-headings namely cost-leadership and differentiation were not provided in the
section on business-level strategy and the items were randomised. The financial data
for five years from 2002 to 2006, for 88 out of the 124 organisations that participated in
the survey, was collected from a commercial database, and the profitability ratios ROA
and ROS were calculated. Average values of these two ratios for five years were
calculated. The accounting measures of performance suffer the limitations of varying
depreciation, inventory, and lease valuation methods. This problem can be minimised
by taking averages of financial ratios for a few years (Hambrick, 1983). Many authors
like Kim and Lim (1988); Miller (1989); Hambrick and Lei (1985); Thomas and
Ramaswamy (1996) and Hambrick (1983) have used averages of financial ratios as a
measure of performance in similar studies.
The sample of firms for the survey was selected from a leading commercial
database. The 2003 UK SICs codes have been used as the basis for selecting the sample.
Companies having more than 50 employees belonging to Section – D Manufacturing,
Subsections DJ, DK, DL and DM were included in the sample. These SIC codes
represent the electrical and mechanical engineering firms in the UK. Altogether there Generic
were 4,511 companies in the sampling frame. A simple random sample of 700 strategies and
organisations was generated from the population consisting of 4,511 companies.
Telephone calls were made to these 700 organisations to verify the names of the Chief performance
Executives and the addresses of the organisations. Some of the organisations clearly
indicated that they did not want to take part in a survey, and they were removed from
the sample. A total of eight firms had gone into administration and hence could not 235
take part in the survey; 16 organisations were inactive, and had to be excluded from the
sample. Finally, a sample consisting of 569 organisations was obtained. Questionnaires
were mailed to the Chief Executives of these 569 organisations, with a covering letter
and business reply envelopes. Salant and Dillman (1994) suggested sending a follow-up
postcard to the members of the sample eight days after sending the questionnaire.
However, since a telephone call is more effective than a postcard, telephone calls were
made to all the companies that had not responded eight days after receiving the
questionnaires. Following Salant and Dillman (1994), three weeks after the first
mailing, questionnaires with covering letters and business reply envelopes were
mailed again to the non-respondents. This data collection process resulted in 124
usable responses. 11 questionnaires were undeliverable. The overall response rate
according to the formula suggested by De Vaus (2002) is 22.22 per cent. According to
the guidelines provided by Salant and Dillman (1994) the minimum number of
responses necessary at 95 per cent confidence level and þ /- 10 per cent sampling error
for a population size of 5,000 based on the conservative assumption that the population
is relatively varied (50/50 split) is 94. We have received 124 responses and this is
greater than the minimum number of responses suggested by Salant and Dillman
(1994). Table IV summarises the details of the sample selection process.
Common method variance (CMV) refers to the amount of spurious covariance
shared among variables because of the common method used in collecting data
(Buckley et al., 1990). In typical survey studies in which the same rater responds to the
items in a single questionnaire at the same point in time, data are likely to be
susceptible to CMV (Kemery and Dunlap, 1986; Lindell and Whitney, 2001). Potential
causes for spurious correlation between self-report measures are consistency motif,
social desirability, behaviour due to stimuli setting and knowledge deficiency
(Podsakoff and Organ, 1986; Miller and Roth, 1994). The constructs used in this study
required the respondents to report on discrete events reducing the likelihood of
distorted self-reports and/or socially desirable responses. Hence, the CMV problem is
minimised to a great extent. For reducing the impact of consistency motif, Salancik and
Pfeffer (1977) suggested that the questionnaire could be designed in such a way that
the dependent variables follow the independent variables. In this study the
questionnaire was designed in line with this suggestion. CMV problem can be
moderated by choosing the right informant (Miller and Roth, 1994). High-ranking
All the 27 variables were entered into an exploratory factor analysis, using principal
components method, to determine the number of factors that are necessary to account
for the variance in the variables. The exploratory factor analysis carried out revealed
the presence of seven distinct factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.0, rather than a
single factor. The seven factors together accounted for 68.63 per cent of the total
variance; the first (largest) factor did not account for a majority of the variance (25.10
per cent). Thus, no general factor is apparent.
6. Data analysis
The issues relating to non-response bias and internal consistency as well as the results
obtained by testing the hypotheses are discussed in this section. The procedure adopted
by Ghobadian and O’Regan (2006) was used to assess non-response bias. Non-response
bias was examined by comparing the means of the responses received from early and late
respondents. t-tests were conducted to find out whether significant differences existed in
the means of cost-leadership, differentiation, performance – objective fulfilment, and
relative competitive performance variables between these two groups. The p values
obtained from the t-tests corresponding to each of these variables are shown in Table V.
The tests indicated that no significant difference existed between the means of the
responses received from early and late respondents. Some of the non-respondents were
contacted and were requested to answer a few questions relating to business-level
strategy. The difference between the means of the measures main sample, and that of
Variable Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6
Analysis of Variance was conducted with this variable as the independent variable,
and performance as dependent variable. ANOVA was conducted four times with the
performance measures namely: objective fulfilment; relative competitive performance;
ROA; and ROS as dependent variables. The results of the five ANOVAs are
summarised in Table VIII.
The F-tests for the first two ANOVAs using the subjective measures of performance
produced statistically significant results at p , 0.05 level. However, the results of the
F-tests conducted using the objective measures of performance were not statistically
significant. This indicates that there is a significant difference between the
performances of some of the groups of organisations belonging to the four strategic
types in terms of the subjective measures of performance. However, in terms of the
objective measures of performance, the performance difference was not significant.
The results of the post hoc tests obtained from the five ANOVA tests are summarised
in Table IX. Tukeys’s extension of the Fisher least significant difference (LSD) method
has been used to carry out the post hoc tests.
The post hoc tests indicate that organisations having a clear business-level strategy
by adopting one of the strategies namely cost-leadership, differentiation or integrated
strategy perform better than stuck-in-the-middle companies in terms of objective
fulfilment, relative competitive performance and ROS. The differences in the
performance levels between the clear strategy groups and stuck-in-the-middle
companies are statistically significant at p , 0.05 level when objective fulfilment is the
dependent variable. The difference in performance levels between stuck-in-the-middle
239
60,3
240
IJPPM
Table IX.
Mean difference 95% Confidence interval
Dependent variable (I) Strategic type ( J) Strategic type (I – J) Std error p Lower bound Upper bound
7. Conclusion
The results of the ANOVA conducted to test hypotheses H1 and H2 indicate that
cost-leaders and differentiators performed better than stuck-in-the-middle companies
in terms of both the subjective and objective performance measures. This finding
conforms to the findings of many other studies (e.g. Dess and Davis, 1984; O’Farrell
et al., 1992). Firms pursuing an integrated strategy performed better than
stuck-in-the-middle firms in terms of all performance measures except ROA. The
cost-leaders and differentiators performed better than the organisations following
integrated strategy when the financial performance measures were the dependent
variables. This indicates that integrated strategies are not as effective as
cost-leadership and differentiation strategies for improving financial performance.
This finding provides support to Porter’s view that combination strategies may not
always be effective in organisations. It also confirms the findings of some studies (e.g.
Kumar et al., 1997) which found that firms adopting integrated strategies performed
poorly. However, some other studies (e.g. Wright et al., 1991; Chan and Wong, 1999)
have reported that firms following integrated strategy performed better than the ones
adopting only one type of strategy. The correlations between the strategic types and
the performance measures indicate that cost-leadership and differentiation strategies
help organisations to fulfil their objectives. However, they are not very helpful in
improving the financial performance, and the performance in comparison to
competitors. This finding points towards the limitations of Porter’s generic
strategies in explaining performance heterogeneity.
This study makes an important contribution to the literature by identifying some of
the gaps in the literature through a systematic literature review, and addressing those
gaps. The issue of inconsistent operationalisation of the constructs in the previous
studies has been pointed out earlier. This issue has been addressed in this study. The
literature review indicated that not many studies have looked at manufacturing
organisations in the UK, and out of these, only a few studies have focussed on
engineering sectors. This study augments the literature by examining the relationship
between business-level strategy and performance in UK based manufacturing
organisations belonging to electrical and mechanical engineering sectors.
Generalisability or external validity refers to the extent to which results from data can
be generalised to other situations. There are two aspects concerning the generalisability
IJPPM of findings (Lancaster, 2005). First, the extent to which results obtained from a sample is
60,3 applicable to the wider population from which the sample is drawn, needs to be assessed.
As explained earlier, the non-response bias was assessed in this study and it was found
that it was not a problem affecting this study. Hence, the findings are applicable to all the
firms belonging to electrical and mechanical engineering sectors in the UK. The second
aspect is concerning the applicability of the findings of research focussed on an industry
242 sector, to other industry sectors. While carrying out survey based empirical research, the
researcher needs to decide whether a broad multi-industry sample or a narrow sample
comprising of a single or limited number of industry sectors, has to be used. Both these
approaches have advantages and disadvantages (e.g. Dess et al., 1990). Broad
multi-industry samples allow the establishment of a general link between business-level
strategy and organisational performance. However, the presence of diverse SIC codes in
a sample implies a variability due to the various external contexts which are not easily
accounted for, making it difficult to interpret the overall results (Dess, 1987). Targeted
studies, on the other hand, facilitate the testing of specific contingent propositions
associated with the framework (Dess et al., 1990). Depending on the range of firms
studied, industry effects will account for a non-negligible proportion (e.g. Wernerfelt and
Montgomery, 1988) of the explained variance in performance as corporate effects and
business segment effects (e.g. Hough, 2006) may do. In this study a narrow sample was
chosen because the literature posits that industry conditions influence the strategy –
performance linkage (Dess, 1987; Hrebiniak and Joyce, 1985). The strategy adopted for
selecting the sample for this study implies that the findings can be confidently applied to
the sectors covered. However, the claim for generalisability is less strong. The
contribution of this paper lies in cumulative theory building. That is to say, the testing of
Porter’s positioning theory is necessary to assess the applicability of these theories in
different contexts in order to identify where they apply and what are the exceptions.
Porter (1980) has contended that his strategies are generic in nature, which can be
applied to all industries. So if Porter is correct, then the findings obtained in this study
concerning the relationship between business-level strategy and performance, should
hold true for other industry sectors as well. However, critics of Porter’s generic strategies
(e.g. Bowman, 2008) have argued that organisational strategies have to be
context-specific and generic strategy prescriptions using a simple framework like
Porter’s would not be effective. If their views are true, the findings may not hold good for
other industry sectors.
References
Abell, D.F. (1980), Defining the Business: The Starting Point of Strategic Planning, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Allen, R.S., Helms, M.M., Takeda, M.B., White, C.S. and White, C. (2006), “A comparison of
competitive strategies in Japan and the United States”, SAM Advanced Management
Journal, Winter.
Andrews, R., Boyne, G.A. and Walker, R.M. (2006), “Strategy content and organisational
performance: an empirical analysis”, Public Administration Review, Jan/Feb.
Auzair, S.M. and Langfield-Smith, K. (2005), “The effect of service process type, business
strategy and life cycle stage on bureaucratic MCS in service organisations”, Management
Accounting Research, Vol. 16 No. 2005, pp. 399-421.
Bantel, K.A. and Osborn, R.N. (1995), “The influence of performance, environment and size on the
identifiability of firm strategy”, British Journal of Management, Vol. 6, pp. 235-48.
Beard, D.W. and Dess, G.G. (1981), “Corporate-level strategy, business-level strategy, and firm
performance”, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 24 No. 4, pp. 663-88.
Beekun, R.I. and Ginn, G.O. (1993), “Business strategy and interorganisational linkages within
the acute care hospital industry: an expansion of the Miles and Snow typology”, Human
Relations, Vol. 46 No. 11, pp. 1291-318.
Bourgeois, L.J. (1980), “Strategy and environment: a conceptual integration”, Academy of
Management Review, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 25-39.
Bowman, C. (2008), “Generic strategies: a substitute for thinking?”, The Ashridge Journal, Spring,
pp. 6-11.
Bowman, C. and Ambrosini, V. (1997), “Using single respondents in strategy research”, British
Journal of Management, Vol. 8 No. 2, pp. 119-31.
Brews, P.J. and Hunt, M. (1999), “Learning to plan and planning to learn: resolving the planning
school/learning school debate”, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 20 No. 10, pp. 889-913.
Buckley, M.R., Cote, J.A. and Comstock, S.M. (1990), “Measurement errors in behavioral sciences:
the case of personality/attitude research”, Educational Psychology Measurement, Vol. 50
No. 3, pp. 447-74.
Buzzell, R.D., Gale, B.T. and Sultan, R.G.M. (1975), “Market share–a key to profitability”,
Harvard Business Review, Vol. 53, January/February, pp. 97-106.
Chan, R.Y. and Wong, Y.H. (1999), “Bank generic strategies: does porters theory apply in an
international banking center”, International Business Review, Vol. 8 Nos 5/6, pp. 561-90.
Conant, J.S., Mokwa, M.P. and Varadarajan, P.R. (1990), “Strategic types, distinctive marketing
competencies and organisational performance: a multiple measures-based study”,
Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 11, pp. 365-83.
IJPPM Cronbach, L.J. (1951), “Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests”, Psychometrika,
Vol. 31, pp. 93-6.
60,3 Cronshaw, M., Davis, E. and Kay, J. (1994), “On being stuck in the middle or good food costs less
at Sainsburys”, British Journal of Management, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 19-32.
Desarbo, W.S., Di Benedetto, C.A., Song, M. and Sinha, I. (2005), “Revisiting the Miles and Snow
strategic framework: uncovering interrelationships between strategic types, capabilities,
environmental uncertainty and firm performance”, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 26,
244 pp. 47-74.
De Vaus, D.A. (2002), Surveys in Social Research, 5th ed., Routledge, London.
Dess, G.G. (1987), “Consensus on strategy formulation and organisational performance:
competitors in a fragmented industry”, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 8 No. 3,
pp. 259-77.
Dess, G.G. and Davis, P.S. (1984), “Porters (1980) generic strategies as determinants of strategic
group membership and organisational performance”, Academy of Management Journal,
Vol. 27 No. 3, pp. 467-88.
Dess, G.G. and Robinson, R.B. Jr. (1984), “Measuring organizational performance in the absence
of objective measures: the case of the privately-held firm and conglomerate business unit”,
Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 5 No. 3, pp. 265-73.
Dess, G.G., Ireland, R.D. and Hitt, M.A. (1990), “Industry effects and strategic management
research”, Journal of Management, Vol. 16 No. 1, pp. 7-27.
Dess, G.G., Lumpkin, G.T. and McGee, J.E. (1999), “Linking corporate entrepreneurship to
strategy, structure, and process: suggested research directions”, Entrepreneurship: Theory
& Practice, Vol. 23 No. 3, pp. 85-102.
Dess, G.G., Gupta, A., Hennart, J. and Hill, C.W.L. (1995), “Conducting and integrating strategy
research at the international, corporate, and business levels: issues and directions”, Journal
of Management, Vol. 21 No. 3, pp. 357-93.
Douglas, S.P. and Rhee, D.K. (1989), “Examining generic competitive strategy types in US and
European markets”, Journal of International Business Studies, Fall.
Frambach, R.T., Prabhu, J. and Verhallen, T.M.M. (2003), “The influence of business strategy on
new product activity: the role of market orientation”, International Journal of Research in
Marketing, Vol. 20, pp. 377-97.
Galbraith, C. and Schendel, D. (1983), “An empirical analysis of strategy types”, Strategic
Management Journal, Vol. 4, pp. 153-73.
Ge, G.L. and Ding, D.Z. (2005), “Market orientation, competitive strategy and firm performance:
an empirical study of Chinese firms”, Journal of Global Marketing, Vol. 18 Nos 3/4.
Ghobadian, A. and ORegan, N. (2006), “The impact of ownership on small firm behaviour and
performance”, International Small Business Journal, Vol. 24 No. 6, pp. 555-86.
Grant, J.H. and King, W.R. (1982), The Logic of Strategic Planning, Little Brown and Co., Boston,
MA.
Hambrick, D.C. (1980), “Operationalising the concept of business-level strategy in research”,
Academy of Management Review, Vol. 5 No. 4, pp. 567-75.
Hambrick, D.C. (1981), “Strategic awareness within top management teams”, Strategic
Management Journal, Vol. 2 No. 3, pp. 263-79.
Hambrick, D.C. (1982), “Environmental scanning and organisational strategy”, Strategic
Management Journal, Vol. 3.
Hambrick, D.C. (1983), “Some tests of the effectiveness and functional attributes of Miles and
Snows strategic types”, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 26 No. 1, pp. 5-26.
Hambrick, D.C. (1984), “Taxonomic approaches to studying strategy: some conceptual and
methodological issues”, Journal of Management, Vol. 10 No. 1, pp. 27-41.
Hambrick, D.C. and Lei, D. (1985), “Toward an empirical prioritization of contingency variables Generic
for business strategy”, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 28 No. 4, pp. 763-88.
Harman, H.H. (1967), Modern Factor Analysis, 2nd ed., University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
strategies and
Hax, A.C. and Majluf, N.S. (1984), “The corporate strategic planning process”, INTERFACES, performance
Vol. 14 No. 1, pp. 47-60.
Helms, M.M., Haynes, P.J. and Cappel, S.D. (1992), “Competitive strategies and business
performance within the retailing industry”, International Journal of Retail & Distribution 245
Management, Vol. 20 No. 5, pp. 3-14.
Herbert, T.T. and Deresky, H. (1987), “Generic strategies: an empirical investigation of typology
validity and strategy content”, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 8, pp. 135-47.
Hofer, C.W. and Schendel, D. (1978), Strategy Formulation: Analytical Concepts, West Publishing,
St Paul, MN.
Homburg, C., Krohmer, H. and Workman, J.P. Jr (1999), “Strategic consensus and performance:
the role of strategy type and market-related dynamism”, Strategic Management Journal,
Vol. 20 No. 4, pp. 339-57.
Hoque, Z. (2004), “A contingency model of the association between strategy, environmental
uncertainty and performance measurement: impact on organizational performance”,
International Business Review, Vol. 13 No. 4, pp. 485-502.
Hough, J.R. (2006), “Business segment performance redux: a multilevel approach”, Strategic
Management Journal, Vol. 27 No. 1, pp. 45-61.
Hrebiniak, L.G. and Joyce, W.F. (1985), “Organisational adaptation: strategic choice and
environmental determinism”, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 30, pp. 336-49.
Huang, T. (2001), “The effects of linkage between business and human resource management
strategies”, Personnel Review, Vol. 30 No. 2, pp. 132-51.
James, W.L. and Hatten, K.J. (1994), “Evaluating the performance effects of Miles and Snows
strategic archetypes in banking, 1983 to 1987: big or small?”, Journal of Business Research,
Vol. 31 Nos 2/3, pp. 145-54.
Jennings, D.F. and Lumpkin, J.R. (1992), “Insights between environmental scanning activities and
porters generic strategies: an empirical analysis”, Journal of Management, Vol. 18 No. 4,
pp. 791-803.
Jennings, D.F. and Seaman, S.L. (1994), “High and low levels of organisational adaptation:
an empirical analysis of strategy, structure, and performance”, Strategic Management
Journal, Vol. 15, pp. 459-75.
Jermias, J. and Gani, L. (2004), “Integrating business strategy, organisational configurations and
management accounting systems with business unit effectiveness: a fitness landscape
approach”, Management Accounting Research, Vol. 15, pp. 179-200.
Kabadayi, S., Eyuboglu, N. and Thomas, G.P. (2007), “The performance implications of designing
multiple channels to fit with strategy and environment”, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 71,
October, pp. 195-211.
Karnani, A. (1984), “Generic competitive strategies – an analytical approach”, Strategic
Management Journal, Vol. 5 No. 4, pp. 367-80.
Kemery, E.R. and Dunlap, W.P. (1986), “Partialling factor scores does not control method
variance: a reply to Podsakoff and Todor”, Journal of Management, Vol. 12 No. 4,
pp. 525-44.
Kim, E., Nam, D. and Stimpert, J.L. (2004), “Testing the applicability of porters generic strategies
in the digital age: a study of Korean cyber malls”, Journal of Business Strategies, Vol. 21
No. 1, pp. 19-45.
Kim, L. and Lim, Y. (1988), “Environment generic strategies, and performance in rapidly
developing country: a taxonomic approach”, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 31
No. 4, pp. 802-27.
IJPPM Kim, W.C. and Mauborgne, R. (2005), Blue Ocean Strategy, Harvard Business School Press,
Boston, MA.
60,3 Kling, J.A. and Smith, K.A. (1995), “Identifying strategic groups in the US airline industry:
an application of the Porter model”, Transportation Journal, Vol. 35 No. 2, pp. 26-34.
Koo, C.M., Koh, C.E. and Nam, K. (2004), “An examination of porters competitive strategies in
electronic virtual markets: a comparison of two on-line business models”, International
Journal of Electronic Commerce, Vol. 9 No. 1, pp. 163-80.
246 Kotha, S. and Nair, A. (1995), “Strategy and environment as determinants of performance:
evidence from the Japanese machine tool industry”, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 16,
pp. 497-518.
Kumar, K., Subramanian, R. and Strandholm, K. (2002), “Market orientation and performance:
does organizational strategy matter?”, Journal of Applied Business Research, Vol. 18 No. 1,
pp. 37-50.
Kumar, K., Subramanian, R. and Yauger, C. (1997), “Performance-oriented: toward a successful
strategy”, Marketing Health Services, Vol. 17 No. 2, pp. 10-20.
Lancaster, G. (2005), Research Methods in Management, Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann,
Oxford.
Lawless, M.W. and Finch, L.K. (1989), “Choice and determinism: a test of Hrebiniak and Joyces
framework on strategy-environment fit”, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 10,
pp. 351-65.
Lee, J. and Miller, D. (1996), “Strategy, environment and performance in two technological
contexts: contingency theory in Korea”, Organisation Studies, Vol. 17 No. 5, pp. 729-50.
Lindell, M.K. and Whitney, D.J. (2001), “Accounting for common method variance in
cross-sectional research designs”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 86 No. 1, pp. 114-21.
Luo, Y. and Zhao, H. (2004), “Corporate link and competitive strategy in multinational
enterprises: a perspective from subsidiaries seeking host market penetration”, Journal of
International Management, Vol. 10 No. 1, pp. 77-106.
Marlin, D., Lamont, B.T. and Hoffman, J.J. (1994), “Choice situation, strategy, and performance:
a re-examination”, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 15, pp. 229-39.
Miles, R.E. and Snow, C.C. (1978), Organisational Strategy, Structure and Process, McGraw-Hill,
New York, NY.
Miles, R.H. (1982), Coffin Nails and Corporate Strategies, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Miller, D. (1987), “The structural and environmental correlates of business strategy”, Strategic
Management Journal, Vol. 8, pp. 55-76.
Miller, D. (1989), “Matching strategies and strategy making: process, content, and performance”,
Human Relations, Vol. 42 No. 3, pp. 241-60.
Miller, D. (1992), “The generic strategy trap”, The Journal of Business Strategy, Vol. 13 No. 1,
pp. 37-41.
Miller, A. and Dess, G.G. (1993), “Assessing Porters (1980) model in terms of its generalisability,
accuracy and simplicity”, Journal of Management Studies, Vol. 30 No. 4.
Miller, D. and Friesen, P. (1978), “Archetypes of strategy formulation”, Management Science,
Vol. 24, pp. 921-33.
Miller, D. and Friesen, P.H. (1984), Organisations: A Quantum View, Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ.
Miller, J.G. and Roth, A.V. (1994), “A taxonomy of manufacturing strategies”, Management
Science, Vol. 40 No. 3, pp. 285-304.
Moore, M. (2005), “Towards a confirmatory model of retail strategy types: an empirical test of
Miles and Snow”, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 58, pp. 696-704.
Nunnally, J. (1979), Psychometric Theory, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
O’Farrell, P., Hitchens, D. and Moffat, L. (1992), “Does strategy matter? An analysis of generic Generic
strategies and performance in business service firms”, Business Strategy Review, Vol. 3
No. 1, pp. 71-87. strategies and
O’Regan, N. and Ghobadian, A. (2006), “Perceptions of generic strategies of small and medium performance
sized engineering and electronics manufacturers in the UK: the applicability of the Miles
and Snow typology”, Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management, Vol. 17 No. 5,
pp. 603-20.
Parker, B. and Helms, M.M. (1992), “Generic strategies and firm performance in a declining 247
industry”, Management International Review, Vol. 32 No. 1, pp. 23-9.
Parnell, J.A. (1997), “New evidence in the generic strategy and business performance debate:
a research note”, British Journal of Management, Vol. 8 No. 2, pp. 175-81.
Parnell, J.A. and Wright, P. (1993), “Generic strategy and performance: an empirical test of the
Miles and Snow typology”, British Journal of Management, Vol. 4 No. 1, pp. 29-36.
Pearce, J. II, Robbins, D.K. and Robinson, R. Jr (1987), “The impact of grand strategy and
planning formality on financial performance”, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 8,
pp. 125-34.
Peter, J.P. (1979), “Reliability: a review of psychometric basics and recent marketing practices”,
Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 16, pp. 6-17.
Phillips, L.W. (1981), “Assessing measurement error in key informant reports: a methodological
note on organizational analysis in marketing”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 18 No. 4,
pp. 395-415.
Podsakoff, P.M. and Organ, D.W. (1986), “Self-reports in organisational research: problems and
prospects”, Journal of Management, Vol. 12 No. 4, pp. 531-44.
Podsakoff, P.M., MacKenzie, S.B., Lee, J. and Podsakoff, N.P. (2003), “Common method biases in
behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies”, Journal
of Applied Psychology, Vol. 88 No. 5, pp. 879-903.
Porter, M.E. (1980), Competitive Strategy – Techniques for Analysing Industries and Competitors,
The Free Press, New York, NY.
Powers, T. and Hahn, W. (2004), “Critical competitive methods, generic strategies, and firm
performance”, International Journal of Bank Marketing, Vol. 22 No. 1, pp. 43-64.
Prescott, J.E. (1986), “Environments as moderators of the relationship between strategy and
performance”, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 29 No. 2, pp. 329-46.
Priem, R.L., Rasheed, A.M.A. and Kotulic, A.G. (1995), “Rationality in strategic decision
processes, environmental dynamism and firm performance”, Journal of Management,
Vol. 21 No. 5, pp. 913-29.
Ramanujam, V. and Venkatraman, N. (1987), “Planning system characteristics and planning
effectiveness”, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 8 No. 5, pp. 453-68.
Ramaswamy, K., Thomas, A.S. and Litschert, R.J. (1994), “Organisational performance in a
regulated environment: the role of strategic orientation”, Strategic Management Journal,
Vol. 15, pp. 63-74.
Robinson, J.P., Shaver, P.R. and Wrightsman, L.S. (1991), “Criteria for scale selection and
evaluation”, in Robinson, J.P., Shanver, P.R. and Wrightsman, L.S. (Eds), Measures of
Personality and Social Psychological Attitudes, Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
Robinson, R.B. and Pearce, J.A. (1988), “Planned patterns of strategic behaviour and their
relationship to business-unit performance”, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 9 No. 1,
pp. 43-60.
Rumelt, R.P. (1974), Strategy, Structure, and Economic Performance, Harvard Business School
Press, Boston, MA.
Salancik, G.R. and Pfeffer, J. (1977), “An examination of the need-satisfaction models of job
attitudes”, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 427-56.
IJPPM Salant, P. and Dillman, D. (1994), How to Conduct Your Own Survey, John Wiley, New York, NY.
60,3 Schendel, D. and Hofer, C.W. (1979), Strategic Management: A new View of Business Policy and
Planning, Little Brown, Boston, MA.
Smith, T.M. and Reece, J.S. (1999), “The relationship of strategy, fit, productivity, and business
performance in a services setting”, Journal of Operations Management, Vol. 17 No. 2,
pp. 145-61.
248 Snow, C.C. and Hambrick, D.C. (1980), “Added measuring organizational strategies: some
theoretical and methodological problems”, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 5 No. 4,
pp. 527-38.
Tan, J. and Tan, D. (2005), “Environment-Strategy co-evolution and co-alignment: a staged model
of Chinese SOEs under transition”, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 26 No. 2, pp. 141-57.
Thomas, A.S. and Ramaswamy, K. (1996), “Matching managers to strategy: further tests of the
miles and snow typology”, British Journal of Management, Vol. 7, pp. 247-61.
Torgovicky, R., Goldberg, A., Shvarts, S., Bar Dayan, Y., Onn, E. and Levi, Y. (2005),
“Application of Porters generic strategies in ambulatory health care: a comparison of
managerial perceptions in two Israeli sick funds”, Health Care Management Review, Vol. 30
No. 1, pp. 17-23.
Treacy, M. and Wiersema, F. (1997), The Discipline of Market Leaders: Choose your Customers,
Narrow your Focus, Dominate Your Market, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA.
Utterback, J.M. and Abernathy, W.J. (1975), “A dynamic model of product and process
innovation”, Omega, Vol. 3 No. 6, pp. 639-56.
Venkatraman, N. (1989), “Strategic orientation of business enterprises: the construct,
dimensionality, and measurement”, Management Science, Vol. 35 No. 8, pp. 942-62.
Vesper, V.D. (1979), “Strategic mapping – a tool for corporate planners”, Long Range Planning,
Vol. 12 No. 6, pp. 75-92.
Wai-Kwong, F.Y., Priem, R.L. and Cycyota, C.S. (2001), “The performance effects of human
resource managers and other middle managers involvement in strategy making under
different business-level strategies: the case in Hong Kong”, International Journal of
Human Resource Management, Vol. 12 No. 8, pp. 1325-46.
Wernerfelt, B. and Montgomery, C.A. (1988), “Tobins q and the importance of focus in firm
performance”, American Economic Review, Vol. 78 No. 1, pp. 246-50.
White, R.E. (1986), “Generic business strategies, organizational context and performance:
an empirical investigation”, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 7 No. 3, pp. 217-31.
Wissema, J.G., van der Pol, H.W. and Messer, H.M. (1980), “Strategic management archetypes”,
Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 37-47.
Wright, P., Kroll, M., Tu, H. and Helms, M. (1991), “Generic strategies and business performance:
an empirical study of the screw machine products industry”, British Journal of
Management, Vol. 2 No. 1, pp. 57-65.
Appendix Generic
strategies and
performance
249
Figure A1.
IJPPM
60,3
250
Figure A1.
About the authors Generic
M.K. Nandakumar joined the Indian Institute of Management Kozhikode (IIMK) in May 2009. He
is currently the Area Chairman of Strategy Area at IIMK. He obtained his PhD from Middlesex strategies and
University Business School and his thesis is entitled “Strategy formulation and implementation performance
in manufacturing organisations – the impact on performance”. He has worked as Lecturer in
Management at Middlesex University Business School for nearly five years. During this period
he has taught Strategic Management and other Management modules at both the Masters and
Undergraduate levels. He has also supervised a number of Masters and Undergraduate 251
dissertations. He worked at University of East London Business School, for a short period of
time. He has presented a number of papers at major international conferences including the
Academy of Management Conference. M.K. Nandakumar has got 14 years of commercial
experience in the sales and marketing area. He has worked in managerial positions in India and
in the Middle East. M.K. Nandakumar is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
[email protected]
Abby Ghobadian moved to Henley as Director of the School of Projects Processes and
Systems on 1 January 2007. Later he became Henley’s Academic Director. Before joining Henley
he was at Brunel University Business School, where he was Professor of Management. Prior to
this, he was the Director of Research at Middlesex University Business School, where he held a
number of other managerial positions, including that of Director of Postgraduate Programmes
and Head of Business and Management Group. He was a Visiting Professor at Warwick
Business School and Monash University in 2005. Abby has also worked for University of West of
England, Policy Studies Institute, Imperial College, Loughborough University and BP. He has
acted as a Consultant to a large number of organisations. Abby is a member of British Academy
of Management (BAM) Council and Director of Research Network (DoRN) committee. He is a
member of ESRC’s virtual college. Abby edits the International Journal of Process Management
and Benchmarking (IJPMB) and is on the Editorial Board of journals in the UK, USA and
Hungary. He received an Honorary Doctorate from the University of Pecs in Hungary, for
scientific achievements in October 1997.
Nicholas O’Regan currently works at Bristol Business School as Professor of
Strategy/Enterprise and Innovation. Before joining Bristol, he was working at Middlesex
University Business School as Professor of Strategic Management. He has published extensively
in leading academic journals, including Technovation, Strategic Change, Management Decision,
International Small Business Journal and Journal of Small Business Management. He has also
presented a number of papers at leading international conferences. His areas of specialisation are
contemporary issues in business, business management and international business. He teaches
Strategic Management Modules for MBA and other Master’s programmes. His
research/consultancy interests are in the areas of corporate strategy; organisational
leadership, culture and performance; small business and their operating environment and
e-business and technology deployment.