BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE LT 23 - PHYSICS (ONLINE)

CHAPTER -
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

Measurement of a physical quantity involves its comparison with a standard value of the same kind is
called the unit of that quantity. The process of measurement of a physical quantity involves,
1) selection of unit (u)
2) to find out the no. of times that unit is contained in the given physical quantity it is called the numerical
value OR magnitude of the quantity (n)
 Any measurement (X) can be represented as the product of numerical value and unit

X  nu
Fundamental and Derived units
The physical units which can neither be derived from one another, nor they can be further resolved in
to more simpler units are called fundamental units
eg. metre, kg, sec
All other physical units which can be expressed in terms of fundamental units are called derived units.

eg. ms , kg ms  N 
1 2

System of Units
A complete set of units which is used to measure all kinds of fundamental and derived quantities are
called system of units
1) CGS system - Centimetre, gram, sec
2) FPS system - Foot, pound, sec
1 foot = 0.3048 m
1 pound = 0.4536 kg
3) MKS system - metre, kg, sec
4) SI system - (International system of units)
Basic SI units Supplementary SI units
Length - metre (m) Plane angle - radian (rad)
Mass - kilogram (kg) Solid angle - Steradian (Sr)
Time - second (s)
Temperature - kelvin (K)
Electric current - Ampere (A)
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Luminous intensity - Candela (Cd)

Amount of substance - mole (mol)
SI prefixes for powers of ten

101 - deca (da) 101 - deci (d)

10 2 - hecto (h) 102 - centi (c)

103 - kilo (k) 103 - milli (m)

106 - mega (M) 106 - micro   

109 - giga (G) 109 - nano (n)

1012 - tera (T) 1012 - pico (p)

1015 - peta (p) 1015 - femto (f)

1018 - exa (E) 1018 - atto (a)

Some common practical Units
Large distances
1) Light year (ly)
It is the distance travelled by light through vacuum in one year

1 y  9.46 1015 m

2) Astronomical Unit (Au)

It is the average distance between centre of earth and centre of Sun

1 Au  1.496 1011 m

3) Par sec (parallactic sec)

It is the distance at which an arc of length one astronomical unit subtends an angle of 1 second of arc

1 par sec  3.08 1016 m

1 par sec  3.26 y

Large Masses
1) tonne or metric ton = 1000 kg
2) quintal = 100 kg
3) slug = 14.57 kg
4) Chandra Shekhar Limit (CSL) = 1.4 times the mass of sun

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Small masses
th
1 12
Atomic mass unit (amu) = It is defined as of the mass of one 6 C - atom
12

1 amu  1.66  1027 kg

Time
1) Solar day - One day (24 hour)
2) Solar year - 365.25 days
3) Lunar month - It is the time taken by the moon to complete one revolution around the earth in its orbit

1 lunar month  27.3 days

4) Shake - It is the smallest practical unit of time

1 shake  108 sec

Small Areas

Barn  1028 m 2
Parallax
It is the apparent shift in the position of an object with respect to another when we shift our eye sidewise.
The distance between the two points of observation is called basis (b)


D D
 - is called parallax angle OR parallactic angle
L R
b

b

D

b
D

Dimensional Analysis
The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the units of base quantities are raised
to represent a derived unit of that quantity. It is denoted with square brackets [ ]
1 1 2
Eg. Force, F = ma =  M L T 

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• The physical quantities can be added or substracted which have the same dimensions
• Special functions such as trigonometric functions, logarithmic functions, and exponential functions
must be dimensionless
• A pure number, ratio of similar physical quantities has no dimension. (Eg. Angle, refractive index,
 ,...etc)
Different quantities having same dimension

Work  Linear momentum  1

   MLT 
Energy 
Im pulse 
2 2
Heat   ML T  Surface tension 
 
Torque Surface Energy   ML0 T 2 

Moment of force  Spring cons tan t 

Dimensional constants : Speed of light (C)

Gravitational constant (G)
Planks constant (h)
Dimensional variables : Area, volume, force,....
Dimensionless constants: Numbers,  , .....
Dimensionless variables : Angle, strain, specific gravity, .....
A dimensionally correct equation need not be actually a correct equation, but dimensionally wrong
equation must be wrong
Applications of Dimensional Analysis
1. Conversion of one system of units to another
This is based on the fact that magnitude of a physical quantity remains the same whatever be the
system of units.
Q = nu = constant

n1u1  n 2 u 2

u1  M1a Lb1T1c u 2  M a2 Lb2 T2c

n1 u1
n2 
u2

a b c
M  L  T 
n 2  n1  1   1   1 
 M 2   L 2   T2 

Eg. Convert 1 N to dyne (CGS system)

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 F   M1L1T 2  . Here a = 1, b = 1, c = –2
In SI system M1 = kg, L1 = m, T1 = sec
In CGS system M2 = g, L2 = cm, T2 = sec
n1 = 1 n2 = ?
1 1 2
 kg  m s 
n2  1   cm   s 
g 

103 g  102 cm 
=   
 g   cm 

n 2  105 1N  105 dyne

2. Checking the correctness of an equation
(Principle of homogenecity of dimensions)
According to this principle, when a relation is dimensionally correct, then the dimensions of all the
terms in that relation are equal

1 2
Eg. S  ut  at
2

s    ut   
1 2
at
 2 
3. To derive the relationship among various physical quantities
Using the principle of homogeneity of dimension we can derive the formula of a physical quantity.
Eg. Derive an expression for the time period (T) of a simple pendulum depends mass (m), length (  )
and acceleration due to gravity (g)

Let T  ma bgc

T  K ma bgc

 M 0 L0T1   M a Lb  LT 2 
c

M 0 L0 T1  M a Lb  c T 2c
Applying the homogeneity of dimension
a = 0, b + c = 0, –2c = 1

1 1
a = 0, c   , b
2 2

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1 1
 T  KM 0  2 g 2


TK k  2
g


T  2
g

Limitations
1. If a quantity depends on more than three factors having dimensions, the formula cannot be derived
2. The method of dimensions cannot be used to derive an exact form of relation, when it consists of more
than one part on any side

1 2
eg. S  ut  at
2
3. It gives us no information about the dimensionless constants in the relation eg.  ,1,2...
4. We cannot derive the formula containing trigonometrical function, exponential function, logarithmic
function, etc. which are dimensionless
Significant Figures
In all instrumental values, last digit remains uncertain and the rest of the digits are certain or reliable
digits. The total number of certain digits along with last uncertain digit gives the number of significant
digits.
In an instrumental value all nonzero digits, trapped zeros, and terminal zero’s in a number with decimal
point are measured as significant digits.
The insignificant digits are terminal zero’s without a decimal point, the zero’s on the right of decimal
point (to the left of Ist non-zero digit in a number less than one), and the power of 10.
• Change of units does not change the no. of significant figures in a measurement
• The multiplying or dividing factors are exact values, they have infinite no. of significant figures as per
the situation
ROUNDING OFF
1) If the digit to be dropped is smaller than 5, then the preceeding digit is left unchanged
2) If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, then the preceeding digit is increased by 1
3) If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by non-zero digits, then the preceeding digit is increased by 1
4) If the digit to be dropped is 5, then the preceeding digit is increased by 1 if it is odd, and left unchanged
if it is even
Arithmetic Operations with Significant Figures
1. In addition and subtraction, the final result should retain the same number of decimal places as that of
the original number with minimum number of decimal places.
2. In multiplication and division, the final result should retain the same number of significant figures as
that of the original number with minimum number of significant figures.
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Accuracy and Precision

The accuracy of a measurement means how close the measured, value to the true value
Precision gives the resolution or the limit to which the quantity is measured. The smaller the least
count, greater is the precision
Errors in a measurement
Error in a measurement is equal to the difference between the true value and the measured value of
the quantity

Error  True value  Measured value

Let a1 , a 2 , a 3 ,..... a n are ‘n’ measured values, then the accepted true value is their average value

a1  a 2  ....a n 1 n
rmean    ai
n n i 1

1) Absolute error   

The magnitude of the difference between the true value and the individual measured value is called
absolute error.

a1  a mean  a1

a 2  a mean  a 2

a n  a mean  a n

1 n
 Mean absolute error a mean   a i
n i 1

i.e. the final result of measurement may be written as a  a mean  a mean

2. Relative error    / Fractional error

It is the ratio of mean absolute error to the mean value of the quantity measured

a mean
a 
a mean

3. Percentage error (%)

The relative error is expressed in percent is called percentage error

a mean
%a   100%
a mean

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Propagation of Errors
1. Error in sum and difference of two quantities
Z=A+ B OR Z =A– B

Z  A  B
The maximum error in the result is equal to the sum of the absolute errors in the individual quantities
2. Error in product or quotient of two quantities

Z = AB OR ZA
B

Z A B
 
Z A B

 A B 
Z  Z   
 A B 

%Z  %A  %B
The maximum fractional error in the result is equal to the sum of their individual fractional errors.
3. Error of a quantity raised to a power

Am
ZA B m n OR Z
Bn

Z mA nB
 
Z A B

%Z  m%A  n%B
NOTE
If a value alone is given (eg.  = 7.6 cm) without specifying error then the least count of the measuring
device gives the value its absolute error

If  = 7.6 cm then   0.1 cm

If M = 12.28 kg then m  0.01 kg

ADDITIONAL NOTE
Measuring Devices
Vernier callipers
Principle
It is a device invented by a french mathematician, Pierre Vernier and is called Vernier after his name. It
consists of a main scale along which another scale slides, known as vernier scale. If n vernier scale

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divisions (V.S.D) coincide with (n – 1) main scale divisions (M.S.D.), then

 n 1
n V.S.D   n  1 M.S.D. or 1 V.S.D    M.S.D.
 n 

 n 1
and 1 M.S.D. – 1 V.S.D = 1 M.S.D. –   M.S.D
 n 

1 sm allest division of m ain scale 1

=  n  M.S.D  No.of division on vernier scale  10  0.1 m m
 
LC = 1 M.S.D. – 1 V.S.D = 1 mm – 0.9 mm = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm

The difference between the values of one main scale division and one vernier scale division is known
as vernier constant (V.C.). This is the smallest distance that can be accurately measured with the
vernier scale, also known as least count (L.C.) of the vernier scale.

Zero error
If the zero of the vernier scale does not coincide with the zero of main scale when the jaw B touches A
and the straight edge of D touches the straight edge of C, then the instrument has an error called as
zero error. It can be positive or negative depending upon whether the zero of vernier scale lies to the
right or to the left of the zero of the main scale. Positive zero error is subtracted from the observed
reading while negative zero error is added in observed reading. e.g. If zero error is +ve then to find zero
error read the main scale reading (M.S.R). N on left zero of vernier scale (V.S) and also the vernier
division x coinciding with any M.S. division, then
Zero error = x × L.C.
Total reading of Vernier callipers
If with the body between the jaws, the zero of vernier scale lies ahead of Nth division of main scale then
main scale reading (M.S.R) = N.
If nth division of vernier scale coincides with any division of main scale, then vernier scale reading
(V.S.R) = n × (L.C.).
Total reading = M.S.R. + V.S.R = N+ (n × L. C)
Screw gauge
Principle
This instrument is based on the principle of micrometer screw. If an accurately cut single threaded
screw is rotated in corresponding not having evenly spaced threads then in addition to the circular
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motion of the screw there is a linear motion of the screw head in the forward or backward direction
along the axis of the screw. The linear distance moved by the screw, when it is given one complete
rotation is equal to the distance between two consecutive threads, along the axis of the screw. This
distance is called the pitch of the screw. A circular cap is fixed on one end of the screw and the
circumference of the cap is normally divided into equal parts, typically 100 equal parts. If it is divided into
100 equal parts, then the screw moves forward or backward by 1/100 of the pitch for the rotation of
circular scale by one circular scale division. It is the minimum distance which can be accurately measured
and it is called as least count.

Pitch 1
 Least count = No.of division on the circular scale  100  0.01mm =0.001cm

Zero error and zero correction

Normally the zero on circular scale coincides with the zero of the pitch scale. Instruments possess
zero error and zero correction, if the zero on circular scale does not coincide with the zero of the pitch
scale. If the zero of the circular scale advances beyond the reference line, the zero error is negative
and zero correction is positive. If it is left behind the reference line, the zero error is positive and zero
correction is negative.
Total reading of screw gauge
If for a object placed between stud and screw, the edge of the cap (circular scale) lies ahead of Nth
division of linear scale and nth division of circular scale lies over reference line, then linear scale reading
(L.S.R.) = N and circular scale reading (C.S.R.) = n × (least count)
Total reading = L.S.R. + C.S.R.

Length Measuring Instruments

Length is an elementary physical quantity. The device generally used in everyday life for measurement
of the length is a metre scale. It can be used for measurement of length with an accuracy of 1 mm. So,
th
 1 
the least count of a metre scale is 1 mm. To measure length accurately upto (1/10) of   of a
th
 100 
millimetre, the following instruments are used.
1) Vernier callipers 2) Micrometer 3) Screw gauge

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1. Vernier Callipers
It has three parts.
i) Main scale: It consists of a steel metallic strip M, graduated in cm and mm at one edge. It carries two
fixed jaws A and C as shown in figure.

ii) Vernier Scale: Vernier scale V slides on metallic strip M. It can be fixed in any position by screw S.
The side of the vernier scale which slide over the mm sides has ten divisions over a length of 9 mm. B
and D two movable jaws are fixed with it. When vernier scale is pushed towards A and C, then B
touches A and B straight side of C will touch straight side of D. In this position, if the instrument is free
from error, zeros of vernier scale will coincide with zeros of main scales. To measure the external
diameter of an object it is held between the jaws A and B, while the straight edges of C and D are used
for measuring the internal diameter of a hollow object.
iii) Metallic strip: There is a thin metallic strip E attached to the back side of M and connected with
vernier scale. When jaws A and B touch each other, the edge of E touches the edge of M. When the
jaws A and B are separated E moves outwards. This strip E is used for measuring the depth of a
vessel.
Principle (Theory)
In the common form, the divisions on the vernier scale V are smaller in size than the smallest division
on the main scale M, but in some special cases the size of the vernier division may be larger than the
main scale division.
Let n vernier scale divisions (V.S.D.) coincide with (n - 1) main scale divisions (M.S.D.). Then,
n V.S.D. = (n - 1) M.S.D.

 n 1 
or 1 V.S.D.    M.S.D.
 n 

 n 1  1
1M.S.D.  1V.S.D.  1M.S.D.    M.S.D.  M.S.D.
 n  n
The difference between the values of one main scale division and one vernier scale division is known
as Vernier constant (V.C.) or the Least count (L.C.). This is the smallest distance that can be accurately
measured with the vernier scale. Thus,

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1 Smallest division on main scale

V.C. = L.C. = 1 M.S.D. - 1 V.S.D.    M.S.D. 
n Number of divisions on vernier scale
In the ordinary vernier callipers one main scale division be 1 mm and 10
Reading a vernier Callipers
If we have to measure a length AB, the end A is coincided with the zero of main scale, suppose the end
B lies between 1.0 cm and 1.1 cm on the main scale. Then,
1.0 cm < AB < 1.1 cm

Let 5th division of vernier scale coincides with 1.5 cm of main scale.

Then, AB  1.0  5  V.C.  1.0  5  0.01 cm  1.05 cm

Thus, we can make the following formula, Total reading = N + n × V.C.

Here, N = main scale reading before on the left of the zero of the vernier scale.
n = Number of vernier division which just coincides with any of the main scale division.
Note: That the main scale reading with which the vernier scale division coincides has no connection
with reading.
Zero error and zero correction
If the zero of the vernier scale does not coincide with the zero of main scale when jaw B touches A and
the straight edge of D touches the straight edge of C, then the instrument has an error called zero
error. Zero error is always algebraically subtracted from measured length.
Zero correction has a magnitude equal to zero error but its sign is opposite to that of the zero error.
Zero correction is always algebraically added to measured length.
Zero error  algebraically subtracted
Zero correction  algebraically added
Positive and negative zero error
If zero of vernier scale lies to the right of the main scale the zero error is positive and if it lies to the left
of the main scale the zero error is negative (when jaws A and B are in contact).
Positive zero error = (N + x × V.C.)
Here, N = main scale reading on the left of zero of vernier scale.
x = vernier scale division which coincides with any main scale division.

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When the vernier zero lies before the main scale zero the error is said to be negative zero error. If 5th
vernier scale division coincides with the main scale division, then
Negative zero error = - [0.00 cm + 5 × V.C.]
= -[0.00 cm + 5 × 0.01 cm]
= -0.05 cm

Positive and negative zero error

Summary

1M.S.D. Smallest division on main scale

1) V.C.  L.C.  
n Number of divisions on vernier scale
= 1 M.S.D. - 1 V.S.D.
2) In ordinary vernier callipers, 1 M.S.D. = 1 mm and n = 10

1
 V.C.or L.C.  mm  0.01cm
10
3) Total reading = (N + n × V.C)
4) Zero correction = -zero error
5) Zero error is algebraically subtracted while the zero correction is algebraically added.
6) If zero of vernier scale lies to the right of zero of main scale the error is positive. The actual length in
this case is less than observed length.
7) If zero of vernier scale lies to the left of zero of main scale the error in negative and the actual length is
more than the observed length
8) Positive zero error = (N + x × V.C.)
Screw Gauge
Screw gauge works on the principle of micrometer screw. It consists of a U-shaped metal frame M. At
one end of it is fixed a small metal piece A. It is called stud and it has a plane face. The other end N of
M carries a cylindrical hub H. It is graduated in millimetres and half millimetre depending upon the pitch
of the screw. This scale is called Linear scale or pitch scale.

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A nut is threaded through the hub and the frame N. Through the nut moves a screw S. The front face
B of the screw, facing the plane face A is also plane. A hollow cylindrical cap K is capable of rotating
over the hub when screw is rotated. As the cap is rotated the screw either moves in or out. The surface
E of the cap K is divided into 50 or 100 equal parts. It is called the circular scale or head scale. In an
accurately adjusted instrument when the faces A and B are just touching each other. Zero of circular
scale should coincide with zero of linear scale.
To measure diameter of a given wire using a screw gauge
If with the wire between plane faces A and B, the edge of the cap lies ahead of Nth division of linear
scale, and nth division of circular scale lies over reference line.
Then, Total reading = N + n × L.C.

Zero error and zero correction

If zero mark of circular scale does not coincide with the zero of the pitch scale when the faces A and B
are just touching each other, the instrument is said to possess zero error. If the zero of the circular
scale advances beyond the reference line the zero error is negative and zero correction is positive. If
it is left behind the reference line the zero is positive and zero correction is negative. For example if
zero of circular scale advances beyond the reference line by 5 divisions, zero correction = + 5 × (L.C.)
and if the zero of circular scale is left behind the reference line by 4 divisions, zero correction = -4 ×
(L.C.)

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Order of Magnitude
In scientific notation, a number can be expressed as N = a × 10b
Where 1  a  10
Order of magnitude is the power of 10 to which the number can be approximated.
i.e., if a  5
order of magnitude is b
if a > 5
order of magnitude is b + 1
eg. order of magnitude of 54
54 = 5.4 × 101
a<5
O.M. = b = 1
Order of magnitude of 9.1 × 10-31 kg
O.M. = -31 + 1 = -30

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