Topic 1: HUMAN ORGANISM

Anatomy – structures Cytology – cell

 Regional anatomy – changes areas Histology – tissues
 Systemic anatomy – changes organ system
 Surface anatomy – changes deeper structure
 Developmental anatomy – changes throughout lifespan ORGANIZATION OF LIVING
 Embryology – changes birth
 Medical or pathological anatomy – changes diseases
THINGS
 Chemical level
Physiology – function  Cell level
 Cell physiology – function of cell  Tissue level
 Special physiology – function of organs  Organ level
 Organ system level
 System physiology – function of organ system
 Organism level
 Pathological physiology – changes function by diseases

ORGAN SYSTEMS
 Integumentary – external body covering  Lymphatic – immunity
 Skeletal – supports organ  Respiratory – pag hinga (lungs)
 Muscular – manipulation  Digestive – pag kain
 Nervous – control system  Urinary – pag ihi/waste
 Endocrine – (glands) growth reproduction  Reproductive – pag anak/ offspring
 Cardiovascular – blood vessels (heart)

HOMEOSTATIS – existence and maintenance of relatively constant internal environment

NEGATIVE – reduce initial stimulus
- Maintain positive negative feedback
POSITIVE – enhances stimulus (harmful)
 Autoregulation – cell, tissue, organ auto adjusts to change of environment
 Extrinsic regulation – nervous / endocrine system adjusts to change the environment

HOMEOSTATIS IN WOUND
1. Receptor(nerves) monitor blood pressure
2. The information is sent to the brain
3. The control center(brain) compares value variable to the set point
4. To maintain homeostasis, control center(brain) causes an effector to respond to the heart
5. Effector produces response that maintain homeostasis
- Changing heart rate changes blood pressure

NOTE: The action of the effector determines if the response will take place through negative feedback or
positive feedback.
Stimulus – change in environmental factor Receptor (nerves) - sensor sensitive to change
Effector (heart) - proves response to stimulus Control center (brain) - receives / process stimulus
 ANATOMICAL POSITION
Supine – laying face up Prone – laying face down
 ORGAN PLANES
Longitudinal section – along its long axis

Cross (transverse) section – right angle to the long axis

Oblique section – across the long axis at an angle other than a right angle

BODY CAVITY
Thoracic cavity – bounded by the ribs and the diaphragm

Abdominopelvic cavity - Contains two subdivisions

• Abdominal cavity - bounded by diaphragm and abdominal muscles

• Pelvic cavity - surrounded by the pelvic bones

SEROUS MEMBARANE
Parietal membrane - lines the wall of the cavity

Visceral membrane - is in contact with the internal organs

Serous fluid - secreted by the serous membrane and protects organs against friction

Pericardial cavity - pericardium that surrounds the heart

Pleural cavities - pleura that surround the lungs

Peritoneal cavity – peritoneum that surrounds certain abdominal and pelvic organs

• Mesenteries - hold the abdominal organs in place/provide passageway for blood vessels,nerves to
organs

• Retroperitoneal - organs located “behind” the parietal peritoneum

 TOPIC 2: CELLS
- Smallest and only arises from one cell
- All organisms contain one or more cells

MAIN PARTS OF CELL

PLASMA MEMBRANE – outer selective permeable Physical barrier / Phospholipids bilayer with proteins
Membrane Lipids

 Phospholipids - Hydrophilic and hydrophobic heads

 Cholesterols - 20% of membrane lipid is cholesterol

Membrane Proteins – communicate (integral, peripheral proteins)/ responsible for membrane

function

a. Transport – actively pump the substances across the membrane

b. Receptors for signal transduction – messenger/hormone
c. Enzymatic activity – active site
d. Cell-cell recognition – communication and identification/glycocalyx
e. Attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix(ECM) – anchor to MP and maintain cell
shape/movement
f. Cell-cell joining – cell adhesion molecules (CAM)

Membrane Carbohydrates & Glycocalyx

- Glycolipids, glycoproteins
- Glycocalyx

Cell junction – how cells able to communicate

 Tight Junctions – prevent molecules to pass

 Desmosomes – communication with adjacent cells
 Gap Junctions – passageway of ions and small molecules

FUNCTIONS OF CELL
Movement and membrane transport – passive transport processes

Passive transport – doesn’t use ATP/energy to move molecule

 Diffusion – higher concentration lo lower (concentration gradient)

 Simple diffusion – substance diffuse through lipid by layer affecting the size(non-polar) pass easily
 Carrier mediated facilitated diffusion – binding solute cause transport protein to change shape
 Channel mediated facilitated diffusion – mostly ions selected on basis size and charge
 Osmosis – diffusion of solvent through selective permeable membranes
a. Purpose – water will move into higher concentration to maintain equilibrium
b. Membrane permeable to water, impermeable to solute
 c. CELL SHRINGKAGE
Permeable – not allow  Isotonic cell – equal gradient between1 and 2 sides along selectively
fluid to pass on permeable membrane
Equilibrium – balance  Hypertonic cell – shrinking mataas/gradient outside
 Hypotonic cell – cell swells going inside ang water to equilibrium
 ‘

Active transport (Na+K+pump) – requires ATP (sodium + potassium + pump)

 Primary active transport – solutes moved across cell membranes against chemical gradient
 Secondary active transport - energy stored created by primary (use ions and molecules)

Vesicular transport – moves substances into the cell (endocytosis) and out of the cell
(exocytosis).

Transcytosis - moves substances into, across, and then out of the cell

Vesicular trafficking - moves substances from one area (cytoplasm) in the cell to another

Endocytosis(inside) – process cell inside proteinv(partner of ER)

 Phagocytosis – cell eating (bigger protein)

 Pinocytosis – cell drinking (small protein)
 Receptor – mediated endocytosis

Exocytosis(outside) – process eject substances from cell

CYTOPLASM - space between plasma membrane and nucleus

Cytosol – vicious semitransparent fluid hat are suspended

Organelles – metabolic machineries

 Centrioles – for cell division/transport, near nucleus (centrosomes)

 Cilia – moves materials over the cell
 Flagella (sperm cell) – similar to cilia but longer moves wavelike
 Ribosomes – making proteins TYPES:
o Free
o Attached to endoplasmic reticulum
 Endoplasmic reticulum - extensive system of interconnected tubes and parallel sacs called
cisternae nakaaatathed sa nucleus
o Rough ER - Attached Ribosomes Proteins produced and modified
o SMOOTH ER - No attached ribosomes, Manufacture lipids
 Golgi Apparatus - Modification, packaging, distribution of proteins and lipids for secretion or
internal use
 Lysosomes – phagocytosis, spherical membranous organelles containing activated hydrolytic
(digestive) enzyme
 Peroxisomes – Resembling small lysosomes break down fatty and amino acids Hydrogen peroxide
  Proteasomes - Consist of large protein complexes break down and recycle proteins in cell
 Mitochondria - Powerhouse of the cell most important organelle where
o atp synthesis (adenosine triphosphate)– energy production
o membranes
 Cristae – Infoldings of inner membrane
 Matrix - located in space formed by inner membrane

NUCLEUS – control center contain genes (DNA)

 Consists of:
o Nuclear envelope - Separates nucleus from cytoplasm and regulates movement of materials
in and out
o Chromatin - Condenses to form chromosomes during cell division
o Nucleolus - Assembly site of large and small ribosomal units

TOPIC 2: TISSUES
TISSUE - Groups of cells that are similar in structure and perform a common or related function.
 Epithelial(Epithelium) - Consists almost entirely of cells main fun. For protection
o Functions
 Protecting underlying structures
 Acting as barriers
 Permitting the passage of substances
 Secreting substances
 Absorbing substances
o Classification of epithelium one layer of tissue or two layer
 Simple – Squamous, cuboidal, columnar
 Simple squamous - single layer of flat and scale-like cells
o Location - at the lining of blood vessels and lung alveoli
o Functiom - Allow fluids to pass/gas through by diffusion
 Simple cuboidal - single layer of cube-shaped cells
o Location - Kidney tubules that
o Function - lines tubules that have secretion and reabsorption
 Simple columnar - single layer of columnar cells
o Location - lining of small intestine Lining of stomach (non-ciliated)
Uterus & Fallopian tube (cillated)
o Function - increase surface area of absorption
 Stratified - Squamous, cuboidal, columnar
 Stratified squamous - multiple layer of flat and scale-like cells
o Location - lining of oral cavity, esophagus (non-keratinized) Skin
(keratinized)
o Function - Protection against mechanical abrasions (chewing and
swallowing) and can withstand constant abrasion and desiccation
(protective protein
  Pseudostratified – Columnar
 Pseudostratified columnar - True simple epithelium: cells rest on the
basement membrane pseudo – false, more than one layer of cells.
o Location – upper respiratory tract including nose (ciliated)
o Function – for respiration secretes mucus and traps particles
 Transitional - Cuboidal to columnar not stretched/ squamous-like stretched
 Transitional - multiple layer of cells squamous, cuboidal or columnar
o Location - lining of bladder, Urethra, Ureter
o Function - to accommodate a high degree of stretch and to
withstand the toxicity of urine
 Connective Tissue – Consists of cells separated by extracellular matrix
o Function
 Enclosing and separating as capsules around organs
 Connecting tissues to one another as tendons and ligaments
 Supporting and moving as bones
 Cushioning and insulating, Storing as fat
 Contain heparin and histamine(hormone)
 White blood cells, Macrophages, Stem cells for immunity
 Specialized cells produce the extracellular matrix
 Blasts – create the matrix
 Cytes – maintain the matrix
 Clasts - break the matrix down for remodeling
o Embryonic or mesenchyme
o Adult
 Loose Connective Tissue – or areolar tissue Contains collagen, reticular, elastic
fibers and variety of cells and Loose packing material
 Dense Connective Tissue –
 Regular: has abundant collagen fibers
o Tendons – Connect muscles to bones
o Ligaments - Connect bones to bones
 Regular elastic: Ligaments in vocal folds
 Irregular: Scars
 Irregular collagenous: Forms most of skin dermis
 Irregular elastic: In walls of elastic arteries
 Connective Tissues with Special Properties
 Adipose tissue - Consists of adipocytes types
o Yellow (white) - most abundant, white at birth and yellows age
o Brown - found only in neck and near kidneys body as axillae
 Reticular tissue - Forms framework of lymphatic tissue.
 Cartilage – Composed of chondrocytes located in spaces called lacunae Next to
bone as firmest structure in body
 Hyaline – Strong support & Flexibility
o Location: Rib cage and cartilage in trachea and bronchi
o Forms most of skeleton before replaced by bone in embryo
o Involved in growth that increases bone length
 Fibrocartilage – compressible an very tough
 o Location: Knee, jaw, between vertebrae
o Found where a great deal of pressure is applied to joints
 Elastic - Rigid and elastic
o Location: External ears, epiglottis
 Bone - Hard connective tissue that consists of living cells and mineralized matrix
 Cancellous or spongy bone
 Compact bone
 Blood - Matrix between the cells is liquid
 Hemopoietic tissue
o Forms blood cells
o Found in bone marrow (Yellow & Red)
 Muscle
 Nervous Tissue

TOPIC 3: INTEGUMENTARY HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY LECTURE

CONSIST OF: FUNCTIONS:

 Skin  Protection
 Hair  Sensation
 Nails  Temperature regulation
 Vitamin D production
 Glands
 Excretion
Skin – largest and primary protective organ
 Temperature regulation
 Protection against ultraviolet(UV) light,  Epidermis
 Trauma  Dermis
 Pathogens  Hypodermis
 Microorganisms
 Toxins

Epidermis – provides a water proof barrier and contributes to skin tone and made up of stratified
squamous keratinized epithelium; Avascular

 Epidermal strata/layers
o Stratum corneum – most superficial / cornified cells
o Stratum lucidum – thin, clear zone
o Stratum granulosum – cell dies and degenerate
o Stratum spinosum – limited cell division
o Stratum basale - Deepest portion of epidermis and single layer High mitotic activity and cells
become keratinized
 EPIDERMAL CELL TYPES
o Keratinocytes - Produce keratin for strength
o Melanocytes - Contribute to skin color
o Langerhans’cells - Part of the immune system
o Merkel’s cells - Detect light touch and pressure
o Desquamate - Older cells slough off
 o Keratinization - Cells die and produce outer layer that resists abrasion and forms
permeability layer
 Thick skin
o Has all 5 epithelial strata Found in areas subject to pressure or friction Palms of hands,
fingertips, soles of feet
 Thin skin
o More flexible than thick skin
o Covers rest of body

Dermis – beneath the epidermis

 Contains
o connective tissue
o hair follicles
o blood vessels
o lymphatic vessels
o sweat glands
 Made up of
o fibrous/collagenous connective tissue
o holds blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, sweat &, sebaceous glands
o Structural strength
o Cleavage lines
o Two layers (Reticular & Papillary

Hypodermis - deeper subcutaneous tissue, made of fat and connective tissue.

 made up of areolar and adipose tissues
 binds skin to underlying tissues; insulation
 Skin rests on this, but not a part
 Consists of loose connective tissue
 Types of cells: (Fibroblasts, Adipose cells, Macrophages) Subcutaneous tissue
 Superficial fascia

SKIN COLOR
 Thickness of stratum corneum
 Blood circulating through the skin
 Imparts reddish hue and increases during blushing, anger, inflammation
 Cyanosis - Blue color caused by decrease in blood oxygen content
 3 factors Pigments
 Melanin - Provides for protection against UV light ii.
 Albinism - Deficiency or absence of pigment iii.
 Carotene - Yellow pigment

GLANDS
 Sebaceous or oil glands
 Sudoriferous or sweat glands
 Ceruminous glands
  Mammary glands

HAIR - Found everywhere on human body except palms, soles, lips, nipples, parts of external genitalia,
and distal segments of fingers and toes

 Composed of shaft and root

o Shaft - protrudes above skin surface
o Root - located below surface and base forms the hair bulb
 3 concentric layers
o Medulla - Central axis
o Cortex - Forms bulk of hair
o Cuticle - Forms hair surface

OIL AND SWEAT GLANDS

 Sebaceous glands
o Produce sebum
o Oils hair and skin surface
 Sudoriferous glands
o Merocrine or eccrine
o Most common
o Numerous in palms and soleS
 Apocrine
o Found in axillae, genitalia, around anus

NAILS
 Anatomy
o Nail root proximally
o Nail body distally: Eponychium or cuticle
 Growth
o Grow continuously unlike hair
Burns - tissue damage that results from heat, overexposure to the sun or other radiation
 First degree – 1st layer of the skin, mild
 Second degree – the outer layer of your skin as well the dermis
 Third degree - “full thickness burn, destroys two full layers of your skin

RULE OF NINE
 AGING - Sunlight Ages Skin more easily damaged, drier melanocytes decrease or increase as with age spots
 Clinical Disorders
o Bacterial infections (eg Acne)
o Viral Infections (eg Chicken pox, German measles, cold sores)
o Decubitus ulcers or bedsores (eg Ischemia and necrosis)
o Cancer
 Basal cell carcinoma
 Squamous cell carcinoma
 Malignant melanoma

TOPIC 4: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM TWO MAIN GROUPS

Alimentary canals - gastrointestinal (GI) tract or gut, is the continuous tube from mouth to anus
- 9 m (about 30 ft) long
- Digests food-breaks it down into smaller fragments and absorbs through its lining to blood.
 Mouth
 Pharynx
 Esophagus
 Stomach
 Small intestine
 Large intestine
 Anus
ORAL CAVITY
 Mouth - buccal cavity
o Lips (orbicularis oris muscle) and cheeks - help keep food between the teeth when we chew
o Palate - roof of the mouth
 Soft - close off the nasopharynx when we swallow
 Hard- forms a rigid surface against which the tongue forces food during chewing
o Tongue - interlacing bundles of skeletal muscle fibers mixes food with saliva, forming it into
a compact mass called a bolus
 Muscles:
 Intrinsic
 Extrinsic
 o lingual frenulum - secures the tongue to the floor of the mouth and limits its posterior
movements
o Papillae
 filiform papillae
 fungiform papillae
 vallate papillae
 foliate papillae

Salivary Glands
 Saliva - Cleanses the mouth Dissolves food chemicals helps compact it into a bolus Anylase
 Serous cells- produce a watery secretion containing enzymes, ions, and a tiny bit of mucin
 Mucuos cells- mucus, and viscous solution
 Major/Extrinsic Salivary Glands
o Parotid gland
o Submandibular
o Sublingual gland

Teeth - lie in sockets (alveoli) in the gum- covered 1nargins of the mandible and maxilla Mastication
 Classification based on shapes
o Incisors
o Canines
o premolars
o molars
 2 Regions: Crown and the root
 Sub regions
o Neck
o Cement
o Periodontal Ligament
o Dentin
o Pulp
Pharynx - Stratified squamous epithelium 2 skeletal-muscular tissue (external)
pharyngeal constrictor muscles
 Oropharynx – throat at the back of your mouth
 Laryngopharynx – connection point of food, water, air

Esophagus - Muscular tube (25 cm) connects oral cavity to the stomach
 Thorax ----> esophageal hiatus ----> cardial orifice (sphinter)

Stomach - 15 to 25 cm upper left quadrant of the peritoneal cavity

 THE STOMACH-mucosal barrier - A thick coating of bicarbonate-rich mucus builds up on the
stomach wall
 4 Major Quadrant
o Cardial
o Fundus
o Body
 o Phyloric part
 Epithelium lining
o simple columnar
o smooth lining (gastric pits-> glands -> juices)
 Gastric glands
o Mucuos neck cells
o Parietal cells
o Chief cells

Digestive processes
Swallowing – Deglutition
 Two major process
o Buccal Phase (mouth) - voluntary
o pha ryngeal-esophageal phase - involuntary controlled by
o medulla and pons
 Peristalsis Movement - alternating waves of contraction to squeeze food along the tract
 Segmentation - Food is moved forward, then backward mixes food and breaks down

Regulation and Gastric emptying

 Stomach emptying
o Receptive relaxation
o Gastric accommodation
 Basic electrical rhythm- cyclic slow waves in the stomach
Processes involve in Digestive System
1. Ingestion – taking in the food
2. Mechanical Breakdown – chewing the food
3. Propulsion – swallowing the food
4. Digestion – sa stomach na breaking down of food
5. Absorption – absorbing the nutrients
6. Excretion/Defecation – tumatae

Small intestine - Major site of absorption

 Major digestive organs
o Duodenum - curves around the head of the pancreas, is about 25 cm ( 10 inches) long
o Jejunum - extends from the duodenum to the ileum (about 2.5 m (8 ft) long)
o Ileum - joins the large intestine at the ileocecal valve (3.6 m ( 12 ft) in length)
 The circular folds
o Villi (intestinal crypts)
o Microvilli (enterocytes, goblet cells, enteroendocrine, Paneth and stem cells)
 Large intestine – absorb and store the residues temporarily residues, eliminate waste (7cm, 1.5 m)
 Parts of the large intestine
o cecum
o appendix
o colon (ascending, right colic,transverse)
o rectum
o canal (perineum)
o Internal and external sphincter

Accessory Organs - produce a variety of secretions that help break down foodstuffs.
 Teeth
 Tongue
 Gall bladder
 Saliva glands
 Liver & pancreass

Liver - largest gland of the body 1.4 kg

 4 primary/major lobes
o Right
o Left
o Caudate
o Quadrate
 Bile: Composition and Enterohepatic Circulation and Secrete some 900 ml of bile daily
o Bile salts : primarily salts of cholic and chenodeoxycholic acids, are cholesterol derivatives.
 Gallbladder - thin-walled muscular sac that appear green when filled with bile. Stores the bile
Pancreas - produces enzymes that break down all categories of food stuffs.
Exocrine/Endocrine glands
 Acini - clusters of secretory acinar cells, produces pancreatic juice
 Ducts – smallest ducts secrete the water that makes up the bulk of the pancreatic juice and the
bicarbonate that makes this secretion alkaline

Pancreatic Juice
 Proteases
 Amylase
 Lipases
 Nucleases

TOPIC 4: HUMAN DIGESTION

Macromolecule Digestion
 Carbohydrates (digestion)
o Mouth --> Salivary Amylase --> Duodenum --> Pancreatic Juice Enzyme-Rich Solution:
Pancreatic Amylase --> Duodenum --> Brush-Border Enzyme : Disaccharides
o Salivary Amylase - begins the digestion of polysaccharides yielding disaccharides
o Pancreatic Amylase - continues the digestion of polysaccharides yielding disaccharides
o DISACCHARIDASES (MALTASE, SUCRASE, LACTASE) - break down the disaccharides into
monosaccharides
o Fructose + gluctose = sucrose glucose + galactose = lactose glucose + glucose = maltose
 Protein (digestion)
o Stomach --> Pepsin --> Duodenum --> Pancreatic Juice Enzyme-Rich Solution: TRYPSIN,
o CHYMOTRYPSIN, CARBOXYPEPTIDASE --> Duodenum --> Brush-Border Enzyme: Peptidase
o breaks down proteins into smaller polypeptide chain
o TRYPSIN, CHYMOTRYPSIN, CARBOXYPEPTIDASE
 proteins not digested by pepsin have just started being broken down
o PEPTIDASE
 breaks down the peptides/polypeptide into amino acids
 Fats (lipid digestion)
o Bile salt
 emulsification - transformation of large lipid droplets into much smaller
 droplet; increases the number, decreases the size
o lipase
 Digest lipids into its simplest unit (fatty acids, monoglycerides)
 Nucleic Acid

TOPIC 5: THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

Cardiovascular System - responsible for delivering blood to different parts of the body

 Organs:
o Blood vessels
 Veins
 Arteries
 Capillaries
o Heart - Pumping Device Size of a closed fist Serves as electrical insulation between atria and
ventricles Consists of plate of fibrous connective tissue between atria and ventricles
 Generating Blood Pressure
 Routing blood - Heart separates pulmonary and systemic circulations
 Ensuring one-way blood flow – by the Heart valves
 Regulating blood supply - Changes contraction rate force blood delivery changing metabolic
 Shape
 Apex: Blunt rounded point
 Base: Flat part at opposite of end of cone

 External Anatomy – Auricles - resembling earlobe

 Four chambers
o 2 atria
 Right - Receives blood from 3 veins (superior vena cava, the
inferior vena cava and the coronary sinus)
 Left - forms most of the base of the heart and receives blood from
the lungs through four pulmonary veins
o 2 ventricles
 Right - receives blood from the right atrium and pumps this blood
out into the pulmonary circulation (the lungs).
 Left - receives blood from the left atrium and pumps this blood
out the systemic circulation (the rest of the body) via the aorta.
 Major veins
o Superior vena cava
o Pulmonary veins
 Major arteries
o Aorta
 Cardiac Muscle – Elongated containing 1-2 centrally located nuclei
 Contains actin and myosin myofilaments
 Intercalated disks: Specialized cell-cellcontacts
 Heart Wall - Three layers of tissue: Prevent blood from flowing back
 Epicardium: This serous membrane of smooth outer surface of heart
 Myocardium: Middle layer cardiac muscle cell and for heart contracting
 Endocardium: Smooth inner surface of heart chambers
o Atrioventricular
 Tricuspid
 Bicuspid or mitral
o Semilunar
 Aortic
 Pulmonary
 Blood Circulation through the heart
  The right heart pump receives deoxygenated blood from the tissues and pumps
it out into the lungs The left heart pump receives oxygenated blood from the
lungs and pumps it out to the rest of the body (the systemic circulation).
 Cardiac Cycle - Blood moves circulatory system from higher to lower pressure.
 Contraction of heart produces the pressure
o Systole: the contraction of a heart chamber (atrium or ventricle).
o Diastole: the relaxation of a heart chamber (atrium or ventricle)
 Electrocardiogram - ECG - stimulates this
 Heart Sounds
 “lubb” - Atrioventricular valves and surrounding fluid vibrations valves close
 “dupp - Results from closure of aortic and pulmonary semilunar valves
 Third heart sound (occasional) - Caused by turbulent blood flow into ventricles

 FACTORS AFFECTING CARDIAC OUTPUT

 Stroke Volume
o Preload - force cardiac muscle fibers contract with during systole is
affected by (the greater the stretch, the greater the force).
o Force of contraction - Hormones, such as adrenaline, glucagon and
thyroxine, all increase the force of contraction.
o Afterload - refers to the pressure in the arteries leading from the ventricles
(80 mmHg in the aorta and 8 mmHg in the pulmonary arteries.)
 Heart Rate
o autonomic nervous system activity – nonadrenaline leads to the
excitation of the SA node and an increase in its production of action
potentials and thus an increase in heart rate.
o hormone activity
 Adrenaline – from the adrenal medulla. Adrenaline has the same
effect as noradrenaline released by the sympathetic nervous
system.
 Thyroxine – from the thyroid gland. Released in large quantities,
thyroxine has the effect of increasing the heart rate
 Baroreceptor - cardiovascular centre of the medulla oblongata
 Vasomotor centre
o Presser Area - moderated by nerves transmitting impulses
o Depressor Area

HEART REGULATION
 Intrinsic regulation - Results from normal functional characteristics, not on neural or hormonal
regulation (Starling’s law of the heart)
 Extrinsic regulation - Involves neural and hormonal control
 Parasympathetic stimulation - Supplied by vagus nerve, decreases heart rate, acetylcholine secreted
 Sympathetic stimulation – Supplied by cardiac nerves, increases heart rate and force of contraction,
epinephrine and norepinephrine released
 Aging effects on Heart
 Gradual changes in heart function, minor under resting condition, more significant during exercise
 Hypertrophy of left ventricle
 Maximum heart rate decreases
 Increased tendency for valves to function abnormally and arrhythmias to occur
 Increased oxygen consumption required to pump same amount of blood

Cardiac Arrhythmias
 Tachycardia - Heart rate in excess of 100bpm
 Bradycardia - Heart rate less than 60 bpm
 Sinus arrhythmia - Heart rate varies 5% during respiratory cycle and up to 30% during deep respiration
 Premature atrial contractions - Occasional shortened intervals between one contraction and
succeeding, frequently occurs in healthy people

TOPIC 5: THE CIRCULATION

BLOOD - For transport gases, nutrients, and waste products of body temperature Protection foreign
substances and Clot formation

 Red blood cells

o Erythrocytes
o Haemoglobin
o Bone Marrow
o Erythroblast
 White blood cells
o granulocytes (contain granules in the cytoplasm)
 neutrophils
 eosinophils
 basophils
o agranulocytes (despite the name contain a few granules in the cytoplasm)
 monocytes
 lymphocytes
 Platelets (megakaryocytes)
o small blood cells consist of some cytoplasm surrounded by plasma membrane Remove macrophage
 Plasma

HAOEMOSTASIS & COAGULATION

Haemostasis - is a sequence of responses that stops bleeding and prevent haemorrhage

 Vasoconstriction
 Platelet Aggregation
 Coagulation

Blood clotting
1. Thromboplastinogenase - enzyme released by the blood platelets
2. Thromboplastin - acts as a catalyst combines with calcium ions
 3. The fibrin threads trap blood cells to form a clot.
4. Once the clot is formed, the healing of the damaged blood vessel takes place,

Blood Grouping
 Transfusion – transfer of blood or blood components from one individual to another.
 Infusion - introduction of a fluid other than blood
 Donor – person who gives blood
 Recipient – person who receives blood
 Transfusion reactions – caused by antigens and antibodies, resulting
o Clumping, rupture, clotting within blood vessel

Diagnostic Blood Tests

 Blood typing
 Cross match
 CBC
 Differential WBCount
 Platelet count
 Prothrombin time
 Blood Chemistry

TOPIC 5: THE CIRCULATION

BLOOD VESSELS

 Arteries
o Elastic - Largest diameters, pressure high and fluctuates
o Muscular - allows vessels to regulate blood supply dilating
o arterioles - Transport blood from small arteries to capillaries
o Aging of the Arteries
 Arteriosclerosis – degeneration less elastic
 Atherosclerosis - Deposition of plaque on walls
o Systemic Circulation
 Aorta - From which all arteries are derived either directly or indirectly
 Parts - Ascending, descending, thoracic, abdominal
 Coronary arteries - Supply the heart
 Veins – Venules
o Venules and small veins - Tubes of endothelium on delicate basement membrane,
o Valves – allow blood to flow toward heart but not in opposite direction
o Atriovenous anastomoses - Allow blood to flow from arterioles to small veins without passing
through capillaries
o Systemic Circulation
 Major veins
 Coronary sinus (heart)
 o Superior vena cava (head, neck, thorax, upper limbs)
o Inferior vena cava (abdomen, pelvis, lower limbs)
 Types of veins
 Superficial, deep, sinuses

Structure of Arteries and Veins

 Three layers except for capillaries and venules
o Tunica intima
 Endothelium
o Tunica media
 Vasoconstriction & Vasodilation
o Tunica adventitia
 Merges with connective tissue surrounding blood vessels

 Cappilaries - Most of exchange between blood and interstitial spaces occurs across the walls
- Capillary wall consists mostly of endothelial cells
 Types classified by diameter/permeability
 Continuous
 Do not have fenestrae
 Fenestrated (Have pores)
 Sinusoidal
o Large diameter with large fenestrae
 Capillary Network - Venules drain network Blood flows from arterioles

Peripheral Circulatory System

 Systemic vessels - Transport blood through most all body parts from left ventricle and back to right
atrium
 Pulmonary vessels - Transport blood from right ventricle through lungs and back to left atrium
 Pulmonary trunk - Arises from right ventricle
 Pulmonary arteries - Branches of pulmonary trunk which project to lungs
 Pulmonary veins - Exit each lung and enter left atrium

Dynamics of Blood Circulation

 Interrelationships between
o Pressure (blood)
 Neuronal regulation - through the autonomic nervous system
 Hormonal regulation - adrenaline, noradrenaline, renin and others
 Autoregulation - through the renin‐angiotensin system
o Flow
o Resistance
o Control mechanisms that regulate
o blood pressure
o Blood flow through vessels

Laminar flow – Streamlined Outermost layer moving slowest and center moving fastest
Turbulent flow – Interrupted Rate of flow exceeds critical velocity Fluid passes a constriction, sharp turn,
rough surface

Control of arterial blood pressure

 Baroreceptors
 Chemoreceptors
 Circulating Hormones
 The Renin-angiotensin system
 The hypothalamus