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Anaphy Reviewer
Anaphy Reviewer
ORGAN SYSTEMS
Integumentary – external body covering Lymphatic – immunity
Skeletal – supports organ Respiratory – pag hinga (lungs)
Muscular – manipulation Digestive – pag kain
Nervous – control system Urinary – pag ihi/waste
Endocrine – (glands) growth reproduction Reproductive – pag anak/ offspring
Cardiovascular – blood vessels (heart)
HOMEOSTATIS IN WOUND
1. Receptor(nerves) monitor blood pressure
2. The information is sent to the brain
3. The control center(brain) compares value variable to the set point
4. To maintain homeostasis, control center(brain) causes an effector to respond to the heart
5. Effector produces response that maintain homeostasis
- Changing heart rate changes blood pressure
NOTE: The action of the effector determines if the response will take place through negative feedback or
positive feedback.
Stimulus – change in environmental factor Receptor (nerves) - sensor sensitive to change
Effector (heart) - proves response to stimulus Control center (brain) - receives / process stimulus
ANATOMICAL POSITION
Supine – laying face up Prone – laying face down
ORGAN PLANES
Longitudinal section – along its long axis
Oblique section – across the long axis at an angle other than a right angle
BODY CAVITY
Thoracic cavity – bounded by the ribs and the diaphragm
SEROUS MEMBARANE
Parietal membrane - lines the wall of the cavity
Serous fluid - secreted by the serous membrane and protects organs against friction
Peritoneal cavity – peritoneum that surrounds certain abdominal and pelvic organs
• Mesenteries - hold the abdominal organs in place/provide passageway for blood vessels,nerves to
organs
- Glycolipids, glycoproteins
- Glycocalyx
FUNCTIONS OF CELL
Movement and membrane transport – passive transport processes
Primary active transport – solutes moved across cell membranes against chemical gradient
Secondary active transport - energy stored created by primary (use ions and molecules)
Vesicular transport – moves substances into the cell (endocytosis) and out of the cell
(exocytosis).
Transcytosis - moves substances into, across, and then out of the cell
Vesicular trafficking - moves substances from one area (cytoplasm) in the cell to another
Consists of:
o Nuclear envelope - Separates nucleus from cytoplasm and regulates movement of materials
in and out
o Chromatin - Condenses to form chromosomes during cell division
o Nucleolus - Assembly site of large and small ribosomal units
TOPIC 2: TISSUES
TISSUE - Groups of cells that are similar in structure and perform a common or related function.
Epithelial(Epithelium) - Consists almost entirely of cells main fun. For protection
o Functions
Protecting underlying structures
Acting as barriers
Permitting the passage of substances
Secreting substances
Absorbing substances
o Classification of epithelium one layer of tissue or two layer
Simple – Squamous, cuboidal, columnar
Simple squamous - single layer of flat and scale-like cells
o Location - at the lining of blood vessels and lung alveoli
o Functiom - Allow fluids to pass/gas through by diffusion
Simple cuboidal - single layer of cube-shaped cells
o Location - Kidney tubules that
o Function - lines tubules that have secretion and reabsorption
Simple columnar - single layer of columnar cells
o Location - lining of small intestine Lining of stomach (non-ciliated)
Uterus & Fallopian tube (cillated)
o Function - increase surface area of absorption
Stratified - Squamous, cuboidal, columnar
Stratified squamous - multiple layer of flat and scale-like cells
o Location - lining of oral cavity, esophagus (non-keratinized) Skin
(keratinized)
o Function - Protection against mechanical abrasions (chewing and
swallowing) and can withstand constant abrasion and desiccation
(protective protein
Pseudostratified – Columnar
Pseudostratified columnar - True simple epithelium: cells rest on the
basement membrane pseudo – false, more than one layer of cells.
o Location – upper respiratory tract including nose (ciliated)
o Function – for respiration secretes mucus and traps particles
Transitional - Cuboidal to columnar not stretched/ squamous-like stretched
Transitional - multiple layer of cells squamous, cuboidal or columnar
o Location - lining of bladder, Urethra, Ureter
o Function - to accommodate a high degree of stretch and to
withstand the toxicity of urine
Connective Tissue – Consists of cells separated by extracellular matrix
o Function
Enclosing and separating as capsules around organs
Connecting tissues to one another as tendons and ligaments
Supporting and moving as bones
Cushioning and insulating, Storing as fat
Contain heparin and histamine(hormone)
White blood cells, Macrophages, Stem cells for immunity
Specialized cells produce the extracellular matrix
Blasts – create the matrix
Cytes – maintain the matrix
Clasts - break the matrix down for remodeling
o Embryonic or mesenchyme
o Adult
Loose Connective Tissue – or areolar tissue Contains collagen, reticular, elastic
fibers and variety of cells and Loose packing material
Dense Connective Tissue –
Regular: has abundant collagen fibers
o Tendons – Connect muscles to bones
o Ligaments - Connect bones to bones
Regular elastic: Ligaments in vocal folds
Irregular: Scars
Irregular collagenous: Forms most of skin dermis
Irregular elastic: In walls of elastic arteries
Connective Tissues with Special Properties
Adipose tissue - Consists of adipocytes types
o Yellow (white) - most abundant, white at birth and yellows age
o Brown - found only in neck and near kidneys body as axillae
Reticular tissue - Forms framework of lymphatic tissue.
Cartilage – Composed of chondrocytes located in spaces called lacunae Next to
bone as firmest structure in body
Hyaline – Strong support & Flexibility
o Location: Rib cage and cartilage in trachea and bronchi
o Forms most of skeleton before replaced by bone in embryo
o Involved in growth that increases bone length
Fibrocartilage – compressible an very tough
o Location: Knee, jaw, between vertebrae
o Found where a great deal of pressure is applied to joints
Elastic - Rigid and elastic
o Location: External ears, epiglottis
Bone - Hard connective tissue that consists of living cells and mineralized matrix
Cancellous or spongy bone
Compact bone
Blood - Matrix between the cells is liquid
Hemopoietic tissue
o Forms blood cells
o Found in bone marrow (Yellow & Red)
Muscle
Nervous Tissue
Skin Protection
Hair Sensation
Nails Temperature regulation
Vitamin D production
Glands
Excretion
Skin – largest and primary protective organ
Temperature regulation
Protection against ultraviolet(UV) light, Epidermis
Trauma Dermis
Pathogens Hypodermis
Microorganisms
Toxins
Epidermis – provides a water proof barrier and contributes to skin tone and made up of stratified
squamous keratinized epithelium; Avascular
Epidermal strata/layers
o Stratum corneum – most superficial / cornified cells
o Stratum lucidum – thin, clear zone
o Stratum granulosum – cell dies and degenerate
o Stratum spinosum – limited cell division
o Stratum basale - Deepest portion of epidermis and single layer High mitotic activity and cells
become keratinized
EPIDERMAL CELL TYPES
o Keratinocytes - Produce keratin for strength
o Melanocytes - Contribute to skin color
o Langerhans’cells - Part of the immune system
o Merkel’s cells - Detect light touch and pressure
o Desquamate - Older cells slough off
o Keratinization - Cells die and produce outer layer that resists abrasion and forms
permeability layer
Thick skin
o Has all 5 epithelial strata Found in areas subject to pressure or friction Palms of hands,
fingertips, soles of feet
Thin skin
o More flexible than thick skin
o Covers rest of body
SKIN COLOR
Thickness of stratum corneum
Blood circulating through the skin
Imparts reddish hue and increases during blushing, anger, inflammation
Cyanosis - Blue color caused by decrease in blood oxygen content
3 factors Pigments
Melanin - Provides for protection against UV light ii.
Albinism - Deficiency or absence of pigment iii.
Carotene - Yellow pigment
GLANDS
Sebaceous or oil glands
Sudoriferous or sweat glands
Ceruminous glands
Mammary glands
HAIR - Found everywhere on human body except palms, soles, lips, nipples, parts of external genitalia,
and distal segments of fingers and toes
NAILS
Anatomy
o Nail root proximally
o Nail body distally: Eponychium or cuticle
Growth
o Grow continuously unlike hair
Burns - tissue damage that results from heat, overexposure to the sun or other radiation
First degree – 1st layer of the skin, mild
Second degree – the outer layer of your skin as well the dermis
Third degree - “full thickness burn, destroys two full layers of your skin
RULE OF NINE
AGING - Sunlight Ages Skin more easily damaged, drier melanocytes decrease or increase as with age spots
Clinical Disorders
o Bacterial infections (eg Acne)
o Viral Infections (eg Chicken pox, German measles, cold sores)
o Decubitus ulcers or bedsores (eg Ischemia and necrosis)
o Cancer
Basal cell carcinoma
Squamous cell carcinoma
Malignant melanoma
Salivary Glands
Saliva - Cleanses the mouth Dissolves food chemicals helps compact it into a bolus Anylase
Serous cells- produce a watery secretion containing enzymes, ions, and a tiny bit of mucin
Mucuos cells- mucus, and viscous solution
Major/Extrinsic Salivary Glands
o Parotid gland
o Submandibular
o Sublingual gland
Teeth - lie in sockets (alveoli) in the gum- covered 1nargins of the mandible and maxilla Mastication
Classification based on shapes
o Incisors
o Canines
o premolars
o molars
2 Regions: Crown and the root
Sub regions
o Neck
o Cement
o Periodontal Ligament
o Dentin
o Pulp
Pharynx - Stratified squamous epithelium 2 skeletal-muscular tissue (external)
pharyngeal constrictor muscles
Oropharynx – throat at the back of your mouth
Laryngopharynx – connection point of food, water, air
Esophagus - Muscular tube (25 cm) connects oral cavity to the stomach
Thorax ----> esophageal hiatus ----> cardial orifice (sphinter)
Digestive processes
Swallowing – Deglutition
Two major process
o Buccal Phase (mouth) - voluntary
o pha ryngeal-esophageal phase - involuntary controlled by
o medulla and pons
Peristalsis Movement - alternating waves of contraction to squeeze food along the tract
Segmentation - Food is moved forward, then backward mixes food and breaks down
Accessory Organs - produce a variety of secretions that help break down foodstuffs.
Teeth
Tongue
Gall bladder
Saliva glands
Liver & pancreass
Pancreatic Juice
Proteases
Amylase
Lipases
Nucleases
Organs:
o Blood vessels
Veins
Arteries
Capillaries
o Heart - Pumping Device Size of a closed fist Serves as electrical insulation between atria and
ventricles Consists of plate of fibrous connective tissue between atria and ventricles
Generating Blood Pressure
Routing blood - Heart separates pulmonary and systemic circulations
Ensuring one-way blood flow – by the Heart valves
Regulating blood supply - Changes contraction rate force blood delivery changing metabolic
Shape
Apex: Blunt rounded point
Base: Flat part at opposite of end of cone
HEART REGULATION
Intrinsic regulation - Results from normal functional characteristics, not on neural or hormonal
regulation (Starling’s law of the heart)
Extrinsic regulation - Involves neural and hormonal control
Parasympathetic stimulation - Supplied by vagus nerve, decreases heart rate, acetylcholine secreted
Sympathetic stimulation – Supplied by cardiac nerves, increases heart rate and force of contraction,
epinephrine and norepinephrine released
Aging effects on Heart
Gradual changes in heart function, minor under resting condition, more significant during exercise
Hypertrophy of left ventricle
Maximum heart rate decreases
Increased tendency for valves to function abnormally and arrhythmias to occur
Increased oxygen consumption required to pump same amount of blood
Cardiac Arrhythmias
Tachycardia - Heart rate in excess of 100bpm
Bradycardia - Heart rate less than 60 bpm
Sinus arrhythmia - Heart rate varies 5% during respiratory cycle and up to 30% during deep respiration
Premature atrial contractions - Occasional shortened intervals between one contraction and
succeeding, frequently occurs in healthy people
Vasoconstriction
Platelet Aggregation
Coagulation
Blood clotting
1. Thromboplastinogenase - enzyme released by the blood platelets
2. Thromboplastin - acts as a catalyst combines with calcium ions
3. The fibrin threads trap blood cells to form a clot.
4. Once the clot is formed, the healing of the damaged blood vessel takes place,
Blood Grouping
Transfusion – transfer of blood or blood components from one individual to another.
Infusion - introduction of a fluid other than blood
Donor – person who gives blood
Recipient – person who receives blood
Transfusion reactions – caused by antigens and antibodies, resulting
o Clumping, rupture, clotting within blood vessel
Arteries
o Elastic - Largest diameters, pressure high and fluctuates
o Muscular - allows vessels to regulate blood supply dilating
o arterioles - Transport blood from small arteries to capillaries
o Aging of the Arteries
Arteriosclerosis – degeneration less elastic
Atherosclerosis - Deposition of plaque on walls
o Systemic Circulation
Aorta - From which all arteries are derived either directly or indirectly
Parts - Ascending, descending, thoracic, abdominal
Coronary arteries - Supply the heart
Veins – Venules
o Venules and small veins - Tubes of endothelium on delicate basement membrane,
o Valves – allow blood to flow toward heart but not in opposite direction
o Atriovenous anastomoses - Allow blood to flow from arterioles to small veins without passing
through capillaries
o Systemic Circulation
Major veins
Coronary sinus (heart)
o Superior vena cava (head, neck, thorax, upper limbs)
o Inferior vena cava (abdomen, pelvis, lower limbs)
Types of veins
Superficial, deep, sinuses
Cappilaries - Most of exchange between blood and interstitial spaces occurs across the walls
- Capillary wall consists mostly of endothelial cells
Types classified by diameter/permeability
Continuous
Do not have fenestrae
Fenestrated (Have pores)
Sinusoidal
o Large diameter with large fenestrae
Capillary Network - Venules drain network Blood flows from arterioles
Laminar flow – Streamlined Outermost layer moving slowest and center moving fastest
Turbulent flow – Interrupted Rate of flow exceeds critical velocity Fluid passes a constriction, sharp turn,
rough surface