BUSINESS

RESEARCH METHODS

Fifth Edition

Emma Bell

Alan Bryman

Bill Harley

OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
DETAILED CONTENTS

Abbreviations xxvii
About the authors xxvii i
About the students and Supervisors xxx
Guided tour of textbook features xxxii
Guided tour of the online resources xxxiv
About the book xxxvi
Acknowledgements xlii
Editorial Advisory Panel xliii

ONE THE RESEARCH PROCESS 1

Chapter 1 The nature and process of business research 3

Introduction 4
What is 'business research'? 4
Why do business research? 4
Business research methods in context 5
Relevance to practica 6
The process of business research 8
Literature review 8
Concepts and theories 8
Research questions 9
Sampling 11
Data collection 11
Data analysis 12
Writingup 12
The messiness of business research 13
Key points 15
Questions for review 15

Chapter 2 Business research strategies 17

Introduction: the nature of business research 18
Theory and research 19
What is theory? 19
Deductive and inductive logics of inquiry 20
Philosophical assumptions in business research 25
Ontological considerations 26
Objectivism 26
Constructionism 27
Epistemological considerations 29
A natural science epistemology: positivism 30
Interpretivism 30
Research paradigms 34
 Developing a research strategy: quantitative or qualitative? 35
Other considerations 37
Values 37
Practicalities 39
Key points 42
Questions for review 42

Chapter 3 Research designs 44

Introduction 45
Quality criteria in business research 46
Reliability 46
Replicability 46
Validity 46
Research designs 48
Experimental design 48
Cross-sectional design 58
Longitudinal design 61
Gase study design 63
Comparative design 68
Level of analysis 71
Bringing research strategy and research design together 72
Key points 73
Questions for review 73

Chapter 4 Flanning a research project and developing

research questions 75
Introduction 76
Getting to know what is expected of you by your university 76
Thinking about your research area 76
Using your Supervisor 77
Managing time and resources 79
Developing suitable research questions 80
Criteria for evaluating research questions 85
Writing your research proposal 86
Checklist 87
Key points 88
Questions for review 88

Chapter 5 Getting started: reviewing the literature 89

Introduction 90
Reviewing the literature and engaging with what others
have written 91
Reading critically 92
Systematic review 92
Narrative review 97
Searching databases 98
Online databases 98
Keywords and defining search Parameters 100
Making progress 102
Referencing 103
The role of the bibliography 104
 Avoiding plagiarism 105
Checklist 107
Key points 107
Questions for review 108

Chapter 6 Ethics in business research 109

Introduction 110
The importance of research ethics 112
Ethical principles 114
Avoidance of harm 114
Informed consent 118
Privacy 123
Preventing deception 123
Other ethical and legal considerations 124
Data management 124
Copyright 125
Reciprocity and trust 126
Affiliation and conflicts of interest 127
Visual methods and research ethics 129
Ethical considerations in online research 130
The political context of business research 132
Checklist 135
Key points 135
Questions for review 136

Chapter 7 Writing up business research 137

Introduction 138
Writing academically 138
Writing up your research 140
Start early 141
Be persuasive 141
Getfeedback 142
Avoid discriminatory language 142
Structure your writing 143
Writing up quantitative and qualitative research 147
An example of quantitative research 147
Introduction 148
Role congruity theory 148
Goals of the present study 148
Methods 149
Results 149
Discussion 149
Lessons 150
An example of qualitative research 152
Introduction 152
Loving to labour: identity in business schools 153
Methodology 153
Research findings 153
Discussion 153
Summary and conclusion 154
Lessons 155
 Reflexivity and its implications for writing 156
Writing differently 156
Checklist 157
Key points 158
Questions for review 159

2J3yTWO QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH 161

Chapter 8 The nature of quantitative research 163

Introduction 164
The main steps in quantitative research 164
Concepts and their measurement 167
What is a concept? 167
Why measure? 168
Indicators 168
Dimensions of concepts 169
Reliability of measures 172
Stability 172
Internal reliability 173
Inter-rater reliability 173
Validity of measures 174
Face validity 174
Concurrent validity 174
Predictive validity 174
Convergent validity 175
Discriminant validity 175
The connection between reliability and validity 175
The main preoccupations of quantitative researchers 175
Measurement 176
Causality 177
Generalization 177
Replication 178
The critique of quantitative research 180
Criticisms of quantitative research 181
Is it always like this? 182
Reverse operationism 182
Reliability and validity testing 182
Sampling 183
Key points 183
Questions for review 184

Chapter 9 Sampling in quantitative research 185

Introduction 186
Introduction to sampling 187
Sampling error 189
Types of probability sample 191
Simple random sample 191
Systematic sample 191
Stratified random sampling 192
 Multi-stage Cluster sampling 192
The qualities of a probability sample 193
Sample size 195
Absolute and relative sample size 195
Time and cost 196
Non-response 196
Heterogeneity of the population 197
Types of non-probability sampling 197
Convenience sampling 197
Quota sampling 198
Limits to generalization 201
Error in survey research 202
Sampling issues for online surveys 202
Key points 204
Questions for review 205

Chapter 10 Structured interviewing 207

Introduction 208
The structured interview 208
Reducing error due to Interviewer variability 208
Accuracy and ease of data processing 210
Other types of interview 210
Interview contexts 212
More than one interviewee 212
More than one Interviewer 212
In person or by telephone? 212
Computer-assisted interviewing 214
Conducting Interviews 215
Know the sched ule 215
Introducing the research 215
Rapport 216
Asking questions 216
Recording answers 217
Clear Instructions 217
Question order 217
Probing 219
Prompting 220
Leaving the interview 221
Training and supervision 221
Other approaches to structured interviewing 222
The critical incident method 222
Projective methods, pictorial methods, and photo-elicitation 223
The verbal protocol approach 226
Problems with structured interviewing 226
Characteristics of Interviewers 226
Response sets 227
The problem of meaning 228
Key points 229
Questions for review 229
Chapter 11 Self-completion questionnaires 231
Introduction 232
Different kinds of self-completion questionnaires 232
Evaluating the self-completion questionnaire in relation to
the structured interview 232
Advantages of the self-completion questionnaire overthe
structured interview 233
Disadvantages of the self-completion questionnaire in
comparison to the structured interview 234
Steps to improve response rates to postal and online
questionnaires 235
Designing the self-completion questionnaire 237
Do not cramp the presentation 237
Clear presentation 237
Vertical or horizontal closed answers? 238
Identifying response sets in a Likert scale 239
Clear Instructions about how to respond 239
Keep question and answers together 240
Email and online surveys 240
Email surveys 240
Web-based surveys 241
Comparing modes of survey administration 242
Diaries as a form of self-completion questionnaire 245
Advantages and disadvantages of the diary as a method
of data collection 247
Experience and event sampling 248
Key points 251
Questions for review 251

Chapter 12 Asking questions 252

Introduction 253
Open or closed questions? 253
Open questions 253
Closed questions 254
Types of question 256
Rules for designing questions 258
General rules of thumb 258
Specific rules when designing questions 258
Vignette questions 263
Piloting and pre-testing questions 265
Using existing questions 265
Checklist 268
Key points 269
Questions for review 270

Chapter 13 Quantitative research using naturally occurring data 272

Introduction 273
Structured Observation 273
The Observation schedule 275
Strategies for observing behaviour 275
 Sampling for structured Observation 276
Sampling people 276
Sampling in terms of time 276
Further sampling considerations 276
Issues of reliability and validity 278
Reliability 278
Validity 278
Criticisms of structured Observation 279
On the other band ... 280
Content analysis 280
What are the research questions? 281
Selecting a sample for content analysis 282
Sampling media 282
Sampling dates 282
What is to be counted? 283
Significant actors 283
Words 283
Subjects and themes 284
Dispositions 284
Images 284
Coding in content analysis 285
Coding schedule 286
Coding manual 286
Potential pitfalls in devising coding schemes 288
Advantages of content analysis 290
Disadvantages of content analysis 290
Key points 291
Questions for review 292

Chapter 14 Secondary analysis and official statistics 294

Introduction 295
Other researchers' data 295
Advantages of secondary analysis 296
Limitations of secondary analysis 301
Accessing data archives 302
Archival proxies and meta-analysis 304
Official statistics 306
Reliability and validity 308
Official statistics as a form of unobtrusive measure 308
Key points 308
Questions for review 309

Chapter 15 Quantitative data analysis 310

Introduction 311
A small research project 311
Kissing data 313
Types of variable 316
Univariate analysis 318
Frequency tables 318
Diagrams 319
 Measures of central tendency 320
Measures of dispersion 320
Bivariate analysis 321
Relationships, not causality 321
Contingency tables 322
Pearson's r 323
Spearman's rho 324
Phi and Cramer's V 325
Comparing means and eta 325
Multivariate analysis 326
Could the relationship be spurious? 326
Could there be an intervening variable? 326
Could a third variable moderate the relationship? 326
Statistical significance 327
The chi-square test 328
Correlation and Statistical significance 330
Comparing means and Statistical significance 330
Key points 331
Questions for review 331

Chapter 16 Using IBM SPSS statistics 333

Introduction 334
Getting started in SPSS 335
Beginning SPSS 335
Entering data in the Data Viewer 335
Defining variables: variable names, missing values,
variable labels, and value labels 337
Recoding variables 338
Computing a new variable 340
Data analysis with SPSS 341
Generating a frequency table 341
Generating a bar Chart 342
Generating a pie Chart 342
Generating a histogram 343
Generating the arithmetic mean, median,
Standard deviation, ränge, and boxplots 343
Generating a contingency table, chi-square,
and Cramer's V 343
Generating Pearson's r and Spearman's rho 344
Generating scatter diagrams 345
Comparing means and eta 346
Generating a contingency table with
three variables 346
Further Operations in SPSS 347
Sa ving your data 347
Retrieving your data 351
Printing Output 351
Key points 351
Questions for review 352
^gTHREE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 353

Chapter 17 The nature of qualitative research 355

Introduction 356
The main steps in qualitative research 357
Theory and research 360
Concepts in qualitative research 361
Reliability and validity in qualitative research 362
Adapting reliability and validity for qualitative research 362
Alternative criteria for evaluating qualitative research 363
Overview of the issue of criteria 365
The main preoccupations of qualitative researchers 366
Seeing through the eyes of people being studied 366
Description and emphasis on context 367
Emphasis on process 368
Flexibility and limited structure 369
Concepts and theory grounded in data 369
Not just words 369
The critique of qualitative research 374
Qualitative research is too subjective 374
Qualitative research is difficult to replicate 374
Problems of generalization 374
Lack of transparency 375
Is it always like this? 376
Contrasts between quantitative and qualitative research 376
Similarities between quantitative and qualitative research 378
Researcher-participant relationships 379
Action research 379
Feminism and qualitative research 381
Postcolonial and indigenous research 384
Key points 385
Questions for review 386

Chapter 18 Sampling in qualitative research 388

Introduction 389
Levels of sampling 390
Purposive sampling 391
Theoretical sampling 391
Generic purposive sampling 394
Snowball sampling 395
Sample size 397
Not just people 399
Using more than one sampling approach 400
Key points 401
Questions for review 401

Chapter 19 Ethnograph/ and participant Observation 403

Introduction 404
Organizational ethnography 405
 Access 407
Overt versus covert? 410
Ongoing access 411
Key informants 413
Roles for ethnographers 413
Active or passive? 414
Shadowing 415
Field notes 416
Types of field notes 417
Bringing ethnographic fieldwork to an end 418
Feminist ethnography 419
Global and multi-site ethnography 420
Virtual ethnography 421
Visual ethnography 425
Writing ethnography 426
Realist tales 426
Other approaches 428
Key points 431
Questions for review 431

Chapter 20 Interview!ng in qualitative research 433

Introduction 434
Differences between the structured interview and the
qualitative interview 435
Asking questions in the qualitative interview 436
Preparing an interview guide 439
Kinds of questions 441
Using an interview guide: an example 443
Recording and transcription 445
Non-face-to-face Interviews 450
Telephone interview!ng 451
Online Interviews 451
Interviews using Skype 452
Life history and oral history Interviews 454
Feminist interviewing 455
Merits and limitations of qualitative interviewing 457
Advantages of qualitative Interviews 457
Disadvantages of qualitative Interviews 458
Checklist 459
Key points 460
Questions for review 460

Chapter 21 Focus groups 462

Introduction 463
Uses of focus groups 464
Conducting focus groups 465
Recording and transcription 465
How many groups? 466
Size of groups 468
Level of moderator involvement 468
Selecting participants 470
 Asking questions 470
Beginningand finishing 471
Group interaction in focus group sessions 472
Online focus groups 473
The focus group as an emancipatory method 476
Limitations of focus groups 478
Checklist 479
Key points 480
Questions for review 480

Chapter 22 Language in qualitative research 482

Introduction 483
Discourse analysis 483
Main features of discourse analysis 484
Interpretive repertoires and detailed procedures 486
Critical discourse analysis 488
Narrative analysis 489
Rhetorical analysis 491
Conversation analysis 493
Overview 496
Key points 497
Questions for review 497

Chapter 23 Documents as sources of data 499

Introduction 500
Personal documents 500
Public documents 503
Organizational documents 504
Media Outputs 506
Visual documents 507
Documents as 'texts' 510
Interpreting documents 511
Qualitative content analysis 511
Semiotics 512
Historical analysis 512
Checklist 514
Key points 515
Questions for review 515

Chapter 24 Qualitative data analysis 517

Introduction 518
Thematic analysis 519
Grounded theory 521
Tools of grounded theory 521
Outcomes of grounded theory 522
Memos 524
Criticisms of grounded theory 525
More on coding 530
Steps and considerations in coding 531
Turning data into fragments 531
The critique of coding 533
 Secondary analysis of qualitative data 534
Key points 537
Questions for review 537

Chapter 25 Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis: using NVivo 538

Introduction 539
Is CAQDAS like quantitative data analysis Software? 539
No industry leader 539
Limited acceptance of CAQDAS 539
Learning NVivo 541
Coding 542
Searching data 550
Memos 552
Saving an NVivo project 553
Opening an existing NVivo project 553
Final thoughts 553
Key points 553
Questions for review 553

ßßFOUR MIXED METHODS RESEARCH 555

Chapter 26 Breaking down the quantitative/qualitative divide 557

Introduction 558
The natural science model and qualitative research 558
Quantitative research and interpretivism 560
Quantitative research and constructionism 561
Epistemological and ontological considerations 561
Problems with the quantitative/qualitative contrast 562
Behaviour versus meaning 562
Theory tested in research versus theory emergent from data 562
Numbers versus words 562
Artificial versus natural 563
Reciprocal analysis 564
Qualitative analysis of quantitative data 564
Quantitative analysis of qualitative data 565
Quantification in qualitative research 565
Thematic analysis 565
Quasi-quantification in qualitative research 566
Combating anecdotalism through limited quantification 566
Key points 566
Questions for review 567

Chapter 27 Mixed methods research: combining quantitative

and qualitative research 568
Introduction 569
The arguments against mixed methods research 569
The embedded methods argument 569
The paradigm argument 570
Two versions of the debate about quantitative and
qualitative research 570
 The rise of mixed methods research 571
Classifying mixed methods research in terms of priority
and sequence 571
Different types of mixed methods design 573
Approaches to mixed methods research 574
The logic of triangulation 574
Qualitative research facilitates quantitative research 576
Quantitative research facilitates qualitative research 576
Filling in the gaps 576
Static and processual features 578
Research issues and participants' perspectives 579
The problem of generality 579
Interpreting the relationship between variables 579
Studying different aspects of a phenomenon 581
Solving a puzzle 583
Quality issues in mixed methods research 585
Key points 586
Questions for review 586

Glossary 589
References 599
Name index 623
Subject index 629