1

Framework of the Study

This study will revolve on five theories, and model namely Social Exchange Theory, Effort-

Recovery Model, Self-Determination Theory, Two-Factor Theory, and Two Studies about

Effectiveness of Age & Workplace. These will serve as a springboard to the study being undertaken.

Social Exchange Theory (George Homans, 1958) is a theory based on the idea that two

individuals form a connection after doing a cost-benefit analysis. In other words, it's a statistic created

to assess how much work a person puts into a person-to-person interaction. The evaluation of a

relationship's positives and negatives may yield information that might help establish whether

someone is investing excessive effort in a relationship. The American sociologist George Homans,

who developed a framework based on a combination of behaviorism and fundamental economics,

wrote an essay titled "Social Behavior as Exchange" in 1958, which is when social exchange theory

first emerged. Other investigations widened the scope of Homans' essential ideas in the shortly after

years. 

The study of Li Zhao & Brian Detlor (2021, January 8) about Towards a contingency model

of knowledge sharing: interaction between social capital and social exchange theories, according to

the findings, costs have a detrimental impact on one's intention to share information, but rewards have

a favorable impact. In particular, whereas one's intention to share information is directly influenced by

the work involved, the impact of losing knowledge power depends on norms that support sharing. The

influence of the extrinsic benefit is dependent on pro-sharing norms, but two intrinsic advantages

(enjoyment of assisting others and social connectedness) have a direct impact on one's desire to share

information. Additionally, generalized trust may be able to lessen the negative effects of online status

seeking on one's desire to share information. 

The study is related to our research to show how that social exchange affects the fitness of

employees. when the employees do social exchange, they will maximize benefits and minimize costs.

One of the few important markers of a person's success in their employment is their connections with

coworkers. An employee is more inclined to quit their job and look for those connections elsewhere if

they don't feel connected at work. To assist your employees to feel more personally linked to the firm
 2

and to help shape an atmosphere and corporate culture that encourages friendliness and collegial

relationship-building, apply social exchange theory.

Effort-Recovery Model according to Meijman and Mulder's (Drenth et al., 1998), states that

the likelihood of long work hours having a detrimental impact on one's health and wellbeing depends

on the likelihood that one can recover both during the workday internal recovery and after the work

external recovery. The time required for effort investment increases during overtime labor, yet due to

spillover effects, the time available for recuperation after work may be inadequate. The likelihood that

overtime may be required during a period of high demand will reduce the opportunities for in-between

internal recovery breaks. In accordance with a model developed by Michel Shuster and Susan Rhodes

(Schuster & Rhodes, 1985), overtime and long hours are to blame for several intermediate situations

at work, including exhaustion, tension, and sleepiness, which are expected to increase the probability

of accidents at work (Dembe et al., 2005). Additionally, research has found that overtime work is

associated with mental health issues like depression and psychological anguish (Sparks et al., 1997;

van der Hulst, 2003). 

The study of Zoe Zoupanou, Mark Cropley, and Leif W. (2013, December 11) about

Recovery after Work: The Role of Work Beliefs in the Unwinding Process, the result of the study

showed that "a high evaluation of centrality of work and leisure moderated the effect of negative

appraisal of work interruption on elevated problem-solving pondering. Positive appraisal of work

interruption was related to problem-solving pondering, and the strength of this association was further

moderated by a strong belief in a delay of gratification. In addition, employees' positive appraisal of

work interruption was related to work detachment, and the strength of this association was further

moderated by strong beliefs in hard work and self-reliance. These findings are discussed in terms of

their theoretical and practical implications for employees who are strongly influenced by such work

beliefs." 

The study is related to our research to show that overwork is one of the major factors that

affect the fitness of Lorma Colleges office workers. It shows how the overwork effect makes

employees take most of their time working and which affects their recovery time, and causes fatigue,

stress, depression, and drowsiness. These causes may increase the accidents and unperfect work. The
 3

result of the study showed that good recovery after work will leave a positive appraisal and improve

the fitness of employees. 

Self-Determination Theory (Edward D., Richard R., 1985) speaks about people that are

highly motivated to grow, learn and change through three innate psychological needs. This theory

believes that people can become self-determined when their needs for competence, connection, and

autonomy are fulfilled. The capacity for decision-making and self-management is referred to as self-

determination. Being self-determined gives you a better sense of control than being non-self-

determined, which can make you feel as though other people are running your life. According to self-

determination theory, people are more motivated to act when they believe their actions will have an

impact on the outcome, which explains how being self-determined affects motivation. 

This theory would be beneficial for the researchers since it is related to their study. It talks

about motivation and personality of employees and students as well. It talks about how self-

determination is an important concept in psychology since it plays a role in psychological health and

well-being. 

Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg, 1959) is a concept that states the factors that affect

an individual's satisfaction and motivation level. These two factors are Job satisfaction

(affective/hygiene), and Job dissatisfaction (motivational). This theory was formulated by American

psychologist Frederick Irving Herzberg in 1968, and it immediately rose to the top of the Harvard

Business Review's most popular articles list. Herzberg thought that these two elements had differing

effects on workers' performance. Effective and motivating things frequently have varying effects on

individuals. Even if someone is happy in their job, they could not be driven enough to pursue their

objectives. In their original study, Herzberg and his colleagues looked at fourteen variables that were

related to job satisfaction and categorized them as either motivating or sanitary variables. While the

existence of hygiene elements reduces job discontent, motivation factors boost it. The theory has been

largely superseded by newer theories of motivation in academia, although it still has an impact on

management philosophy and research technique in various parts of the world.

This theory is related to the research, it shows how that Hygiene factors and Herzberg's

motivators are so much effect on the fitness of the worker, like Hygiene factors are the elements of a
 4

job that satisfy basic needs: security, pay, fairness, and working conditions, and Motivational factors

are elements that motivate people to stay and grow in a role, like recognition for accomplishments,

responsibility, Variety. When these needs are fulfilled, workers will feel comfortable and satisfied

with their roles. 

Ding, Gebel, Merom, Mumu, Stanaway, Sweeting & Tiedemann (2019, November 8) stated

that because of age-related decline, an older workforce requires special considerations regarding

occupational health, safety and productivity. An in-depth review by Crawford et al. identified a

number of physiological and psychological differences between older workers and their younger

counterparts, including reduced muscle strength, endurance, trunk flexibility, balance, aerobic

capacity (particularly in women), tolerance to heat, increased anthropometric risks, psychological

exhaustion, anxiety and depression. Further, older employees suffer from greater prevalence of

comorbidities, and more musculoskeletal problems, sickness-related absence and fatal injuries. This

concept believes that active ageing in order to delay retirement in means of health and fitness is

increasingly important. Older employees ageing 55 and above may have reduced muscle strength,

endurance, balance, and aerobic capacity which means that they suffer from greater prevalence. This

correlates with the present study of the researchers.

According to Benson, Bird, Gordon & Hunter (2018, October 11). It has been demonstrated

that workplace exercise programs boost employee physical activity engagement and short-term health

and fitness. But the narrow range of employee participation across organizations and the falling

exercise adherence in individual studies point to the need for more well-researched programs.

Atkinson, et al., (2019) stated Cardiorespiratory fitness is a strong predictor of all-cause mortality.

Physical activity of at least moderate intensity can improve cardiorespiratory fitness. Workplaces may

provide a relatively controlled setting in which to improve cardiorespiratory fitness through physical

activity. Limited work has been conducted to quantify the impact of delivering physical activity in the

workplace on cardiorespiratory fitness. This study believes that workplaces are highly relative in

which can provide a higher cardiorespiratory fitness within physical activity. Basing on different
 5

workplaces which bases on physical activity interventions, and it consists moderate-intensity activities

is said to improve cardiorespiratory fitness. This correlates to the present study of the researchers.

Reference

Kendra, C. (2022, September 22). Self-Determination Theory: How It Explains Motivation

https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-self-determination-theory-2795387

Jayden R., Brett A., Stephen R., Amanda C. (2018, October 11). Perceived barriers and facilitators to

workplace exercise participation

https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJWHM-04-2018-0055/full/html

Naomi L., Matthew W., Neil M., Greg A., Kathryn L. (2019, August 1). Effects of Workplace-Based

Physical Activity Interventions on Cardiorespiratory Fitness: A Systematic Review and Meta-

Analysis of Controlled Trials

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31115827/

Dafna M., Fiona S., Joanna S., Anne T., Shirin J., Klaus G., Ding D. (2019, November 8). Effects on

exercise and fitness outcomes of workplace physical activity interventions targeting older employees:

A systematic review and meta-analysis

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/

340187856_Effects_on_exercise_and_fitness_outcomes_of_workplace_physical_activity_int

erventions_targeting_older_employees_A_systematic_review_and_meta-analysis

Charlotte N. (2021, November 16). Herzberg’s Motivation Two-Factor Theory

https://www.simplypsychology.org/herzbergs-two-factor-theory.html

Yuvika I. (2022, June 10). Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory in Project Management

https://www.wrike.com/blog/what-is-herzbergs-two-factor-theory/

Zoe Z., Mark C., Leif W. (2013, December 11). Recovery after Work: The Role of Work Beliefs in

the Unwinding Process

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3862850/

Tulane University (2018, April 20). What Is Social Exchange Theory?

https://socialwork.tulane.edu/blog/social-exchange-theory
 6

Li Z., Brian D. (2021, January 8). Towards a contingency model of knowledge sharing: interaction

between social capital and social exchange theories

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14778238.2020.1866444