Fertility Mortality Migration
Fertility Mortality Migration
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Fertility
3.2.1 Concept of Fertility
3.2.2 Measures / Indices of Fertility
3.2.2.1 Crude Birth Rate
3.2.2.2 General Fertility Rate
3.2.2.3 Age-SpecificFertility Rates
3.2.2.4 TotalFertility Rate
3.2.2.5 Gross Reproduction Rate
3.2.2.6 Net Reproduction Rate
3.2.3 Factors Influencing Fertility
3.2.4 Differential Fertility
3.2.4.1 Regional Differences in Fertility
3.2.4.2 Fertility Differentials based on Socio-economic Factors
3.3 Mortality
3.3.1 Concept of Mortality
3.3.2 Measures /Indices of Mortality
3.3.2 1 Crude Death Rate
3.3.2 2 Age-Specific Death Rate
3.3.2.3 Maternal Mortality Rate
3.3.2.4 Infant Mortality Rate
3.3.2.5 Cause-Specific Death Rate
3.3.2.6 Comparative Mortality Index
3.3.2.7 Standard Mortality Ratio
3.3.2.8 Average Expectation of Life at Birth or Average Life Expectancy
3.3.2.9 Standardized Death Rates
3.3.3 DifferentialMortality
3.3.3.1 Average Expectation of Life at Birth: Sex Differences in Mortality
3.3.3.2 Age-Pattern of Mortality
3.3.3.3 Other Differentials of Mortality
3.3.4 Causes of Death
3.4 Migration
3.4.1 Concept and Types of Migration
3.4.2 Measurement /Indices of Migration
3.4.2.1 Direct Measures of Migration
3.4.2.2 Indirect Measures of Migration
3.4.3 Differential Migration
3.4.3.1 Internal Migration in India: Some Differentials
3.4.4 Causes of Migration
3.4.5 Consequences and Constraints of Migration
3.4.5.1 Consequences of Migration
3.4.5.2 Constraints to Migration
kl
3.5 Let Us Sum Up Determinants of Population
Change
3.6 Answers to 'Check your Progress' Questions
3.7 References
3.0 INTRODUCTION
In Unit-2, we have highlighted the important concepts related to the aspects of
population size, distribution, composition or structure used in the study of
demography. Now it is easy for you to understand the determinants of population
change, namely births, deaths and migration. Technically, i.e. in demographic
terminology, birth rate is called 'fertility rate' while death rate is called 'mortality
rate'. Since the changes in population basically take place due to births, deaths
and migration, these are called determinants of population change. Of course,
there are some other factors such as natural calamities which also affect the
populations occasionally.
We need to know about all these determinants. Therefore, in the present Unit
(i.e. Unit-3), our discussion will centre around fertility, mortality and migration
with emphasis on types, measurements/indices as well as factors influencing
them, among other things.
3.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, we expect you to be able to:
Explain different determinants of population change;
9 Describe the types, measures/indices fertility, mortality and migration and
factors influencing them;
Identify the sources of data on the determinants of population change; and
Analyse and interpret the concepts of differential fertility, mortality and
migration and related trends.
3.2 FERTILITY
In this section, we will deal with the concept of fertility, its measures/indices and
factors influencing it.
Let us look at some useful terms that have relevance in the context of study of
fertility.
Sterility: While a man or woman or a couple who has given birth to at least
one live child, is considered fertile, one who has not had a single child is
considered sterile. While fertility promotes continuation of human race,
sterility hinders population growth and gradually leads to its extinction.
Birth order: The sequence of live births of a women are classified according
to their order or rank; e.g. first order birth (i.e. first in order), second order
birth, (i.e. second in order), etc.
B
CBR= -xK
P
women in fertile age group (in the age range 15-49 or sometimes 15-44) and not
the total female population. GFR is expressed as:
GFR= -
w15-49
We can say that the GFR is a type of standardized rate, standardized for the
proportion of women in reproductive ages. However, it is affected by the
distribution of women by age in the whole reproductive span.Among the various
populations with similar pattern of fertility, a population with higher proportion
of fertile-age women in the age of fertility-peak will produce a higher value of
GFR than other groups. Further, where the tradition and customs do not permit
unmarried women, widows and divorced women the right of becoming mother,
it is preferable to consider only the currently mamed women in reproductive
ages and not all women.
General marital fertility rate (GMFR) is based on the logic mentioned above,
and it is expressed as: d
GMFR = - xK
WL-49
9
Population and Development Where:
Education: An Overview
,,
WG- denotes the average number of married women in reproductive ages
(15-49).
GMFR is certainly a better or more refined measure than GFR. But, again, as the
chance of giving birth by a married women is not uniform over all the ages, it is
also affected by the distribution of women in the age range 15-49.
ASFR = ~ X K
wx
Where:
Bx and Wx are the births to women aged 'x' and the average number of
women aged 'x' respectively.
B
ASMFRx = LXK
wxm
= ASFR, MxK
Where:
bJ?-
k s the average number of married women at age 'x7,and
Mxis the reciprocal of proportion of married women at age x.
When TFR per woman is multiplied by the proportion of births that are female
out of the total births, we get gross reproduction rate. The proportion of female
births in India is around 0.4878, and it varies slightly from country to country.
If the ASFRs are given in five-year age intervals, their sum should be multiplied
by 5. The physical meaning of total fertility rate is that it is the expected number
of children that a cohort of 1,000 women will bear in their life time, if none of
them dies before crossing the age of reproduction. It is sometimes also expressed
8
as per woman in place of per 1,000 women. It can also be said that the total DeterminantsofPo~ulation
Change
fertilityrate is a type of the standardized rate with equal weights given to all ages
and therefore, is independent of the age-composition of the population.
GRR = (2AsFR.1
x=15
x pmportiol of all births that are female
100
= TFR x - (or 0.4878)
205
It is assumed that in India for every 100 females 105 males are born. If the data
be given in five-year age-groups, GRR is calculated as :
The gross reproduction rate can also be defined as the ratio between the size of
birth cohorts in two successive generations, in a one sex population model, if the
mortality force does not operate before the end of child-bearing period. In strict
sense, the GRR is a generational measure. However, it can be calculated for both
the synthetic and real cohort. The GRR, when calculated fi-omthe period-fertility
rates, show what would happen in terms of birth performance (considering only
female births) in a real birth cohort of females if they pass through child-bearing
99
Po~ulationandDevelo~ment ages experiencing the fertility rates described by the period-fertility schedule
Education: An Overview
and without experiencing any mortality before the end of reproductive ages.
Where:
L d l o is the life table survival rate, and
(BxIWx) and (BfkiBx) are the age-specific fertility rate at age 'x' and
proportion of females among the total births at age 'x' respectively.
Assuming that in India for every 100 females, 105 males are born, we have
NM= -5"-
loo
205
B L,
W,,=IS 1,
Nm=
100
2 B, ,L,
205..,16;1,
The NRR indicates that on an average how many daughters would be born to a
group of women starting life together and experiencing throughout their life a
given schedule of fertility and mortality. It is an estimate of the extent to which
a newly born girl-infant will live to replace herself with a daughter, taking care
of her livelihood or health before she accomplishes replacement. Like GRR, it
is also a generational measure but can be meaningfully calculated for both the
synthetic and real cohort. The NRR describes the long-term growth potential of
a population experiencing given sets of fertility and mortality rates by age. If
NRR is one, the population will in the long runbecome stationary which indicates
exact replacement. If the NRR is less than 1, in the long term, the population
will not be replacing itself and if NRR is greater than 1, in the long run the
population will be more than replacement.
100
Determinants of Population
3.2.3 Factors Influencing Fertility Change
In this sub-section, we will discuss the factors that influence fertility, with an
emphasis on those that have brought about a change from high fertility to low
fertility in developed countries.
Age and sex structure ofpopulation: Young population with more females
in reproductive age-group is likely to have higher fertility than the older
populations.
Mortality rate: The higher the mortality the higher the fertility.
Now, let us look at the following factors which have played an important role in
bringing down the high fertility rates to lower level in developed countries.
Parents soon realized that, because of declining mortality, there was no need to
have a large number of children in the hope that a few at least would survive.
They, therefore, started haing fewer children. The advantages of rising real
incomes flowing from industrialization were in danger of being nullified by large
families, specially because of the rising costs of bringing up children. A large
family was, therefore, seen as a threat to maintenance of a certain standard of
life, and couples responded to this threat by having smaller number of children.
Rising costs of child-rearing was, thus, an important factor in fertility decline in
developed and developing countries. Certain measures initiated by the
Governments of various countries also contributed to changes in the attitudes of
parents towards their children. Financial responsibility for medicines and medical ,
With the spread of education among women, social attitudes to women as well
as the attitudes of women to themselves underwent profound changes. It was
realized that a woman need not be restricted to her age-old role of homemaker
and bearer of children. Women began to participate in gainful employment which
provided an alternative to childbearing and childrearing. Education was also
responsible for bringing about a rational outlook, free from religious dogma;
and this rational outlook facilitated the acceptance of the idea of fertility control.
Moreover, flowing from educational opportunities rising prosperity was the
aspiration of the individual so as to rise in the social scale. Too many children
were perceived to be an obstacle in the attainment of this objective -to climb
up the social ladder; and the natural result was the limiting of the size of the
family.
According to Notestein (1953, pp. 15-18), the growth of a huge and mobile city
population largely changed the corporate family life of traditional society; instead
102
came individualism which was characterized by increasing personal aspirations Determinantsof Population
Change
to move upward. Large family became "a progressively difficult undertaking;
expensive and difficult for a population ever increasingly freed from old taboos
and increasingly willing to solve its problems rather than accept them. Notestein
(1953) pointed out that the decline in fertility in the West occurred as a result of
the growth of an urban industrial society. He concluded that the development of
technology was the underlying factor for fertility transition. He also pointed out
that industrialization and urbanization resulted in the development of rational
and secular point of view; the growing awareness of the world and modern
techniques through proper education, improved health and the acceptance of
alternatives to early marriage and childbearing as a means of livelihood and
prestige of women.
Asha and Tara (2006, pp.3 11-313) summarise the reasons for the recent decline
in fertility and current low levels of fertility in most of the developed countries
as follows: i) Development of improved methods of fertility control - increasing
use of the most-effective methods; ii) Liberalised abortion laws - extensive
grounds and facilities for abortion; iii) Decreasing desire for large families; iv)
Rising costs of rearing child; v) The increasing trend of women's employment in
paid jobs outside the home; and vi) Instability and changes in the values attached
to the rewards and penalties of parenthood in the context of other needs and
The national sample survey and the sample registration schemes in India have
consistently shown the rural crude birth rates to be higher than the urban crude
birth rates (See Table 3.1).
Table 3.1: Crude Birth Rates in India for Rural and Urban Areas: 1968-1997
Further, the total fertility rates for rural and urban areas were 5.8 and 4.3
respectively in 1972. The total marital fertility rate was also higher for rural
areas (6.8) than for urban areas (6.0). In fact, each fertility index shows that, in
1972, rural fertility was unambiguously higher than urban fertility.
These rural-urban differences also vary from State to State even at a point of
time depending upon geographical and ecological factors.
104
3.2.4.2 Fertility Differentials based on Socio-economic Factors Determinants of Population
Change
Socio-economic factors that cause differential fertility include the following.
EducationalAttainment and Fertility: The educational attainment of couples
have very strong bearing on the number of children born. Educational
attainment, especially of women, is one of the indicators of modernization
and the status of women in society. In low fertility countries, historically the
relationship between fertility and the educational attainment of the wife has
been negative, in the sense that the higher the educational level the lower
was the family size (Asha and Tara, 2006, p.320).
In the high fertility countries, such as Egypt, Taiwan and Chile (Greater
Santiago) a distinct negative relationship has been observed between the
educational attainment of the woman and the number of children born to
her. In a high fertility country like India also, in Bangalore City, women with
high school or college education were found to have a smaller family than
those with a lower educational attainment.
The sixteenth round of the National Sample Survey (1960-61 urban areas)
also brought out a clear-cut relationship between the educational attainment
of the married urban woman and her completed family size. It was observed
that the complete average family size was 6.10,6.32 and 6.25 respectively
for the illiterate, for those whose education did not go beyond the primary
school level, and for those who had completed their primary school education.
For those who had the secondary school education or higher education (above
secondary school) the average family size was 4.25 and 2.62 respectively.
Two Indian studies have established a distinct relationship between the
education of the woman and fertility. The first study was conducted in the
metropolitan city of Greater Bombay in 1966 (J. R. Rele, 1972) and the
second in Panaji, Goa, in 1969 (Asha and Rama Rao, Unpublished). A
negative association between the educational attainment of currently married
women and fertility was observed in Grater Bombay; and this association
was sharp and consistent for each age-group.
Table 3.2: Mean Number of Children Born Alive per Currently Married
Woman by her Present Age and Educational Level
Present age of Illiterate & Secondary Matriculation Total
woman (years) below primary & above
Total 15 and over 3.57 3.43 2.26 3.35
15-19 0.47 0.38 * 0.42
20-24 1.43 1.39 0.96 1.35
25-29 2.58 2.62 1.66 2.41
30-34 3.82 3.33 2.22 3.41
- 35-39 4.58 4.17 3.06 4.26
40-44 4.78 4.86 3.54 4.65
45 and over 4.59 4.93 4.17 4.66
Average 3.51 3.45 2.57
standardized
for present age
Source: Asha A. Bhende and G. Rama Rao. Fertility and Famzly Planning in Panaji, Goa.
(unpublished). 10
PopulationandDevelopment The age distribution of all currently married women of Panaji and suburbs was
Education: An Overview
taken as the standard.
Source: International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS). 1995. National Family Health
Survey (MCH and Family Planning) India - 1992-93. Bombay.
implications for development planning and points to the need for emphasizing,
to a greater extent, the value of the education of women.
Determinants of Population
Check Your Progress Change
Notes: a) Space given below the question is for writing your answer.
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this unit under
"Answers to 'Check Your Progress' Questions".
1) What is fecundity? Explain how it is different from fertility.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) What is natural fertility? How is it affected by contraception'?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) What are various sources of data on fertility?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3.3 MORTALITY
Mortality is one of the three basic determinants of population change, the other
two being fertility and migration. Historic,ally,the factor of mortality has played
a dominant role in determining the change in population, the size of which
fluctuated in the past mainly in response to variations in mortality. The increase
in the population of European countries following the Industrial Revolution in
the seventeenth century was mainly due to decline in the death rates. The
developing countries, which are undergoing a typical demographic transition,
have also been affected initially by the fall in the death rates. In fact, the single
most important contribution of demography has been the revelation of the fact
that sharp declines in mortality rates rather than any rise in the fertility rates has
been responsible for bringing about a rapid growth of population.
PopulationandDevelopment The study of mortality is useful for analyzing current demographic conditions as
Education: An Overview
well as for determining the prospects of potential changes in mortality conditions
of the future. The public health administration depends heavily on the study of
mortality, for statistics on death in the population cross-classified by age, sex,
and the cause of death are of great value for the formulation, implementation
and evaluation of public health programmes. Statistics on deaths also form the
basis of the policies of insurance companies.
You may like to know the difference between still birth, abortion and miscarriage.
Still birth is the delivery of dead foetus (naturally dead, not killed) not by the
pregnant mother. Abortion is nothing but expulsion of foetus from the uterus
before it attains extra-uterine life; foetal mortality. It is again categorized into
two types as induced abortion and spontaneous abortion. Induced abortion is
forced expulsion of foetus. The spontaneous abortion is also called miscarriages.
Often, miscarriages occur due to morbidity. Morbidity is nothing but falling sick
or ill; state of sickness / illness due to various reasons.
From demographic point of view, child mortality infant mortality and maternal
mortality are very crucial.
Child Mortality Rate (CMR): It is defined as the number of deaths at age 1-
4 years in a given year per 1000 children in that age-group at the mid-point
of year concerned. It excludes infant mortality.
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR): A live born child up to the completion of 365
days of life is called an infant. The infant mortality rate is the number of
deaths of infants under one year of age per 1000 live births in a given year
(Haupt and Kane, 1980).
Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR): It is the number of deaths among women
of reproductive age due to puerperal (pregnancy and the related) causes per
1,00,000 live births in a given year.
The sources of data on mortality in India include the following.
i) The Demographic Year Book of the United Nations - provides statistics on
the number of deaths.
ii) A special issue of the Demographic Year Book - gives data on deaths in
greater detail.
iii) Census Surveys of India.
iv) National Sample Surveys in India.
v) National Family Health Surveys conducted in 1992-93,1998-99,2005-06 -
provide some information on mortality in India and States.
vi) Other Research Reports.
108
Determinants of Population
3.3.2 Measures / Indices of Mortality Change
Various measures are employed in the measurement and analysis of mortality.
These measures are discussed below.
Therefore, crude death rate for Greater Bombay for 1973 = 61,931 x1,ooo
6,551,000
= 9.45
The crude death rate of 9.45 indicates that, in 1973 in Greater Bombay 9.45
deaths occurred per 1,000 population. The crude death rate, thus, expresses the
frequency of deaths in the entire population taken as a single number.
Uses of CDR: These include the following.
CDR provides one of the bases for computing the rate of natural increase in
population.
It is the most widely available index of the level of mortality.
It gives us a general idea about the trend in mortality in a particular area
over a period of time.
Limitations of CDR: Though it is summary measure and very useful indicator
of the level of mortality in any population, it is not a refined measure, as is
evident from its very name itself, and suffers from limitations such as the
I
Education: An Overview
in India from 1881-1981.
In fact, each measure of mortality is usually computed separately for males and 1
female.
Where:
dois the number of deaths below age one, registered during a calendar
year.
B is the number of live births, registered during the same year.
K is 1,000 constant.
This rate is only an approximate measure of the true risk of death between the
birth of the baby and its first birthday, for no adjustment is made for the fact that
some of the infants, who died in the year considered, were born in the proceeding
Post-neo-natal mortality rate is the infant deaths that occur between first and
eleven completed months.
Peri-natal mortality rate: The exact definition of perinatal mortality varies from
country to country. The following two formulae are commonly used to estimate
the perinatal mortality ratio:
The perinatal death rate differs from the perinatal death ratio as the former also
includes the fetal deaths in the denominator,besides the births in a year. Therefore,
Fetal death ratios and fetal death rates, as defined below are used for measuring
the reproductive loss due to fetal deaths. The fetal deaths include either all the
fetal deaths or late fetal deaths only (usually after 28 weeks of gestation).
Fetal deaths
Fetal death ratio = x 1,000
Births
1
~opu~ation
and Development
Education: An Overview
'
Fetal death rat e =
Fetal deaths
Births + Fetal deaths
Briths
1,000
-
- x 1,000
Births + Fetal deaths
The cause-specific death ratio is simply a ratio of deaths due to a specific cause
to total deaths occurring during a period of time. The cause-specific death rate is
expressed as the ratio of deaths in a year due to a specific cause to the total mid-
year (average) population. It is calculated as:
-X
Dl K, D = ~ D ,
D 1-1
Where:
Dl represents the deaths due to cause 'i', and
D is the total number of deaths; value of K is usually 1,000.
Cause-specific death rates can also be calculated for specific age. An age- and
cause- specific death rate is given as:
Dk%k
'7-
Where:
Dlarepresents deaths at age 'a' due to cause 'i',
P is the mid-year population, and
r,
12 K is a constant, usually 10,000 or 100,000.
3.3.2.6 Comparative Mortality Index Determinants of Population
Change
The comparative mortality index (CMI) measures the relative level of mortality
in an area, as compared with the level of mortality in that area in some past
specified (standard) years. It takes into consideration both, the changing schedule
of mortality as well as the changes in age-distribution of population over time.
The CMI is defined as the ratio of the weighted sum of the ASDRs in current
year to that in a standard year, at par with the price index number. The weights
are the averages of the proportion of population in various age-groups in the
standard and current (later) year.
The formula for calculating the CMI is:
-
Where:
A S p &' is the age-specific death rate at age 'a' in current year 'c',
95 ~ $ i
in a so 'a' is the same as above, and 's' is the standard year, and
I,
wa represents the weight at age 'a'.
Where:
Fa/ PCand PSa/ P9 are the proportions of population at age 'a' in current year
'c' and standard year 's' respectively.
Though the basic purpose for which the CMI is employed is to compare the level
of mortality at two dates due to its typical weight pattkm, it can also be used to
trace a time-trend of mortality over a short period of time.
3.3.2.7 Standard Mortality Ratio
Standard mortality ratio (SMR) is a type of indirectly standardized death rate. It
is used to compare the general level of mortality (or the mortality due to particular
cause) in an occupation or industry with the general level of mortality (or the
mortality due to a particular cause) in the total population. It is defined as the
ratio of observed deaths to the expected number of deaths in an occupation or
industry had the age-specific death rate for the total population prevailed in that.
It is calculated by the formula.
Observed deaths
SMRO = oo
Expected deaths
Where:
d" and Poaare the total deaths and the population at age 'a' in occupation
'o', and
ASDRtais the age-specific death rate at age 'a' in total population 't'.
For a particular cause, in an occupation, SMR is expressed as:
'opulation and Development
Cducation: An Overview d OC
SMRO' = x 100
xc ASDRf
Where:
d"" denotes the deaths in occupation 'o ' due to cause 'c', and
ASDR: is the age- and causespecific death rate at age 'a' in total population 't'.
Table 3.6: Estimates of Crude Death Rates and Average Expectation of Life
for the World and Various Regions of the World
Crude Death Rate Average Expectation of
Regions (Death per 1000 population Life at Birth
1950-55 1970-75 1990-95 1950-55 1970-75 1990-95
World Total 18.8 12.8 9.3 46.0 55.2 64.4
More Developed 10.1 9.2 10.1 65.0 71.1 74.4
Regions
Less Developed 23.3 14.3 9.1 41.6 52.2 62.3
Regions
Africa 26.7 19.8 13.7 36.1 45.0 53.0
Latin America 14.4 9.2 6.8 52.3 61.4 68.9
South America 10.3 8.9 7.1 66.5 69.7 67.9
North America 9.4 9.3 8.7 69.0 71.4 76.1
East Asia 20.1 9.8 7.2 62.5 68.4 69.7
South Asia 25.2 16.7 8.1 48.5 54.9 63.6
Europe 10.9 10.4 11.2 65.4 71.2 72.9
Oceania 12.4 9.3 7.8 72.3 74.8 76.5
Australia and 9.4 8.1 7.5 72.3 74.8 76.3
New Zealand
Russian Federation 9.2 7.9 13.3 61.7 70.4 67.6
Source: United Nations. World Population Prospects, Assessed in 1973, 1984 and 1990.
There are two different ways of standardization - one is called the direct
standardizationand the other i$the indirect standardization.Direct standardization
is a simple and straight-forward method of adjusting death rate for age-structure.
It requires the set ofASDRs of the population under study and the age-distribution
of a standard population. Any population can be selected as standard; from the
set of those to be compared or any other population not in the set. However, a
population that approximately makes the average age composition of the
populations under study may be preferred. The meaning of a directly standardized
death rate (DSDR) of a population is that it is a crude death rate that would
result if the ASDRs of the population under study apply to a population with the
age distribution as that of standard population. It can be expressed as:
Where:
DSDR is directly standardized death rate of population 'p',
is the ASDR at age 'a' in population 'p', and
P" 1Ps is the proportion of population at age 'a' in standard population 's'.
Non-availability of the ASDRs of a population, many times, present difliculty in
the use of the above mentioned procedure. The problem in such cases can be
dealt with the technique of indirect standardization. It requires knowledge of the
age-distribution and the crude death rate of the population to be compared
and the ASDR and crude death rate of standard population. The formula for
the indirectly standardized death rate (ISDR) is (Bhaskar D. Misra, 1980,pp. 138-
146):
Where:
CDRP = CDR of population 'p',
CDRs= CDR of standard population 's'
116
Expectation of Life at birth
Country YearlPeriod Male Female Difference
Bangladesh 1988 56.9 1 55.97 -0.94
Egypt 1991 62.86 66.39 3.53
Kenya 1990-1995 54.18 57.29 3.11
Mauritius 1989-1991 65.57 73.39 7.82
Mexico 1990-1995 67.84 73.94 6.10
Chile 1990-1995 68.54 75.59 7.05
In this section, we will touch upon migration, which is the third determinant of
population change, the other two being fertility and mortality which we have
already discussed above. Unlike fertility and mortality, migration is purely a
social phenomenon which is the result of a complex mechanism involving social,
a
The process of migration not only affects the size and growth of population of an
area but also produces remarkable alterations in the structure and distribution of
population. The study of migration, thus, occupies an important place in
population studies. In addition, the study of migration is a matter of interest and
importance not only to demographersbut also to economists, sociologists, human
geographers, political scientists, legal departments, policy-makers and planners,
public administrators, social pathologists and social psychologists.
Some of the reasons why different persons working in a variety of fields are
interested in the study of migration are as follows:
Migration may be considered as a symptom of basic social change.
Industrialization and economic development have been accompanied by
large-scale movements of people from farm areas to towns, from one town
to another, from.one city to another, and from one country to another.
Technological and other changes in certain areas causing migration ofpeople
from rural to urban areas has given rise to towns, cities and metropolitan
cities.
Increased market and business operations requiring supply of skilled and
unskilled workers.
Growth of industries leading to the occupational and employment status of
the migrants.
The emergence of such a massive population phenomenon, especially that
of rural-urban migration, and new problems arising out of such migration.
In preceding sections, the terms used such as "death," disease^,^' "births,"
"abortion," etc., are easily understood by the public, for scientific and commonly
understood meanings of these terms do not differ much from each other. On the
other hand, terms such as "change of place," "migration," "communication,"
"mobility," "emigration," "immigration," "out-migration," etc that we will be
using in this section connote different meanings to different persons, for their
meanings in scientific language and common parlance may differ widely.
So, we will cover these terms under the concept of migration and types of
124
Place of origin or Place of departure and Place of destination or Place of Determlnantsof Population
Change
arrival: The place from which a move is made by the migrants is the place
of origin or departure. The place of anival or the place of destination refers
to the place at which a move of the migrants terminates.
Gross migration and Net migration: The total of the arrivals of immigrants
and in-migrants and departures of emigrants and out-migrants is known as
gross migration or the volume of migration. Net migration is the difference
between the total number of persons who arrive and the total number of
persons who leave. This is also referred to as the balance of migration. i.e.
difference between the number of immigrants and emigrants is net migration
with reference to a country in the context of international migration, and the
difference between in-migrants and out-migrants is also net-migration with
reference to a place within a country in the context of internal migration.
Migration stream: It refers to the total number of moves made during a
given migration interval which have a common area of origin and common
area of destination. In practice, it refers to a body of migrants having a
common area of origin and a common area of destination.
Migration interval: Though migration occurs more or less continuously
over a period of time, it is necessary to specify the interval over which it is
observed. This interval may be de$nite, i.e. when data refers to a definite
interval such data measure a fixed-term or fixed-period of migration, be it
one year, two years, five years, or an inter-censual period, etc. Or, it may be
indefznite -the life-time migration of a population based on the place of
last residence which does not have a definite time-reference or at only a
given point of time.
Sources of data: A periodic national census surveys, population registers
and sample surveys are the three principal sources of information on internal
migration (Asha and Tara, 2006, pp.363-369).
2 ) The Survival Ratio Method: This approach for estimating the net internal
migration for the period between two census operations is based on the
survivorship probabilities obtained from existing life-tables. The basic
information needed is the age-distribution by sex, as enumerated in each
area in two successive census operations and a set of survivorship ratios
which may be applied to the population of the first census in order to derive
127
Population and Development an estimate of the number of persons expected to survive to the second
Education: An Overview
census. The differences between the enumerated population at the end of
the second census and the expected population is the estimation of net-
internal migration.
In case appropriate life-tables are not available or where the use of the
available life-tables is forbidden for some reason or the other, the estimates
of net-migration may be obtained by computing the survival ratios of two
consecutive census operations. Both the life-table survival ratio method
and the census survival ratio method cannot, however, provide estimates of
net-migration for persons born during the inter-censual period. Other
appropriate methods may have to be used for this purpose. It should be
noted that the migration estimates obtained by the census survival ratio
method are better than those arrived at by computing life-table survivorship
probabilities as the former has built-in corrections for the age-errors, inherent
in census data.
m=-M
Xk
P
Where:
m is the rate of migration for the specified migration interval;
M is the number of migrations or the number of persons migrating during
the interval;
P is the population exposed to the likelihood of migration during the
interval ( or mid-year population);
k is 100 or 1000 (constant).
Similar rates can be calculated for in- and out-migration and gross- and net-
migration.
Mo
Out- m = -x k
P
Where:
Out-m is out-migration, and
Mo is the number of out-migrants in a given population.
128
Determinants of Population
For gross-migration (gross-in): Change
Mi+Mo
Gross - m =
P
Where, Gross-m is gross-migration.
InterlState Migration in the Indian States During 1951-61 and 1961- 71Based
on Place of Birth Data: The study of inter-state migration in India is fraught
with problems because of the boundary changes which have taken place during
the inter-censual periods. Some demographers have overcome these difficulties
by adjustment of various types of migration and have tried to estimate the inter-
State migration in India (Asha and Tara, 2006, pp.386-387).
Based on the estimates of net-migration in the States of India during 1951- 1961,
following is the order of gaining and loosing states.
129
Population and Development
Education: An Overview Rank Order of Gaining States Rank Order of Losing States
Rank State Rank State
1 West Bengal 1 Uttar Pradesh
2 Maharashtra 2 Bihar
3 Delhi 3 Kerala
4 Madhya Pradesh 4 Rajasthan
5 Assam 5 Madras (Tamil Nadu)
6 Punjab 6 Orissa
7 Mysore (Karnataka) 7 Jammu and Kashmir
8 Gujarat
9 Andhra Pradesh
During 1951- 1961, heavy net-migration was observed to Bengal, Maharashr .
Delhi, and Madhya Pradesh. West Bengal net gain was of nearly 2.8 million
population and that of Maharashtra 1.O million.
On comparison of the two periods i.e. 1951- 1961 and 1961- 1971 for inter-State
net- migration, the change in the pattern of gaining and losing population has 4
been observed as follows: Maharashtra, Delhi, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, and I
Gujarat continued as gaining States, though their rank order had changed, with
Maharashtra gaining the first rank. Some States like Jammu and Kashmir,
Rajasthan, Bihar and Tamil Nadu which were losing population due to migration
during 1951- 196 1, became gaining States during 1961- 1971. On the other hand,
same gaining States in 1951- 1961 like West Bengal, Karnataka (Mysore),Andhra
Pradesh became losing States during 1961- 1971. with the most striking one being
the case of West Bengal; it gained the largest population due to migration during DeferminantsofP0pu1ation
Change
195 1- 196 1, but lost population during 196 1- 1971.
i) Push factors: These are the factors related to the place of origin which are
unfavourable conditions forcing or prompting the persons to move out to
other places. These factors include: a) decline in or exhaustion of local natural
resources, decrease in demand for the local resources, loss of employment
for any reason, oppressive, repressive or discriminatory treatment because
of political, religious and ethnic origins, among others, alienation from a
community for any reason, voluntary retreat from a community for better
opportunities outside, or forced retreat or displacement due to natural
calamities such as floods, fire, draught, earthquake, epidemic, etc.
ii) Pull factors: These are the factors related to the place of destination or
amval which attract or motivate the people from other areaslplaces. These
include: superior opportunities for employment in one's occupation or to
enter a preferred occupation or to earn more income; opportunitiesto obtain
desired specialization in education or for specialised training; preferable
environment and living conditions in terms of climate, housing and other
facilities; dependency movements - movement of dependents to join the
bread winner or migration of a bride to join her husband, etc; and line of
new or different activities, environment or people.
3.6 ANSWERSTOCCHECKYOCTRPROGRESS'
QUESTIONS
1) Fecundity: Fecundity refers to "the physiological capacity of a man, a woman,
or a couple to participate in reproduction (i.e. the capacity to produce a live
child or children)." Fertility, on the other hand, "refas to theactual reproductive
performance of an individual or a couple or a group. It is important to
differentiate between fecundity and fertility. From the above, it is clear that
the fecundity is the actual capacity to reproduce children while fertility refers
to the number of children actually produced. While there is no direct
measurement for fecundity, fertility can be studied from the statistics of
births, though, of course, the fertility of an individual is limited by hislher
own fecundity, which refers to the physiological capacity to reproduce.
134
2 ) Natural Fertility: As defined by Henry (1953) natural fertility is "fertility of Determinants of Population
Change
a human population that makes no deliberate effort to limit births." Fertility
may be considered to be natural if no contraception or induced abortion is
used. Practices such as prolonged breastfeeding and / or abstinence after
childbirth do also tend to lower fertility, but when such practices are adopted
w'tthout any intention of controlling fertility, the results of fertility is
considered as natural.
3) The main sources of data on fertility include: i) vital registration system, ii)
population census, iii) sample surveys, iv) research reports, and v) national
family household surveys.
5) The indices or measures that are used to analyse and understand migration
from the relevant data can be grouped into two categories: i) direct measures,
and ii) indirect measures.
The direct measures are based on data obtained from direct questions asked
during a census on the movements of persons. These questions cover the
following items: (a) the place of birth of the person, (b) the last or previous
place of residence of the person, (c) the duration of stay of a person at the
present place of residence. Accordingly, the direct measures for estimating
migration is done using the data: i) Based on place of birth, ii) Based on
duration of residence, iii) Based on place of last residence, iv) Based on
place of residence at a fixed prior date.
Indirect Measures for Estimating Net Internal Migration: The growth in the
population of any area or region is due to a natural increase (excess ofbirths
over deaths) as well as to migratory movements. If the population counts of
an area at two points of time are available and if the number of births and
deaths, which had occurred in that area is also known, it is possible to
compute the expected population count at the end of the interval even in the
absence of any data on migration. The difference between the observed
(actual population count at the end of the period) and the expected population
gives the estimate of the net change due to migration. Such estimates can be
arrived at by adopting: a) the use ofvital statistics, and b) the use of estimates
of the probability of survival. Accordingly, the indirect measures include:
a) The Vital Statistics Method, b) The Survival Ratio Method, and c)
Migration Rate.
Population and Development
Education: An Overview 3.7 REFERENCES
Asha, A. Bhende, and Tara Kanitkar. 2006. Principles of Population Studies.
Mumbai: Himalaya Publishing House.
Asha, A. Bhende, and Rama Rao, G Fertility and Family Planning in Panaji,
!I
Goa. (unpublished). ,
Bhaskar D. Misra. 1980. The Study of Population. New Delhi: South Asian
Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
Registrar General, India. 1981. Sample Registration System. New Delhi: Vital
Statistics Division. Ministrv of Home Affairs.
United Nations. 1995. Demographic Year Book-1 993. New York: UN.
United Nations. WorldPopulation Prospects, Assessed in 1973,1984 and 1990. DeterminantsofPopulation
Change
New York: United Nations Dept. of Economic and Social Affairs. Population
Division.
Suggested Readings
Donald, J. Bogue, 1969. Principles of Demography. New York: John Wiley and
Kingsley Davis. 1945. "The World Demographic Transition", The Annals of the
American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. ccxxxvii, January.
Kingsley Davis. 1968. The Population ofIndia and Pakistan. New York: Russell
and Russell.
137