Agriculture form one &two notes

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TOPIC 1: GENERAL AGRICULTURE
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SUB TOPIC: LAND USE

• describe forms of land use
• identify protected areas in Zimbabwe
• explain factors limiting land use

LAND USE FORMS OF LAND USE

State 3 forms of land use in Zimbabwe?[3]
-Forestry, wild life management, crop and livestock husbandry
FORESTRY
It is the science, and practice of growing, managing and conserving large
plantations of trees so as to provide timber, fuel, wildlife habitat, management of
water quality, recreation, erosion control. The land has been set aside for timber
production and is managed by the forestry commission.
WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT
This state land which has been set aside for the preservation and protection of
naturalresourcese.g(wildlife and plants). 12.5 % of land in Zimbabwe is occupied
by national parks,safari and sanctuaries. The land is managed by the Department of
national parks and wildlife management.
CROP AND LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION
Land which is set aside for crop and livestock farming, this form of land use is the
mainstay of agriculture in Zimbabwe.
Protected areas in Zimbabwe
1. Trans-frontier parks e.g. Great Limpopo trans- Frontier Park.
2. National Parks e.g.Hwange, Matobo, Nyanga and Gonarezhou.
3. Recreational Parkse.g. Chinoyi caves, Matobo dam, and caves.
4. Botanical Gardens e.g. Binga Forest, Vumba
 5. Safari areas- of chete and Tuli.
6. Sanctuariese.gTshabalala.

November 1996
a). State ways in which wild life contributes to the economy of Zimbabwe.
Possible Answers
- provide foreign currency/ revenue
- through sale of animal products such as hides/ skins/ ivory/ by- products
- through tourism/ foreign visitors
- provides employment; source of food, recreation

Factors affecting land use in Zimbabwe.

1. Social factors e.g attitudes, values
2. Physical factors- Climate of an area, soil types, vegetative cover, topography, soil
depth, soil texture and slope of a land, availability of water- crop and livestock
husbandry are seriously affected by unavailability of water.
3. Economic factors- availability of capital, availability of market, labor availability
4. Technical factors- availability of technical skill, knowledge and preference of
farmers.
5. Land Tenure systems,e.g Land ownership, political factors and government
policies.

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Population growth and land use
• explain the effects of population on land use
Effects of population on land use
Too high populations of people have the following harmful effects:

▪ Reduced food production.

▪ Reduced grazing area and annual productivity.
▪ Increasing pressure on development resources.
▪ Rising unemployment.
▪ Pressure on energy resources.

Solutions on population growth

▪ Family planning.
 ▪ Increased agricultural production.
▪ Increased industrialization.

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Land tenure
• explain land tenure

• describe each land tenure system

LAND TENURE
It deals with the ownership and use of land.
Forms of land tenure
Distinguish the following land tenure systems: free hold and lease hold. [1]
Land tenure system Key features

Freehold • Land belongs to an individual or

company
• Individual have title deeds
• Land can be sold and used as
collateral for loans
• Land can be inherited.
Leasehold • Individual pays rent to the owner
of the land.
• Land cannot be used as collateral
for loans
• Land cannot be inherited from the
tenant.
Communal • Land belongs to the state but is
owned by the community.
• Land is held in trust by the
community leadership
• Traditional leaders allocate the
land on behalf of the government
• Community has user rights.
• Children may inherit the land.
 Resettlement • Land belongs to the state
• Settlement is according to model
type
• Chiefs and government officers are
the authorities in the area.
• Children may be allowed to use the
land in the event of the death of
parents.

NB: Title Deeds- It is a legal document showing proof of ownership of land. The
individual owns the farm and has control of the use of the farm.

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Historical background to land tenure
• explain the importance of land as a national heritage
• explain ownership during pre-colonial period
• discuss the effects of colonial rule on land ownership
• justify land reform programme during 3rd Chimurenga/Umvukela
• outline resettlement models adopted during the agrarian land reform

History of land tenure

Importance of land as national heritage

- It is the only thing which is inherited from past generations, maintained in the
present, and bestowed to future generations.
-Land has great value to Zimbabweans because it is the means of production.
-Agriculture and other sectors such as industry depend on the availability of land to
strive.
Ownership of land in the pre-colonial era
-Pre-colonialZimbabwe was a multi-ethnic society inhabited by different tribes.
-Land was owned by those tribes who were able to conquer the landse.g. Mutapa
state owned the Zambezi area, the Shanganis owned the
easternhighlandsareaManicaland, the Bulozvi owned the northern area, the Rozvi
owned the midlands and Masvingoarea and the Ndebele owned the Matabeleland.
Ownership of land in the colonial era
During the colonial period the following, laws were passed to divide land for the
people
The land apportionment act of 1930
-It divided the land into fixed racial parts for Whites and blacks.
-The blacks were moved to reserves, these are areas which had poor soils and were
far from markets and lines of communication.
-Whites were allocated land inrich and productive lands.
-The land was divided as European area, Native reserves, Native purchase area,
Forest area
-Blacks owned 30.1% while whites owned 51.4% under this act.
The land tenure act of 1969
-It gave whites 50 % of the land, and blacks were given 46 %
-The whites were not allowed to live in black areas and blacks the same thing.

Effects of colonial rule in land ownership.

-Land was unfairly distributed.
-Blacks were forced to move from their original homes to so called tribal trust
lands.
-Few blacks could produce and export to other countries.
- Overpopulation in reserves
Post-independence land tenure systems.
-it began with the 1979 signing of the Lancaster House Agreement. This agreement
agreed on the terms that Britain would fund the reform by introducing a willing
buyer, willing seller policy whereby the farmers who did not intend to stay in the
country would be bought out by funds provided by the then British Government.
The British Government gave the new Zimbabwean Government £44 million for
the initial projects and a fee would be negotiated after the money has been spent.

Following this cash injection, the Communal Land Act, Land Acquisition Act and
Land Reform and Resettlement Programme Phase were introduced in a timely
fashion
 -Beginning 1980 after the Lancaster house conference the governmentstarted the
programme of land distribution under the resettlement land tenure system, other
current land tenure systems are the Freehold, Leasehold, communal and resettlement
systems which allow blacks to own rich and productive lands.

-Following the above acts passed, a new ‘Fast Track’ process was introduced and
this fast track method was spearheaded by the War Veterans Association. Contrary
to what is portrayed internationally, this Fast Track procedure was legalised in
September 2005 through the constitutional amendment.

The need for land reform

-In order to restore such an imbalance of land distribution.
-Zimbabweans wanted to stand up and reclaim their Natural inheritance.

-Zimbabweans wanted to be empowered after years of living like slaves in their

own homeland by owning productive lands so as to feed themselves and the nation.

Resettlement models under the land reform program .

Model A1
It is a village-oriented programme where the government resettles farmers on
underutilized and designated farms.

Settles are allocated between 12 to 15 acres of arable land .

The settles are then allocated residential stands and live together in villages under a
village chairman.

Model A2
The model is meant for small scale commercial farmers. The farmers apply to the
government for consideration in regions of their choice.

The land is about 15 ha to 40 ha.

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SUB TOPIC: ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
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Environmental factors
• outline environmental factors influencing agricultural activities
• discuss the effects of environmental factors on agricultural activities
• explain effects of temperature on water loss
• discuss various forms of wilting
• explain the causes of wilting
• explain effects of temperature on agricultural activities
• outline measures that can be taken to minimise effects of adverse temperature

Environmental factors.
State any 3 environmental factors limiting land use in Zimbabwe. [3]
RAINFALL.
It occurs when moisture in the air is cooled below due point,it then turns from
vapour to small droplets through a process called condensation.

Temperature
It is the degree of hotness and coldness.

Humidity
Humidity it is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere.

Wind
It is the movement of air as a result of pressure change.

Explain the importance of the following environmental factors on crop production:

(i) wind – it is an agent of pollination used in seed dispersal.

(ii) Temperature- low temperature prevents germination. Optimum
temperature is required for plant growth. Some plants are frost sensitive.

How rainfall it affects agriculture.

Describe how the following factors affect crop productivity;
Too much rainfall (high rain fall intensity)-can cause

1. leaching of nutrients
2. Soil erosion as runoff
3. Swampy areas which can lead to foot rot in animals.
 4. Swampy areas can also lead to growth of internal parasites such as liver
fluke and round worms.

Too little rainfall (low rain fall intensity)-It can cause

1. Drought conditions leading to poor harvest.

2. Reduction grazing land causing reduced livestock productivity.

Effects of temperature on water loss

-High temperatures cause an increase in water loss in both farm animals and crops.

-Water loss in plants occurs through a process called evapotranspiration.

-Low to moderate temperatures help plants to maintain their water.

Wilting
-It is the loss of freshness or weakening of the plant as a result of water loss through
evapotranspiration.
Forms of wilting
-Temporary wilting – this occurs under hot , windy, and dry weather , the rate of
water uptake by plants will be less than water loss through transpiration resulting in
plant wilting. When water is applies to the soil the plant will recover.

-Permanent wilting- it is a result of persistent shortage of soil moisture, the plants

do not recover even after water has been applied to the soil.

Causes of wilting
-Hot, dry, and windy conditions cause increase in wilting.

- Poor methods of irrigation.

- Failure to irrigate crops.

Effects of temperature on agricultural activities.

Excessively high temperatures can cause

1. Damage crops through wilting, scorching and death if there are above 30
degrees.
2. Plants abort flowers and no fruit set will take place.
3. Reduction of libido or desire to mate with the female
4. Reduction in sperm production leading to infertility.
 5. Reduced appetite leading to reduced feed intake and poor growth rate.

Exceedingly low temperatures can cause-

1. Tissue necrosis- leaves and stems of affected plants are killed, the affected
plant tissue turns brown
2. Injury to flower buds and flowers-In wheat the flowers will become sterile
and there for produce.
3. Fruit injury-the fruit skin gets discoloured resulting in the lowering of fruit
quality.
4. Death of newly born piglets and day old chicks.

Methods of reducing effects of excessively high temperatures.

1. Supply of adequate water through irrigation.

2. Mulching- covering soil surface with grass or crop residue it reduces water
loss through evaporation.
3. Shading of transplanted seedlings.
4. Transplanting under cool or cloudy conditions Methods

of reducing effects of excessively low temperatures

1. Avoid areas prone to frost such as valleys and lower slopes.

2. Construct Frost barriers e.g a barrier of thatch grass around a crop will guard
against cold air.
3. Maintain moist soil as it is a better conductor of heat than dry soil.
4. Maintain compact soils which allows more heat to be conducted to the soil.
5. Free of mulch- mulch produce air pockets which result in poor conduction.

Modification of adverse environmental factors

• describe ways of reducing effects of environmental factors on agricultural activities
Practising shading, mulching, pot holing, manuring, tie ridging, watering and
conservation tillage
Soil Temperature

Effects of soil temperature on plants

If temperature is above the optimum level, it shortens the growing period of plants,
resulting in low yields. It can also cause plants to grow exceedingly tall and thin.
Flowering and seeding can be reduced.
 Temperature below optimum
▪ Causes slow growth in plants.
▪ Plants fail to ripen resulting in no seed produced.

Methods of reducing effects of extreme Temperature

Extreme temperatures can be reduced by the following processes:
• Mulching beds.
• Planting cover crops.
• Irrigate arable lands.
• Grow wind breaks.
Shade newly transplanted seedlings.

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SUB TOPIC: NATURAL FARMING REGIONS
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Natural farming regions of Zimbabwe
• explain the importance of natural farming regions

• describe suitable farming systems for each farming region

NATURAL FARMING REGIONS IN ZIMBABWE

- Zimbabwe is divided into (5) five natural farming regions, due to the amount of
rainfall received in each region.
- The table below shows the five natural regions.

REGION CLIMATE AREAS FARMING

COVERED ACTIVITIES
I. specialized -Rainfall- From Nyanga, Cashel -Growing of crops like
and diversified 1000mm per annum. Valley, and tea, and coffee,
farming -Temperature 200c Chimanimani bananas, oranges and
timber trees, -rearing
of dairy cows for milk
production.
II. Intensive -Rainfall ranges from- -Harare, Mazoe -Growing of different
Farming 750mm to 1000 mm Bindura, crops e.g wheat, maize,
Marondera, tobacco, cotton, and
Chinhoyi soya beans.
 III. Semi -Rainfall- ranges from -Gokwe, Kadoma, -Growing of crops
Intensive 650-800mm and Gweru under irrigation e.g.
Farming fodder crops for
livestock feeding. Best
for livestock
production
IV. Semi- -Rainfall- of -Bulawayo, -Growing of drought
extensive 450650mm. Masvingo tolerant crops.
-Appropriate system is
livestock and game
ranching
V. Extensive -Rainfall of below -Chiredzi, -Beef-production and
Farming 450m per annum Beitbridge, wildlife management, -
Kariba, Vic Falls, growing of drought
Gwanda, Plumtree tolerant crops e.g.
millet, sorghum.

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 Farming systems
• describe each farming system
▪ Mixed farming
▪ Monoculture
▪ Intercropping
Farming systems

Shifting cultivation
- It is the production of crops on a land which is alternated over a period, allowing
the land to lie fallow for some time.
- It involves the clearing and burning of trees on pieces of land for planting crops.
Land is abandoned 2-3 years later after the soil had lost fertility.

Advantages
▪ Less build up of pests and diseases.
▪ High yields are obtained especially from fertile soils.

Disadvantages
▪ Causes deforestation.
▪ Promotes soil erosion.
▪ Can not allow putting up of permanent structures, for example, houses or
homes.
▪ Lots of labour is required to cut trees.
o Monoculture, is the planting of the same crop year after year on the same land.
o Mixed Farming, involves growing of crops side by side with rearing of livestock.
o Inter-cropping, is the growing of field crops side by side, for example, field beans
and maize so that maize benefits from the fertilized soil. Legumes fix nitrogen in
the soil.

NB: Farmers can harvest different crops from the same field.

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SUB TOPIC: FORESTRY
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Forests
• explain social, economic, cultural and ecological importance of forests
• identify major forests in Zimbabwe
• identify indigenous timber trees and exotic timber trees grown in Zimbabwe
FOREST
IMPOTANCE OF FOREST
State 4 reasons why forests are important in Zimbabwe. [4]
ECONOMIC VALUE-
-Forest plants and animals give food to people and animals e.g fruits and honey.
-Paper manufacturing
-Providing medicinal purposes
-Employment creation eg truck drivers, and furniture manufacturers.
-Coal and oil come from trees
- Wood for furniture, tool handles and building houses
- Sources of foreign currency through tourism and export of timber products.

Ecological importance-
- Increases soil fertility through their canopy protection and leaves
- Forest soil soaks up large amount of rainfall thus preventing rapid runoff that
causes erosion and flooding
- Influences rainfall activities
- Provides refuge for wildlife especial birds
- Help in carbon dioxide reduction and increasing in oxygen

Social importance
- Natural beautification of the earth (aesthetic value)
- Many people use forest for camping and hunting
- Other people enjoy the scenic viewing and photographing of forests

Type of forests in Zimbabwe

Forests can be grouped into naturaland established forest.

Forests found in Zimbabwe are

- Chirinda botanical reserves, is situated on the slopes of Mount Selinda, south
of Chipinge, in the Chipinge Highlands of Manicaland, Zimbabwe, and is
administered by the Forestry Commission

-Banti forest – near the Zimbabwe Mozambique boarder.

-Victoria falls, Gwaai forest, Gamu forest, Umguza forest.

Indigenous timber trees

1. African wattle- Muzeze/ Umsehla
2. Marula- Mupfura/Umganu.
 3. Cape Fig- Mukuyu/Umkhiwa
4. Blood wood-Mukwa/ Umhlonhlo
5. Pod mahogany-Mururu/Umbaba

Describe the importance of indigenous trees in Zimbabwe. [2]

▪ Manufacture of furniture; floor tiles; railway sleepers;
▪ Making of charcoal / firewood;
▪ For timber;
▪ Food / fruits
▪ Edible catapilars
▪ Medicines
▪ Income;
▪ Weed breaks
▪ Shelter for animals

Exotic timber trees.

1. Pine tree 2.
Gumtree 3.
Wattle.

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SUB TOPIC: WILDLIFE
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Wildlife
• explain socio-economic, cultural and ecological importance of wildlife
• identify flora and fauna found in Zimbabwe
• classify wildlife according to feeding habits
• identify wild animals classified as the big five
Wildlife
Importance of wildlife
1. Socio-economic- tourist attraction which brings foreign currency,
tourism industry also creates employment for the people in hotels and as
tour guides, products from wildlife can be sold such as ivory. Watching
and photographic safaris
2. Cultural value- most of wildlife are associated with our cultural beliefs
e.g totems and taboos.
 3. Ecological value- wildlife is part of the eco system e.g. waste from
animals help improve soil fertility. They help to control the bush, and
also they help to control pests in the environment,

Flora and fauna

Flora it represents the vegetative matter of wildlife e.g.trees, shrubs, grass etc.
Fauna it represents all the animals found in the environment e.g. birds, mammals
and reptiles.

Types of flora and fauna found in Zimbabwe.

Flora-wattle tree, buffalo grass, star grass, flame lily and gum trees

Fauna- elephant, lion, rhino, leopard and giraffe.

Classification of animals according to their feeding habits

1. Carnivores-these are fleshing eating animals e.g. lion , Hyenas.
2. Herbivores-these are grass and plant eating animals e.g. Zebra, elephant
and hippopotamus

Classification according to habitat

1. Aquatic- some wildlife lives in water e.g. fish, turtles and reeds.
2. Terrestrial- these are animals which live on land e.g. kudu, buffalo, dog
and chicken.

The big five

The following animals are classified as the big five in Zimbabwe.

1. Elephant
2. Rhinoceros
3. Lion
4. Leopard
5. Buffalo.

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TOPIC 2: SOIL AND WATER
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SUB TOPIC: SOIL FORMATION
Weathering
• describe the role of weathering in soil formation
• describe the types of rocks from which soil is formed
• explain the agents of weathering
• discuss factors influencing soil formation

Weathering
-It is the breaking down or disintegration of the original rock material (parent
rock) into small particles and finally into soil.

-Weathering plays a major role in soil formation.

Type of rocks in which soil is formed

-Igneous rock- these are formed by the cooling and solidification of molten lava
or magma on or near the earth surface.
-They are made up of different minerals which have separately crystallized to
form inter locking crystals.

Common example of igneous rock is the granite rock, dolerite, basalt and
gabbro.

Sedimentary rock- there are secondary rocks formed from materials produced
during weathering of igneous rocks.

The weateredsegments accumulate on the lower landscapes such as ponds ,

lakes , seas and rivers.and are cemented together by high pressure with aid of
cementing agents like calcium carbonate and silica

Examples of sedimentary rocks – sand stone ,shales from clay sediments and
limestone from skeleton and shell sediments.

Metamophic rocks- these are rocks formed from either igneous or sedimentary
rocksbyaction of heat, pressuere and chemical changes

Examples of metamorphic rocks is gneiss ,schists quartzite, slate and mable.

Agents of weathering
1. Temparature- temperature changes when it is hot during the day rock
masses expand and when it is cold during the night the rocks contract
causing some rock particles to peel off.
 2. water

Running water- when water is running it carries with it some rocks which rub
against each other the rubbing and bumping will cause rocks to break mand form
soil.

Freezing water- when water in cracks of rocks freezes it expand occupying more
space thus enlaging the crakes, when the water changes to liquid the rock will
contract . This expansion and contraction causes the rock to peel off ( exfoliation).

3. Wind – when it blows it carriers with it some sand particles which when they
hit on the rock they further break to form soil.
4. Plant roots- these penetrates into cracks, which are forced wide open and new
surfaces are exposed to weathering.
5. Animal hooves- if animals continual move over a rock surface the rock will
peel due to continued friction.
6. People- during land preparation or construction of roads. Dynamite and rock
drills are used to break rocks to form soil.

State any 5 soil forming factors. [5]

• Climate/temperature/ rainfall
• Parent material
• Time
• Relief / topography
• Organisms/ termites/ earthworms

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SUB TOPIC: SOIL TEXTURE, STRUCTURE AND PROFILE
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Texture and structure
• identify soil particles according to increasing order of size
• explain the significance of soil texture to crop growth
• describe soil structure
• distinguish single grain from crumb structure
distinguish between soil structure and soil texture

SOIL STRUCTURE AND SOIL TEXTURE

Soil texture it is the relative proportion or feel or percentage of soil components.
Soil structure it is the physical appearance or arrangement of soil particles whether
they are loosely or closely packed.

Soil particles according to increasing order of size

Type of soil Diameter size in mm
Stone Greater than 200

Gravel 200-20
Fine gravel 20-2
Coarse sand 2-0,2
Fine sand 2-0,02
Silt 0,02-0,002
Clay Less than 0,002

The significance of soil texture to crop growth

Explain the significance of a good soil texture in plant growth. [3]
─ helps in water absorption;
─ assist root penetration;
─ good water holding capacity; controls leaching;
─ fine texture high plant nutrients;
─ soils are easy to till;
─ high rate of chemical reactions;
─ Good texture enables a soil to absorb and retain moisture and nutrients
─ Soils with good soil texture have adequate movement of air and water
within them.
─ Good textured soil are easy to till
─ It influences the choice of crops to grow e.g. ground nuts are grown in light
textured soil for us to easily harvest them
─ It determines the fertiliser application practices e.g.sandy soils require split
application of fertilisers because they heavily leach.
─ It influences the type of irrigation surface irrigation is unsuitable for surface
irrigation.
 single grain and crumb structure
Single grain it has aggregates which are granular in shape (single grains) and
they are not porous e.g. sand soil these loosely structured type of soils are
termed structure less and they are not good for crop production they are easily
eroded. While the crumbstructure it has aggregate granules and it is porous even
when wet and good for farming. In agriculture we are more interested in the
crumb structure because
1) The soil is well aerated, providing adequate oxygen for respiration
2) They is root penetration
3) Water absorption is made easier
4) They is high nutritional realise

How to preserve soil structure

1) Cover soil with green vegetation
2) Add lime
3) Add manure or organic matter
4) Allow humus build up
5) Ensure good drainage
6) Cultivate when soil is drying out to promote clods to crumble.

Distinguish between soil structure and soil texture

Structure refers to the physical appearance or arrangement of soil particles, whether
they are loosely packed or closely packed. It determines the soil particle
arrangements it can be described as single grain or crumb structure.

While texture it is the relative proportion or feel of soil components. It measures the
coarseness/ fineness of soil particles texture can be described as gravely , sandy
silty and clayey.

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Composition and properties
• identify different soil types
• explain the composition of each soil type
• compare the composition of soil types
• compare the properties of different soil types

Soil texture:
 It is the coarseness or fineness of a soil, or the “feel” of the soil. Soil texture is also
defined as the proportion of different mineral sized particles in a given soil. Soil texture
cannot be altered by a farmer.

Methods used to determine soil texture.

(1) The feel method- With this method the procedure is as follows:
▪ Take a soil sample.
▪ Add water to the sample to make it wet.
▪ Take a wet soil sample and place it between thumb and forefinger, and rub it or
squeeze.

You will notice that it either “feels” smooth, or it is rough on fingers. This will show the
amount or quantity of clay or sand soil in it. If it is smooth, it is clay soil, and if rough, it
is sandy soil, that is, it either contains too much clay or sand respectively.

2. Mechanical Analysis of soil samples or the Laboratory Method

The following procedures are followed during the laboratory method of soil sampling
analysis:
(a) Take a soil- sample measuring cylinder and
water. (b) Put soil sample into a cylinder of
100mm (c) Add the soil sample into cylinder
with water.
(d) Thoroughly shake the contents.
(e) Leave the contents for about 2 hours.

Soil Texture Diagram

Suspended organic matter MeasuringCylinder

water

Clay particles

Fine particles
 Sand particles

Observations:
The particles will deposit themselves in layers at the bottom of the measuring cylinder,
because they are heavier and denser as shown in diagram above.
The second layer is made up of fine sand particles.
The Third layer: clay particles

Textural classes: The textural classes of the different mineral sized soil particles can
be classified as follows:-

Particle Size
type
Sand 2 to 0,2mm
Fine Sand 0, 2 to 0,02mm
Silt 0,02mm to
0,002mm
Clay >0,002 mm

Ways of improving soil structure:

Soil structure can be altered by man through the following processes:

(i) Apply lime:- Lime makes fine soil particles to flocculate i.e., to come together. It
is usually applied in clay soils whose particles are closely packed together.
Therefore, once applied in clay soils, it improves its structure.

(ii) Manure application: They are also applied in clay soils. Manure has a tendency
to make particles stick together, thus allowing particles to become bigger.

(iii) Avoid monoculture. Monoculture is the growing of the same crop on the same
piece of land year in, year out. Hence, if one grows different crops, other crops
such as ground nuts tend to bring soil particles together.

(iv) Avoid untimely cultivation. It is good cultivate when soils are neither too dry
nor too wet.

Problems of soil structure

Soil structure has several problems. Chief among them being,
(i) Capping
(ii) Compaction
(iii) Soils pans

(a) Capping. This is a thin hard layer formed on the top/upper surface of the soil. It
is usually caused by working on soils, especially clays, when they are too wet
or when it is raining

Effects of capping on crops

(1) There is usually poor germination of seed because of the crust above.
(2) There is poor aeration, resulting in poor plant growth.

Solution/ways to solve capping

▪ Use a harrow to break the crust.
▪ Avoid working fields when soils are too wet and when it is raining.

b) Compaction. It is the hard layer on the upper surface of soils caused by heavy
machinery when ploughing e.g. tractors.

c) Soils Pan. It is a hard layer found at the base of the plough depth due to
maintaining the same plough-depth year in year out.
Types of soils
(a) Sand

Properties and characteristics

▪ Have large particles.
▪ Have a low water holding capacity.
▪ Have a higher leaching rate of plant nutrients.
▪ Have fewer plant nutrients.
▪ Does not stick to implements when wet?
▪ Is loose and easy to work on.

(b) Clay
Characteristics
▪ Contains very small particles (of clay and silt).
▪ Difficult to cultivate when wet or too dry.
▪ Has good water holding capacity.
▪ Is poorly drained.
▪ Has poor aeration.
▪ Sticks to implements when wet.
 (c) Silt
▪ Cultivation is reasonably difficult.
▪ Drainage is reasonably poor.
▪ Has a poor aeration or ventilation.
▪ Has a poor water holding capacity.
▪ Leaching is high.

(d) Loam
▪ Very fertile.
▪ Well aerated soil.
▪ Is well drained.
▪ Has favourable soil temperature.
▪ Easy to cultivate.
▪ Does not stick to implements when wet.
▪ Very Low leaching rate.

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SUB TOPIC: SOIL FERTILITY
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Plant nutrients
• explain the functions of major and minor plant nutrients to crop growth
• describe effects of nutrients on plant growth
PLANT NUTRITION
Major plant nutrients
Normal plant growth and These are nutrients needed in large amounts for
normal plant growth
They include Hydrogen , calcium, carbon , nitrogen , oxygen, phosphorus,
potassium, magnesium and sulphur.
-Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are obtained naturally from air and water the rest
need to be supplied through fertilizers.

Minor nutrients.
These are nutrients required in small amounts for normal plant e.g boron , zinc ,
copper , iron , molybdenum, iron and manganese.
FUNCTION AND EFFECTS OF MAJOR PLANT NUTRIENTS
Functions of Nitrogen
1. Intensify green colour of leaves
2. Increase the leaf size
3. Increase the size of grains in cereals
4. Increase in growth rate
5. Increases final yield
6. Help form amino acids and proteins
7. Prolong the growing period

Effects of lack of nitrogen

1. Poor spindly growth
2. Typical yellowing of leaves (chlorosis)
3. Premature ripening
Explain the effects of over application of nitrogen on crops. [2]
• Rank /vegetative growth at the expense of reproductive growth;
• Susceptibility to frost; pests / disease attack;
• Plants become flaccid/ plasmolysis/ scorched/ burnt;
• Excessive succulency of such crops as pumpkins;
• Delayed maturity

Functions of Phosphorus
1. Stimulate root and shoot development
2. Help to take up water and dissolved mineral salts from the soil
3. Quicken leaf development
4. Encourage early maturity that is both flowering and seed formation.

Effects of lack of Phosphorus.

1. Plant growth is severely restricted(tall, thin, plant, small roots)
2. Leaves are dull and discoloured (bluish-green with purple marks)

Functions of Potassium
1. Encourages health growth
2. Makes crops to be resistant to drought and disease
3. Lengthens growth period
4. Improves quality of produce
 5. Increase frost resistance
6. Helps in formation of flowers and fruits

Effects of lack of potassium

1. Poor plant growth
2. Marginal leaf scotch
3. Discoloured leaves(orange or purple)
4. Leaves die prematurely
5. Susceptibility to disease
A cereal crop is stunted and chlorotic due to mineral deficiency.
(a) (i) which major nutrient is lacking? [1]- Nitrogen
(ii)Name one straight fertizer that could be applied to correct the
deficiency.[1]
- Ammonium nitrate; urea; sulphate of ammonia; potassium nitrate
(iii)list three effect of excessive application of nutrient to crops? [3]
- Rank growth;
- Burning of crop/ scorching;
- Wilting
- Delayed maturity;
- Poor leaf quality in tobacco

Function and effects of lack of minor / trace nutrients

Functions of Boron
1. it is used in cell division and growth of meristematic tissue, flowers and
vascular bundles.
2. Normal seed setting and fruit development
3. Successful pollination by effecting pollen grain germination and development
of the pollen tube

Effects of lack of Boron

1. It leads to death of growing points
2. Distortion of leaves and necrosis (death) of the stem
3. Causes irregular cob filling in maize and hollow hulls in sunflower.

Function of zinc
It is involved in enzyme functions and chlorophyll formation
 Effects of Lack of zinc
It cause chlorosis in leaves and also dwarfing of the stem

Function of Molybdenum
It is required for seed germination and seedling development
It helps in converting atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia on roots of legumes.

Effects of lack of Molybdenum

Uniform paling and floppy appearance of the young plant in maize.

Function of copper
It is required in the conversion of nitrogen to proteins and for growth

Effects of lack of copper

It causes die-back in citrus fruits

Function of Manganese
It is essential in chlorophyll formation, protein synthesis and in respiration

Effects of lack of Manganese

It causes intervernial chlorosis especially in older leaves

November 1997
a). State four ways in which plant nutrients may be lost from the soil.
- leaching
- absorption by plants, monoculture
- soil erosion – runoff
- burning crop residues
- oxidation, volatilisation

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SUB TOPIC: SOIL EROSION AND CONSERVATION

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Soil erosion
• identify types of soil erosion
• describe the causes and consequences of soil erosion
• describe the prevention and control of soil erosion
SOIL EROSION
It is the washing away of top soil by natural, animal or human action.

Types of soil erosion

1. Rain drop bomb / splash

Heavy raindrops splash soil particles everywhere into the air and block pores
against percolation. More rain drops will compact the soil increasing runoff
instead of infiltration

2. Sheet erosion
It happenson soil surface which is loose and exposed to run-off, the loose
layer will be washed off as asingle sheet during heavy rains.

3. Rill and gully erosion

It is caused by runoff water which create openings on the ground and they
continue growing deeper and deeper every season.

4. Suspension erosion
It is when light soil particles are blown by the wind.

Causes of soil erosion

1. Over grazing
2. Agricultural activities( poor ploughing methods)
3. Veld fires
4. Ploughing slopes
5. Stream bank cultivation
6. Vehicle and animal tracks

Effects of soil erosion

1. Loss of actual soil which is a medium for plant growth
2. Loss of nutrients which are necessary for plant growth
3. Reduction in crop yields
 4. Creation of gullies which are dangerous to people and animals

Prevention and control of soil erosion

1. Biological methods
• Vegetative cover – plant grass e.g. vetiver which will hold the soil
particles together
• Crop rotation- to prevent undue soil exposure
• Early plant establishment- it provides quick canopy which shields soil
• Reforestation
• Organic matter- it increases infiltration and reduces the rate of run-off.
2. Cultural methods
• Avoid excessive grazing – through rotational grazing
• Avoid bush burning
• Addition of lime
3. Mechanical methods
• Terracing- especially on steep slopes, they run across the slope to keep
soil in place and manage runoff.
• Water channels- across steep slops
• Barriers and blocks in gullies – to check the speed of run off.
• Wind breaks- Tall trees they reduce the speed of wind
• Storm drains- they carry water away from the garden
• Ridges- it allows water to settle in ponds and slowly infiltrates.

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SUB TOPIC: WATER CONSERVATION
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Water conservation
• explain the importance of water conservation
• describe methods of conserving water on arable lands

WATER CONSEVARTION
It is the wise use of water resources so that there is enough water for plants, animals
and people and for industrial purposes.
 Importance of water conservation
Water is the most important factor in agriculture. Rain water is not enough for crop
production throughout the year because rain season in Zimbabwe last for period of
5 months.
- Water then need to be conserved in order for it to be used in dry seasons.
- Water is needed by plants for process such as photosynthesis,for seed
germination, it has a cooling effect via evaporation and it protects plants from
temperature changes
- Water is needed by animals because it help in digestion of food and also
when animals get rid of waste.
- Water is used to clean agriculture produce e.g.Coffee, potatoes etc.

Importance of water conservation practices in agriculture

-Adding organic matter helps conserve water and this practice improves the soil
structure into a crumb structure.
-Farming practices like terracing and contour ploughing are used in conserving
water and they improve infiltration rate of water through reducing the speed of
water runoff.
-Mulching is used to conserve water in a garden it also reduces the rate of
evaporation and frequency in watering

Methods of conserving water on arable lands

- Minimum tillage- they is less evaporation from soils that have not been
disturbed.
- Mulching- grass , or plastic sheets helps retain moisture in the soil
- Fallowing- leaving land uncultivated help conserve moisture
- Afforestation- will create shade that will keep the soil cool and reduce
evaporation.
- Weeding- weeds they compete with crops for moisture
- Crop rotation to alternate low cover with high cover crops and deep rooted
with shallow rooted crops - Winter ploughing.

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 TOPIC 3: CROP HUSBANDRY

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SUB TOPIC: CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS
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Classification of plants
• classify plants according to edible parts
• classify plants according to life cycle

Classification of plants
Plants are classified, according to parts eaten, and the life cycle of a plant.

1. Classify plants according to edible parts

Fruit vegetables
These are vegetables whose fruit people eat. A fruit is a ripened ovary part of a
flower example of fruit vegetables are tomatoes, eggplant and peppers.

Leafy vegetables
These are grown for their edible leaves e.g.cabbages, lettuce, rape, covo

Root vegetables
Plants whose roots are eaten either raw or cooked e.g.carrots, beetroot and parsnip.

Tuber vegetables
These are vegetables that have tubers undergrounde.g. Irish potatoes and sweet
potatoes.

Bulb vegetables
Bulbs consist of fleshy food-storing leaf bases tightly packed around a
bud.e.g.onions, leeks and shallots.

Seed vegetables
They include legumes e.g.beans, green beans and round nuts.

2. Classify plants according to life cycle

The life cycle of a plant is the series of changes that a living plant goes through
from the beginning of its life until reproduction. They are grouped as annuals,
biennials and perennials.
 Annual plants
There are plants which complete their season in one year. Theygerminate,grow,
produce flowers and seeds and die within a single growing season. E.g.cotton,
maize, ground nuts.

Biennials
These are plants which produce mature seeds after two years or two seasons, e.g.
carrots, onions and cabbages they produce their seed after two years.

Perennials
These are plants which are sown and produce mature seeds after three years. They
are also referred as permanent plants e.g. fruit trees, cassava and pepper

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SUB TOPIC: STRUCTURE OF FLOWERING PLANTS
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External structure of a plant
• identify the external parts of a flowering plant
• state functions of each part of a flowering plant

External structure of a plant

1. external parts of a flowering plant

-draw fig 2.1 ZJC agriculture today page 10

2. functions of each part of a flowering plant

PART OF A FUNCTION
PLANT
LEAF 1.site for producing plant food
2. Allows transpiration which allows water and other nutrients to reach
the top of the plant.
3.allows for gaseous exchange between the plant and the atmosphere
 STEM 1.it is a pathway for water and nutrients to travel from the roots to the
leaves
2.help hold the plant upright
3. Spread the branches and leaves of the plant.
FLOWER 1.they contain reproductive organ for plants
2. assist in pollination by their appearance and position
3.carry the male and female organs necessary for seed production
ROOT 1.they anchor the plant in the soil
2.they absorb water and dissolved nutrients
3.they store food e.g. carrots
EAR 1.it is the female part of maize flower found from a node on a maize
stalk
2. Help in the development of a kernels during fertilization.
TUSSEL 1. It is the male part of a maize flower it has anthers which produce
pollen grains which are important for fertilization.

The difference between maize plant and bean plant

Part Maize Bean

stem Single stem called stalk Branching stem
Leaf Parallel veined leaves Branched veins
Root Root system is fibrous have a main root or tap root
flower Has separate male and female have a combined(male and female single
flowers. flower)

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SUB TOPIC: CROP PRODUCTION
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Horticulture
• identify branches of horticulture
• explain the importance of horticulture
 HORTICULTURE
Def.- it is the science of growing , processing and marketing fruits,
vegetables,flowers,hedges and shrubs and other ornamental plants

Branches of horticulture
1. Fruit production- it is also known as pomology, it involves the growing,
processing and marketing of fruits. Fruit production if mainly practiced in
region 1 in Zimbabwe. The fruits are processed into various products e.g.
Mazoe and are exported to other countries.
2. Vegetable production-it is also called floriculture, it involves the farming,
processing, storage and marketing of vegetable products.
3. Floriculture-it deals with the cultivation of flowers.it also involves the
cultivation of foliage and flower arrangement.
4. Ornamental plants- it deals with landscaping, construction, nursery and plant
propagation. The plants are grown for their beauty and practicality .it also
involves lawn management, as well as hedge and shrub cutting and shaping.

Importance of Horticulture
1. Improve food security
2. Improves nutrition and people’s health
3. Creates employment
4. Adds beauty within the surroundings 5. Provides income in the selling of
products 6. Brings in foreign currency.

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Land preparation
• state reasons for land preparation
• prepare seed beds

Land preparation
It is one of the first routine activities done in most agriculture systems, it is done
in order to clear the land .fire can be used but it is not recommended because it
also burns organic matter that contains plant nutrients.

Reasons for land preparation

1. To bury previous crop residue so that they decay to form humus
2. To control weeds by burying them
 3. Increases water infiltration and soil aeration
4. Help in secondary tillage , leveling and ridging when making beds 5.
Breaking soil caps and crust thereby enhancing water drainage.

Preparing seed bed

1. site the seed bed
2. Primary tillage-clearing land, digging or ploughing to soften the soil the
depth ploughed is 25 cm – 40 cm
3. Secondary tillage- it involves leveling of the soil into fine tilth using a rake to
improve water holding capacity and drainage. Secondary tillage also involves
weeding.

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Crop management
• establish and manage vegetable crops

practical in the school garden

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SUB TOPIC: CROP PROTECTION
Pests
• explain the effects of pests on crops
• classify pests according to their feeding habits

Crop Protection
PESTS
Pests are organisms that damage crops or animals. It can be as large as a baboon
or as small as an aphid.

Effects of pests on crops

1. They can transmit diseases e.g aphids they transmit viral diseases through
sucking the sap.
2. They reduce the yield.
3. They reduce the quality of the produces.
Feeding habits of pests
Pest can be classified into three classes:
1. Biting and chewing pests: these pests bite and chew crop parts, their mouth
parts resemble blades. The pest cut, bite and chew the plant tissues.
2. Piercing and sap sucking pests: these pests have mouthparts which are like
needles that pierce and suck sap from plant tissue. They also transmits viral
diseases
3. Boring pests: These pests make holes in plants tissues.

Classification Description Effect on crop

Biting and chewing It is dull grey-black, a C- -It cut stems of
pests shaped caterpillar it seedlings at night. -they
Example: Cutworm stays underground cause damage mostly
during the day and when they chew stems
comes out at night. It is of young plants. -
about 3-4cm long. Though they are active
in summer they are
rarely a problem after
spring.
Piercing and It a small pear- shaped Aphids suck sap from
sapsucking pests. insect with or without young plants and may
Example: Aphid wings. Usually green, transmit viruses. -they
red and yellow. are found under leaves
and on stems -the leaves
affected curl inwards
around a cluster of
aphids

Boring Pests. It is cream white in color -They burrow maize

Example: Maize stalk and it is a caterpillar. stalks causing plants to
borer. wilt or fall down. -They
attack maize which is
about 30cm and one
meter.
-they make holes in the
leaves
********************************************
Diseases
• classify plant diseases according to causal organisms
• describe the effects of plant diseases on crops

Plant diseases.
- A disease is any abnormality that is observed on a plant
There are three types of disease pathogens: which are 1) bacteria, 2) Fungi,
and 3) Viruses.

Bacterial Diseases

DISEASE PLANT CAUSES EFFECTS ON

AFFECTED CROPS.

Black rot Cabbages It is caused by a -Yellow

bacteria during Vshaped areas
rainy season and on leaf margins
it may be caused and leaves they
by overhead drop down to the
irrigation ground. -effected
parts turn black,
rot and give off a
pungent smell.
Bacterial spot Tomatoes It is caused by -This affects
disease bacteria which leaves, fruit and
stay in the stem.
previous season -The leaves get
tomato plant water soaked,
residue or seeds greasy and die
off.

Fungal diseases

Disease Plant affected Causes Effects on cops

 Damping off Germinating seeds Fungi which is -it causes rotting
of and seedlings. prevalent in wet seedlings. and cool -
Lesions develop
conditions. at ground level
-seedlings
collapse.
Downy Beans, peas and Spread by damp -This causes leaves mildew
leafy vegetables conditions. to be pale green on
the upper surface. -
it reduces the leafy
quality of
vegetables.

Viral Diseases
disease Plant affected Causes Effects on crop
Maize streak virus Maize Transmitted by It causes narrow,
(Msv) aphids, locusts and yellowish streaks
leaf hoppers that are evenly
distributed over the
leaf surface.
Cucumber mosaic Cucumber Aphids -Fruit turns
virus (CMV) yellowish and
become deformed. -
Fruit produces
bitter taste and
becomes soft.

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Weeds
• discuss the harmful and beneficial effects of weeds
• differentiate annual from perennial weeds

WEEDS
A weed is a plant that grows where it is not need.
 Effects of weeds
explain the economic effect of weeds. [10]
Harmful effects
- They compete with crops for moisture. This will reduce the amount of water
available to the crop.
- They compete with crops for nutrients/water / sunshine.
- They reduce the yields of crops.
- Reduces quality /grade.
- Some are poisonous;
- Disturbs operations of harvesting machinery;
- Blocks channels
- They can contaminate the crop.
- They may harbor pests.

Beneficial effects
- They can be used as a source of organic matter / humus
- Used as stock feed;
- They can be used as relish e.g. pigweed
- They have medicinal value e.g. black jack
- Used to control erosion
- Some weds serve as ornamental and hedge plants e.g. lantana camara
- Some weeds control nematodes e.g. Marigold
- Some weeds can be used as fodder.

Classification of weeds
Weeds are classified as Annual and Perennial weeds.
- Annual weeds- their seeds germinate with the first rains or irrigation
- Perennial weeds-they can grow for several years, they have roots which are
hard to remove, making controlling them to be difficult.

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TOPIC 4: ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
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 SUB TOPIC: TYPES OF LIVESTOCK
********************************************
Types of livestock
• name types of livestock
• explain the importance of livestock

TYPES OF LIVESTOCKS
-Animals in a farm can be grouped as Ruminants and non-ruminants

-Ruminants- they have their stomachs divided into four and they chew the cud e.g.
cattle, sheep and goat, while non-ruminants have only one stomach (mono gastric)
to digest their food, e.g. pigs, donkey, horses, geese, chickens and rabbits

Importance of livestock
Economic importance
- A ready source of income
- A source of employment
- Means of transportation and drought power ( that is to pull loads) - Source of
food and raw material.
- Means of generating foreign currency through export of livestock and their
by-products.
- Animal waste is used for fertilisers and also as a source of energy that is to
produce methane gas which can be used for cooking and lighting

Social importance
- They are used during ceremonies were there are slaughted when people are
having weddings, birthdays. Rainmaking ceremonies.
- Hides and horns are also used in ceremonies were traditional healers wear
animal hides and blow the horn to appease the spirit.
- For status- In rural societies animals are a symbol of wealth and status.
- Bride price and totems
- Companionship – dogs can be trained as guide dog for the blind - Recreation-
horse riding.

Ecological importance of livestock

- Livestock are a part of the ecosystem they help maintain an ecological balance
e.g livestock feed on grass and they help control the grass.
********************************************
SUB TOPIC: SMALL LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION
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Broiler production
• state the breeds of broilers
• explain the importance of rearing broilers
• describe the housing requirements for broilers
• rear broilers

Broiler production
Breeds of broilers
1. Indigenous Boschveld (road runner) - it is easy to obtain, tolerant to
diseases, can be fed on home-made feed.
2. Hubbard – Must be bought from commercial breeders, need specially
bought feeds, high yield of meat produced in a short time, easily adapts to
conditions, , excellent breeder
3. Cobb 500- Cheap to buy, does not require expensive feed, grows quickly,
excellent breeder.
4. Ross- Expensive to buy, grows rapidly, have a broad chest with lots of
meat.
5. Cornish- Heavy and muscular, short, close fitting feathers, does not do
well in cold places.

Importance of rearing broilers

1. They are a source of protein food
2. There are sold as means of income
3. They are used as gifts in rural areas
4. They are used as a popular dish in weddings
5. They provide manure
6. There have created means of employment for many small scale farmers
7. Poultry droppings are processed as feed for ruminants such as cattle and
sheep.

Housing requirements for broilers.

A good poultry house must:
 -Protect the chickens from adverse weather conditions such as rain, cold,
excessive heat, and wind.
-allow for good ventilation
-keep predators and thieves out.
-allow sufficient space for the chickens to move.
-be easy to keep clean and work on.

Brooders
Chicks from day old to 4 weeks are kept in brooders.
Types of brooders
1. Hay box –this type of brooder can be used by farmers in communal
areas that donot have artificial heat.Hay is put on the floor and on top
of the box.it can house about 50 chicks.
2. Small round-hut- it is suitable for farmers in rural areas. the roof of the
hut can be removed when it is hot and replaced when it is cold it can
house about 50 chicks
3. The battery or tier brooder-It uses electricity, paraffin, gas or hot
waterthat supply heat to the chicks, .this is the most expensive brooder
but can keep many chicks at one time.
4. Infra-red lamp-It uses electricity, a special bulb called infra- red lamps
is used to supply heat to the chicks, and it is suspended about 40 to 60
cm above ground. The bulb can provide enough heat for about 100
chicks.

HOUSING SYSTEMS FOR BROILERS 4WEEKS – 8WEEKS.

Broilers are kept in following housing systems: extensive- it allows
free range that is the broilers are allowed to roam about the yard during
the day without any form of restriction, they scratch around for food
-Semi intensive – in the system the housing is within a fenced area at
night the broilers sleep inside a house and during the day they forage
for food.
-Intensive system- in this system broilers are kept in houses for
protection from all weather conditions.
There are two types of intensive housing systems:
1. The deep- litter- it can be concrete floors or earthen floors. It has a
wall on the wind ward side and a wire mesh on the other side. Grass
 is added on the floor to a depth of 5 cm. The litter has to be kept dry
to control pest and diseases
2. The battery cage- it is used in farms in which there is no land. The
broilers are kept in individual wire cages. Food and water are
placed outside the cages and the droppings are collected underneath
the cage.

Advantages of extensive housing system

- Low cost on feed
- There is no cannibalism
- It requires less capital
- Less labour needed to feed chickens

Disadvantages of the extensive housing system.

- It is good where they large area of land available
- There are high losses through predators
- Farmers cannot monitor individual broilers
- It is very difficult to predict diseases and control them.

Advantages of semi-intensive housing

- Broilers have a fairly good growth rate
- The farmer can identify sick broilers in the fence
- Broilers can be fed a balanced diet
- Predators cannot enter the fowl run
- Broilers can walk about and get enough exercise to build up protein and
strengthen their immune system.

Disadvantage of semi-intensive housing

- Fences need constant checking to prevent predators from getting in
- Feeding areas may not be protected from adverse weather conditions

Advantages of a deep- litter system

- Litter provides garden manure and can be livestock feed.
- You can have high stock rate.
- If light are available , broilers can feed at night - Labour cost may be kept
low as the space is small.
 Disadvantages of a deep litter system
- It encourages diseases at times
- You cannot keep individuals record of your broilers
- Feed hoppers and drinkers can be contaminated with litter - High labour cost
may be incurred at times.

Advantages of battery cage

- There is no cannibalism as broilers are in their own cage
- The farmer can monitor individual broilers
- Water and feeding troughs are always clean
- The farmer can detect disease from individual broilers

Disadvantages of battery cage system

- It is very expensive to construct
- It is expensive to maintain
- The broiler cannot exercise

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SUB TOPIC: ANIMAL HEALTH
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Signs of health and ill-health
• define animal health
• distinguish between health and unhealthy farm livestock

Animal health
It refers to management of livestock in order to keep them healthy and
productive.

The major factors contributing to animal health are prevention and control of
pests and diseases. Other factors that influence animal health are nutrition,
production management and reproduction.
 Health and unhealthy farm livestock
Sings of a healthy animal Signs of a sick animal

Stays with other animals in a group Usually isolated and does not
maintain contact with the group.
It is active ,playing , eating and Immobile and not interested, have
grooming little or no appetite and have trouble
in chewing and swallowing.
Their excretion pattern is the same May have diarrhoea, have absence of
and dung consistency matches the faeces and urine
feed type and the urine is light in
colour.
The coat of the cow or bull is shiny The coat is dull
and has lick marks on it.
The sheep’s fleece is tight , not Sheep’s wool breaks or falls out
matted and should springy
Feathers are normal and intact Chicken lose their feathers

Mucous membranes are soft and Mucus membranes are pale and dry
moist
No abnormal discharge from the Abnormal discharge from eyes,
body mouth, nose, ears,
navel,anus,teats,and external sexual
organs.
Health animals walk well and in Ill animals walk stiffly, wobble or go
straight line round in circles. Creaking and
swollen joints are a sign of ill health.
Eyes are clear, bright and alert, eye Eyes are sunken and dull. Pale white
socket are pink sockets are an indication of anaemia.
Pulse rate and breathing are normal Higher pulse rate and breathing rate
or lower than normal

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 TOPIC 5: FARM STRUCTURES AND MACHINERY
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SUB TOPIC: FARM IMPLEMENTS
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Implements
• list 5 tillage implements
• draw and label the parts of a mould board plough
• explain functions of parts of a mould board plough
Farm implements
Implements are pieces of equipment and tools, they are to be used in a task in
which they are designed to be used only.

Tillage implements
The following are common tillage implements

1. Mouldboard plough
2. Cultivator
3. Harrow
4. Planter
5. Ridger

Mouldboard plough (primary tillage)

It is used to turn the soilbefore sowing seed; they are pulled by cattle or donkeys
and some by tractors in commercial farms. Theblade on the mouldboard turns over
the land or inverts the soil to bring fresh nutrients to the surface and bury weeds and
remains of the previous season crop.

Functions of the parts ofa mouldboard plough

part function
Mould board Turns the soil and buries the trash.
Handle grip The part where the person holding the plough grips the
handle
handle Handles the plough so it could be moved to the
required position
beam Hold all the partsof the plough in positionit is the
strongest part
 landside Controls the plough so that it does not move out of the
furrows and stabilises it
share Cuts the soil so it can be turned by the mouldboard
frog Where the mould board, landside and share are
mounted
wheel For adjusting the plough that it keeps ploughing at the
same depth
Wheel arms Attaches the wheel to the beam
Arm clamp Attaches wheel arms to the beam
Braces Stabilises the plough by attaching handles to the beam
Depth rod Is moved up and down to determine depth
Set screw Screws the depth rod to the clamp
Ring/link Connects plough to the trek chain
Draw bar Connects link to thebeam and depth rod
axle The wheel turns on
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SUB TOPIC: FENCING
********************************************
Types of fences
• explain the reasons for fencing
• identify different types of fences
Fencing
A fence is a barrier or railing usually made of wood or wire which encloses an area
to control access and prevent escape.
Purposes of fencing
1. Keep animals in
2. To protect stock and crop
3. To demarcate boundaries
4. To facilitate rotational grazing
5. To protect essential installations like borehole pumps and electrical
transformers
6. To beautify the farm.
Types of fences
1. Electric fences.
2. Wire fences.
3. Wooden fences.
4. Living fences.

Electric fence
-It uses shock to prevent people and animals from crossing it.

The voltage in the electric fence is there to cause discomfort and not to kill the
animal. Because of theelectricity within the fence, electric fences must be insulated
from the earth not touch any vegetables.

- Wooden and metal poles are not used in electric fences because they conduct
electricity , poles used to support electric fences should be insulated with plastic

Advantages
-they are built faster and cheaper

-it is less dangerous for animals as they are unlikely to get stuck as in barbed wire

- It can be use to reinforce other fences.

Disadvantages
-if electricity supply is interrupted the fence will be no longer be effective
-shorting out of electricity will cause fires that will damage vegetation

Wooden fence
They are built in a wide variety of designs. They are used in kraals or around
dwellings, they can be attractive and they add value to property.

Advantages
-It is affordable

-it is durable

-it is adaptable

-wood can be recycled and reused.

Disadvantages
-if not treated it can be destroyed by termites and weather elements.

-It leads to deforestation.

N2002
a) list the properties of wood that make it suitable for construction of farm structures. [3]
✓ Easy to work ;
✓ Freedom from warping;
✓ Easy to paint;
✓ Durable.
✓ Does not crack
b) what are the advantages of using wood over metal if farm structures? [3]
✓ It is lighter in weight;
✓ Cheap;
✓ Locally available
✓ Ease to use
c) state three factors that should be considered when designing farm buildings. [3]
✓ Purpose of building;
✓ Space;
✓ Material to be used;
✓ Cost of material/ capital;
✓ Cost of labour;
✓ Quality of material
✓ Quantity of material;
✓ Type of material
✓ Accessibity of material
Wire fences
I. Wire mesh- the most common used wire mesh is the diamond mesh. There
are cheap and easy to build. There are suitable for keeping small livestock in
and out of an area. Fine mash is suitable for vegetable garden as it prevents
smaller animals from entering the garden.
II. Barbed wire- it is wire with metal wrapped around small strands to form
barbs. The barbs prevent any unauthorised entry and exit in the farm. It is
strung between posts to form a fence, it is quick and easy to construct. It can
be used on existing fences to bolster their security.
III. Plain wire fences-the wire is usually single or a double strand wire. It has an
advantage over barbed wire because it damages animals less, its
disadvantage is that it is smooth and animals can learn on it stretching it out
of shape making it less effective. To prevent this farmers use high tensile
wire (wire that is strong under tension).
 Living fences
These are any living organisms used as fences. Examples are tree anchor fences
which are trees are cut to remain as single straight line , the trees are then used as
post were a wire is strung up between the trees and hedges.

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SUB TOPIC: HARNESSING
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Harnesses
• list two types of yokes
• describe the types of yokes
• draw and label the parts of yokes
• describe the characteristics of wood used in making yokes

Harnessing
Def- a harness is an arrangement of straps buckled or looped together and fitted to
an animal so that the animal can be attached to a cart or a plough.

Def- A yoke is a wooden crosspiece that is fastened on one or two animals and
attached to the plough or cart that they are to pull.

Types of yokes
1. Forehead yokes
2. Head yokes
3. Withers yoke
4. Bow yokes

Nb- The wood used to make a yoke must be strong and heavy it should weigh 6 to
nine kilograms.

Forehead yoke
They are attached in front of horns.

Head yokes
It is placed behind the horns and is tied to the yokes with ropes or thongs of leather.
The neck of the animal is padded by straw to prevent injury .the yoke is used for
cart work.
Withers yoke
It is a shoulder yoke, the withers of an animal are the highest part of an animal’s
back, lying at the baseofthe neck above the shoulders. Wither yokes are most
suitable when the draft animals are pulling a wagon and cart

Bow yoke
It sis some time called a neck yoke. It has a single yoke harness for a single ox and
also a double yoke harness which can be used for two. The bow yoke is held by
animals by their neck, the ox bow is u shaped and it transmits force from the
animal’sshoulders. The disadvantage of this yoke is that a cow cannot walk
backwards and when cultivating crops animals can easily spoil the crop.

Characteristics of wood used in making yokes

1. Light 2.
Splinter free 3.
Hardwood.

November 1995
2a). With the aid of labelled diagrams, describe two types of yokes used for
harnessing draught animals. (6)
b). Describe the advantages of using thatch grass rather than asbestos in farm
buildings. (4)
Possible Answers
a). With the aid of labelled diagrams, describe two types of yokes used for
harnessing draught animals.
 b). Describe the advantages of using thatch grass rather than asbestos in farm
buildings.

- thatch grass is cheaper than asbestos

- it is readily available on farms
- it is a better insulator than asbestos
- controls both sound and heat

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TOPIC 6: AGRI-BUSINESS
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SUB TOPIC: FARM RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS
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Farm records
• describe the importance of farm records
• differentiate physical from financial records
Farm records
-Records are written information relating to farm production processes.

Importance of farm records

-they help the farmers to measure and analyze farm production and make sound
farm management decisions
-they provide a clear direction on what actions to take on a rm.
- They help farmers with planning their farming activities and remind farmers to
pay their debts on time.
-Help farmers to get loans from banks
-give the history of the farm so that farmers may assess the productivity of the
farm.
-physical records help farmers to follow farming activities properly such as the
dates of sowing, furrowing and harvesting and other important dates.
Types of farm records
There are two types of farm records.
1. Physical records
2. Financial records

Physical records
These are records of the physical items or activities that are done on the farm.eg the
farm diary, climatic records, production records and inventory records.
1. Inventory records- it refers to a record of all the assets and liabilities on the
farm at a specific date. Assets eg tractors, moldboard plough, shellers etc and
liabilities eg inputs cost owed to the government.
2. Production records- these are records of the quantities of inputs used in farm
and the outputs obtained from the inputs . eg inputs chemicals used in various
crops ,amount of fertilizer used and also the quantity of seeds needed.
Outputs e.g crop yields, number of eggs collected per day, amount of milk
produced.
3. Labor and input records

Financial records
They analyze the farm’s income and expenditure. They include the income and
expenditure account, the profit and loss account and the farm budget.

November 1995
1a). Describe, giving examples, the different types of records a farmer should keep in
crop production.
b). Explain the advantages of keeping these records.
Possible Answers
a). Describe, giving examples, the different types of records a farmer should keep
in crop production.
Answer:
Production records e.g. crop enterprises, livestock deaths, births and yields
Financial records e.g. income and expenditure accounts, profit/ loss accounts
b). Explain the advantages of keeping these records
Production records:
- guide farmers in planning and making decisions
- facilitate seed selection
- identify areas needing improvement
Financial records:
- enable farmers to determine profit/ loss
- help farmers to obtain loans
- sharing of profits/ loss at the end of a growing season
- to assess income

Income and expenditure account.

It shows how much money the farm makes and how much is spent in the running of
the farm. Income is the money received by the farm, while expenditure is the
money spent by the company.

Example of an income and expenditure account

Income Expenditure
Item Amount item Amount
Sale of onions $45 compost $20
Sale of cabbages $56 2kg king onion $10
seeds
Sale of beetroot $300 50kg ammonium $55
nitrate
Total returns $ 401 Total costs $85
 Profit and loss account
It is similar to the income and expenditure account, the only difference is that it
compares the income and expenditure totals. If the income is more than the
expenditure the farm is making a profit and if the income is less than the
expenditure the company is making a loss.

Example of Profit and Loss account

Total returns $401
Total costs $ 85
Net Profit $316

Farm budget
A budget is a written document that shows estimates of how much the farmer is
going to get back from an enterprise and how much he or she is going to spend .it is
prepared from maximum expected expenditure and minimum expected returns.

Example of a budget:
Maximum Amount Minimum Amount
expected costs expected returns
Fertilizers $224 Sale of maize $333
Seed $554 Sale of vegetables $576
Pesticides $777 Sale of sorghum $333
Labor $200 Sale of wheat $1457
Total $1,755 Total. $ 2699

November 1996
10a). Describe the records that a farmer should keep in growing of a named legume
crop. (5)
b). Explain the uses of each of the records mentioned. (5)

Possible Answers

a). Describe the records that a farmer should keep in the growing of a named
legume crop.
Name of legume – ground nuts
Types of records: production records e.g. crop, rainfall records
Financial records e.g. income and expenditure, budgets
 b). Explain the uses of each of the records.
Production records
- determine level/ amount of inputs
- area under cultivation
- remember dates of ploughing/ sowing / pest control/ weeding/ maturity/ earthing/
harvesting
Financial records
- fixed costs can be determined
- determine e variable costs e.g. labour/ seed/ insecticides/ fertili9zer - assess
profitability / loss of enterprise

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SUB TOPIC: AGRICULTURAL COOPERATIVES
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Principles of cooperatives
• explain the principles of agricultural cooperatives

Agricultural cooperatives
It refers to a type of farming where a group of people work together and pool their
resources to grow food and earn money.

Why are cooperatives formed?

- To share production and resources.
- To have more bargaining power than an individual farmer.

Principles of agricultural cooperatives.

1. Democratic member control- rules and regulations are decided by democratic
vote.
2. Voluntary and open membership-it is open to all as long as they contribute.
3. Educational training and information-members often are trained on how to
run actual cooperative and various enterprises within the cooperative.
4. Autonomy and independence-they is self-ruling in a cooperative.
5. Neutrality- a cooperative is neutral in politics, religion, and loyalty on the
basis of a language, race or colour.
6. Concerns for the community-Any decision made by cooperative should take
into account the effects on the community.
 7. Profits are shared equally among members.

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TYPES OF COOPERATIVES
• explain the types of agricultural cooperatives

Types of Agricultural cooperatives

1. Production cooperatives- It is when farmers come together to produce
commodities or products and market them as a group. The advantage of
production cooperatives is increase in yield and also increases the bargaining
power in setting the selling prices.
2. Consumer cooperatives- It is where members buy goods as a group. Buying
in larger volumes means the cooperatives can easily get discounted prices.
3. Transport cooperatives- It is when member who own vehicles make them
available for the use of others to transport both goods and people
4. Working cooperatives- All the members come together to work on a land
they individually own. The pooled resources of man power and equipment
help the task to be completed quickly.

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