Summary Diagram of the Heart

Relate the structure and components of

1.
Objectives
blood to their function.

2. Draw diagrams of red and white blood cells.

Describe the role of blood in defending the

3. body against disease. [ To include: the
clotting mechanism; the role of phagocytes
and natural immunity]

4. Explain how the principles of immunization

are used in the control of communicable
diseases (artificial immunity through
vaccination).
The Blood

● Blood is the means by which substances are

transported around the body.

The functions of blood include:

1. Transport of substances e.g. glucose, amino
acids, oxygen, carbon dioxide, antibodies,
hormones, urea.
2. Distribution of heat throughout the body for
temperature regulation.
3. Defense against disease through the action
of white blood cells e.g. in phagocytosis.
4. Reproduction e.g. the penis is made erect by
the use of blood.
The components of the Blood

● Blood is a tissue that consists

of cells and fragments of cells
suspended in plasma.

● Blood is made up of about 55%

blood plasma and 45% blood
cells.

● The blood cells are of two main

types, red and white. There are
also fragments of cells called
platelets.
A tissue is a group of cells that have similar structure and function as a unit. The
blood is called a tissue because it is a collection of specialized cells that serve
particular functions.
The Components of The Blood- Plasma

Plasma is a yellowish fluid composed of

about 90% water and 10% dissolved
substances.

The dissolved substances consist of:

1. Products of digestion, e.g. glucose,

amino acids, vitamins and minerals.
2. Waste products, e.g. carbon dioxide as
the hydrogen carbonate ion (HCO3− ) and
urea.
3. Hormones, e.g. insulin, glucagon &
thyroxine.
4. Plasma proteins, e.g. fibrinogen,
albumen and antibodies.
The Components of The Blood- Plasma

Functions of Plasma

The main function of plasma is

transporting the following:

• Products of digestion from the ileum to the

liver and the body cells.
• Carbon dioxide as the HCO3− ion from
body cells to the lungs.
• Urea from the liver to the kidneys.
• Hormones from the glands that produce
them (endocrine glands) to target organs.
• Heat from the liver and muscles to all
parts of the body.
 The Components of The Blood- Red Blood Cells

● Red blood cells are also

called erythrocytes.

Red Blood Cells - Structure

● They are small cells

● They have no nucleus.
● They have a biconcave disc shape.
● Contain the red pigment haemoglobin.
● Slightly elastic allowing them to squeeze
through the narrowest capillaries.
Red bloods cells contain
haemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a
protein, red pigment containing
iron.
What gives blood its red colour?
Hemoglobin. Blood gets its bright
red colour when hemoglobin picks
up oxygen in the lungs.
 The Components of The Blood- Red Blood Cells

Red Blood Cells - Relationship between structure and function

Biconcave disc shape (squeezed in from They have no nucleus.

both sides) The red blood cell containing no
The biconcave disc shape provides a nucleus creates more space to fill with
large surface area to volume ratio haemoglobin to transport oxygen and
allowing diffusion to happen quickly/ carbon dioxide. The cytoplasm is rich
gases easily diffuse in and out. in haemoglobin.

Red blood cells have no nucleus, thus they

only live for about 3 to 4 months.
 The Components of The Blood- Red Blood Cells

Red Blood Cells - Formation

● New red blood cells are constantly ● Red blood cells are
made in the bone marrow (red bone broken down mainly in
marrow). The bone marrow is the soft, the liver and spleen.
spongy material in the center of the
bones.
 The Components of The Blood- Red Blood Cells

● Red blood cells Red Blood Cells - Function

transport oxygen
(as
oxyhaemoglobin)
from the lungs to
body cells.

● Red blood cells

also transport
carbon
dioxide from
body cells to
the lungs.
 The Components of The Blood- Red Blood Cells

Red blood cell Disorders

Sickle Cell Anemia

With sickle cell red blood cells have a
sickle shape which reduces their
oxygen carrying capacity. The red
blood cells look like a sickle used to cut
wheat.
 The Components of The Blood- Red Blood Cells

Red blood cell disorders

Anemia
Anemia is a condition that develops when
your blood produces a lower-than-normal
amount of healthy red blood cells.

If you have anemia, your body does not get

enough oxygen-rich blood. The lack of oxygen
can make you feel tired or weak.

The most common cause of anemia is not

having enough iron. Your body needs iron to
make hemoglobin, the red pigment in red
blood cells.
 The Components of The Blood- White Blood Cells

● White blood cells are also ● There are two main

called leucocytes. types; 25% are
lymphocytes and
● White blood cells are slightly
75% are phagocytes
larger than red blood cells
and less numerous;
approximately 1 white blood
cell to 600 red blood cells.

● White blood cells are apart of

the body’s immune system.
Contrary to their name, white blood cells are
colorless but can appear as a very light purple
to pink color when examined under a
microscope and colored with dye.
 Phagocytes - Structure
● Phagocytes have a variable shape.
● They have a lobed nucleus.
● They have a cytoplasm with
mitochondria and many small
vacuoles containing enzymes.
Vacuoles contain enzymes to digest
bacteria.
● Phagocytes are formed in the
bone marrow.

● Phagocytes move by
pseudopodia. They can move out
of capillaries through their walls to
sites of infections and engulf
pathogens using pseudopodia.

Pseudopodia are temporary projections of the cytoplasm of

a cell. In the case of white blood cells, they are used for
movement and they help the white blood cells to capture
pathogens by phagocytosis.
 Phagocytes - Function
● Phagocytes engulf and destroy
disease-causing organisms (pathogens) at
sites of infection.

● Phagocytes move out of the blood and to the

infected areas. There they engulf the invading
microorganisms, killing and removing them
from the body before they can cause disease.
Phagocytosis
 Lymphocytes - Structure
● Lymphocytes have a rounded
● They have a large, round nucleus that
controls the production of antibodies.
● They have only a small amount of
cytoplasm.
● Lymphocytes are formed in lymph
nodes and spleen.
 Lymphocytes - Function
● Lymphocytes produce antibodies ● When activated during an
that kill pathogens by causing infection lymphocytes produce
them to clump together, or antibodies that are made of
protein.
neutralise their toxins.
The Role of the lymphocyte in Defending the
body Against Disease
When antigens, such as the measles virus, enter the body,
lymphocytes recognise them and start to produce specific
antibodies on a large scale to destroy the viruses.

The action of lymphocytes is very specific – only the

antibodies for that particular antigen are made.

To defend the body against disease, antibodies act in a

number of ways:
1. They cause the antigens to clump together resulting
in their death and easy removal by the phagocytes.
2. They produce antitoxins to neutralise the toxins
produced by the antigens.
● Pathogens are harmful microorganisms that
cause diseases. Pathogens include viruses,
bacteria, fungi, and parasites that invade the
body.

● An antigen is a chemical that stimulates

lymphocytes to produce antibodies. They are
proteins found on the surface of pathogens.

● Antibodies are proteins produced by the

immune system to attack and
destroy pathogens and antigens.

● Toxins are poisonous substances produced by

microorganisms that stimulate the production of
neutralizing substances (antitoxins) in the body.

● Antitoxins neutralise the toxins (poisonous

chemicals) that some bacteria produce.
● The phagocytes can cope with any small, non-specific invasion by pathogens.
If more dangerous, specific pathogens enter, then lymphocytes, recognise
the specific pathogen and mobilise other lymphocytes to make antibodies to
attack, disarm, destroy and remove these pathogens.
 Platelets
● Platelets are also called (thrombocytes)
● They are cell fragments.
● Have no nucleus and only live for about
10 days.
● Platelets are formed in bone marrow of
long bones.
Platelets - Function
● Platelets help the blood to
clot at a cut or wound.

● When the skin is cut and a

small blood vessel is
broken, a blood clot forms
to prevent further blood
loss. The clot also prevents
the entry of
disease-causing organisms
(pathogens).
 BLOOD CLOT FORMATION (Steps)
The mechanism of clotting occurs in a series of stages:
1. Platelets and damaged blood vessels, on exposure to air, release a
protein called thromboplastin (clotting factor).
2. Thromboplastin, with the help of calcium ions and vitamin K in the blood,
acts on an inactive blood protein called prothrombin and turns it into
active thrombin.
3. Thrombin acts on fibrinogen, a soluble inactive protein in the blood, and
turns it into insoluble fibrin.
4. Fibrin forms a network of fibres that trap blood cells and platelets to
form a clot.
Prothrombin and Fibrinogen are both made in the liver.
Vitamin K must be present to make prothrombin.
Red blood cells being captured
by a network of fibrin during
blood clotting.
Immunity
● The skin is the
body’s first line of
defence (figure 13.9).
It acts as a physical
barrier
 Immunity
● Immunity is the temporary or permanent resistance to a disease.
● Immunity can be natural or artificial.
● Both natural and artificial immunity can be actively acquired and passively
acquired.
 Natural Immunity
● Lymphocytes bring about this immunity by producing proteins called
antibodies in response to the presence of foreign substances, known as
antigens, in the body. When a pathogen enters the body, lymphocytes make
specific antibodies in response to the pathogen’s specific antigen.
● Recognition of antigens and production of the specific antibodies against them
takes time. During that time, the antigens will have produced symptoms of the
disease. Once the antibodies are produced, the antigens are destroyed or
neutralised and the symptoms disappear.
● The antibodies then gradually disappear from the blood, but they leave behind
special memory lymphocytes.
● If the specific antigen invades a second time, the memory lymphocytes
immediately recognise them, and rapidly make large amounts of the specific
antibody. This time, the antigens are destroyed before symptoms develop,
and the person is said to be immune to that disease. This happens naturally and
is called natural immunity
 Natural Immunity
There are two types of natural immunity:
Actively acquired immunity – When Passively acquired immunity –
the body has already experienced an Antibodies can pass across the
infection by a pathogen or antigen so placenta providing a newborn
the lymphocytes produce large baby with immunity against
quantities of antibodies to fight the diseases that the mother’s body is
disease before symptoms develop a immune to. Also, antibodies
second time. Immunity may last a short present in breast milk help to
time, e.g. against the common cold, to a protect the baby against antigens.
lifetime, e.g. chicken pox is rarely
caught twice
 Artificial Immunity
● Artificial immunity is acquired by vaccination and is used to control the spread
of communicable diseases, i.e. diseases that pass from person to person. One
example is the MMR vaccine given at around 2 years of age or younger to
protect children against measles, mumps and rubella.

A vaccine may contain:

● Live pathogens that have been weakened (attenuated), e.g. measles, mumps
and rubella vaccines.
● Pathogens that have been killed, e.g. cholera, influenza and polio vaccines.
● Toxins from the pathogen that have been made harmless, e.g. diphtheria and
tetanus vaccines.
● Fragments of the pathogen, e.g. influenza vaccine.
● The specific antigens (proteins) from the coat of the pathogen produced by
genetic engineering, e.g. hepatitis B vaccine (see page 159).
 Artificial Immunity continued

Vaccines do not cause the disease, but lymphocytes still make antibodies in response
to the specific antigens that are present in the vaccine. Lymphocyte memory cells are
also produced so that an immune response is set up whenever the pathogen enters
the body. Artificial immunity may last a short time, e.g. against cholera, to a lifetime,
e.g. against tuberculosis.

The Importance of Vaccination in Young Children

The importance of immunisation or vaccination is seen when children are protected

from dangerous diseases like polio, measles, mumps, tetanus and whooping cough
(figure 13.12). This is achieved in a programme of immunisation where often a second,
booster injection is given. This stimulates a much quicker production of antibodies
which is longer lasting and which protects the child from the disease for a
considerable time.
 Artificial Immunity
There are two types of artificial immunity:

Actively acquired immunity – This is Passively acquired immunity –

by vaccination at a suitable time in the
The vaccine contains ready-made
person’s life, when they are not infected
antibodies which provide
with the antigen. The vaccine used
immediate relief by destroying the
contains treated antigens which cannot
antigens. This is given when the
cause the disease, but which can
person has been infected with the
stimulate the body to make antibodies.
antigens and has no previous
Immunity is obtained because if the
immunity.
real antigen should enter the body,
antibodies are immediately and rapidly
produced to destroy it. This happens
before symptoms develop and the
person is said to be immune to that
disease.