19-Power (Ac)

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Power (ac)
19
Objectives • Become familiar with the differences between
average, apparent, and reactive power and how to
calculate each for any combination of resistive and
reactive elements.
• Understand that the energy dissipated by a load is
the area under the power curve for the period of
time of interest.
• Become aware of how the real, apparent, and
reactive power are related in an ac network and
how to find the total value of each for any
configuration.
• Understand the concept of power-factor correction
and how to apply it to improve the terminal
characteristics of a load.
• Develop some understanding of energy losses in
an ac system that are not present under dc
conditions.
19.1 INTRODUCTION
The discussion of power in Chapter 14 included only the average or real power delivered to an
ac network. We now examine the total power equation in a slightly different form and intro-
duce two additional types of power: apparent and reactive.
19.2 GENERAL EQUATION

For any system such as in Fig. 19.1, the power delivered to a load at any instant is defined by
the product of the applied voltage and the resulting current; that is,
p yi
In this case, since y and i are sinusoidal quantities, let us establish a general case where
y Vm sin(vt u)
and i Im sin vt
+
v Load
p
–
q
FIG. 19.1
Ps
Defining the power delivered to a load.
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836 ⏐⏐⏐ POWER (ac) Ps
The chosen y and i include all possibilities because, if the load is purely
resistive, u 0°. If the load is purely inductive or capacitive, u 90° or
u 90°, respectively. For a network that is primarily inductive, u is
positive (y leads i). For a network that is primarily capacitive, u is nega-
tive (i leads y).
Substituting the above equations for y and i into the power equation
results in
p Vm Im sin vt sin(vt u)
If we now apply a number of trigonometric identities, the following form
for the power equation results:
p VI cos u11 cos 2vt2 VI sin u1sin 2vt2 (19.1)
where V and I are the rms values. The conversion from peak values Vm and
Im to rms values resulted from the operations performed using the
trigonometric identities.
It would appear initially that nothing has been gained by putting the
equation in this form. However, the usefulness of the form of Eq. (19.1)
is demonstrated in the following sections. The derivation of Eq. (19.1)
from the initial form appears as an assignment at the end of the chapter.
If Eq. (19.1) is expanded to the form
p VI cos v VI cos v cos 2vt VI sin v sin 2vt
Average Peak 2x Peak 2x
there are two obvious points that can be made. First, the average power
still appears as an isolated term that is time independent. Second, both
terms that follow vary at a frequency twice that of the applied voltage or
current, with peak values having a very similar format.
In an effort to ensure completeness and order in presentation, each ba-
sic element (R, L, and C) is treated separately.
19.3 RESISTIVE CIRCUIT

i + v – For a purely resistive circuit (such as that in Fig. 19.2), y and i are in
phase, and u 0°, as appearing in Fig. 19.3. Substituting u 0° into
pR R Eq. (19.1), we obtain
FIG. 19.2
T2
Determining the power delivered to a purely
resistive load.
pR
p1 VI
Power
delivered to Energy Energy
(Average)
element by dissipated dissipated
source
VI
0 t1 i t
Power v
returned to T1
source by
element
FIG. 19.3
Power versus time for a purely resistive load.
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Ps RESISTIVE CIRCUIT ⏐⏐⏐ 837
pR VI cos(0°)(1 cos 2vt) VI sin(0°) sin 2vt

VI (1 cos 2vt) 0
or pR VI VI cos 2vt (19.2)
where VI is the average or dc term and VI cos 2vt is a negative cosine
wave with twice the frequency of either input quantity (y or i) and a peak
value of VI. The plot in Fig. 19.3 has the same characteristics as obtained
in Fig. 14.30.
Note that
T1 period of input quantities
T2 period of power curve pR
In addition, the power curve passes through two cycles about its av-
erage value of VI for each cycle of either y or i (T1 2T2 or f2 2f1).
Consider also that since the peak and average values of the power curve
are the same, the curve is always above the horizontal axis. This indicates
that
the total power delivered to a resistor will be dissipated in the form
of heat.
The power returned to the source is represented by the portion of the
curve below the axis, which is zero in this case. The power dissipated by
the resistor at any instant of time t1 can be found by simply substituting
the time t1 into Eq. (19.2) to find p1, as indicated in Fig. 19.3. The average
(real) power from Eq. (19.2), or Fig. 19.3, is VI; or, as a summary,
Vm Im V2
P VI I 2R (watts, W) (19.3)
2 R
as derived in Chapter 14.

The energy dissipated by the resistor (WR) over one full cycle of the
applied voltage is the area under the power curve in Fig. 19.3. It can be
found using the following equation:
W Pt
where P is the average value and t is the period of the applied voltage;
that is,
WR VIT1 (joules, J) (19.4)
or, since T1 1/f1,
VI
WR (joules, J) (19.5)
f1
EXAMPLE 19.1 For the resistive circuit in Fig. 19.4,

a. Find the instantaneous power delivered to the resistor at times t1
through t6.
b. Plot the results of part (a) for one full period of the applied voltage.
c. Find the average value of the curve of part (b) and compare the level
to that determined by Eq. (19.3).
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vR
+ 12 V
iR
pR 6V
vR = 12 sin t
f =1 kHz R 4
0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t
–
–12 V
FIG. 19.4
Example 19.1.
d. Find the energy dissipated by the resistor over one full period of the
applied voltage.
Solutions:
a. t1: yR 0 V and pR yR iR 0 W
t2: yR 12 V and iR 12 V/4 3 A
pR yR iR (12 V)(3 A) 36 W
t3: yR 6 V and iR 6 V/4 1.5 A
pR yR iR (6 V)(1.5 A) 9 W
t4: yR 0 V and pR yR iR 0 W
t5: yR 12 V and iR 12 V/4 3 A
pR yR iR (12 V)(3 A) 36 W
t6: yR 0 V and pR yR iR 0 W
pR (W) b. The resulting plot of yR, iR, and pR appears in Fig. 19.5.
c. The average value of the curve in Fig. 19.5 is 18 W, which is an ex-
36 act match with that obtained using Eq. (19.3). That is,
Vm Im 112 V2 13 A2
18 Average P 18 W
9W 2 2
vR
d. The area under the curve is determined by Eq. (19.5):
0 t1 i t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t
112 V2 13 A2
R
VI Vm Im
WR 18 mJ
f1 2 f1 211 kHz2
FIG. 19.5
Power curve for Example 19.1.
19.4 APPARENT POWER
+ From our analysis of dc networks (and resistive elements above), it would
I
seem apparent that the power delivered to the load in Fig. 19.6 is deter-
V Z mined by the product of the applied voltage and current, with no concern
for the components of the load; that is, P VI. However, we found in
– Chapter 14 that the power factor (cos u) of the load has a pronounced effect
on the power dissipated, less pronounced for more reactive loads. Although
FIG. 19.6 the product of the voltage and current is not always the power delivered, it
Defining the apparent power to a load. is a power rating of significant usefulness in the description and analysis of
sinusoidal ac networks and in the maximum rating of a number of electri-
cal components and systems. It is called the apparent power and is repre-
sented symbolically by S.* Since it is simply the product of voltage and
current, its units are volt-amperes (VA). Its magnitude is determined by
*Prior to 1968, the symbol for apparent power was the more descriptive Pa .
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Ps APPARENT POWER ⏐⏐⏐ 839
S VI (volt-amperes, VA) (19.6)
V
or, since V IZandI
Z
then S I 2Z (VA) (19.7)
V2
and S (VA) (19.8)
Z
The average power to the load in Fig. 19.4 is

P VI cos u
However, S VI
Therefore, P S cos u (W) (19.9)
and the power factor of a system Fp is
P
Fp cos u (unitless) (19.10)
S
The power factor of a circuit, therefore, is the ratio of the average power
to the apparent power. For a purely resistive circuit, we have
P VI S
P
and Fp cos u 1
S
In general, power equipment is rated in volt-amperes (VA) or in
kilovolt-amperes (kVA) and not in watts. By knowing the volt-ampere
rating and the rated voltage of a device, we can readily determine the
maximum current rating. For example, a device rated at 10 kVA at 200 V
has a maximum current rating of I 10,000 VA/200 V 50 A when op-
erated under rated conditions. The volt-ampere rating of a piece of equip-
ment is equal to the wattage rating only when the Fp is 1. It is therefore a
maximum power dissipation rating. This condition exists only when the
total impedance of a system Z u is such that u 0°.
The exact current demand of a device, when used under normal oper-
ating conditions, can be determined if the wattage rating and power fac-
tor are given instead of the volt-ampere rating. However, the power factor
is sometimes not available, or it may vary with the load.
The reason for rating some electrical equipment in kilovolt-amperes
rather than in kilowatts can be described using the configuration in Fig.
19.7. The load has an apparent power rating of 10 kVA and a current
rating of 50 A at the applied voltage, 200 V. As indicated, the current
demand of 70 A is above the rated value and could damage the load el-
ement, yet the reading on the wattmeter is relatively low since the load
is highly reactive. In other words, the wattmeter reading is an indica-
tion of the watts dissipated and may not reflect the magnitude of the
current drawn. Theoretically, if the load were purely reactive, the
wattmeter reading would be zero even if the load was being damaged
by a high current level.
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P = VI cos θ
[10 kVA = (200 V)(50 A)]
S = VI
0 Wattmeter 10
Load
(kW)
I = 70 A > 50 A ± I
R
+
±
200 V V XL
–
(XL >> R)
FIG. 19.7
Demonstrating the reason for rating a load in kVA rather than kW.
i + v – 19.5 INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT AND REACTIVE POWER

pL
For a purely inductive circuit (such as that in Fig. 19.8), y leads i by 90°,
as shown in Fig. 19.9. Therefore, in Eq. (19.1), u 90°. Substituting
FIG. 19.8 u 90° into Eq. (19.1) yields
Defining the power level for a purely inductive load. pL VI cos(90°)(1 cos 2vt) VI sin(90°)(sin 2vt)
0 VI sin 2vt
or pL VI sin 2vt (19.11)
T2
Power
delivered to pL
element by
source
Energy Energy
v absorbed i absorbed VI

t
θ = 90°
Energy Energy
Power –VI returned returned
returned to
source by
element
T1
FIG. 19.9
The power curve for a purely inductive load.
where VI sin 2vt is a sine wave with twice the frequency of either input
quantity (y or i) and a peak value of VI. Note the absence of an average
or constant term in the equation.
Plotting the waveform for pL (Fig. 19.9), we obtain
T1 period of either input quantity
T2 period of pL curve
Note that over one full cycle of pL (T2), the area above the horizontal axis
in Fig. 19.9 is exactly equal to that below the axis. This indicates that over
a full cycle of pL, the power delivered by the source to the inductor is ex-
actly equal to that returned to the source by the inductor.
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Ps INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT AND REACTIVE POWER ⏐⏐⏐ 841
The net flow of power to the pure (ideal) inductor is zero over a full
cycle, and no energy is lost in the transaction.
The power absorbed or returned by the inductor at any instant of time t1
can be found simply by substituting t1 into Eq. (19.11). The peak value
of the curve VI is defined as the reactive power associated with a pure
inductor.
In general, the reactive power associated with any circuit is defined to
be VI sin u, a factor appearing in the second term of Eq. (19.1). Note that
it is the peak value of that term of the total power equation that produces
no net transfer of energy. The symbol for reactive power is Q, and its unit
of measure is the volt-ampere reactive (VAR).* The Q is derived from the
quadrature (90°) relationship between the various powers, to be dis-
cussed in detail in a later section. Therefore,
QL VI sin u (volt-ampere reactive, VAR) (19.12)
where u is the phase angle between V and I.

For the inductor,
QL VI (VAR) (19.13)
or, since V IXL or I V/XL ,
QL I 2XL (VAR) (19.14)
V2
or QL (VAR) (19.15)
XL
The apparent power associated with an inductor is S VI, and the av-
erage power is P 0, as noted in Fig. 19.9. The power factor is therefore
P 0
Fp cos u 0
S VI
If the average power is zero, and the energy supplied is returned within
one cycle, why is reactive power of any significance? The reason is not
obvious but can be explained using the curve in Fig. 19.9. At every in-
stant of time along the power curve that the curve is above the axis (pos-
itive), energy must be supplied to the inductor, even though it will be
returned during the negative portion of the cycle. This power requirement
during the positive portion of the cycle requires that the generating plant
provide this energy during that interval. Therefore, the effect of reactive
elements such as the inductor can be to raise the power requirement of
the generating plant, even though the reactive power is not dissipated but
simply “borrowed.” The increased power demand during these intervals
is a cost factor that must be passed on to the industrial consumer. In fact,
most larger users of electrical energy pay for the apparent power demand
rather than the watts dissipated since the volt-amperes used are sensitive
to the reactive power requirement (see Section 19.7). In other words, the
closer the power factor of an industrial outfit is to 1, the more efficient
the plant’s operation since it is limiting its use of “borrowed” power.
*Prior to 1968, the symbol for reactive power was the more descriptive Pq .
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The energy stored by the inductor during the positive portion of the
cycle (Fig. 19.9) is equal to that returned during the negative portion and
can be determined using the following equation:
W Pt
where P is the average value for the interval and t is the associated inter-
val of time.
Recall from Chapter 14 that the average value of the positive portion
of a sinusoid equals 2(peak value/p) and t T2/2. Therefore,
WL a b a b
2VI T2
p 2
VIT2
and WL (J) (19.16)
p
or, since T2 1/f2, where f2 is the frequency of the pL curve, we have
VI
WL (J) (19.17)
pf2
Since the frequency f2 of the power curve is twice that of the input
quantity, if we substitute the frequency f1 of the input voltage or current,
Eq. (19.17) becomes
VI VI
WL
p12f1 2 v1
However, V IXL Iv1L

1Iv1L2I
so that WL
v1
and WL LI 2 (J) (19.18)
providing an equation for the energy stored or released by the inductor in

one half-cycle of the applied voltage in terms of the inductance and rms
value of the current squared.
EXAMPLE 19.2 For the inductive circuit in Fig. 19.10,

a. Find the instantaneous power level for the inductor at times t1
through t5.
vL
10 V
+ iL 7.071 V
pL
vL = 10 sin 200t XL 5
0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t
– 45° 90° 135°

–10 V
FIG. 19.10
Example 19.2.
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Ps CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT ⏐⏐⏐ 843
b. Plot the results of part (a) for one full period of the applied voltage.
c. Find the average value of the curve of part (b) over one full cycle of
the applied voltage and compare the peak value of each pulse with
the value determined by Eq. (19.13).
d. Find the energy stored or released for any one pulse of the power curve.
Solutions:
a. t1: yL 0 V, pL yLiL 0 W
Vm
t2: yL 7.071 V,iL sin1a 90°2
XL
10 V
sin1a 90°2 2 sin1a 90°2
5
At a 45°, iL 2 sin145° 90°2 2 sin145°2 1.414 A
pL yLiL 17.071 V2 11.414 A2 10 W
t3: iL 0 A, pL yLiL 0 W
t4: yL 7.071 V, iL 2 sin1a 90°2 2 sin1135° 90°2
2 sin 45° 1.414 A
pL yLiL 17.071 V2 11.414 A2 10 W
t5: yL 0 V, pL yLiL 0 W
b. The resulting plot of yL , iL , and pL appears in Fig. 19.11.
pL (W)
+10
vL
iL
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t
–10
FIG. 19.11
Power curve for Example 19.2.
c. The average value for the curve in Fig. 19.11 is 0 W over one full cy-
cle of the applied voltage. The peak value of the curve is 10 W which
compares directly with that obtained from the product
Vm Im 110 V2 12 A2
VI 10 W
2 2
d. The energy stored or released during each pulse of the power curve is:
VI Vm Im 110 V2 12 A2
WL 50 mJ
v1 2 v1 2 1200 rad>s2
+ v –
i
pC
19.6 CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT C
For a purely capacitive circuit (such as that in Fig. 19.12), i leads y by FIG. 19.12
90°, as shown in Fig. 19.13. Therefore, in Eq. (19.1), u 90°. Substi- Defining the power level for a purely
tuting u 90° into Eq. (19.1), we obtain capacitive load.
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pC VI cos(90°)(1 cos 2vt) VI sin(90°)(sin 2vt)
0 VI sin 2vt
or pC VI sin 2vt (19.19)
where VI sin 2vt is a negative sine wave with twice the frequency of ei-
ther input (y or i) and a peak value of VI. Again, note the absence of an
average or constant term.
Plotting the waveform for pC (Fig. 19.13) gives us
T1 period of either input quantity
T2 period of pC curve
T2
Power
delivered to pC
element by
source
Energy v Energy
i VI absorbed absorbed
θ = –90°

t
Energy Energy
Power returned –VI returned
returned to
source by
element
T1
FIG. 19.13
The power curve for a purely capacitive load.
Note that the same situation exists here for the pC curve as existed for the
pL curve. The power delivered by the source to the capacitor is exactly
equal to that returned to the source by the capacitor over one full cycle.
The net flow of power to the pure (ideal) capacitor is zero over a
full cycle,
and no energy is lost in the transaction. The power absorbed or returned
by the capacitor at any instant of time t1 can be found by substituting t1
into Eq. (19.19).
The reactive power associated with the capacitor is equal to the peak
value of the pC curve, as follows:
QC VI (VAR) (19.20)
But, since V IXC and I V/XC , the reactive power to the capacitor can
also be written
QC I 2XC (VAR) (19.21)
V2
and QC (VAR) (19.22)
XC
The apparent power associated with the capacitor is
S VI (VA) (19.23)
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Ps THE POWER TRIANGLE ⏐⏐⏐ 845
and the average power is P 0, as noted from Eq. (19.19) or Fig. 19.13.
The power factor is, therefore,
P 0
Fp cos u 0
S VI
The energy stored by the capacitor during the positive portion of the
cycle (Fig. 19.13) is equal to that returned during the negative portion and
can be determined using the equation W Pt.
Proceeding in a manner similar to that used for the inductor, we can
show that
VIT2
WC (J) (19.24)
p
or, since T2 1/f2, where f2 is the frequency of the pC curve,
VI
WC (J) (19.25)
pf2
In terms of the frequency f1 of the input quantities y and i,

VI VI V1Vv1C2
WC
p12f1 2 v1 v1
and WC CV 2 (J) (19.26)
providing an equation for the energy stored or released by the capacitor

in one half-cycle of the applied voltage in terms of the capacitance and
rms value of the voltage squared.
19.7 THE POWER TRIANGLE

The three quantities average power, apparent power, and reactive
power can be related in the vector domain by
SPQ (19.27)
with
P P 0° QL QL 90° QC QC 90° S
QL
For an inductive load, the phasor power S, as it is often called, is de- v

fined by P
S P j QL FIG. 19.14
Power diagram for inductive loads.
as shown in Fig. 19.14.
The 90° shift in QL from P is the source of another term for reactive
power: quadrature power. P
For a capacitive load, the phasor power S is defined by v
QC
S P j QC S
as shown in Fig. 19.15.
If a network has both capacitive and inductive elements, the reactive
component of the power triangle will be determined by the difference be- FIG. 19.15
tween the reactive power delivered to each. If QL QC , the resultant Power diagram for capacitive loads.
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power triangle will be similar to Fig. 19.14. If QC QL , the resultant
power triangle will be similar to Fig. 19.15.
That the total reactive power is the difference between the reactive
powers of the inductive and capacitive elements can be demonstrated by
considering Eqs. (19.11) and (19.19). Using these equations, the reactive
power delivered to each reactive element has been plotted for a series
L-C circuit on the same set of axes in Fig. 19.16. The reactive elements
were chosen such that XL XC . Note that the power curve for each is ex-
actly 180° out of phase. The curve for the resultant reactive power is there-
fore determined by the algebraic resultant of the two at each instant of time.
Since the reactive power is defined as the peak value, the reactive compo-
nent of the power triangle is as indicated in Fig. 19.16: I 2 (XL XC).
pL = VL I sin 2qt
QT = QL – QC = VL I – VC I = I(VL – VC) = I(IXL – IXC)

VL I = I 2XL – I 2XC = I 2 (XL – XC)
VC I qt
pC = –VC I sin 2qt QT
FIG. 19.16
Demonstrating why the net reactive power is the difference between that
delivered to inductive and capacitive elements.
j An additional verification can be derived by first considering the im-

pedance diagram of a series R-L-C circuit (Fig. 19.17). If we multiply each
XL radius vector by the current squared (I 2), we obtain the results shown in Fig.
19.18, which is the power triangle for a predominantly inductive circuit.
Z j
XL – XC
I 2XL = QL
R +
XC
2Z
I
S= Q (resultant) = QL – QC = I 2(XL – XC)
FIG. 19.17
Impedance diagram for a series R-L-C circuit.
PR = I 2R
I 2XC = QC
FIG. 19.18
The result of multiplying each vector in Fig. 19.17 by I 2 for a series R-L-C circuit.
Since the reactive power and average power are always angled 90° to
each other, the three powers are related by the Pythagorean theorem;
that is,
S 2 P2 Q2 (19.28)
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Ps THE TOTAL P, Q, AND S ⏐⏐⏐ 847
Therefore, the third power can always be found if the other two are known.
It is particularly interesting that the equation
S VI* (19.29)
will provide the vector form of the apparent power of a system. Here,
V is the voltage across the system, and I* is the complex conjugate of the
current.
Consider, for example, the simple R-L circuit in Fig. 19.19, where R
V 10 V0° 10 V0° + 3
I
I 2 A 53.13°
ZT 3j4 5 53.13° V = 10 V 0° XL 4
The real power (the term real being derived from the positive real axis of –
the complex plane) is
P I2R (2 A)2(3 ) 12 W FIG. 19.19
Demonstrating the validity of Eq. (19.29).
and the reactive power is
QL I 2XL (2 A)2(4 ) 16 VAR (L)
with S P j QL 12 W j 16 VAR (L) 20 VA 53.13°
as shown in Fig. 19.20. Applying Eq. (19.29) yields
S VI* (10 V 0°)(2A +53.13°) 20 VA 53.13°
S = 20 VA
as obtained above. QL = 16 VAR
The angle u associated with S and appearing in Figs. 19.14, 19.15, and
19.20 is the power-factor angle of the network. Since v = 53.13°
P VI cos u P = 12 W
or P S cos u FIG. 19.20

The power triangle for the circuit in Fig. 19.19.
P
then Fp cos u (19.30)
S
19.8 THE TOTAL P, Q, AND S

The total number of watts, volt-amperes reactive, and volt-amperes, and
the power factor of any system can be found using the following procedure:
1. Find the real power and reactive power for each branch of the
circuit.
2. The total real power of the system (PT) is then the sum of the
average power delivered to each branch.
3. The total reactive power (QT) is the difference between the reactive
power of the inductive loads and that of the capacitive loads.
4. The total apparent power is ST 2PT2 QT2 .
5. The total power factor is PT /ST .
There are two important points in the above tabulation. First, the total
apparent power must be determined from the total average and reactive
powers and cannot be determined from the apparent powers of each
branch. Second, and more important, it is not necessary to consider the
series-parallel arrangement of branches. In other words, the total real, re-
active, or apparent power is independent of whether the loads are in se-
ries, parallel, or series-parallel. The following examples demonstrate the
relative ease with which all of the quantities of interest can be found.
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EXAMPLE 19.3 Find the total number of watts, volt-amperes reactive,

and volt-amperes, and the power factor Fp of the network in Fig. 19.21.
Draw the power triangle and find the current in phasor form.
Load 1
0 VAR
+ I 100 W
Load 2 Load 3
E = 100 V ∠0° 700 VAR (L) 1500 VAR (C)

200 W 300 W
FIG. 19.21
Example 19.3.
Solution: Construct a table such as shown in Table 19.1.
TABLE 19.1
Load W VAR VA
1 100 0 100
2 200 700 (L) 212002 2 17002 2 728.0
3 300 1500 (C) 213002 2 115002 2 1529.71
PT 600 QT 800 (C) ST 21600 2 2 18002 2 1000
Total power dissipated Resultant reactive power of network (Note that ST sum of each branch:
1000 100 728 1529.71)
Thus,
0.6 leading 1C2

PT 600 W
Fp
ST 1000 VA
PT = 600 W The power triangle is shown in Fig. 19.22.
53.13° = cos –1 0.6 Since ST VI 1000 VA, I 1000 VA/100 V 10 A; and since u
of cos u Fp is the angle between the input voltage and current:
I 10 A 53.13°
QT = 800 VAR (C)
ST = 1000 VA The plus sign is associated with the phase angle since the circuit is pre-
dominantly capacitive.
FIG. 19.22
Power triangle for Example 19.3. EXAMPLE 19.4
a. Find the total number of watts, volt-amperes reactive, and volt-
amperes, and the power factor Fp for the network in Fig. 19.23.
b. Sketch the power triangle.
c. Find the energy dissipated by the resistor over one full cycle of the
input voltage if the frequency of the input quantities is 60 Hz.
d. Find the energy stored in, or returned by, the capacitor or inductor
over one half-cycle of the power curve for each if the frequency of
the input quantities is 60 Hz.
boy30444_ch19.qxd 3/24/06 3:03 PM Page 849
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Ps THE TOTAL P, Q, AND S ⏐⏐⏐ 849
R XL
I 6 7
+
E = 100 V ∠0° XC 15
–
FIG. 19.23
Example 19.4.
Solutions:
E 100 V 0° 100 V0°
a. I
ZT 6 j 7 j 15 10 53.13°
10 A 53.13°
VR 110 A 53.13°2 16 0°2 60 V 53.13°
VL 110 A 53.13°2 17 90°2 70 V 143.13°
VC 110 A 53.13°2 115 90°2 150 V 36.87°
PT EI cos u 1100 V2 110 A2 cos 53.13° 600 W
I 2R 110 A2 2 16 2 600 W
VR2 160 V2 2
600 W
R 6
ST EI 1100 V2 110 A2 1000 VA
I 2ZT 110 A2 2 110 2 1000 VA
E2 1100 V2 2
1000 VA
ZT 10
QT EI sin u 1100 V2 110 A2 sin 53.13° 800 VAR
QC QL
I 2 1XC XL 2 110 A2 2 115 7 2 800 VAR
VC2 VL2 1150 V2 2 170 V2 2

QT
XC XL 15 7
1500 VAR 700 VAR 800 VAR
0.6 leading 1C2

PT 600 W
Fp
ST 1000 VA
b. The power triangle is as shown in Fig. 19.24. PT = 600 W
VRI 160 V2 110 A2 53.13°
c. WR 10 J
f1 60 Hz
VLI 170 V2 110 A2 700 J QT = 800 VAR (C)
d. WL 1.86 J
v1 12p2 160 Hz2 377 ST = 1000 VA
VC I 1150 V2 110 A2 1500 J
WC 3.98 J
v1 377 rad>s 377
FIG. 19.24
Power triangle for Example 19.4.
boy30444_ch19.qxd 3/24/06 3:04 PM Page 850
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EXAMPLE 19.5 For the system in Fig. 19.25,

a. Find the average power, apparent power, reactive power, and Fp for
each branch.
Heating Motor Capacitive load

elements h = 82%
+ R 9
12
E = 208 V ∠0° 60 W 6.4 kW 5 Hp
bulbs
– Fp = 0.72 XC 12
lagging
FIG. 19.25
Example 19.5.
b. Find the total number of watts, volt-amperes reactive, and volt-

amperes, and the power factor of the system. Sketch the power triangle.
c. Find the source current I.
Solutions:
a. Bulbs:
Total dissipation of applied power
P1 12160 W2 720 W
Q1 0 VAR
S1 P1 720 VA
Fp1 1
Heating elements:
Total dissipation of applied power
P2 6.4 kW
Q2 0 VAR
S2 P2 6.4 kVA
Fp2 1
Motor:
Po Po 51746 W2
h S Pi 4548.78 W P3
Pi h 0.82
Fp 0.72 lagging
P3 4548.78 W
P3 S3 cos u S S3 6317.75 VA
cos u 0.72
Also, u cos1 0.72 43.95°, so that
Q3 S3 sin u 16317.75 VA2 1sin 43.95°2
16317.75 VA2 10.6942 4384.71 VAR 1L2
Capacitive load:
E 208 V 0° 208 V 0°
I 13.87 A 53.13°
Z 9 j 12 15 53.13°
P4 I 2R 113.87 A2 2 9 1731.39 W
Q4 I 2XC 113.87 A2 2 12 2308.52 VAR 1C2
S4 2P42 Q24 211731.39 W2 2 12308.52 VAR2 2
2885.65 VA
P4 1731.39 W
Fp 0.6 leading
S4 2885.65 VA
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Ps POWER-FACTOR CORRECTION ⏐⏐⏐ 851
b. PT P1 P2 P3 P4
720 W 6400 W 4548.78 W 1731.39 W
13,400.17 W
QT Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
0 0 4384.71 VAR 1L2 2308.52 VAR 1C2
2076.19 VAR 1L2
ST 2PT2 QT2 2113,400.17 W2 2 12076.19 VAR2 2
13,560.06 VA
PT 13.4 kW
Fp 0.988 lagging
ST 13,560.06 VA
u cos1 0.988 8.89°
Note Fig. 19.26. 6 VA
3,560.0
ST 13,559.89 VA ST = 1
c. ST EI S I 65.19 A 8.89° QT = 2076.19 VAR (L)
E 208 V PT = 13.4 kW
Lagging power factor: E leads I by 8.89°, and
FIG. 19.26
I 65.19 A 8.89° Power triangle for Example 19.5.
EXAMPLE 19.6 An electrical device is rated 5 kVA, 100 V at a 0.6

power-factor lag. What is the impedance of the device in rectangular
coordinates?
Solution:
S EI 5000 VA
5000 VA
Therefore, I 50 A
100 V
For Fp 0.6, we have
u cos1 0.6 53.13°
Since the power factor is lagging, the circuit is predominantly inductive, R
and I lags E. Or, for E 100 V 0°,
1.2
I 50 A 53.13°
ZT XL 1.6
However,
E 100 V 0°
ZT 2 53.13° 1.2 j 1.6
I 50 A 53.13°
FIG. 19.27
which is the impedance of the circuit in Fig. 19.27. Example 19.6.
19.9 POWER-FACTOR CORRECTION

The design of any power transmission system is very sensitive to the
magnitude of the current in the lines as determined by the applied loads.
Increased currents result in increased power losses (by a squared factor
since P I2R) in the transmission lines due to the resistance of the lines.
Heavier currents also require larger conductors, increasing the amount of
copper needed for the system, and, quite obviously, they require in-
creased generating capacities by the utility company.
boy30444_ch19.qxd 3/24/06 3:04 PM Page 852
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Every effort must therefore be made to keep current levels at a mini-
mum. Since the line voltage of a transmission system is fixed, the appar-
S ent power is directly related to the current level. In turn, the smaller the
net apparent power, the smaller the current drawn from the supply. Min-
QT
imum current is therefore drawn from a supply when S P and QT 0.
S
< S Q
T < QT
Note the effect of decreasing levels of QT on the length (and magnitude)
of S in Fig. 19.28 for the same real power. Note also that the power-factor
v v
< θ angle approaches zero degrees and Fp approaches 1, revealing that the
network is appearing more and more resistive at the input terminals.
FIG. 19.28 The process of introducing reactive elements to bring the power fac-
Demonstrating the impact of power-factor correction tor closer to unity is called power-factor correction. Since most loads
on the power triangle of a network. are inductive, the process normally involves introducing elements with
capacitive terminal characteristics having the sole purpose of improving
the power factor.
In Fig. 19.29(a), for instance, an inductive load is drawing a current IL
that has a real and an imaginary component. In Fig. 19.29(b), a capaci-
tive load was added in parallel with the original load to raise the power
factor of the total system to the unity power-factor level. Note that by
placing all the elements in parallel, the load still receives the same ter-
minal voltage and draws the same current IL . In other words, the load is
unaware of and unconcerned about whether it is hooked up as shown in
Fig. 19.29(a) or Fig. 19.29(b).
IL Is
IL
+
Inductive load Fp = 1
Inductive load
L XL > R + Ic L XL > R
E = E ∠0° Fp < 1 E Fp < 1
Xc
R – R
– ZT = ZT ∠0°
(a) (b)
FIG. 19.29
Demonstrating the impact of a capacitive element on the power factor of a network.
Solving for the source current in Fig. 19.29(b):

Is IC IL
j IC (Imag) IL(Re) j IL(Imag) j IC IL j IL
IL(Re) j [IL(Imag) IC (Imag)] IL j [IC IL]
If XC is chosen such that IC IL , then
Is IL j (0) IL 0°
The result is a source current whose magnitude is simply equal to the
real part of the inductive load current, which can be considerably less
than the magnitude of the load current in Fig. 19.29(a). In addition, since
the phase angle associated with both the applied voltage and the source
current is the same, the system appears “resistive” at the input terminals,
and all of the power supplied is absorbed, creating maximum efficiency
for a generating utility.
EXAMPLE 19.7 A 5 hp motor with a 0.6 lagging power factor and an

efficiency of 92% is connected to a 208 V, 60 Hz supply.
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Ps POWER-FACTOR CORRECTION ⏐⏐⏐ 853
a. Establish the power triangle for the load.

b. Determine the power-factor capacitor that must be placed in parallel
with the load to raise the power factor to unity.
c. Determine the change in supply current from the uncompensated to
the compensated system.
d. Find the network equivalent of the above, and verify the conclusions.
Solutions:
a. Since 1 hp 746 W,
Po 5 hp 5(746 W) 3730 W
Pi 1drawn from the line2

Po 3730 W
and 4054.35 W
h 0.92
Also, Fp cos u 0.6
and u cos1 0.6 53.13°
QL
Applying tan u
Pi
we obtain QL Pi tan u (4054.35 W) tan 53.13°
5405.8 VAR (L)
and
S 2P2i Q2L 214054.35 W2 2 15405.8 VAR2 2

6757.25 VA
The power triangle appears in Fig. 19.30.
b. A net unity power-factor level is established by introducing a capac-
itive reactive power level of 5405.8 VAR to balance QL. Since S = 6757.25 VA
2 QL = 5404.45 VAR (L)
V
QC
XC v = 53.13°
V2 1208 V2 2 P = 4054.35 W
XC 8
5405.8 VAR 1C2
then
QC
FIG. 19.30
1 1 Initial power triangle for the load in Example 19.7.
C 331.6 MF
12p2 160 Hz2 18 2
and
2pf XC
c. At 0.6Fp ,
S VI 6757.25 VA
S 6757.25 VA
and I 32.49 A
V 208 V
At unity Fp ,
S VI 4054.35 VA
S 4054.35 VA
and I 19.49 A
V 208 V
producing a 40% reduction in supply current.
d. For the motor, the angle by which the applied voltage leads the cur-
rent is
u cos1 0.6 53.13°
and P EI cos u 4054.35 W, from above, so that
P 4054.35 W
I 32.49 A
1208 V2 10.62
(as above)
E cos u
boy30444_ch19.qxd 3/24/06 3:04 PM Page 854
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resulting in
I 32.49 A 53.13°
Therefore,
E 208 V 0°
Z 6.4 53.13°
I 32.49 A 53.13°
3.84 j 5.12
as shown in Fig. 19.31(a).
Is = I = 32.49 A ∠–53.13° Is = 19.49 A ∠0° I = 32.49 A ∠–53.13°
+ XL 5.12 + IC = 26 A
E = 208 V ∠0° E = 208 V ∠0° XC 8 Zm R 10.64 XL 8
– R 3.84 –
Motor Motor
(a) (b)
FIG. 19.31
Demonstrating the impact of power-factor corrections on the source current.
The equivalent parallel load is determined from

1 1
Y
Z 6.4 53.13°
0.156 S 53.13° 0.0936 S j 0.125 S
1 1

10.68 j8
as shown in Fig. 19.31(b).
It is now clear that the effect of the 8 inductive reactance can
be compensated for by a parallel capacitive reactance of 8 using a
power-factor correction capacitor of 332 mF.
Since
1 1 1 1
YT
j XC R j XL R
Is EYT E a b 1208 V2 a b 19.49 A

1 1
as above
R 10.68
In addition, the magnitude of the capacitive current can be deter-
mined as follows:
E 208 V
IC 26 A
XC 8
EXAMPLE 19.8
a. A small industrial plant has a 10 kW heating load and a 20 kVA in-
ductive load due to a bank of induction motors. The heating elements
are considered purely resistive (Fp 1), and the induction motors have
a lagging power factor of 0.7. If the supply is 1000 V at 60 Hz, deter-
mine the capacitive element required to raise the power factor to 0.95.
b. Compare the levels of current drawn from the supply.
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Ps POWER METERS ⏐⏐⏐ 855
Solutions:
a. For the induction motors,
S VI 20 kVA
P S cos u (20 103 VA)(0.7) 14 kW
u cos1 0.7 45.6°
and
QL VI sin u (20 kVA)(0.714) 14.28 kVAR (L)
The power triangle for the total system appears in Fig. 19.32.
Note the addition of real powers and the resulting ST :
A
ST
kV
ST 2124 kW2 2 114.28 kVAR2 2 27.93 kVA
QL = 14.28 kVAR (L)
20
=
S
30.75° 45.6°
ST 27.93 kVA
with IT 27.93 A P = 10 kW P = 14 kW
E 1000 V
Heating Induction motors
The desired power factor of 0.95 results in an angle between S and
P of FIG. 19.32
Initial power triangle for the load in Example 19.8.
u cos1 0.95 18.19°
changing the power triangle to that in Fig. 19.33:
Q
L = 7.9 kVAR (L)
S Q
L PT tan u 124 kW2 1tan 18.19°2
Q
L
with tan u v = 18.19°
PT
124 kW2 10.3292 7.9 kVAR 1L2
PT = 24 kW
The inductive reactive power must therefore be reduced by FIG. 19.33

Power triangle for the load in Example 19.8 after
QL Q
L 14.28 kVAR 1L2 7.9 kVAR 1L2 6.38 kVAR 1L2 raising the power factor to 0.95.
Therefore, QC 6.38 kVAR, and using

E2
QC
XC
we obtain
E2 1103 V2 2
XC 156.74
QC 6.38 kVAR
1 1
C 16.93 MF
12p2 160 Hz2 1156.74 2
and
2pf XC
b. ST 2 124 kW2 2 37.9 kVAR 1L2 4 2

25.27 kVA
ST 25.27 kVA
IT 25.27 A
E 1000 V
The new IT is
IT 25.27 A 27.93 A (original)
19.10 POWER METERS

The power meter in Fig. 19.34 uses a sophisticated electronic package to FIG. 19.34
sense the voltage and current levels and has an analog-to-digital conver- Digital single-phase and three-phase power meter.
sion unit that displays the levels in digital form. It is capable of providing (Courtesy of AEMC® Instruments. Foxborough, MA.)
boy30444_ch19.qxd 3/24/06 3:05 PM Page 856
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a digital readout for distorted nonsinusoidal waveforms, and it can provide
the phase power, total power, apparent power, reactive power, and power
factor. It can also measure currents up to 500 A, voltages up to 600 V, and
frequencies from 30 Hz to 1000 Hz.
The power quality analyzer in Fig. 19.35 can also display the real, reac-
tive, and apparent power levels along with the power factor. However, it has
a broad range of other options, including providing the harmonic content of
up to 51 terms for the voltage, current, and power. The power range extends
from 250 W to 2.5 MW, and the current can be read up to 1000 A. The me-
ter can also be used to measure resistance levels from 500 to 30 M, ca-
pacitance levels from 50 nF to 500 mF, and temperature in both °C and °F.
19.11 EFFECTIVE RESISTANCE

The resistance of a conductor as determined by the equation R r(l/A)
is often called the dc, ohmic, or geometric resistance. It is a constant
quantity determined only by the material used and its physical dimen-
sions. In ac circuits, the actual resistance of a conductor (called the
effective resistance) differs from the dc resistance because of the vary-
FIG. 19.35 ing currents and voltages that introduce effects not present in dc circuits.
Power quality analyzer capable of displaying the
These effects include radiation losses, skin effect, eddy currents, and
power in watts, the current in amperes, and the
voltage in volts.
hysteresis losses. The first two effects apply to any network, while the lat-
(Courtesy of Fluke Corporation. Reproduced with ter two are concerned with the additional losses introduced by the pres-
Permission.) ence of ferromagnetic materials in a changing magnetic field.
Experimental Procedure
The effective resistance of an ac circuit cannot be measured by the ratio
V/I since this ratio is now the impedance of a circuit that may have both
resistance and reactance. The effective resistance can be found, however,
by using the power equation P I2R, where
P
Reff (19.31)
I2
A wattmeter and an ammeter are therefore necessary for measuring the

effective resistance of an ac circuit.
Radiation Losses
Let us now examine the various losses in greater detail. The radiation
loss is the loss of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves during the
transfer of energy from one element to another. This loss in energy re-
quires that the input power be larger to establish the same current I, caus-
ing R to increase as determined by Eq. (19.31). At a frequency of 60 Hz,
the effects of radiation losses can be completely ignored. However, at ra-
dio frequencies, this is an important effect and may in fact become the
main effect in an electromagnetic device such as an antenna.
I
Φ Skin Effect
FIG. 19.36 The explanation of skin effect requires the use of some basic concepts
Demonstrating the skin effect on the effective previously described. Remember from Chapter 12 that a magnetic field
resistance of a conductor. exists around every current-carrying conductor (Fig. 19.36). Since the
boy30444_ch19.qxd 3/24/06 3:05 PM Page 857
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Ps EFFECTIVE RESISTANCE ⏐⏐⏐ 857
amount of charge flowing in ac circuits changes with time, the magnetic

field surrounding the moving charge (current) also changes. Recall also
that a wire placed in a changing magnetic field will have an induced volt-
age across its terminals as determined by Faraday’s law, e N (df/dt).
The higher the frequency of the changing flux as determined by an alter-
nating current, the greater the induced voltage.
For a conductor carrying alternating current, the changing magnetic
field surrounding the wire links the wire itself, thus developing within the
wire an induced voltage that opposes the original flow of charge or cur-
rent. These effects are more pronounced at the center of the conductor
than at the surface because the center is linked by the changing flux inside
the wire as well as that outside the wire. As the frequency of the applied
signal increases, the flux linking the wire changes at a greater rate. An in-
crease in frequency therefore increases the counter-induced voltage at the
center of the wire to the point where the current, for all practical purposes,
flows on the surface of the conductor. At 60 Hz, the skin effect is almost
noticeable. However, at radio frequencies, the skin effect is so pro-
nounced that conductors are frequently made hollow because the center
part is relatively ineffective. The skin effect, therefore, reduces the effec-
tive area through which the current can flow, and it causes the resistance
of the conductor, given by the equation R↑ r(l/A↓), to increase.
Hysteresis and Eddy Current Losses

As mentioned earlier, hysteresis and eddy current losses appear when a
ferromagnetic material is placed in the region of a changing magnetic
field. To describe eddy current losses in greater detail, we consider the ef-
fects of an alternating current passing through a coil wrapped around a
ferromagnetic core. As the alternating current passes through the coil, it
develops a changing magnetic flux Φ linking both the coil and the core
that develops an induced voltage within the core as determined by Fara-
day’s law. This induced voltage and the geometric resistance of the core
RC r(l/A) cause currents to be developed within the core, icore
(eind /RC), called eddy currents. The currents flow in circular paths, as
shown in Fig. 19.37, changing direction with the applied ac potential. Eddy currents
The eddy current losses are determined by
I Coil
Peddy i2eddyRcore
+
E
The magnitude of these losses is determined primarily by the type of core –
used. If the core is nonferromagnetic—and has a high resistivity like
wood or air—the eddy current losses can be neglected. In terms of the
frequency of the applied signal and the magnetic field strength produced, Ferromagnetic core
the eddy current loss is proportional to the square of the frequency times
the square of the magnetic field strength: FIG. 19.37
Defining the eddy current losses of a
Peddy f 2B2 ferromagnetic core.
Eddy current losses can be reduced if the core is constructed of thin,
laminated sheets of ferromagnetic material insulated from one another
and aligned parallel to the magnetic flux. Such construction reduces the
magnitude of the eddy currents by placing more resistance in their path.
Hysteresis losses were described in Section 12.6. You will recall that
in terms of the frequency of the applied signal and the magnetic field
strength produced, the hysteresis loss is proportional to the frequency to
the 1st power times the magnetic field strength to the nth power:
Phys f 1B n
boy30444_ch19.qxd 3/24/06 3:05 PM Page 858
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where n can vary from 1.4 to 2.6, depending on the material under
consideration.
Hysteresis losses can be effectively reduced by the injection of small
amounts of silicon into the magnetic core, constituting some 2% or 3%
of the total composition of the core. This must be done carefully, how-
ever, because too much silicon makes the core brittle and difficult to ma-
chine into the shape desired.
EXAMPLE 19.9
a. An air-core coil is connected to a 120 V, 60 Hz source as shown in
Fig. 19.38. The current is found to be 5 A, and a wattmeter reading
of 75 W is observed. Find the effective resistance and the inductance
of the coil.
Wattmeter
I
CC
+
Coil
E 120 V ∠0° PC
–
f = 60 Hz
FIG. 19.38
The basic components required to determine the effective resistance and
inductance of the coil.
b. A brass core is then inserted in the coil. The ammeter reads 4 A, and
the wattmeter 80 W. Calculate the effective resistance of the core. To
what do you attribute the increase in value over that in part (a)?
c. If a solid iron core is inserted in the coil, the current is found to be
2 A, and the wattmeter reads 52 W. Calculate the resistance and the
inductance of the coil. Compare these values to those in part (a), and
account for the changes.
Solutions:
P 75 W
a. R 3
I2 15 A2 2
E 120 V
ZT 24
I 5A
XL 2ZT2 R2 2 124 2 2 13 2 2 23.81
and XL 2πfL
XL 23.81
or L 63.16 mH
2pf 377 rad>s
P 80 W 80
b. R 2 2 5
I 14 A2 16
The brass core has less reluctance than the air core. Therefore, a
greater magnetic flux density B will be created in it. Since Peddy
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Ps APPLICATIONS ⏐⏐⏐ 859
f 2B2, and Phys f 1B n, as the flux density increases, the core losses
and the effective resistance increase.
P 52 W 52
c. R 2 13
I 12 A2 2 4
E 120 V
ZT 60
I 2A
XL 2ZT2 R2 2 160 2 2 113 2 2 58.57
XL 58.57
L 155.36 mH
2pf 377 rad>s
The iron core has less reluctance than the air or brass cores. Therefore,
a greater magnetic flux density B will be developed in the core. Again,
since Peddy f 2B2, and Phys f 1B n, the increased flux density will
cause the core losses and the effective resistance to increase.
Since the inductance L is related to the change in flux by the equa-
tion L N (df/di), the inductance will be greater for the iron core
because the changing flux linking the core will increase.
19.12 APPLICATIONS
Portable Power Generators
Even though it may appear that 120 V ac are just an extension cord
away, there are times—such as in a remote cabin, on a job site, or while
camping—that we are reminded that not every corner of the globe is con-
nected to an electric power source. As you travel farther away from large
urban communities, gasoline generators such as shown in Fig. 19.39 ap-
pear in increasing numbers in hardware stores, lumber yards, and other
retail establishments to meet the needs of the local community. Since ac
generators are driven by a gasoline motor, they must be properly venti-
lated and cannot be run indoors. Usually, because of the noise and fumes
that result, they are placed as far away as possible and are connected by
a long, heavy-duty, weather-resistant extension cord. Any connection FIG. 19.39
points must be properly protected and placed to ensure that the connec- Single-phase portable generator.
tions will not sit in a puddle of water or be sensitive to heavy rain or (Courtesy of Coleman Powermate, Inc.)
snow. Although there is some effort involved in setting up generators and
constantly ensuring that they have enough gas, most users think that they
are priceless.
The vast majority of generators are built to provide between 1750 W
and 5000 W of power, although larger units can provide up to 20,000 W.
At first encounter, you may assume that 5000 W are more than adequate.
However, keep in mind that the unit purchased should be rated at least
20% above your expected load because of surge currents that result when
appliances, motors, tools, and so on, are turned on. Remember that even
a light bulb develops a large turn-on current due to the cold, low-
resistance state of the filament. If you work too closely to the rated ca-
pacity, experiences such as a severe drop in lighting can result when an
electric saw is turned on—almost to the point where it appears that the
lights go out altogether. Generators are like any other piece of equipment:
If you apply a load that is too heavy, they will shut down. Most have pro-
tective fuses or circuit breakers to ensure that the excursions above rated
conditions are monitored and not exceeded beyond reason. The 20% pro-
tective barrier drops the output power from a 5000 W unit to 4000 W, and
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already we begin to wonder about the load we can apply. Although 4000 W
are sufficient to run a number of 60 W bulbs, a TV, an oil burner, and so
on, troubles develop whenever a unit is hooked up for direct heating (such
as heaters, hair dryers, and clothes dryers). Even microwaves at 1200 W
command quite a power drain. Add a small electric heater at 1500 W with
six 60 W bulbs (360 W), a 250 W TV, and a 250 W oil burner, and then
turn on an electric hair dryer at 1500 W—suddenly you are very close to
your maximum of 4000 W. It doesn’t take long to push the limits when it
comes to energy-consuming appliances.
Table 19.2 provides a list of specifications for the broad range of
portable gasoline generators. Since the heaviest part of a generator is
the gasoline motor, anything over 5 hp gets pretty heavy, especially
when you add the weight of the gasoline. Most good units providing
over 2400 W will have receptacles for 120 V and 220 V at various cur-
rent levels, with an outlet for 12 V dc. They are also built so that they
tolerate outdoor conditions of a reasonable nature and can run continu-
ously for long periods of time. At 120 V, a 5000 W unit can provide a
maximum current of about 42 A.
TABLE 19.2
Specifications for portable gasoline-driven ac generators.
Continuous output power 1750–3000 W 2000–5000 W 2250–7500 W

Horsepower of gas motor 4–11 hp 5–14 hp 5–16 hp
Continuous At 120 V: 15–25 A At 120 V: 17–42 A At 120 V: 19–63 A
output current At 220 V(3f): 8–14 A At 220 V(3f): 9–23 A At 220 V(3f): 10–34 A
Output voltage 120 V or 3f: 120 V/220 V 120 V or 3f: 120 V/220 V 120 V or 3f: 120 V/220 V
Receptacles 2 2–4 2–4
Fuel tank 1
⁄2 to 2 gallons gasoline 1
⁄2 to 3 gallons gasoline 1 to 5 gallons gasoline
Business Sense
Because of the costs involved, every large industrial plant must continu-
ously review its electric utility bill to ensure its accuracy and to consider
ways to conserve energy. As described in this chapter, the power factor
associated with the plant as a whole can have a measurable effect on the
drain current and therefore the kVA drain on the power line. Power com-
panies are aware of this problem and actually add a surcharge if the power
factor fades below about 0.9. In other words, to ensure that the load ap-
pears as resistive in nature as possible, the power company asks users to
try to ensure that their power factor is between 0.9 and 1 so that the kW
demand is very close to the kVA demand.
Consider the following monthly bill for a fairly large industrial plant:
kWh consumption 146.5 MWh
peak kW demand 241 kW
kW demand 233 kW
kVA demand 250 kVA
The rate schedule provided by the local power authority is the following:
Energy First 450 kWh @ 22.3¢/kWh Next 12 MWh @ 17.1¢/kWh
Additional kWh @ 8.9¢/kWh
Power First 240 kW @ free
Additional kW @ $12.05/kW
boy30444_ch19.qxd 3/24/06 3:05 PM Page 861
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Ps COMPUTER ANALYSIS ⏐⏐⏐ 861
Note that this rate schedule has an energy cost breakdown and a power
breakdown. This second fee is the one sensitive to the overall power fac-
tor of the plant.
The electric bill for the month is then calculated as follows:
Cost (450 kWh)(22.3¢/kWh) (12 MWh)(17.1¢/kWh)
[146.2 MWh (12 MWh 450 kWh)](8.9¢/kWh)
$100.35 $2052.00 $11,903.75
$14,056.10
Before examining the effect of the power fee structure, we can find the
overall power factor of the load for the month with the following ratio
taken from the monthly statement:
P 233 kW
Fp 0.932
Pa 250 kVA
Since the power factor is larger than 0.9, the chances are that there will
not be a surcharge or that the surcharge will be minimal.
When the power component of the bill is determined, the kVA demand
is multiplied by the magic number of 0.9 to determine a kW level at this
power factor. This kW level is compared to the metered level, and the
consumer pays for the higher level.
In this case, if we multiply the 250 kVA by 0.9, we obtain 225 kW
which is slightly less than the metered level of 233 kW. However, both
levels are less than the free level of 240 kW, so there is no additional
charge for the power component. The total bill remains at $14,056.10.
If the kVA demand of the bill were 388 kVA with the kW demand stay-
ing at 233 kW, the situation would change because 0.9 times 388 kVA
would result in 349.2 kW which is much greater than the metered 233 kW.
The 349.2 kW would then be used to determine the bill as follows:
349.2 kW 240 kW 109.2 kW
(109.2 kW)($12.05/kW) $1315.86
which is significant.
The total bill can then be determined as follows:
Cost $14,056.10 $1,315.86
$15,371.96
Thus, the power factor of the load dropped to 233 kW/388 kVA 0.6
which would put an unnecessary additional load on the power plant. It is
certainly time to consider the power-factor-correction option as de-
scribed in this text. It is not uncommon to see large capacitors sitting at
the point where power enters a large industrial plant to perform a needed
level of power-factor correction.
All in all, therefore, it is important to fully understand the impact of a
poor power factor on a power plant—whether you someday work for the
supplier or for the consumer.
19.13 COMPUTER ANALYSIS

PSpice
Power Curve: Resistor The computer analysis begins with a verifi-
cation of the curves in Fig. 19.3 which show the in-phase relationship be-
tween the voltage and current of a resistor. The figure shows that the
power curve is totally above the horizontal axis and that the curve has a
boy30444_ch19.qxd 3/24/06 3:05 PM Page 862
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FIG. 19.40
Using PSpice to review the power curve for a resistive element in an ac circuit.
frequency twice the applied frequency and a peak value equal to twice the
average value. First, set up the simple schematic of Fig. 19.40. Then, use
the Time Domain(Transient) option to get a plot versus time, and set the
Run to time to 1 ms and the Maximum step size to 1 ms/1000 1 ms.
Select OK and then the Run PSpice icon to perform the simulation. Then
Trace-Add Trace-V1(R) results in the curve appearing in Fig. 19.41.
Next, Trace-Add Trace-I(R) results in the curve for the current as ap-
pearing in Fig. 19.41. Finally, plot the power curve using Trace-Add
Trace-V1(R)*I(R) from the basic power equation, and the larger curve of
Fig. 19.41 results. The original plot had a y-axis that extended from 50 to
50. Since all of the data points are from 20 to 50, the y-axis was
changed to this new range through Plot-Axis Settings-Y Axis-User
Defined-(20 to 50)-OK to obtain the plot in Fig. 19.41.
FIG. 19.41
The resulting plots for the power, voltage, and current for the resistor in
Fig. 19.40.
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Ps COMPUTER ANALYSIS ⏐⏐⏐ 863
You can distinguish between the curves by looking at the symbol next
to each quantity at the bottom left of the plot. In this case, however, to
make it even clearer, a different color was selected for each trace by right-
clicking on each trace, selecting Properties, and choosing the color and
width of each curve. However, you can also add text to the screen by se-
lecting the ABC icon to obtain the Text Label dialog box, entering the
label such as P(R), and clicking OK. The label can then be placed any-
where on the screen. By selecting the Toggle cursor key and then click-
ing on I(R) at the bottom of the screen, you can use the cursor to find the
maximum value of the current. At A1 250 ms or 1⁄4 of the total period
of the input voltage, the current is a peak at 3.54 A. The peak value of the
power curve can then be found by right-clicking on V1(R)*I(R), click-
ing on the graph, and then finding the peak value (also available by click-
ing on the Cursor Peak icon to the right of the Toggle cursor key). It
occurs at the same point as the maximum current at a level of 50 W. In
particular, note that the power curve shows two cycles, while both yR and
iR show only one cycle. Clearly, the power curve has twice the frequency
of the applied signal. Also note that the power curve is totally above the
zero line, indicating that power is being absorbed by the resistor through
the entire displayed cycle. Further, the peak value of the power curve is
twice the average value of the curve; that is, the peak value of 50 W is
twice the average value of 25 W.
The results of the above simulation can be verified by performing the
longhand calculation using the rms value of the applied voltage. That is,
VR2 110 V2 2
P 25 W
R 4
Power Curves: Series R-L-C Circuit The network in Fig. 19.42,
with its combination of elements, is now used to demonstrate that, no
matter what the physical makeup of the network, the average value of the
power curve established by the product of the applied voltage and result-
ing source current is equal to that dissipated by the network. At a fre-
quency of 1 kHz, the reactance of the 1.273 mH inductor will be 8, and
the reactance of the capacitor will be 4 , resulting in a lagging network.
An analysis of the network results in
ZT 4 j4 5.657 45°
FIG. 19.42
Using PSpice to examine the power distribution in a series R-L-C circuit.
boy30444_ch19.qxd 3/24/06 3:05 PM Page 864
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E 10 V0°
with I 1.768 A 45°
ZT 5.657 45°
and P I 2R (1.768 A)2 4 12.5 W
The three curves in Fig. 19.43 are obtained using the Simulation Out-
put Variables V(E:), I(R), and V(E:)*I(R). The Run to time under
the Simulation Profile listing was 20 ms, although 1 ms was chosen as
the Maximum step size to ensure a good plot. In particular, note that the
horizontal axis does not start until t 18 ms to ensure that you are in a
steady-state mode and not in a transient stage (where the peak values of
the waveforms could change with time). Set the horizontal axis to extend
from 18 ms to 20 ms by selecting Plot-Axis Settings-X Axis-User
Defined-18ms to 20ms-OK. First note that the current lags the applied
voltage as expected for the lagging network. The phase angle between the
two is 45° as determined above. Second, be aware that the elements are
chosen so that the same scale can be used for the current and voltage. The
vertical axis does not have a unit of measurement, so the proper units
must be mentally added for each plot. Using Plot-Label-Line, draw a
line across the screen at the average power level of 12.5 W. A pencil ap-
pears that can be clicked in place at the left edge at the 12.5 W level. Drag
the pencil across the page to draw the desired line. Once you are at the
right edge, release the mouse, and the line is drawn. Obtain the different
colors for the traces by right-clicking on a trace and selecting from the
choices under Properties. Note that the 12.5 W level is indeed the aver-
age value of the power curve. It is interesting to note that the power curve
dips below the axis for only a short period of time. In other words, dur-
ing the two visible cycles, power is being absorbed by the circuit most of
the time. The small region below the axis is the return of energy to the
network by the reactive elements. In general, therefore, the source must
supply power to the circuit most of the time, even though a good per-
centage of the power may be delivering energy to the reactive elements,
not being dissipated.
FIG. 19.43
Plots of the applied voltage e, current iR is , and power delivered ps e · is
for the circuit in Fig. 19.42.
boy30444_ch19.qxd 3/24/06 3:05 PM Page 865
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Ps PROBLEMS ⏐⏐⏐ 865
PROBLEMS 60 W
Is
SECTIONS 19.1 THROUGH 19.8
I1 I2
1. For the battery of bulbs (purely resistive) appearing in Fig. +
19.44: 240 V 40 W
E 20 W
a. Determine the total power dissipation.
–
b. Calculate the total reactive and apparent power.
c. Find the source current Is .
d. Calculate the resistance of each bulb for the specified
operating conditions.
e. Determine the currents I1 and I2. FIG. 19.44
Problem 1.
2. For the network in Fig. 19.45: e. Sketch the power triangle.
a. Find the average power delivered to each element. f. Find the energy dissipated by the resistor over one full
b. Find the reactive power for each element. cycle of the input voltage.
c. Find the apparent power for each element. g. Find the energy stored or returned by the capacitor and the
d. Find the total number of watts, volt-amperes reactive, inductor over one half-cycle of the power curve for each.
and volt-amperes, and the power factor Fp of the circuit. 3. For the system in Fig. 19.46:
a. Find the total number of watts, volt-amperes reactive,
XC XL
R and volt-amperes, and the power factor Fp .
b. Draw the power triangle.
3 5 9 c. Find the current Is .
+
4. For the system in Fig. 19.47:
E = 50 V ∠0°
a. Find PT, QT, and ST.
–
b. Determine the power factor Fp .
f = 60 Hz c. Draw the power triangle.
d. Find Is .
FIG. 19.45
Problem 2.
Load 1
200 VAR (L)

0W
Is
Load 2 Load 3
+
600 VAR (C) 0 VAR
E = 100 V ∠90° 100 W 300 W
–
FIG. 19.46
Problem 3.
Is Load 1
1200 VAR (L)

Load 3
+ 600 W
E = 200 V ∠0° 600 VAR (L)

Load 2 100 W
–
600 VAR (C)
500 W
FIG. 19.47
Problem 4.
boy30444_ch19.qxd 3/24/06 3:05 PM Page 866
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5. For the system in Fig. 19.48:
a. Find PT , QT , and ST .
b. Find the power factor Fp .
c. Draw the power triangle.
d. Find Is .
Load 2
100 VAR (L)

200 W
Is
Load 1 Load 3 Load 4
+
100 VAR (L) 200 VAR (C) 200 VAR (C)
E = 50 V ∠60° 200 W 0W 100 W
–
FIG. 19.48
Problem 5.
6. For the circuit in Fig. 19.49:

a. Find the average, reactive, and apparent power for the
20 resistor.
b. Repeat part (a) for the 10 inductive reactance.
c. Find the total number of watts, volt-amperes reactive,
and volt-amperes, and the power factor Fp .
d. Find the current Is .
Is
+
20 600 VAR (L) 10
E = 60 V ∠30° R 400 W
XL
–
FIG. 19.49
Problem 6.
7. For the network in Fig. 19.50:

a. Find the average power delivered to each element.
b. Find the reactive power for each element.
c. Find the apparent power for each element.
d. Find PT , QT , ST , and Fp for the system.
e. Sketch the power triangle.
f. Find Is .
Is
+
E = 20 V ∠0° R 2 XC 5 XL 4
–
f = 50 Hz
FIG. 19.50
Problem 7.
boy30444_ch19.qxd 3/24/06 3:05 PM Page 867
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8. Repeat Problem 7 for the circuit in Fig. 19.51.
Is
+ R 3
E = 50 V ∠60° C 10
– L 4
f = 60 Hz
FIG. 19.51
Problem 8.
*9. For the network in Fig. 19.52:

a. Find the average power delivered to each element.
b. Find the reactive power for each element.
c. Find the apparent power for each element.
d. Find the total number of watts, volt-amperes reactive,
and volt-amperes, and the power factor Fp of the circuit.
e. Sketch the power triangle.
f. Find the energy dissipated by the resistor over one full
cycle of the input voltage.
g. Find the energy stored or returned by the capacitor and
the inductor over one half-cycle of the power curve for
each.
+ Is 0.1 H
E = 50 V ∠0° C 100 mF R 30
–
FIG. 19.52
Problem 9.
10. An electrical system is rated 10 kVA, 200 V at a 0.5 leading Load 1

power factor.
a. Determine the impedance of the system in rectangular 600 VAR (C)
0W
coordinates. Is
Load 2
b. Find the average power delivered to the system. +
200 VAR (L)
11. An electrical system is rated 5 kVA, 120 V, at a 0.8 lagging E = 30 V ∠0° 300 W
power factor. –
a. Determine the impedance of the system in rectangular
coordinates.
b. Find the average power delivered to the system.
*12. For the system in Fig. 19.53. FIG. 19.53
a. Find the total number of watts, volt-amperes reactive, Problem 12.
and volt-amperes, and Fp .
b. Find the current Is .
c. Draw the power triangle. e. Verify that the result of part (b) is correct by finding the
d. Find the type of elements and their impedance in ohms current Is using only the input voltage E and the results
within each electrical box. (Assume that all elements of of part (d). Compare the value of Is with that obtained for
a load are in series.) part (b).
boy30444_ch19.qxd 3/24/06 3:05 PM Page 868
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*13. Repeat Problem 12 for the system in Fig. 19.54.
Load 2
0 VAR
300 W
Is
Load 1 Load 3
+
500 VAR (C) 500 VAR (L)
E = 100 V ∠0° 0W 600 W
–
FIG. 19.54
Problem 13.
*14. For the circuit in Fig. 19.55:

b. Find the current Is .
c. Find the type of elements and their impedance in each
box. (Assume that the elements within each box are in
series.)
Load 2
30 W
40 VAR (L)
Is
Load 1 Load 3
+
200 W 100 VAR (L)
E = 100 V ∠0° Fp = 1 Fp = 0
–
FIG. 19.55
Problem 14.
15. For the circuit in Fig. 19.56:

b. Find the voltage E.
c. Find the type of elements and their impedance in each box.
(Assume that the elements within each box are in series.)
Load 1 Load 2
+
100 W 1000 W
I = 5 A ∠0° E 0.8Fp (leading) 0.4Fp (leading)
–
FIG. 19.56
Problem 15.
boy30444_ch19.qxd 3/24/06 3:05 PM Page 869
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SECTION 19.9 Power-Factor Correction 20. The voltage source in Fig. 19.58 delivers 660 VA at 120 V,
with a supply current that lags the voltage by a power factor
*16. The lighting and motor loads of a small factory establish a
of 0.6.
10 kVA power demand at a 0.7 lagging power factor on a
a. Determine the voltmeter, ammeter, and wattmeter
208 V, 60 Hz supply.
readings.
a. Establish the power triangle for the load.
b. Find the load impedance in rectangular form.
b. Determine the power-factor capacitor that must be placed
in parallel with the load to raise the power factor to unity. I
c. Determine the change in supply current from the un-
compensated to the compensated system.
I
CC
d. Repeat parts (b) and (c) if the power factor is increased +
to 0.9. LOAD
E PC V
17. The load on a 120 V, 60 Hz supply is 5 kW (resistive), 8 kVAR –
(inductive), and 2 kVAR (capacitive). Wattmeter
a. Find the total kilovolt-amperes.
b. Determine the Fp of the combined loads.
c. Find the current drawn from the supply. FIG. 19.58
d. Calculate the capacitance necessary to establish a unity Problem 20.
power factor.
e. Find the current drawn from the supply at unity power
factor, and compare it to the uncompensated level. SECTION 19.11 Effective Resistance
18. The loading of a factory on a 1000 V, 60 Hz system includes: 21. a. An air-core coil is connected to a 200 V, 60 Hz source.
The current is found to be 4 A, and a wattmeter reading
20 kW heating (unity power factor)
of 80 W is observed. Find the effective resistance and the
10 kW (Pi) induction motors (0.7 lagging power factor)
5 kW lighting (0.85 lagging power factor)
b. A brass core is inserted in the coil. The ammeter reads
a. Establish the power triangle for the total loading on the
3 A, and the wattmeter reads 90 W. Calculate the effec-
supply.
tive resistance of the core. Explain the increase over the
b. Determine the power-factor capacitor required to raise
value in part (a).
the power factor to unity.
c. If a solid iron core is inserted in the coil, the current is
c. Determine the change in supply current from the un-
found to be 2 A, and the wattmeter reads 60 W. Calcu-
compensated to the compensated system.
late the resistance and inductance of the coil. Compare
SECTION 19.10 Power Meters these values to the values in part (a), and account for the
changes.
19. a. A wattmeter is connected with its current coil as shown
in Fig. 19.57 and with the potential coil across points f-g. 22. a. The inductance of an air-core coil is 0.08 H, and the ef-
What does the wattmeter read? fective resistance is 4 when a 60 V, 50 Hz source is
b. Repeat part (a) with the potential coil (PC) across a-b, connected across the coil. Find the current passing
b-c, a-c, a-d, c-d, d-e, and f-e. through the coil and the reading of a wattmeter across
the coil.
b. If a brass core is inserted in the coil, the effective resis-
tance increases to 7 , and the wattmeter reads 30 W.
Find the current passing through the coil and the induc-
tance of the coil.
c. If a solid iron core is inserted in the coil, the effective re-
sistance of the coil increases to 10 , and the current de-
creases to 1.7 A. Find the wattmeter reading and the
(Current coil)
CC R1 R2 XL
g d
a 2 b 3 c 3
+
E = 50 V ∠0° XC 12 PC (Potential
coil)
–
R3
f 1 e
FIG. 19.57
Problem 19.
boy30444_ch19.qxd 3/24/06 3:05 PM Page 870
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SECTION 19.13 Computer Analysis Eddy currents Small, circular currents in a paramagnetic core
causing an increase in the power losses and the effective resis-
PSpice or Multisim tance of the material.
23. Using PSpice or Multisim, obtain a plot of reactive power Effective resistance The resistance value that includes the ef-
for a pure capacitor of 636.62 mF at a frequency of 1 kHz for fects of radiation losses, skin effect, eddy currents, and hys-
one cycle of the input voltage using an applied voltage E teresis losses.
10 V 0°. On the same graph, plot both the applied voltage Hysteresis losses Losses in a magnetic material introduced by
and the resulting current. Apply appropriate labels to the re- changes in the direction of the magnetic flux within the material.
sulting curves to generate results similar to those in Fig. Power-factor correction The addition of reactive components
19.41. (typically capacitive) to establish a system power factor closer
to unity.
24. Repeat the analysis in Fig. 19.42 for a parallel R-L-C net-
Radiation losses The losses of energy in the form of electro-
work of the same values and frequency.
magnetic waves during the transfer of energy from one ele-
25. Plot both the applied voltage and the source current on the ment to another.
same set of axes for the network in Fig. 19.31(b), and show Reactive power The power associated with reactive elements
that they are both in phase due to the resulting unity power that provides a measure of the energy associated with setting
factor. up the magnetic and electric fields of inductive and capacitive
elements, respectively.
Skin effect At high frequencies, a counter-induced voltage
GLOSSARY builds up at the center of a conductor, resulting in an increased
flow near the surface (skin) of the conductor and a sharp re-
Apparent power The power delivered to a load without consid- duction near the center. As a result, the effective area of con-
eration of the effects of a power-factor angle of the load. It is duction decreases and the resistance increases as defined by
determined solely by the product of the terminal voltage and the basic equation for the geometric resistance of a conductor.
current of the load.
Average (real) power The delivered power dissipated in the
form of heat by a network or system.

19-Power (Ac)

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boy30444_ch19.

qxd 3/24/06 3:01 PM Page 835

19.2 GENERAL EQUATION

p VI cos u11 cos 2vt2 VI sin u1sin 2vt2 (19.1)

19.3 RESISTIVE CIRCUIT

pR VI cos(0°)(1 cos 2vt) VI sin(0°) sin 2vt

or pR VI VI cos 2vt (19.2)

as derived in Chapter 14.

WR VIT1 (joules, J) (19.4)

or, since T1 1/f1,

EXAMPLE 19.1 For the resistive circuit in Fig. 19.4,

S VI (volt-amperes, VA) (19.6)

then S I 2Z (VA) (19.7)

The average power to the load in Fig. 19.4 is

Therefore, P S cos u (W) (19.9)

and the power factor of a system Fp is

i + v – 19.5 INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT AND REACTIVE POWER

or pL VI sin 2vt (19.11)

QL VI sin u (volt-ampere reactive, VAR) (19.12)

where u is the phase angle between V and I.

or, since V IXL or I V/XL ,

QL I 2XL (VAR) (19.14)

or, since T2 1/f2, where f2 is the frequency of the pL curve, we have

However, V IXL Iv1L

and WL LI 2 (J) (19.18)

providing an equation for the energy stored or released by the inductor in

EXAMPLE 19.2 For the inductive circuit in Fig. 19.10,

– 45° 90° 135°

or pC VI sin 2vt (19.19)

QC I 2XC (VAR) (19.21)

The apparent power associated with the capacitor is

or, since T2 1/f2, where f2 is the frequency of the pC curve,

In terms of the frequency f1 of the input quantities y and i,

and WC CV 2 (J) (19.26)

providing an equation for the energy stored or released by the capacitor

19.7 THE POWER TRIANGLE

For an inductive load, the phasor power S, as it is often called, is de- v

QT = QL – QC = VL I – VC I = I(VL – VC) = I(IXL – IXC)

pC = –VC I sin 2qt QT

j An additional verification can be derived by first considering the im-

or P S cos u FIG. 19.20

19.8 THE TOTAL P, Q, AND S

EXAMPLE 19.3 Find the total number of watts, volt-amperes reactive,

E = 100 V ∠0° 700 VAR (L) 1500 VAR (C)

Solution: Construct a table such as shown in Table 19.1.

0.6 leading 1C2

VC2 VL2 1150 V2 2 170 V2 2

0.6 leading 1C2

EXAMPLE 19.5 For the system in Fig. 19.25,

Heating Motor Capacitive load

b. Find the total number of watts, volt-amperes reactive, and volt-

EXAMPLE 19.6 An electrical device is rated 5 kVA, 100 V at a 0.6

19.9 POWER-FACTOR CORRECTION

Solving for the source current in Fig. 19.29(b):

EXAMPLE 19.7 A 5 hp motor with a 0.6 lagging power factor and an

a. Establish the power triangle for the load.

Pi 1drawn from the line2

S 2P2i Q2L 214054.35 W2 2 15405.8 VAR2 2

Is = I = 32.49 A ∠–53.13° Is = 19.49 A ∠0° I = 32.49 A ∠–53.13°

The equivalent parallel load is determined from

Is EYT E a b 1208 V2 a b 19.49 A

The inductive reactive power must therefore be reduced by FIG. 19.33

Therefore, QC 6.38 kVAR, and using