IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA ON RAISING AWARENESS OF

CORONAVIRUS
 TABLE OF CONTENT

ABSTRACT

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

1.2 Statement of the problem

1.3 Objective of the study

1.4 Research questions

1.5 Significance of the study

1.6 Scope of the study

1.7 Limitation of the study

1.8 Definition of terms

1.9 Organizations of the study

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Conceptual framework

2.2 Theoretical Framework

2.3 Empirical framework

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design

3.2 Population of the study

3.3 Sample size determination

3.4 Sample size selection technique and procedure

3.5 Research Instrument and Administration

3.6 Method of data collection

3.7 Method of data analysis

3.8 Validity of the study

3.9 Reliability of the study

3.10 Ethical consideration

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Data Presentation

4.2 Analysis of Data

4.3 Answering Research Questions

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Summary

5.2 Conclusion

5.3 Recommendation

References

APPENDIX

QUESTIONNAIRE
 Abstract

This study focused on the impact of social media on raising awareness of coronavirus.

The study specifically was aimed at examining if covid-19 information is been shared

on social media; Determining the extent to which information on covid-19 shared on

social media platforms is line with that of WHO and examining the extent at which

Covid-19 information shared on social media platforms is been managed.

The study adopted the survey research design and randomly enrolled participants in

the study. A total of 100 responses were validated from the enrolled participants

where all respondent are active users of social media and residence of Port-Harcourt,

Rivers State.
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

The unfolding of the COVID-19 pandemic has demonstrated how the spread

of misinformation, amplified on social media and other digital platforms, is

proving to be as much a threat to global public health as the virus itself.

Technology advancements and social media create opportunities to keep

people safe, informed and connected. However, the same tools also enable

and amplify the current pandemic that continues to undermine the global

response and jeopardizes measures to control the pandemic.

Although young people are less at risk of severe disease from COVID-19, they

are a key group in the context of this pandemic and share in the collective

responsibility to help us stop transmission. They are also the most active

online, interacting with an average number of 5 digital platforms (such as,

Twitter, TikTok, WeChat and Instagram) daily.

As the pandemic has encroached on and emasculated global operations, social

networking sites have been used as a source of knowledge for people. Its

importance has grown as a result of the government's implementation of a

lockdown policy to prevent the spread of the Covid-19 virus. As a result,

social media evolved into an active tool for engagement and communication

in order to disseminate credible information.

Social Media is an offshoot of the Internet and according to DiMaggio et al.

(2001), the Internet refers to the electronic network or networks that link(s)

people and information through computers and other digital devices; thereby
allowing for person-to-person communication and information retrieval. The

Internet is a major tool that emerged for the purpose of information

dissemination, thus, the social media acts as an information hegemony in

terms of determining what information is made available to people as well as

the impression people have on issues (Savrum & Leon, 2015).

Largely, Social Media is the collection of websites and web-based systems that

allow for mass interaction, conversation and sharing among members of a

network (Murphy, 2013). Its power lies in live pictures conveyed by video

recording of events as it unfolds. The international live-streaming of events is

capable of mobilizing a huge population of citizenry for positive or negative

end.

The Coronavirus (Covid-19) is an infectious disease causes respiratory

infections ranging from the common cold to more severe respiratory

difficulties. It originated from the Hunan seafood market at Wuhan, China

where live bats, snakes, raccoon dogs, wild animals among others were sold

in December 2019 (Shereen et al., 2020, pp. 91–98) and was declared a

pandemic by the World Health Organization on 11 March 2020 (WHO, 2020).

Notably, Nigeria as every other government tried to curb the rapid spread of

Covid-19 through immediate lockdown of all sectors and after which several

safety guideline was stipulated according to the National Centre for Disease

Control in line with World Health Organization preventive measures against

Corona Virus(NCDC 2020). The achievement of these feats can be attributed

not just to proper healthcare facilities but also to the impacts of social media

in the country. Its platforms: WhatsApp, Twitter, Facebook, and YouTube

have become varying means of communication and engagement by not just

the government but by the general populace especially young people.

However there is an urgent need to monitor and mange information and data

released on various social media platforms regarding the Covid-19 in order to

ensure that people do not spread unrealistic assumptions and panic-prone

information about the novel disease either by the government or private

users. This is because of the impact this information has on the public

audience which might lead to anxiety, loss of faith in the government and

detrimental to those who has been infected by the virus. Therefore it is on this

note, that this research intends to examine the impact of social media on

raising awareness of Coronavirus.

1.2 Statement of the problem

In the face of the fears of the spread of the novel corona virus, social media is

a critical tool for disseminating information to the general public. In the case

of Nigeria, it is a double-edged sword because it helps people to access

information without hindrance. To better understand how young adults are

engaging with technology during this global communication crisis, an

international study was conducted, covering approximately 23,500

respondents, aged 18-40 years, in 24 countries across five continents. This

project was a collaboration between the World Health Organization (WHO),

Wunderman Thompson, the University of Melbourne and Pollfish. With data

collected from late October 2020 to early January 2021, the outcomes provide

key insights on where Gen Z (those born between 1997 and 2015 who

patronize social media for entertainment and fun, who follow information
shared by their favorite influencers without verification) and Millennials

(people born between 1981 and 1996, Millennials tend to spend a significant

amount of their life in 'virtual' social media environments, to the extent that

they rely on social media for most information) seek COVID-19 information,

who they trust as credible sources, their awareness and actions around false

news, and what their concerns are. The information at which the young

people are exposed to is of relevant in this period of global crisis, as it likely

shapes their reaction(in terms of causes of covid-19 and compliance to the

covid-19 safety measures and practices) towards the novel diseases, which

can either reduce or escalate the spread of the virus. Social media platforms

regularly patronized by Nigerians include, Twitter, Instagram, WhatsApp,

Tik-Tok, Facebook and YouTube. However covid-19 content, data and

information shared on these platforms can play either a negative role or

positive role towards curbing or spreading the corona virus, thus the need for

the management of such information arise. However it is against this

backdrop that this study is set to investigate the impact of social media on

raising awareness of Coronavirus.

1.3 Objective of the Study

This study is set to examine the impact of social media on raising awareness

of Coronavirus. Specifically it is geared to:

i. Examine if covid-19 information is been shared on social media.

ii. Determine the extent to which information on covid-19 shared on social

media platforms is line with that of WHO.

iii. Examine the extent at which Covid-19 information shared on social media

platforms is been managed.

1.4 Research Question

The following questions guide this study:

i. Is covid-19 information is been shared on social media?

ii. To what extent does the information on covid-19 shared on social media

platforms is line with that of WHO?

iii. To what extent does Covid-19 information shared on social media

platforms is been managed?

1.5 Significance of the study

This study would be relevant to the general public and also contribute to the

body of knowledge. More so it will be a wake up call for social media content

developers to enhance their efficiency while developing creative contents in

order to curb the spread of corona virus. It will also heighten the awareness of

social media users on the need to discard fake and invalid information about

corona virus and its mode of infection. The study will enable government and

policy makers on the need to monitor content shared on social media

platforms in order to avoid sharing panic related message to the reading

public as this is detriment to their disposition and could make them loose

confidence on the government efforts towards fighting the novel corona virus.

This study will further add to existing literature on this topic and as well

serve as a benchmark and eye-opener to students, scholars and researchers

who may wish to carry out further research on this study or related domain in

the future.
1.6 Scope the study

This study focuses on examining if covid-19 information is been shared on

social media; and to determine the extent to which information on covid-19

shared on social media platforms is line with that of WHO. This study also

examines the extent at which Covid-19 information shared on social media

platforms is been managed. Social media users in Port Harcourt, Rivers State

are enrolled as participants for this study.

1.7 Limitation Of Study

Financial constraint– Insufficient fund tends to impede the efficiency of the

researcher in sourcing for the relevant materials, literature or information and

in the process of data collection (internet, questionnaire and interview).

Time constraint– The researcher will simultaneously engage in this study

with other academic work. This consequently will cut down on the time

devoted for the research work.

However in the midst above mentioned limitation the researcher devotedly

ensured that the purpose of the study was actualized.

1.8 Definition of terms

Social Media : this is the collection of websites and web-based systems that

allow for mass interaction, conversation and sharing among members of a

network. Its power lies in live pictures conveyed by video recording of events

as it unfolds. Example of social media include Twitter, Instagram, Facebook,

Whatsapp and others

Covid-19: Corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is defined as illness caused

by a novel corona virus called severe acute respiratory syndrome corona virus

2 (SARS-CoV-2.

Information: information is a news or knowledge communicated or received

concerning a particular fact or circumstance.

Information Management: Information Management means the organization

of and control over the structure, processing, and delivery of information

1.9 Organizations of the study

The chapter one consist of the introductory part of the study which includes

the study background, the statement of the research problem, the study

objective and scope of the study.

The second chapter is a critical review of other literatures relevant to the

study and its objectives including the theoretical framework for the study.

While the third chapter is methods of data collection, sampling and data

analysis used in conducting the study. The fourth chapter centres around the

research findings including an analysis of how it relates to previous findings.

The fifth chapter consists of the summary of findings, conclusion and

recommendations base on the study objectives.

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

INTRODUCTION

Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would

assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the

efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar

research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and

close the perceived gaps.

Precisely, the chapter will be considered in two sub-headings:

 Conceptual Framework

 Chapter Summary

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Social Media

The term “Social media” is defined as the application that allows users to

converse and interact with each other; to create, edit and share new forms of

textual, visual and audio content, and to categorize, label and recommend

existing forms of content (Selwyn 2012). Social media therefore denotes to the

wide collection of Internet based and mobile services that connect people

together to communicate, participate, collaboratively interact, discuss and

exchange ideas and information on an online community. The kind of Internet

services commonly associated with social media (sometimes referred to as

“Web 2.0”) include the following:

Weblog.
Weblogs or blogs, as they are branded, are easily created and updateable

websites that allow authors to publish to the Internet instantly, hence

allowing instructors and students to communicate easily.

Basically a blog is an online journal in which pages are usually displayed in

reverse chronological order. Blogs can be hosted for free on websites such as

WordPress, Tumblr and Blogger.

Wikis.

A wiki is “a collective website where any participant is allowed to modify any

page or create a new page using her Web browser” (Dewing 2010).

Anyone can add and edit what has already been published. One well known

example is Wikipedia, a free online encyclopedia that makes use of wiki

technology.

Social bookmarking.

Bookmarking sites allow users to organize and share links to websites. This

enables users to produce a searchable personalized internet. Examples include

reddit, Stumble

Upon and Digg.

Social Media Sites

In recent time, the world has witnessed what could be referred to as

communication revolution through ‘technological advances and increased use

of the Internet’ (Moqbel, 2012). This communication revolution, as well as the

more technologically empowered lifestyle of individual users, has changed

the way people communicate and connect with each other (Coyle, 2008;
O’Murchu, Breslin & Decker, 2004). Social networking sites are a recent trend

in this revolution (Moqbel, 2012).

Social networking sites therefore, are web-based services that allow

individuals to construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded

system, articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection, and

view and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within

the system, (Boyd and Ellison, 2007).

Social networking sites are created to take care of variety of human needs and

could be classified using that format. For instance, Ellison, Steinfield, and

Lampe (2007:143) classified SNSs into: work-related contexts (LinkedIn.com),

romantic relationship initiation (Friendster.com), connecting those with shared

interests such as music or politics (MySpace.com), or the college student

population (Facebook). It should however be noted that the examples

mentioned above were based on the original intentions of founders of the

SNSs, though these intentions have been taken to another level by users.

This is why latter classification of SNSs takes somewhat different approach

and put different factors into consideration. To Fraser and Dutta (2008), SNSs

should better be classified into the following five categories-

egocentric/identity construction social networking sites such as Facebook and

MySpace; opportunistic social networking sites for business connections such

as LinkedIn; community social networking sites representing cultural or

neighborhood groups; media-sharing social networking sites such as YouTube

and Flickr; and Passion-centric social networking sites for sharing common

interests such as Dogster.

Social networking sites came on board in the mid 1990s. One of the first social

networking sites was Classmates, a site initiated in 1995 (Rooksby, 2009). The

uniqueness of social networking sites is that they not only allow individuals

to meet strangers but enables users to discuss and make visible their social

networks. This results into connections between individuals which otherwise

is not possible through any other media already existing. Maximum time is

often used on social networking sites to communicate with people who are

already friends or acquaintances in the social network, sharing same mindset

or same interests and views (Raj Jain, Gupta & Anand, 2012).

While SNSs have implemented a wide variety of technical features, their

backbone consists of visible profiles that display an articulated list of friends

who are also users of the system. Profiles are unique pages where one can

type oneself into being. After joining an SNS, an individual is asked to fill out

forms containing a series of questions. The profile is generated using the

answers to these questions, which typically include descriptors such as age,

location, interests, etc. Most sites also encourage users to upload a profile

photo. Some sites allow users to enhance their profiles by adding multimedia

content or modifying their profile's look and feel. Others, such as Facebook,

allow users to add modules that enhance their profile. Structural variations

around visibility and access are one of the primary ways that SNSs

differentiate themselves from each other.

The public display of connections is a crucial component of SNSs. The friends

list contains links to each friend's profile, enabling viewers to traverse the

network graph by clicking through them. On most sites, the list of friends is
visible to anyone who is permitted to view the profile, although there are

exceptions. Most SNSs also provide a mechanism for users to leave messages

on their friends' profiles. This feature typically involves leaving comments,

although sites employ various labels for this feature. In addition, SNSs often

have a private messaging feature similar to webmail. While both private

messages and comments are popular on most of the major SNSs, they are not

universally available.

The background of today's social networking sites according to Boyd &

Ellison (2008:214) cited in Roblyer, McDaniel, Webb, Herman, and Witty

(2010), began in 1997 with the launch of SixDegrees.com which “allowed users

to create a profile list of their friends and in 1998, surf the friends list”. Social

networking is as old as humans have been around. Just as in nearly every

other species, humans have an instinctual need to be communicated with, and

share thoughts, ideas, and feelings about their daily lives. Only the tools with

which we communicate have changed over the Millennia (Safko, 2010:5).

Social media make it possible to share such information like photos, videos,

audio files, and comments. These sites seem to be gaining such high

popularity among users. This point was aptly emphasized by Stefanone,

Lackaff, and Rosen (2010) when they affirmed that explosion in popularity of

social networking sites (SNSs) represents one of the fastest uptakes of

communication technology since the web was developed in the early 1990s.

Even though the list is endless, some examples of these SNSs include Facebook,

Twitter, Blogs, 2go, YouTube, MySpace, BB messenger, LinkedIn, WhatsApp and

Wikis just to mention but a few. Some of these forms of social networking sites

are further discussed below.

Facebook

Facebook is a social networking device that enable users interact through

conversations, and build relationships by networking with other users.

Facebook groups are created as part of a smaller community within the social

networking site and focus on particular interests or beliefs about certain

issues (Graybill-Leonard, Meyers, Doerfert & Irlbeck 2011). As of January

2008, Facebook has more than 64 million users, and since January 2007 has had

an average of 250,000 new registrations per day. It has 65 billion page views

per month, and more than 14 million photos are uploaded to its site daily

(Gane, & Beer 2008). A more vivid picture of this growth was painted by

Kaplan and Haenlein (2009) when they affirmed that:

By January 2009, Facebook had registered more than 175 million active users.

To put that number in perspective, this is only slightly less than the

population of Brazil (190 million) and over twice the population of Germany

(80 million). At the same time, every minute, 10 hours of content were

uploaded to the video sharing platform YouTube. And, the image hosting site

Flickr provided access to over 3 billion photographs, making the world-famous

Louvre Museum’s collection of 300,000 objects seem tiny in comparison.

Safko (2010:8) identified Facebook as being by far the most popular and widely

used social network. By the end of 2013, Facebook boasted 1.23 billion

monthly active users worldwide, adding 170 million in just one year.
According to Facebook, 757 million users logon to Facebook daily as of 31

December, 2013.

The use of mobile phones especially smart phones and the internet have made

it possible for people to communicate and respond to just about any issue in

their environment. This is in line with Hill (2010) assertion that the

proliferation of mobile digital media and communications technology appears

to have partially democratized image-making and media creation.

LinkedIn

LinkedIn is an online professional contact database that was founded in

December 2002 and launched in May 2003. The site allows its members to

create a profile and network with the other over 55 million LinkedIn members

from over 150 industries. LinkedIn was established by former PayPal vice

president, Reid Hoffman. Brown (2010) asserts that with over 55 million

registered users throughout the world, LinkedIn is considered a premier

business networking site.

Like many other social and professional networks, LinkedIn has searchable

groups wherein a member can create a group about a particular topic and

other members can join the group to discuss a common interest or industry,

hobby, college, religion, or political viewpoint. LinkedIn Groups are similar to

forums.

WhatsApp

WhatsApp has become one of the very popular social networking applications,

especially patronized by students in this part of the world. WhatsApp was

founded in 2009 by Brian Acton and Jan Koum, both veterans of Yahoo!, and
is based in Santa Clara, California

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WhatsApp).

WhatsApp Messenger is a cross-platform mobile messaging application which

allows you to exchange messages without having to pay for SMS. WhatsApp

Messenger is available for iPhone, Blackberry, Windows Phone, Android and

Nokia. Other than simple text, it also enables images, audios or videos to be

shared instantaneously. As 3G and Wi-Fi technologies are gaining popularity

all around the world, and more and more people are replacing their cellular

phones with smart phones, the number of WhatsApp users is growing. Its

cross-platform feature also enables people to exchange messages between

different brands of smart phones. In addition to the basic text messaging

functionality, it also supports multimedia messages, which enriches the

context of the messages. More importantly, it connects to the server via the

Internet, and only requires the user to have a data plan for the 3G services or

to have access to Wi-Fi coverage.

However, a major privacy and security issue has been the subject of concern

for WhatsApp. Corey (2011) submits that “the primary concern was that

WhatsApp required users to upload their entire mobile phone's address book

to WhatsApp servers so that WhatsApp could discover who, among the users'

existing contacts, is available via WhatsApp”. While this is a fast and

convenient way to quickly find and connect the user with contacts who are

also using WhatsApp, it means that their address book was then mirrored on

the WhatsApp servers, including contact information for contacts who are not

using WhatsApp.
Nonetheless, WhatsApp provides two options for users who wish to save their

chat history: creating a backup of it or exporting it as a text file that can be

sent over email (Larrien, & Eric, 2012). According to Kim (2012), WhatsApp

has crossed the 10 billion text messages sent milestone since launching in June

2009” and Murphy, (2013) adds that it has further exploded over the last year

with over 7 billion inbound messages a day as of January 2013. It has more

than 10 million downloads on Android with 369, 270 user reviews, and it is

used in about 195 countries on 750 networks.

Twitter

Twitter is one of the most used social media platform for news tweet.

Broersma and Graham (2012), comment that since its launch in July 2006,

Twitter has quickly become popular. The social networking service allows its

users to post 140 character long messages (tweets) to be distributed to users’.

Its subscribers (followers) grew to 190 million users per month in June 2010

with 65 million tweets posted per day. As the number of users is rising, that is

also how the various potentials of social media are being sold to other

unaware members of the public.

Brown (2010) observed that tweets can be responded to in several ways. You

can send a reply that can be seen publicly, you can reply privately with a

direct message, or you can forward a message to others using the re-tweet

feature so that others can view your posts. You can also use Twitter to talk

about anything – from what you had for lunch to the government’s latest

budget cuts. The illustration below best presents the opportunities Twitter

offers its subscribers.

The nodes represent media sources and links represent co-subscription

relationships. The node size is scaled to represent the log of audience share

and its colour represents topical categories (Jisun, Cha, Gummadiz, &

Crowcroft, 2011). It is a common experience today to see people going to

social media sites such as Twitter to get updates on current events and read

other peoples’ reactions to events in the news.

To buttress the importance of Twitter to news organizations and news

dissemination in mainstream journalism, Broersman and Graham (2012),

observed that news organizations have begun to harness the potentials of

Twitter as a tool for reaching out to audience. They opine that they use it in

four particular ways: to disseminate news, to market stories, to establish

relationships with news consumers, and as a tool for reporting. In recent

years, breaking news like the terrorist attacks in Mumbai (November 2008),

the crash of a US Airways plane in the Hudson River (January 2009) and the

revolutions in Moldavia and Middle East (2009 - 2011) have been distributed

through Twitter.

Status update services.

This kind is also known as micro blogging services, status update services

such as Twitter allow people to share short updates about people or events

and to see updates tweeted by others. These are limited list that are certain to

revolution quickly, probably could be by our own contributions to the field.

THE VIRUS: CLASSIfiCATION AND ORIGIN

SARS-CoV-2 is a member of the family Coronaviridae and order Nidovirales.

The family consists of two subfamilies, Coronavirinae and Torovirinae and

members of the subfamily Coronavirinae are subdivided into four genera: (a)

Alphacoronavirus contains the human coronavirus (HCoV)-229E and HCoV-

NL63; (b) Betacoronavirus includes HCoV-OC43, Severe Acute Respiratory

Syndrome human coronavirus (SARS-HCoV), HCoV-HKU1, and Middle

Eastern respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV); (c)

Gammacoronavirus includes viruses of whales and birds and; (d)

Deltacoronavirus includes viruses isolated from pigs and birds [Burrell C, et

al. 2016]. SARS-CoV-2 belongs to Betacoronavirus together with two highly

pathogenic viruses, SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV. SARS-CoV-2 is an enveloped

and positive-sense single-stranded RNA (+ssRNA) virus [Kramer A, et

al.2006].

SARS-CoV-2 is considered a novel human-infecting Betacoro- navirus [Lu R,et

al.2020]. Phylogenetic analysis of the SARS-CoV-2 genome indicates that the

virus is closely related (with 88% identity) to two bat-derived SARS-like

coronaviruses collected in 2018 in east- ern China (bat-SL-CoVZC45 and bat-

SL-CoVZXC21) and genetically distinct from SARS-CoV (with about 79%

similarity) and MERS-CoV [Lu R,et al.2020]. Using the genome sequences of

SARS-CoV-2, RaTG13, and SARS-CoV [Zhou P,et al.2020], a further study

found that the virus is more related to BatCoV RaTG13, a bat coronavirus that

was previously detected in Rhinolophus affinis from Yunnan Province, with

96.2% overall genome sequence identity [Zhou P,et al.2020]. A study found

that no evidence of recombination events detected in the genome of SARS-

CoV-2 from other viruses originating from bats such as BatCoV RaTG13,
SARS- CoV and SARSr-CoVs [Zhou P,et al.2020]. Altogether, these findings

suggest that bats might be the original host of this virus.

However, a study is needed to elucidate whether any inter- mediate hosts

have facilitated the transmission of the virus to humans. Bats are unlikely to

be the animal that is directly responsi- ble for transmission of the virus to

humans for several reasons [Lu R,et al.2020]:

(1) there were various non-aquatic animals (including mammals) available

for purchase in Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market but no bats were sold or

found;

(2) SARS-CoV-2 and its close relatives, bat- SL-CoVZC45 and bat-SL-

CoVZXC21, have a relatively long branch (sequence identity of less than 90%),

suggesting those viruses are not direct ancestors of SARS-CoV-2; and

(3) in other coronaviruses where bat is the natural reservoir such as SARS-

CoV and MERS-CoV, other animals have acted as the intermediate host

(civets and pos- sibly camels, respectively). Nevertheless, bats do not always

need an intermediary host to transmit viruses to humans. For example, Nipah

virus in Bangladesh is transmitted through bats shedding into raw date palm

sap.

Transmission

The role of the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market in propagating disease is

unclear. Many initial COVID-19 cases were linked to this market suggesting

that SARS-CoV-2 was transmitted from animals to humans. However, a

genomic study has provided evidence that the virus was introduced from

another, yet unknown location, into the market where it spread more rapidly,
although human-to-human transmission may have occurred earlier [Yu W,et

al.2020]. Clusters of infected family members and medical workers have

confirmed the presence of person-to-person transmission [Yu W,et al.2020].

After January 1, less than 10% of patients had market expo- sure and more

than 70% patients had no exposure to the market [Yu W, et’al. 2020]. Person-

to-person transmission is thought to occur among close contacts mainly via

respiratory droplets produced when an infected person coughs or sneezes.

Fomites may be a large source of transmission, as SARS-CoV has been found

to persist on surfaces up to 96h [Kramer A, et al.2016] and other coronaviruses

for up to 9 days.

Whether or not there is asymptomatic transmission of disease is controversial.

One initial study published on January 30 reported asymptomatic

transmission [18], but later it was found that the researchers had not directly

interviewed the patient, who did in fact have symptoms prior to transmitting

disease [Kramer A, et al.2020]. A more recent study published on February 21

also purported asymptomatic transmission [shang w. 2020], but any such

study could be limited by errors in self-reported symptoms or contact with

other cases and fomites.

Findings about disease characteristics are rapidly changing and subject to

selection bias. A study indicated the mean incubation period was 5.2 days

(95% confidence interval [95%CI]: 4.1–7.0). The incubation period has been

found to be as long as 19 or 24 days , although case definitions typically rely

on a 14 day window (G.S 2020).

The basic reproductive number (R0) has been estimated with varying results

and interpretations. R0 measures the average num- ber of infections that

could result from one infected individual in a fully susceptible population.

Studies from previous outbreaks found R0 to be 2.7 for SARS and 2.4 for 2009

pandemic H1N1 influenza. One study estimated that that basic reproductive

number (R0) was 2.2 (95% CI: 1.4–3.9). However, later in a further analysis of

12 available studies found that R0 was 3.28. Because R0 represents an average

value it is also important to consider the role of super spreaders, who may be

hugely responsible for outbreaks within large clusters but who would not

largely influence the value of R0. During the acute phase of an outbreak or

prepandemic, R0 may be unstable .

In pregnancy, a study of nine pregnancy women who developed COVID-19

in late pregnancy suggested COVID-19 did not lead to substantially worse

symptoms than in nonpregnant persons and there is no evidence for

intrauterine infection caused by vertical transmission [Chen HEA 2020].

In hospital setting, a study involving 138 COVID-19 suggested that hospital-

associated transmission of SARS-CoV-2 occurred in 41% of patients [Wang. D

2020 ]. Moreover, another study on 425 patients found that the proportion of

cases in health care workers gradually increased by time [Wu P, et al.2020].

These cases likely reflect exposure to a higher concentration of virus from

sustained contact in close quarters.

Outside China, as of February 12, 2020, there were 441 confirmed COVID-19

cases reported in 24 countries of which the first imported case was reported in

Thailand on January 13, 2020. Among those countries, 11 countries have

reported local transmission with the highest number of cases reported in

Singapore with 47 confirmed cases.

Risk factors

The incidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection is seen most often in adult male

patients with the median age of the patients was between 34 and 59 years.

SARS-CoV-2 is also more likely to infect people with chronic comorbidities

such as cardio- vascular and cerebrovascular diseases and diabetes. The

highest proportion of severe cases occurs in adults 60 years of age, and in

those with certain underlying conditions, such as cardiovascular and

cerebrovascular diseases and diabetes. Severe mani- festations maybe also

associated with coinfections of bacteria and fungi [Chen N. et’al 2020].

Fewer COVID-19 cases have been reported in children less than 15 years

[20,30,7,32]. In a study of 425 COVID-19 patients in Wuhan, published on

January 29, there were no cases in chil- dren under 15 years of age.

Nevertheless, 28 paediatric patients have been reported by January 2020. The

clinical features of infected paediatric patients vary, but most have had mild

symptoms with no fever or pneumonia, and have a good prognosis. Another

study found that although a child had radiological ground-glass lung

opacities, the patient was asymptomatic. In summary, children might be less

likely to be infected or, if infected, present milder manifestations than adults;

therefore, it is possible that their parents will not seek out treatment leading

to underestimates of COVID-19 incidence in this age group.

Pathogenesis and immune response

Like most other members of the coronavirus family, Beta- coronavirus exhibit

high species specificity, but subtle genetic changes can significantly alter their

tissue tropism, host range, and pathogenicity. A striking example of the

adaptability of these viruses is the emergence of deadly zoonotic diseases in

human history caused by SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV. In both viruses, bats

served as the natural reservoir and humans were the terminal host, with the

palm civet and dromedary camel the intermediary host for SARS-CoV and

MERS-CoV, respectively. Intermediate hosts clearly play a critical role in cross

species transmission as they can facilitate increased contact between a virus

and a new host and enable further adaptation necessary for an effective

replication in the new host. Because of the pandemic potential of SARS- CoV-

2, careful surveillance is immensely important to monitor its future host

adaptation, viral evolution, infectivity, transmissibility, and pathogenicity.

The host range of a virus is governed by multiple molecular interactions,

including receptor interaction. The envelope spike (S) protein receptor

binding domain of SARS-CoV-2 was shown struc- turally similar to that of

SARS-CoV, despite amino acid variation at some key residues . Further

extensive structural analysis strongly suggests that SARS-CoV-2 may use host

receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) to enter the cells, the same

receptor facilitating SARS-CoV to infect the airway epithelium and alveolar

type 2 (AT2) pneumocytes, pulmonary cells that synthesize pulmonary

surfactant. In general, the spike protein of coronavirus is divided into the S1

and S2 domain, in which S1 is responsible for receptor binding and S2 domain

is responsible for cell membrane fusion. The S1 domain of SARS-CoV and

SARS- CoV-2 share around 50 conserved amino acids, whereas most of the

bat-derived viruses showed more variation. In addition, identification of

several key residues (Gln493 and Asn501) that govern the binding of SARS-

CoV-2 receptor binding domain with ACE2 further support that SARS-CoV-2

has acquired capacity for person- to-person transmission. Although, the spike

protein sequence of receptor binding SARS-CoV-2 is more similar to that of

SARS- CoV, at the whole genome level SARS-CoV-2 is more closely related to

bat-SL-CoVZC45 and bat-SL-CoVZXC21.

However, receptor recognition is not the only determinant of species

specificity. Immediately after binding to their receptive receptor, SARS-CoV-2

enters host cells where they encounter the innate immune response. In order

to productively infect the new host, SARS-CoV-2 must be able to inhibit or

evade host innate immune signalling. However, it is largely unknown how

SARS- CoV-2 manages to evade immune response and drive pathogenesis.

Given that COVID-19 and SARS have similar clinical features, SARS-CoV-2

may have a similar pathogenesis mechanism as SARS- CoV. In response to

SARS-CoV infections, the type I interferon (IFN) system induces the

expression of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) to inhibit viral replication. To

overcome this antiviral activity, SARS- CoV encodes at least 8 viral

antagonists that modulate induction of IFN and cytokines and evade ISG

effector function .

The host immune system response to viral infection by mediating

inflammation and cellular antiviral activity is critical to inhibit viral

replication and dissemination. However, excessive immune responses

together with lytic effects of the virus on host cells will result in pathogenesis.

Studies have shown patients suffering from severe pneumonia, with fever

and dry cough as common symptoms at onset of illness . Some patients

progressed rapidly with Acute Respiratory Stress Syndrome (ARDS) and

septic shock, which was eventually followed by multiple organ failure and

about 10% of patients have died. ARDS progression and extensive lung dam-

age in COVID-19 are further indications that ACE2 might be a route of entry

for the SARS-CoV-2 as ACE2 is known abundantly present on ciliated cells of

the airway epithelium and alveolar type II (cells (pulmonary cells that

synthesize pulmonary surfactant) in humans.

Patients with SARS and COVID-19 have similar patterns of inflammatory

damage. In serum from patients diagnosed with SARS, there is increased

levels of proinflammatory cytokines (e.g. interleukin (IL)-1, IL6, IL12,

interferon gamma (IFNγ), IFN- γ-induced protein 10 (IP10), macrophage

inflammatory proteins 1A (MIP1A) and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1

(MCP1)), which are associated with pulmonary inflammation and severe lung

damage. Likewise, patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 are reported to have

higher plasma levels of proinflammatory cytokines including IL1β, IL-2, IL7,

TNF-α, GSCF, MCP1 than healthy adults [Huang C, et al.2020]. Importantly,

patients in the intensive care unit (ICU) have a significantly higher level of

GSCF, IP10, MCP1, and TNF- α than those non-ICU patients, suggesting that

a cytokine storm might be an underlying cause of disease severity [Huang C,

et al.2020]. Unexpect- edly, anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL10 and IL4

were also increased in those patients [Huang C, et al.2020], which was

uncommon phenomenon for an acute phase viral infection. Another

interesting finding, as explained before, was that SARS-CoV-2 has shown to

preferen- tially infect older adult males with rare cases reported in children

[Huang C, et al.2020]. The same trend was observed in primate models of

SARS-CoV where the virus was found more likely to infect aged Cynomolgus

macaque than young adults . Further studies are necessary to identify the

virulence factors and the host genes of SARS-CoV-2 that allows the virus to

cross the species-specific barrier and cause lethal disease in humans.

2.1.4 Clinical manifestations

Clinical manifestations of 2019-nCoV infection have similarities with SARS-

CoV where the most common symptoms include fever, dry cough, dyspnoea,

chest pain, fatigue and myalgia [Huang C, et al.2020]. Less common

symptoms include headache, dizziness, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, nausea,

and vomiting [Huang C, et al.2020]. Based on the report of the first 425

confirmed cases in Wuhan, the common symptoms include fever, dry cough,

myalgia and fatigue with less common are sputum production, headache,

haemoptysis, abdominal pain, and diarrhoea. Approximately 75% patients

had bilateral pneu- monia. Different from SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV

infections, however, is that very few COVID-19 patients show prominent

upper respiratory tract signs and symptoms such as rhinorrhoea, sneezing, or

sore throat, suggesting that the virus might have greater preference for

infecting the lower respiratory tract [Huang C, et al.2020]. Pregnant and non-

pregnant women have similar characteristics.

Severe complications such as hypoxaemia, acute ARDS, arry- thmia, shock,

acute cardiac injury, and acute kidney injury have been reported among

COVID-19 patients [Huang C, et al.2020]. A study among 99 patients found

that approximately 17% patients developed ARDS and, among them, 11%

died of multiple organ failure. The median duration from first symptoms to

ARDS was 8 days .

Diagnosis

Efforts to control spread of COVID-19, institute quarantine and isolation

measures, and appropriately clinically manage patients all require useful

screening and diagnostic tools. While SARS-CoV- 2 is spreading, other

respiratory infections may be more common in a local community. The WHO

has released a guideline on case surveillance of COVID-19 on January 31,

2020. For a person who meets certain criteria, WHO recommends to first

screen for more common causes of respiratory illness given the season and

location. If a negative result is found, the sample should be sent to referral

laboratory for SARS-CoV-2 detection.

Case definitions can vary by country and will evolve over time as the

epidemiological circumstances change in a given location. In China, a

confirmed case from January 15, 2020 required an epidemiological linkage to

Wuhan within 2 weeks and clinical features such as fever, pneumonia, and

low white blood cell count. On January 18, 2020 the epidemiological criterion

was expanded to include con- tact with anyone who had been in Wuhan in

the past 2 weeks [50]. Later, the case definitions removed the epidemiological

linkage.
The WHO has put forward case definitions [23]. Suspected cases of COVID-19

are persons (a) with severe acute respiratory infections (history of fever and

cough requiring admission to hospital) and with no other aetiology that fully

explains the clinical presentation and a history of travel to or residence in

China during the 14 days prior to symptom onset; or (b) a patient with any

acute respiratory illness and at least one of the following during the 14 days

prior to symptom onset: contact with a confirmed or probable case of SARS-

CoV-2 infection or worked in or attended a health care facility where patients

with confirmed or probable SARS-CoV-2 acute respiratory disease patients

were being treated. Probable cases are those for whom testing for SARS-CoV-

2 is inconclusive or who test positive using a pan-coronavirus assay and

without laboratory evi- dence of other respiratory pathogens. A confirmed

case is one with a laboratory confirmation of SARS-CoV-2 infection,

irrespective of clinical signs and symptoms.

For patients who meet diagnostic criteria for SARS-CoV-2 test- ing, the CDC

recommends collection of specimens from the upper respiratory tract

(nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal swab) and, if possible, the lower

respiratory tract (sputum, tracheal aspirate, or bronchoalveolar lavage). In

each country, the tests are per- formed by laboratories designated by the

government.

Laboratory findings

Among COVID-19 patients, common laboratory abnormalities include

lymphopenia, prolonged prothrombin time, and elevated lactate

dehydrogenase. ICU-admitted patients had more laboratory abnormalities

compared with non-ICU patients. Some patients had elevated aspartate

aminotransferase, creatine kinase, creatinine, and C-reactive protein. Most

patients have shown normal serum procalcitonin levels. COVID-19 patients

have high level of IL1β, IFN-γ, IP10, and MCP1. ICU-admitted patients tend

to have higher concentration of granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (GCSF),

IP10, MCP1A,MIP1A, and TNF-α.

Radiology findings

Radiology finding may vary with patients age, disease pro- gression,

immunity status, comorbidity, and initial medical intervention. In a study

describing 41 of the initial cases of 2019-nCoV infection, all 41 patients had

pneumonia with abnormal findings on chest computed tomography (CT-

scan) [Huang C, et al.2020]. Abnormal- ities on chest CT-scan were also seen

in another study of 6 cases, in which all of them showed multi-focal patchy

ground-glass opacities notably nearby the peripheral sections of the lungs

[Huang C, et al.2020]. Data from studies indicate that the typical of chest CT-

scan findings are bilateral pulmonary parenchymal ground-glass and

consolidative pulmonary opacities. The consolidated lung lesions among

patients five or more days from disease onset and those 50 years old or older

compared to 4 or fewer days and those 50 years or younger, respectively.

As the disease course continue, mild to moderate progression of disease were

noted in some cases which manifested by extension and increasing density of

lung opacities. Bilateral multiple lobular and subsegmental areas of

consolidation are typical findings on chest CT-scan of ICU-admitted patients.

A study among 99 patients, one patient had pneumothorax in an imaging

examination.

Treatments

Similar to MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV, there is still no specific antiviral

treatment for COVID-19. Isolation and supportive care including oxygen

therapy, fluid management, and antibiotics treatment for secondary bacterial

infections is recommended. Some COVID-19 patients progressed rapidly to

ARDS and septic shock, which was eventually followed by multiple organ

failure [Huang C, et al.2020]. Therefore, the effort on initial management of

COVID-19 must be addressed to the early recognition of the suspect and

contain the disease spread by immediate isolation and infection control

measures .

Currently, no vaccination is available, but even if one was avail- able, uptake

might be suboptimal. A study of intention to vaccinate during the H1N1

pandemic in the United States was around 50% at the start of the pandemic in

May 2009 but had decreased to 16% by January 2010.

Neither is a treatment available. Therefore, the management of the disease has

been mostly supportive referring to the disease severity which has been

introduced by WHO. If sepsis is identi- fied, empiric antibiotic should be

administered based on clinical diagnosis and local epidemiology and

susceptibility information. Routine glucocorticoids administration are not

recommended to use unless there are another indication. Clinical evidence

also does not support corticosteroid treatment. Use of intravenous

immunoglobulin might help for severely ill patients .

Drugs are being evaluated in line with past investigations into therapeutic

treatments for SARS and MERS. Overall, there is not robust evidence that

these antivirals can significantly improve clinical outcomes A. Antiviral drugs

such as oseltamivir combined with empirical antibiotic treatment have also

been used to treat COVID- 19 patients [Huang C, et al.2020]. Remdesivir

which was developed for Ebola virus, has been used to treat imported

COVID-19 cases in US [Holshue ML, 2020]. A brief report of treatment

combination of Lopinavir/Ritonavir, Arbidol, and Shufeng Jiedu Capsule

(SFJDC), a traditional Chinese medicine, showed a clinical benefit to three of

four COVID-19 patients [Holshue ML, 2020]. There is an ongoing clinical trial

evaluating the safety and efficacy of lopinavir-ritonavir and interferon-α 2b in

patients with COVID- 19 [Huang C, et al.2020]. Ramsedivir, a broad spectrum

antivirus has demonstrated in vitro and in vivo efficacy against SARS-CoV-2

and has also initi- ated its clinical trial. In addition, other potential drugs from

existing antiviral agent have also been proposed.

Control and prevention strategies

COVID-19 is clearly a serious disease of international concern. By some

estimates it has a higher reproductive number than SARS, and more people

have been reported to have been infected or died from it than SARS. Similar

to SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, disrupting the chain of transmission is

considered key to stopping the spread of disease. Different strategies should

be implemented in health care settings and at the local and global levels

Health care settings can unfortunately be an important source of viral

transmission. As shown in the model for SARS, applying triage, following

correct infection control measures, isolating the cases and contact tracing are

key to limit the further spreading of the virus in clinics and hospitals.

Suspected cases present- ing at healthcare facilities with symptoms of

respiratory infections (e.g. runny nose, fever and cough) must wear a face

mask to con- tain the virus and strictly adhere triage procedure. They should

not be permitted to wait with other patients seeking medical care at the

facilities. They should be placed in a separated, fully ventilated room and

approximately 2 m away from other patients with con- venient access to

respiratory hygiene supplies. In addition, if a confirmed COVID-19 case

require hospitalization, they must be placed in a single patient room with

negative air pressure – a minimum of six air changes per hour. Exhausted air

has to be filtered through high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) and medical

personnel entering the room should wear personal protective equipment

(PPE) such as gloves, gown, disposable N95, and eye protection. Once the

cases are recovered and discharged, the room should be decontaminated or

disinfected and personnel entering the room need to wear PPE particularly

facemask, gown, eye protection. In a community setting, isolating infected

people are the primary measure to interrupt the transmission. For example,

immediate actions taken by Chinese health authorities included isolating the

infected people and quarantining of suspected peo- ple and their close

contacts. Also, as there are still conflicting assumptions regarding the animal

origins of the virus (i.e. some studies linked the virus to bat while others

associated the virus with snake), contacts with these animal fluids or tissues

or consumption of wild caught animal meet should be avoided. Moreover,

educating the public to recognize unusual symptoms such as chronic cough

or shortness of breath is essential therefore that they could seek medical care

for early detection of the virus. If large-scale community transmission occurs,

mitigating social gatherings, temporary school closure, home isolation, close

monitoring of symptomatic individual, provision of life supports (e.g. oxygen

supply, mechanical ventilator), personal hand hygiene, and wear- ing

personal protective equipment such as facemask should also be enforced .

In global setting, locking down Wuhan city was one of the immediate

measure taken by Chinese authorities and hence had slowed the global

spread of COVID-19. Air travel should be limited for the cases unless severe

medical attentions are required. Setting up temperature check or scanning is

mandatory at airport and border to identify the suspected cases. Continued

research into the virus is critical to trace the source of the outbreak and

provide evidence for future outbreak [Heymann DL, Shindo et al.2020].

General Knowledge of COVID-19

In a study by Ama, Shaibu and Burnette (2020:147) it was found that 96.96%

of study subjects have correct knowledge of the diagnosis of COVID-19. The

high level of knowledge observed in that study was attributed to the high

level of education of the health workers. About 55% and 75% of community

pharmacists had correct knowledge of COVID-19 presentation in a study

exploring community pharmacists‘ knowledge, attitudes and practices

towards patients with COVID-19 in Italy (Marrazano et al. 2020:4). In another

study conducted in Nigeria, Som, Bhattacherjee, Guha, Basu and Datta

(2020:18), found that community pharmacists were knowledgeable about the

basic COVID-19-related information such as causative agent and modes of

transmission. However, these community pharmacists had deficiencies in

critical areas of COVID-19 such as voluntary counseling and practices on

infant feeding. Okpala et al. (2020:551) also reported community pharmacists

having a good knowledge of COVID-19. Increased awareness and high scores

obtained in their study were attributed to increasing in- service training

currently underway in urban areas of Nigeria of late.

In the study of Doda, Negi, Gaur and Harsh (2020:25), though all participants

had incomplete knowledge of COVID-19 and its related issues, the nursing

staff were reported to have performed poorly with regards to knowledge on

COVID-19 preventive issues and post-exposure prophylaxis. In a study

conducted in the rural region of India, though, the authors found the nursing

staff to have a good knowledge of COVID-19 in relation to the ‗meaning‘,

‗prevalence and vulnerability‘, ‗stigma and discrimination‘ and counseling

and testing‘; the community pharmacists, however, had poor knowledge of

universal precautions, PEP, symptom management and opportunistic

infection and anti-retroviral therapy (Pal, Chattopadhyay, Mandal, & Biswas

2016:131). Seventeen percent of the community pharmacists had an ‗excellent‘

knowledge, obtaining a knowledge score of 90%, while about 77% had a

moderate level of knowledge (score of 70-90%). Pal et al. (2019:130) like

Okpala et al. (2020) linked the good knowledge displayed by participants to

training they received a year before their survey. Conclusively, they stated

that there was retention of knowledge among community pharmacists, and

recommended the need for repeated in-service training for community

pharmacists to boost their COVID-19-related knowledge.

Knowledge of modes of covid-19 transmission

Knowledge and awareness of the modes of transmission of the human

immune- deficiency virus is an important step in reducing the fears and

anxiety exhibited by community pharmacists caring for people living with the

virus and Covid. Lack of knowledge especially on SARS transmission and

misconceptions surrounding the spread has been identified by several

researchers (Guha, Basu & Datta 2015:18; Kashtoori, Sumarni, Kee, Lim, &

Normala 2020:52) as the number one reason determining community

pharmacists‘ discriminatory attitudes towards PLWHA. Farotimi et al.

(2019:709) observed that poor knowledge of COVID-19 was a predictor of

stigmatisation towards PLWHA. A study by Iwoi et al. (2020:5) also noted

that the lack of COVID-19 related knowledge was linked to the demonstration

of fear, stigmatisation, and unwillingness to care for PLWHA.

Studies investigating the levels of knowledge of COVID-19 transmissions

among community pharmacists and other health disciplines have revealed

varying knowledge levels and scores with others describing their study

participants‘ knowledge as high Wu, Xue, Dimpyshah, Zhao, Hwang &

Zhuang 2020:366) and moderate (SCOVID-19alli 2020:4). In the Wu et al.

(2019:366) study, while the overall covid related knowledge was shown to be

inadequate among participants, their knowledge score on transmission was

high. However, a worrying trend became evident among study participants

scoring high for the transmission of covid-19 through mosquito bites. This
lack of COVID-19 transmission knowledge, according to Wu et al. (2020:366)

may explain health care workers‘ fear of getting infected while working with

infected patients. Iwoi et al. (2020:5) found a rather moderate level of

knowledge among the study population. A breakdown of their knowledge

showed the majority (82.4%) scored moderate and 3.1% scored high. Iwoi et

al. (2020:366) operationally defined moderate and high knowledge as a score

of 5-9, and above 10, respectively.

Marrazano et al. (2019:4) confirmed the evidence that the strongest area of

knowledge among community pharmacists seemed to be modes of COVID-19

transmission, while their weakest area was COVID-19 path physiology. Sixty-

five percent of community pharmacists in that study had correct knowledge

about COVID-19 modes of transmission. Results of Shahzadi, Kousar, Jabeen,

Waqas and Gilani (2020:162) also revealed satisfactory knowledge of COVID-

19 transmission among community pharmacists.

In relation to the route or modes of transmission, many HCW believed that

COVID-19 is transmitted through unprotected sexual intercourse, and illicit

drug use (Ledda et al. 2017:6). Similar to Ledda et al. (2017), Iwoi et al.

(2020:5) revealed that 96.6% of study participants were aware of the fact that

Coronavirus is not transmitted through unprotected sex with an infected

person. Two-thirds of the population knew COVID-19 to be transmitted

through the placenta of an infected mother. Only a few (3.1%) harboured the

erroneous belief that COVID-19 is transmitted through an insect bite. The

findings of Iwoi et al. (2020:5) are also identical to the findings of Wu et al.

(2020:366).
In a study investigating community pharmacists‘ knowledge and practices of

post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) towards occupational exposure to COVID-

19, the majority of the nurse could not correctly identify high-risk bodily

fluids for COVID-19 transmission. Only a fifth of the study participants had

correct knowledge of high-risk bodily fluids (Aminde, Takah, Dzudie, Bonko,

Awungafac, Teno, Mbuagbaw & Sliwa 2015:10). Similar to Aminde et al.

(2015:10), Faromoti, Fernandes & Chima (2013:6) also reported 54.2% of its

participants were not aware of the degree of risk for exposures through blood

spillages on an unbroken skin. More than 50% of the participants also had no

knowledge of the level of risk imposed on persons exposed to COVID-19

infection through needlestick injuries. However, the overall knowledge of the

health workers on COVID-19 was satisfactory.

In the Pal et al. (2016:130) study, 85.3% could correctly identify modes of

transmission of COVID-19 while 77.8% had correct knowledge about COVID-

19 prevention. With a mean score of (38.05 ± 4.91), the overall knowledge of

the majority of nursing students (76.8%) was indicated to be good. However,

their knowledge of the modes of transmission of COVID-19 was inadequate

and had misconceptions about the spread of COVID-19. This, according to the

researchers, was an indication of a huge knowledge gap and suggested the

need for training of nursing students in this regard (Dharmalingam et al.,

2019:6). In Vienna, Lao PDR, less than 50% of the community pharmacists and

medical doctors had received formal training on COVID-19-related issues

(Vorasane et al., 2019:10). In Turkey, a study was conducted to assess the

knowledge and attitude of community pharmacists in relation to COVID-19.

The study also found community pharmacists had misconceptions or

incorrect knowledge regarding the modes of transmission (Koç, Öztaş &

Ceylan 2020:87).

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Social Amplification Theory (1988, Kasperson)

The central assumption of social amplification theory is that events pertaining

to hazards ‘interact with psychological, social, institutional, and cultural

aspects in ways that can heighten or attenuate public perceptions of risk and

shape risk behaviors’ (Renn, 1991, p. 287). Social amplification happens in two

stages: The risk is first amplified during the transfer of information, triggering

social responses that in turn, further amplify the risk (Renn, Burns,

Kasperson, Kasperson, & Slovic, 1992). As hazardous events, especially those

with a close proximity to a community (Costa-Font, 2020), interact with

individual psyches and socio-cultural factors—such as the intensity of public

reactions on social networks— they create ample room for miscommunication

about related risks (Busby & Onggo, 2013). Given the unforeseeable and

uncontrollable aspects surrounding hazardous events, even minor hiccups in

the process of relaying legitimate, fact-based information can trigger a strong

public response and/or result in detrimental impacts on society and the

economy.

2.2.2 Media System Dependency Theory

Media System Dependency Theory (MSD) and the Information Society

Paradigm (ISP). The Media System Dependency Theory (MSD) was

enunciated by Sandra Ball-Rokeach and Melvin DeFleur in 1976. The theory

explains that the length of time which people use for a particular medium,

underscores the importance attached to that medium; and that the needs of an

individual can be met through the use of a medium, which can result in a

dependency. The theory also emphasizes that in times of emergencies or

crises, individuals tend to depend more on the media to reduce their anxiety

or even confirm their fears. This theory is relevant to the present study in that

during this covid-19 pandemic media audience depend solely on the mass

media for health information in other to allay their fears.

This study is also anchored on the Information Society Paradigm (ISP).

According to McQuail (2005:105) ‘information society’ points to a greater flow

of information arising from electronic networks and computerization. The

information society paradigm describes a greater dependence on, and trust in

Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) so that users can lead a

normal life (Stassen 2010 p.123). While the paradigm does not advocate a

replacement of old information channels, it introduces elements of

interconnectedness, interactivity and personalization, which were lacking in

traditional media (Fourie, as cited in Stassen 2010 p.123; Lievrouw and

Livingstone, 2006 p.6).

2.3 Empirical Review

Interestingly, so many scholars have carried out empirical studies on the

Media System Dependency theory. Scholars such as Tsfati and Capella (2003),

Tsfati and Peri (2006) studied the relationship between media dependency

and media trust. Research have showed that gaining insight into users
information seeking behaviour is important to provide better services to the

audience (Nkomo, Ocholla and Jacobs, 2010 p. 138).

Noar, (2006) notes that the mass media have long been used as a tool for

promoting public health such that they are significantly used to exposé high

population of large populace to messages through routine uses of existing

media such as television, radio and newspapers. According to Akarika, (2019)

the mass media plays a fundamental role in educating people about diseases

and ailments, outbreaks, prevention, control and treatment. Jackob (2010) in

his study found out that there is significant positive relationship between

media dependency and media trust. According to him, this is influenced by

the negative relationship between the use of alternative sources and

dependency.

Media audience behave in different ways in terms of their dependency on a

certain media. Thus, their attitudes and dependency towards information

obtained from certain media vary. According to Tsfati and Cohen (2013) cited

in Egielewa (2020) media trust always involve two sides, namely the trustor

which is the side that places trust in something or somebody and the trustee,

which is the side being trusted. Both the trustor and the trustee intermit in

certain situations in which the trustor may stand to gain but is also at a

greater risk of losing.

Additionally, researches have further emphasized that media dependency

arises from audience truest which is tied to the media content. James, Akarika

and Kierian (2017:27) succinctly explains:

“We live in an enthralling world and even more enthralling society. From the

moment we wake up until the moment we go back to our beds, we avail

ourselves of numerous media programmes. At the end of the day, you avail

yourself of the latest news from your television and crave for your favourite

music over the radio and even log on to be connected to the rest of the world

through the World Wide Web. Our society is becoming more and more

capable of being constantly informed, entertained, and connected to the other

individuals at the click of a button. Life without the media is simply

unthinkable”.

To buttress this point, Kierian, Akarika and Ukpe (2017) note that the advent

of the mass media, for example, television, magazines, newspapers, the

internet and other social networks such as facebook as well as means of

communication has become part of human life in the contemporary

world.Similarly, Ernest, Level and Culbertson (cited in Nkomo et al 2010)

observe that electronic

access has drastically influenced information seeking behaviour. The web has

compelled a shift in the way people seek information. Clearly, evidence

points to shifts in information seeking behaviours due to rise of internet

channels (Nkomo et al. 2010).

Sridhar (cited in Nkomo et al. 2010; 147) points out that three sets of factors

affect users use of information. They include psychological factors,

effectiveness of available services and characteristics of the user and his

environment. Nkomo et al. (2010) cited in Akpan and Epepe (2017) in their

study found that when searching for information, most respondents preferred
a media that is a hybrid of electronic and print media. According to them, the

use of electronic media alone was considered transient, while its

incorporation of multimedia and currency were advantageous.

Interestingly, news media organizations have also bought into the social

media trend as Emmett (cited in Stassen, 2010:117) notes, “The update of

social media in news organizations is growing today and journalists are

‘romancing new communities’ by blogging and posting updates and stories

on twitter, Youtube and Facebook”. Other uses of the social media as outlined

by O’Keeffee, Clark and Pearson (2013) cited in Akarika and Ekanem (2018)

include accessing health information and enhancing learning opportunities.

From the foregoing, this study therefore seeks to fill some gaps in order to

contribute to a more accurate understanding of the relationship between

media dependency and information-seeking behaviour of residents of port

harcourt metropolis during the covid-19 pandemic in Nigeria

2.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY

In this review the researcher has sampled the opinions and views of several

authors and scholars on social media, covid-19 and misinformation. The

works of scholars who conducted empirical studies have been reviewed also.

The chapter has made clear the relevant literature.

 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, we described the research procedure for this study. A

research methodology is a research process adopted or employed to

systematically and scientifically present the results of a study to the research

audience viz. a vis, the study beneficiaries.

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN

Research designs are perceived to be an overall strategy adopted by the

researcher whereby different components of the study are integrated in a

logical manner to effectively address a research problem. In this study, the

researcher employed the survey research design. This is due to the nature of

the study whereby the opinion and views of people are sampled. According

to Singleton & Straits, (2009), Survey research can use quantitative research

strategies (e.g., using questionnaires with numerically rated items),

qualitative research strategies (e.g., using open-ended questions), or both

strategies (i.e., mixed methods). As it is often used to describe and explore

human behaviour, surveys are therefore frequently used in social and

psychological research.

3.3 POPULATION OF THE STUDY

According to Udoyen (2019), a study population is a group of elements or

individuals as the case may be, who share similar characteristics. These

similar features can include location, gender, age, sex or specific interest. The
emphasis on study population is that it constitute of individuals or elements

that are homogeneous in description.

This study was carried out to examine the impact of social media on

raising awareness of coronavirus. Respondents for study was obtained from

social media users resident in the study area. Hence all the social media users

in Port-Harcourt.

3.4 SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION

A study sample is simply a systematic selected part of a population that infers

its result on the population. In essence, it is that part of a whole that

represents the whole and its members share characteristics in like similitude

(Udoyen, 2019). In this study, the researcher adopted the convenient sampling

method to determine the sample size.

3.5 SAMPLE SIZE SELECTION TECHNIQUE AND PROCEDURE

According to Nwana (2005), sampling techniques are procedures adopted to

systematically select the chosen sample in a specified away under controls.

This research work adopted the convenience sampling technique in selecting

the respondents from the total population.

In this study, the researcher adopted the convenient sampling method

to determine the sample size. Out of all the entire population of social media

users resident in the study area. Hence all the social media users in Port-

Harcourt, the researcher conveniently selected 120 out of the overall

population as the sample size for this study. According to Torty (2021), a

sample of convenience is the terminology used to describe a sample in which

elements have been selected from the target population on the basis of their

accessibility or convenience to the researcher.

3.6 RESEARCH INSTRUMENT AND ADMINISTRATION

The research instrument used in this study is the questionnaire. A survey

containing series of questions were administered to the enrolled participants.

The questionnaire was divided into two sections, the first section enquired

about the responses demographic or personal data while the second sections

were in line with the study objectives, aimed at providing answers to the

research questions. Participants were required to respond by placing a tick at

the appropriate column. The questionnaire was personally administered by

the researcher.

3.7 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

Two methods of data collection which are primary source and secondary

source were used to collect data. The primary sources was the use of

questionnaires, while the secondary sources include textbooks, internet,

journals, published and unpublished articles and government publications.

3.8 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS

The responses were analysed using the frequency tables, which provided

answers to the research questions. The hypothesis test was conducted using

the pearson correlation statistical tool, SPSS v.23

3.9 VALIDITY OF THE STUDY

Validity referred here is the degree or extent to which an instrument actually

measures what is intended to measure. An instrument is valid to the extent

that is tailored to achieve the research objectives. The researcher constructed

the questionnaire for the study and submitted to the project supervisor who

used his intellectual knowledge to critically, analytically and logically

examine the instruments relevance of the contents and statements and then

made the instrument valid for the study.

3.10 RELIABILITY OF THE STUDY

The reliability of the research instrument was determined. The Pearson

Correlation Coefficient was used to determine the reliability of the

instrument. A co-efficient value of 0.68 indicated that the research instrument

was relatively reliable. According to (Taber, 2017) the range of a reasonable

reliability is between 0.67 and 0.87.

3.11 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION

he study was approved by the Project Committee of the Department.

Informed consent was obtained from all study participants before they were

enrolled in the study. Permission was sought from the relevant authorities to

carry out the study. Date to visit the place of study for questionnaire

distribution was put in place in advance.

 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

This chapter presents the analysis of data derived through the questionnaire

and key informant interview administered on the respondents in the study

area. The analysis and interpretation were derived from the findings of the

study. The data analysis depicts the simple frequency and percentage of the

respondents as well as interpretation of the information gathered. A total of

hundred and twenty (120) questionnaires were administered to respondents

of which 100 were returned. The analysis of this study is based on the number

returned.

4.1 DATA PRESENTATION

Table 1: Gender Distribution of Respondents

Gender Frequency Percentage

Male 48 48%

Female 52 52%

Total 100 100.0%

Source: Author’s Computation from Field Survey 2022

The table above shows the gender distribution of respondents. 48% of the

respondents were male and the remaining 52% were female. Thus, female

respondents were slightly higher than their male counterparts.

Table 2: Age Distribution of Respondents

Age Frequency Percentage

20-30 years 24 24%

31-40 years 47 47%

 Above 40 years 29 29%

Total 100 100.0%

Source: Author’s Computation from Field Survey 2022

The table above shows the age distribution of respondents. 24% of the

respondents are between the age bracket of 20-30 years; 47% which

constituted the majority are between the age bracket of 31-40 years and 29%

are above 40 years.

Table 3: Marital Status of Respondents

Marital Status Frequency Percentage

Single 13 13%

Married 87 87%

Total 100 100.0%

Source: Author’s Computation from Field Survey 2022

The table revealed the marital status distribution of respondents. Majority of

the respondents, which constituted 87% are married while the remaining 13%

respondents are unmarried.

Table 4: Educational Qualification of Respondents

Qualification Frequency Percentage

SSCE 11 11%

HND/B.Sc 80 80%

M.Sc/PhD 9 9%

Total 100 100.0%

Source: Author’s Computation from Field Survey 2022

The table revealed the educational qualification of respondents. 11% of the

respondents are SSCE holders, 80% of them, which formed the majority, are

HND/B.Sc holders and 9% are M.Sc/PhD holders.

Table 5: Position of Respondents

Position Frequency Percentage

Manager 12 12%

Accountant 31 31%

Auditor 26 26%

Cashier 24 24%

Others 7 7%

Total 100 100.0%

Source: Author’s Computation from Field Survey 2022

Table 5 unveiled the distribution of position of respondents. 12% are

managers, 31% are accountants, 26% are auditors, 24% are cashiers and 7%

are mostly administrative staff.

ANSWERING RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Question 1: Is covid-19 information is been shared on social media?

Table 4.3: Respondent on question 1

Options Frequency Percentage

Yes 60 60

No 19 19

Undecided 21 21

Total 100 100

Source: Field Survey, 2021

From the responses obtained as expressed in the table above, 60 respondents

constituting 60% said yes. 19 respondents constituting 19% said no. While the

remain 21 respondents constituting 21% were undecided.

Question 2: To what extent does the information on covid-19 shared on social

media platforms is line with that of WHO?

Table 4.4: Respondent on question 2

Options Frequency Percentage

High 56 56

Low 21 21

Undecided 23 23

Total 100 100

Source: Field Survey, 2021

From the responses obtained as expressed in the table above, 56 respondents

constituting 56% said high. 21 respondents constituting 21% said low. While

the remain 23 respondents constituting 23% were undecided.

Question 3: To what extent does Covid-19 information shared on social media

platforms is been managed?

Table 4.5: Respondent on question 3

Options Frequency Percentage

High 61 61

Low 17 17

Undecided 22 22

Total 100 100

Source: Field Survey, 2021

From the responses obtained as expressed in the table above, 61 respondents

constituting 61% said high. 17 respondents constituting 17% said low. While

the remain 22 respondents constituting 22% were undecided.

 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

5.1 Introduction

This chapter summarizes the findings into the impact of social media on

raising awareness of coronavirus. The chapter consists of summary of the

study, conclusions, and recommendations.

5.2 Summary of the Study

In this study, our focus was to investigate the impact of social media on

raising awareness of coronavirus. The study specifically was aimed at

examining if covid-19 information is been shared on social media;

Determining the extent to which information on covid-19 shared on social

media platforms is line with that of WHO and examining the extent at which

Covid-19 information shared on social media platforms is been managed.

The study adopted the survey research design and randomly enrolled

participants in the study. A total of 100 responses were validated from the

enrolled participants where all respondent are active users of social media

and residence of Port-Harcourt, Rivers State.

5.3 Conclusions

Based on the analyzed findings of this study, the researcher made the

following conclusion.

1. The major social media platforms used to curb the spread of fake

information of COVID-19 are face book and twitter.

2. The different misinformation on COVID-19 spread in the internet include;

Claims of nonexistence of Covid-19 and unrealistic claims of increased

number of affected persons.

3. Social media has not really contributed in the fight against fake information

on covid-19 in Nigeria. And social media has been the major platform

through which fake information on covid-19 has been spread are among

others public perception of social media contribution in the fight against fake

information on covid-19 in Nigeria.

5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS

With respect to the findings of this study, the researcher advised that;

1. To regulate, curb and minimize, the Government should establish penalties

for individuals and entities who participate in the spread of fake news.

2. The owners and developers of social media platforms should regulate the

categories of information which can be published by individuals and

Government entities.
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 APPENDIXE

QUESTIONNAIRE

PLEASE TICK [√] YOUR MOST PREFERRED CHOICE(S) IN A

QUESTION.

SECTION A

PERSONAL INFORMATION

Gender

Male [ ] Female [ ]

Age

20-30 [ ]

31-40 [ ]

41-50 [ ]

51 and above [ ]

Educational level

WAEC [ ]

BSC/HND [ ]

MSC/PGDE [ ]

PHD [ ]

Others……………………………………………….. (please indicate)

Marital Status

Single [ ]

Married [ ]

Separated [ ]
SECTION B

Question 1: Is covid-19 information is been shared on social media?

Options PLEASE TICK

Yes

No

Undecided

Question 2: To what extent does the information on covid-19 shared on social

media platforms is line with that of WHO?

Options PLEASE TICK

High

Low

Undecided

Question 3: To what extent does Covid-19 information shared on social media

platforms is been managed?

Options PLEASE TICK

High

Low

Undecided