Journal of Language Teaching and Research

ISSN 1798-4769

Volume 13, Number 3, May 2022

Contents

REGULAR PAPERS

453
Minna Maijala

Comparative Analysis of English Prepositions In and On Translated Into Albanian 462

Meliha Brestovci and Arsim Sinani

471
Oun Almesaar

Syntactic, Semantic and Discourse Effects on the Processing of Scrambled Japanese Sentences 481
Shinichi Shoji

A Classroom-Centered Study of Third Tone in Mandarin Chinese 492

Bianye Li

Perception of Saudi Students About Non-Native English Teachers and Native English Teachers in 503
Teaching English at Jazan University
Md Nurul Haque and Sumona Sharmin

N-Words in Dawurotsuwa 515

Aklilu Abera Naba

Assessing of English Morpheme Acquisition Order of Thai Deaf University Students 525
Natdanai Subin, Krisna Lertsukprasert, and Natthapong Chanyoo

Letting the Struggling Saudi EFL Readers Take Lead: How Teachers Transform English Language 533
Instruction
Vipin Sharma

Integration of Perceptual Similarity With Faithful Mapping of Phonological Contrast in Loanword 541
Adaptation: Mandarin Chinese Adaptation of English Stops
Mosi He and Jianing He

Challenges in Translating Scientific Texts: Problems and Reasons 550

Hadeel M. Al-Smadi

A Change in Saudi Attitudes From Use of Euphemism to Taboo: A Sociolinguistic Study 561
Salma M. Alqahtani, Najat A. Busabaa, and Hala M. O. Salih

A Didactic Strategy to Favor the Development of Oral Expression in Students at UEES and ECOTEC 572
Universities
Fabricio Ayala-Pazmino, Yeimer Prieto-Lopez, and Beatriz Loor-Avila
Proposed 21st Century Learning Themes in English Classrooms 583
Tuti Alawiah, Abdul Hakim Yassi, Nasmilah, and Abidin Pammu

Comparing L2 Incidental Vocabulary Learning Through Viewing, Listening, and Reading 590
Dukhayel M Aldukhayel

The Role of Study Habits in the Relationships Among Self-Esteem, Self-Control, and Academic 600
Performance: The Case of Online English Classes
Jie Hua

Metacognitive Knowledge in Performing a Speaking Task: A Report From High and Low Proficient 609
Thai University Students
Thiwaporn Thawarom, Jeffrey D. Wilang, and Wareesiri Singhasiri

620
Learning: A Qualitative Study
Wael A. Holbah

Effectiveness of Existing Language Courses and Classroom Tactics for ELT at the Engineering 627
Universities in Bangladesh
Mohammad Shahazahan Seraj Bhuiyan and Mohammad Ehsanul Islam Khan

Cognitive Strategies Employed in Tackling Lexical Problems in Second Language Learning: A 638
Psycholinguistic Study

Saudi Learners' Perceptions of Academic Writing Challenges and General Attitude Towards Writing 645
in English
Hanadi Abdulrahman Khadawardi

A Correlative Study on English Listening Beliefs and Strategies of Chinese High School Students A 659
Case in Fujian Province
Yajing Wu and Mei Peng

Speaking Challenges in a Life Skill Program for Islamic Boarding School Students: A Case Study 670
Muhamad Holandyah, Lenny Marzulina, Dian Erlina, Kasinyo Harto, Fitri Amalia, Fridiyanto
Fridiyanto, and Amirul Mukminin

of How Reliable Computer-Based, Teacher- 678

Based, and Peer Feedback Is: A Case Study
Suliman M. N. Alnasser

R W 688
Ataeva Gulchekhra, Rakhmonova Yulduz, Mamajanova Gulguncha, Shakirova Saida
 Strengths of Foreign Language Courses
Minna Maijala
School of Languages and Translation Studies, University of Turku, Finland

Abstract Compared with younger language learners, adult learners are assumed to have greater difficulty
with language learning, for instance, in reaching native-like proficiency. Most studies in the area of second
language acquisition and foreign language education have focused on younger learners, with the research on
adult language learning being very limited. Through an analysis of previous studies on adult language learning
and small-scale empirical research, this article examines
foreign language courses in university language courses other than English. The questionnaire data collected
from university students (N = 53) learning French, German and Italian as L3/L4 at the language centre of a
Finnish university were analysed in a qualitative and quantitative way. The strongest evidence from our study
was the indispensable role of teachers in university language courses. The analysis results indicate a mismatch
between teacher-led and student-centred pedagogy. On the one hand, adult learners seemed to need strong
guidance from the teacher, yet on the other hand, the best practices in the courses were those activities in
which the adult learners could produce the target language in interactions with their peers. Finally, the factors
that enhance adult language learning in higher education are reflected upon.

Index Terms adult language learning, higher education, language course, languages other than English,
language learning methods

I. INTRODUCTION
Adult learning is generally an interdisciplinary field of study based on diverse theories and approaches (Elias &
Merriam, 2005). The area of second/foreign language (SL/FL) teaching and learning has focused on language learning
by children and young adolescent learners (Ramírez Gómez, 2016, p. 201). The literature on adult SL/FL education is
not very coherent because studies are often context-specific, and their findings cannot be generalised to other contexts
(Murray, 2005). Generally, prior experiences of adult language learners have an influence on their language learning
process both positively and negatively. Many studies have indicated that learners who have their first experiences with a
language in earl achieve normal language acquisition while those who begin later come
nowhere near native ultimate atta (Ioup, 2005, p. 420). Several studies have demonstrated that the ability to
learn a second language gradually declines as a person ages (Bialystok & Miller, 1999; Birdsong, 2014). Although
children may be better at language acquisition than adults, this does not necessarily mean that adults would be worse
language learners. It is true that along with age, adult learners lose the language-learning skills they once possessed in
their childhood. Accordingly, as a person ages, it becomes increasingly difficult for them to achieve native-like
competence in a foreign language. Hence, age is often considered a barrier to language learning. However, in a few
areas of language learning, adult learners have certain strengths, for instance, in the use of language learning strategies
(Oxford & Ehrman, 1990) or in learning morphology and grammar (Krashen et al., 1979; Long, 2005).
Based on the questionnaire data collected from students enrolled in language courses other than English at the
language centre of a Finnish university, the aim of this study is to determine the strengths of a language course for adult
learners and identify beneficial classroom practices. First, we discuss the findings of previous studies on characteristics
of adult language learners. Second, we focus on the literature related to teaching methods used in adult language
learning. Third, based on our findings, we examine the strengths of language courses as reported by adult learners.
Finally, we reflect on the factors that enhance adult language learning and provide implications for the development of
adult language courses in higher education. The outcomes of this study can help with the planning of future FL courses
in higher education, as well as with the development of language curricula and courses.

II. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

A. Characteristics of Adult Language Learners

As stated above, the literature has generally focused more on young learners than on adult learners. In terms of the
age of language learners, we cannot avoid discussing the critical period hypothesis (CPH, introduced by Lenneberg
1967) that has affected the debate on the influence of age in language learning tremendously. CPH has especially
guided the research on L2 acquisition (Long, 2005). Generally, according to CPH, late learners are less likely to reach
native-like proficiency in a language than those who start early, preferably before puberty. In the 1960s, Lenneberg
(1967) concluded that brain plasticity is lost in puberty, meaning that the so-called brain fossilisation occurs, that is, a

2012). The literature contains contradictory reports related to the existence of the critical period. On the one hand, the
results of a few studies have indicated that the critical period does not exist (Hakuta et al., 2003; Birdsong, 2014), on the
other hand, some studies have reported the negative effect of age on language learning (DeKeyser et al., 2010;
DeKeyser, 2013). In addition to the debate surrounding the existence of the critical period, there are diverse opinions
and research findings related to its closure. In her overview, Nikolov (2009, p. 3) concluded that there seems to be no
sharp drop at a certain age in SLA, but a grad . In his review article, Ioup (2005) reported
the existence of multiple critical periods. Because the term critical period has attracted controversy, the term sensitive
period, which assumes a gradual decline in ability, has been suggested as being more appropriate. There are even more
divergent research findings pertaining to the critical period in L2 learning than those in L1 learning (Ioup, 2005).
In the literature, the general consensus is that implicit linguistic competences in particular (e.g., native-like accent)
are mostly affected by the age of a learner (Long, 2005). Long (2005) concluded that a native-like accent can be
attained when the first exposure to a language occurs before the ages of 6 or 12 years. According to him, the sensitive
period for lexical abilities, as well as for morphology and syntax, ends later in the mid-teens. However, he did state that
an early start in language acquisition does not always guarantee a native-like accent. According to other studies
(Nikolov, 2009), exceptional adults are able to reach native-like proficiency, including a native-like accent. Adults are
usually considered to learn better with explicit instruction (Paradis, 2009).
However, a few areas of language learning are not affected by age to a great extent, especially those in which late
learners can rely on explicit learning. Granena and Long (2013) found that late L2 learners increasingly rely on explicit
mechanisms for language acquisition, which indicates that older learners use their explicit or declarative knowledge as
the main resources for language learning. Memory-based processes are the strengths of young learners, whereas adult
language learners are usually more successful with rule-based learning (Nikolov, 2009). The findings of Krashen et al.,
(1979) indicated that in early stages of learning morphology and syntax, adult learners progress faster than children. The

few grammatical structures (e.g. word order, questions) can be less difficult to pick up for late L2 English learners (e.g.
university students) than others (e.g. articles, regular past), as indicated by McDonald (2006). FL learning may be easier
for elderly learners if they are aware of their motivations, strengths, and weaknesses, as reported by Ramírez Gómez
(2016) based on the results of a mixed-methods study conducted among older Spanish learners in Japan.
In terms of the use of metacognitive strategies in language learning, studies have yielded contradictory results related
to language learning by adults compared to that by younger learners. For instance, Oxford and Ehrman (1990) indicated
that adult learners are able to use learning strategies in a better manner than younger learners. By contrast, Griffiths
(2013, p. 75) found no difference between older and younger students in terms of using learning strategies. Furthermore,
DeKeyser et al. (2010) revealed that language learning processes in childhood and adulthood are different not only after
reaching a certain level but also in their very nature. Among other things, their findings evidenced a decline in the
ability to learn grammar before the onset of adulthood. In their review article, DeKeyser and Larson-Hall (2005)
concluded that late language learners face more difficulties in learning grammar than younger learners (similarly
Nikolov, 2009). To summarise, the results of the aforementioned studies vary considerably in describing how adults
learn languages in comparison with other age groups.
B. Teaching Methods in Adult Language Learning
In the literature, we were unable to find teaching methods that are tailored to meet the needs of adult language
learners (Ramírez Gómez, 2016, Ch. 1) and increase their motivation to learn languages. In the period of
communicative approach, many L2 studies recommend the use of best practices, in which students are exposed to as
much authentic input in the target language as possible and are able to communicate with their peers (Brown, 2007).
Moreover, as with every type of learning, a friendly and supportive atmosphere in the classroom is very important for
adult learners as well (McKay & Tom, 1999, p. 16), and the teacher plays a vital role in creating such an atmosphere.
In a friendly and supportive atmosphere, adults are more likely to risk using the new language. Adult language
learners may feel uncomfortable when they are unable to express themselves intellectually in a foreign language
(Johnson, 2015, Ch. 4). In learning languages other than English as L3 in the university context, students can feel
frustrated when using the target language (McKay & Tom, 1999, p. 16). They can easily give up and switch to their L1
or their stronger L2 English when interacting with their peers in the classroom (Maijala et al., 2018). Another factor is
that they may not get opportunities to use the target language in the classroom. As concluded by Nunan (1991, cited in
Nunan, 2005, p. 226 227), who reviewed 50 classroom-based studies, on average, teachers tend to talk twice as much
as students in FL classes, and in some studies, they were found to talk for more than 80% of the time. This is
problematic, espe
proficiency is rather low.
In general, motivational factors play an important role in adult language learning. One possible strength of adult FL
learners could be their motivation. Learning a new language as an adult can be seen as an investment (Norton, 2000),
for instance, to secure new professional opportunities or to learn the language for familiar reasons. Dörnyei (2001, Ch. 5)
suggested the following methods to increase motivation in an FL classroom: i) creating motivational conditions (e.g.
supportive atmosphere in the classroom), ii) generating and maintaining initial student motivation (e.g. setting goals,
improving positive learning experiences, and -confidence), and iii) encouraging positive self-
evaluation (e.g. providing motivational feedback). In FL classrooms, one strategy for cultural learning is bringing the
outside in , that is, bringing the life experiences of language learners into the classroom (Roberts & Baynham, 2006, p.
3).
In adult language learning, the specific context of learning languages other than English has not been investigated in
depth. An example of a study in this field is Johnson (2015). She conducted a semester-long case study among English-
speaking college students in the USA who were learning Spanish in a traditional instructor-led classroom setting.
Johnson (2015, Ch. 7) found evidence that as a result of their language study, the students improved, especially in the
following areas: i) exploring new sources of knowledge, ii) becoming more self-directed, and iii) critically assessing
their own language and culture. As stated above, grammar and vocabulary learning are usually the strengths of adult
language learners. Adult learners often regard grammar as the most important content of FL teaching and learning (Ellis,
2002). Ellis et al. (1999) found that the focus-on-form approach (grammar and accuracy) is more widely used than the
communicative approach for teaching adult English learners. However, we note that the focus-on-form and
communicative approaches are not necessarily contradictory to each other. Moreover, Borg and Burns (2008) revealed
that language teachers preferred more explicit grammar instruction when teaching adults. Furthermore, the dominance
of grammar teaching can be observed in teaching materials as well. For instance, Tomlinson et al. (2001) evaluated
eight adult English course books and found that they concentrated mostly on explicit grammar instruction and did not
necessarily encourage learners to use the language communicatively.
In the Finnish context, the study of Pitkänen (2018) conducted at the Language Centre, University of Helsinki,
provided an overview of goal development in English course catalogues over four decades and compared these goals
European Framework of Reference for Language (CEFR) self-
assessments completed in faculty-specific English courses and 20 interviews of students who had graduated from the
university studies, he concluded that the focus of the English courses had shifted from receptive skills to productive
skills, which students find essential for their future working life. Accordingly, the focus in the English course
descriptions generated between 1977 and 2016 shifted from reading comprehension to productive skills. In addition, an
-assessment demonstrated that the students felt their productive skills were generally weaker
than their receptive skills.

III. RESEARCH PROJECT

A. Participants and Data Collection

Overall, in the current study, we aimed to identify the factors that enhance adult language learning. Various voluntary
foreign language courses (French, German and Italian) offered by the language centre of a Finnish university were the
focus. In this context, the role of languages other than English especially French and German has diminished in
Finland, and they are no longer as widely taught in Finnish schools as they used to be (Kangasvieri, 2019). Accordingly,
the resulting decline in the knowledge of languages other than English has affected the language courses offered at
universities (Pitkänen, 2018). Because English is a lingua franca, languages other than English have to be taught in a
less academic and more general manner at Finnish universities. Since the 1990s, the emphasis on language instruction
in Finland has gradually moved towards communicative language skills. In recent years, with the launch of a curriculum
reform for basic education (FNBE, 2016), intercultural communicative competence, media literacy and language
awareness have gained prominence as the goals of university language courses.
Our small-scale questionnaire study focused on courses in languages other than English that were offered by the
language centre of a Finnish university. The researcher decided to gather data only at one university aiming to improve
teaching in this particular language centre. A link to the web-based questionnaire was sent to several teachers at the
language centre, who, in turn, were asked to forward it to their students through the Moodle platform. The questionnaire
(see Appendix) was sent to students through the Moodle learning platform. It was answered by 53 university students
from different language courses (see Table 1) for an approximate return rate of 42%. The respondents represented
different majors, such as languages (18), history and political science (8), law (5), chemistry/biochemistry (4), social
sciences (4), information technology (2), education (1), literature (1), management (1), religion (1), mathematics (2),
folkloristics (2), medicine (1), geology (1) and other programmes (2). Most of the respondents were either at the onset
or end of their studies (see Table 1). This may be because at these stages, students are more likely to find free time to
enrol in optional language courses. For instance, fifth-
context of our study, the students were usually linguistically and culturally homogenous, save for a few international
students (see Table 1). Although there were native speakers among the course teachers, these teachers had acclimatised
well to Finnish society and become familiar with the prevailing social norms.
 TABLE 1
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS (N = 53).
Gender Age Nationality Year of study Language CEFR-level of language course Previous knowledge of
course visited at the moment of data target language taught
collection [2014] in the course
st
42 female 19 25 years: 38 Finnish: 50 1 : 12 French: 18 A1 A2: 37 Yes: 21
11 male 25 30 years: 11 Other: 3 2nd: 9 German: 23 B1: 11 Some knowledge: 14
30 40 years: 1 3rd: 8 Italian: 12 B2 C2: 5 No: 18
40 62 years: 2 4th: 6
th
No answer: 1 5 : 14
No answer: 1

As summarised in Table 1, most of the respondents enrolled in the language courses at the beginner level (A1 A2).
Only a few enrolled in the courses at the intermediate (B1) or advanced levels (B2 C2). At the language centre, most of
the courses in languages other than English were offered at the beginner level. The respondents were asked about their

at school.
The questionnaire mostly contained open-ended questions and one statement with responses on a Likert scale
(ranging from 0 to 4; strongly disagree to strongly agree, respectively) (see Appendix 1). Because the number of
respondents was expected to be limited, we opted to include open-ended questions. Moreover, responses to the open-
ended questions usually provide more insightful data in the form of longer written responses (Borg, 2006, p. 169). The
open-ended questions were asked in English (L2 of most of the respondents) because we expected the presence of
international students. Moreover, English has become a lingua franca at Finnish universities (Pitkänen, 2018), which
further cemented our choice of English. All the students responded in English; however, in the introduction to the
questionnaire, it was mentioned that the respondents could answer in their L1 (Finnish). The students were informed
that they were participating in a research study, and the purpose of the study was described to them (Wagner, 2015).
B. Research Questions and Methods
The specific research questions were as follows:
RQ1: What are strengths of foreign language courses in higher education?
RQ2: Which practices are beneficial for adult language learning?
The student questionnaire data were quantitatively and qualitatively analysed to answer the research questions. The
responses were coded, and the keywords used by the respondents were assigned to different categories, which were
elaborated on using the examples and explanations provided by the respondents (Borg, 2013, p.35). The number of
respondents (N = 44 53) varied across questions because not all the respondents answered all the survey questions. The
analysis was conducted in the original language of the responses. First, the responses were coded according to the
research questions. Subsequently, they were analysed to determine recurring themes. Based on a grounded approach,
categories emerged from the questionnaire data (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). The data were organised and quantified to
determine the frequency of the responses. The number or percentage of students who mentioned the topic when
answering a question is listed in parentheses. When examples were given, the notion of language was, in most cases,
omitted to ensure anonymity of the teachers and students. The language in the data examples is original. As a limitation
of the study, it can be said that the number of participants was relatively small and that the study was conducted in one

IV. FINDINGS

A. Strengths of the Course (RQ1)

Through an open-ended question, the students were asked to mention the reasons for choosing the language course in
which they were enrolled. Most of the students (26%) wanted to continue learning a certain language or maintain
already acquired language skills. Seven out of 53 students stated that they were interested in the particular language and
culture. A few students (4/53) stated that the language was useful to them or that the course fitted in to their study
schedule. Reasons related to university studies were mentioned as well, such as a need for the language in their studies
(3/53), willingness to study the language as a minor subject (3/53), and to study in the country where the language is
spoken (3/53). Other reported motives (one per motif) were as follows: th [it is] good
to kn the language was not my
first choice my friend another language was too the language belongs to
beautiful
la were mostly connected to Italian. Practical reasons such as usefulness, by contrast, were linked mostly to
German. Generally, the students were motivated to learn the language because they believed that doing so would be
useful for them in the future (cf. Johnson, 2015, Ch. 2).
The students were asked if they were more interested in the target language after attending the course. They were
provided an opportunity to qualify their answers. 41 of 53 respondents answered positively and many of them wished to
visit the target country after the course. In many cases, the teacher or the native speakers who assisted in the course

think I can understand it quite well.

-mannered and
social (unlike some Finns).
23% of the re were already int .A
few students were not satisfied with the textbook used in the course.

TABLE 2
STRENGTHS OF THE LANGUAGE COURSES MENTIONED BY THE STUDENTS (N = 52).
Students who
mentioned the
strengths (N = 52)
Strengths of the
(multiple mentioning Examples
courses
possible)
Number %
The teacher is lovely, and her attitude is great. She also makes
us do a lot of oral exercises, which I think is great. Because the
teacher's native language is not Finnish, she encourages us
with her own example to speak and use the language and not
Teacher 27 51.92
is on communication rather than on learning grammar
perfectly. The teacher also speaks a lot in [the target language]
which is very helpful.
An opportunity to speak often in the target language is one of
Oral exercises 12 23.08
the major strengths of this course.
We always discuss topical issues that the students themselves
Cultural information/
9 17.31 have chosen newspaper articles, what is happening in different
Interesting topics
states in Germany, etc.
It is nice to have [students from the target country] visiting in
Visits of peers from the
8 15.38 the class because that way we can practise our listening
target culture
comprehension in more genuine situation.
I think that the strength of the course is its comprehensive
nature and wide range. I mean that we focus on many
Varied activities 7 13.46 important aspects of language learning: grammar, vocabulary,
reading aloud, pronunciation and listening, and also slightly

I think you [I] have a very clear knowledge of the grammar of

Grammar teaching 6 11.54 the language because [our teacher] explains it really well, and
you [I] also learn a lot of vocabulary.
Atmosphere in the A warm, comfortable environment that does not hinder
6 11.54
class/group learning or participation in the course activities.
I think that we have a good teacher who has put a lot of time in
Book/Study material 5 9.54
chosen the best.
Planning of the course 4 7.69 Very well planned course.
Speaking happens usually in small groups, so it is much nicer
Work in pairs/groups 3 5.77
than performing in front of the class.
It is not too hasty. We have the time to actually learn the
Time to learn 2 3.85
language.
There are very few participants in the course. This ensures that
Small group 2 3.85
our teacher has the time to give us personal advice.

In addition, the teaching materials, which corresponded to the needs of the students, were found to be important.
Mentions about the choice of the teaching materials as well as the planning and structure of the course were credited to
the teacher. Fifty-two percent of the respondents mentioned the teacher as the strength of the course. It was important to
them that the teacher use

-speaker teachers
 In addition to the strengths of the course, the students were asked what they would change in the course and to
provide examples of such changes. Although many of the students found oral exercises in the course as beneficial for
their learning, 8 students stated that the oral exercises could have been more interactive. For instance, as one respondent
There should be more conversation in smaller groups so that even Finnish students can muster the courage to be
more interactive. Now, the course mostly involves monologues in the . This indicates
that oral activities employed in the courses were not necessarily designed to foster interaction among students.
B. Good Practices (RQ2)
Elaborate responses to activities used in the language course that contributed the most to learning were elicited
through an open-ended question. Most of the students mentioned more than one activity. A few students reported that
they were unable to indicate one specific activity because all activities employed in the course were beneficial for their
learning. As summarised in Table 3, activities in which interaction and collaboration occurred were rated as the most
useful by the students. Especially, the students found oral activities to be meaningful because these activities enabled

even the grammar, at home by yourself, but it is more difficult to speak it alone in different situati

TABLE 3
IN-COURSE ACTIVITIES T HAT THE RESPONDENTS FOUND THE MOST USEFUL
Students who mentioned the
In-course activities that the respondents activity (N = 51, multiple
found the most useful mentioning possible)
Number %
Oral activities/discussions 25 49.02
Listening activities 8 15.69
Working in pairs/groups 7 13.73
Grammar exercises 5 9.80
Writing exercises 4 7.84
Reading exercises 3 5.88
Giving presentations to other students 3 5.88
Vocabulary exercises 2 3.92
Going through texts thoroughly (with the
2 3.92
teacher)
Revision exercises 1 1.96
Working independently outside the classroom 1 1.96
Explanations from the teacher 1 1.96
Productive exercises 1 1.96
Translation exercises 1 1.96
Tests 1 1.96

Oral activities, listening, working in pairs/groups, and giving presentations to other students involved some type of
interaction. The following excerpts from the data illustrate the need for interaction:
In this particular course, the most useful activities are conversations with others and listening to native
speakers.
The activities in which students speak with one another are highly helpful and useful. Similarly, listening to

Furthermore, the students were asked how they would prefer to be assessed in the particular language course.
According to the answers, 39% of the students seemed to be satisfied with the current practice, that is, mostly a written
exam at the end of the course, wh l . In
addition to the written exam at the end of the course, 30 % of students liked ongoing classroom assessments, as
indicated by the comments of a few of them:
Taking in account the written exam but also your attendance and your contribution during the conversations in
class.
It should take notice the whole participation and the improvement that has happened during the course.
Vocabulary and grammar tests assigned during the course as opposed to final tests were mentioned 9 times to be
beneficial in the beginner courses (A1 A2) in particular:
We have word-exams and end-exam. It has been ok now when we are just beginning with a new language.
Later can be different ways.
Moreover, the teacher played the decisive role in the assessments: only one respondent mentioned the need for self-
assessment. 4 students found feedback from the teacher to be important, as illustrated by the following comment:
 I would like to know how well I am doing in different areas of learning, for instance, written and spoken skills.
Pronouncing the target language correctly is important to me, and thus I would like to have pronunciation
tests which would be graded by the teacher.
The students were asked how their own contributions affected their learning in the course. Thirty-eight percent of the
students reckoned that studying outside the classroom supported learning in the course. The following excerpts illustrate
this:

important things in the classroom.

et really behind. The really fast pace of the course
makes it that you really have to attend to every lesson, or, if you can't, you have to use a LOT of time at home.
Even attending to courses isn't enough because I think most of the learning happens at home, so your own
contribution is everything if you want to learn the language.
Thirty-four percent of the respondents acknowledged that their own activities in the classroom contributed to the
success of the course. Forty-six percent of the respondents stated that studying outside the classroom supported their
learning in the language course, as can be seen in the comment below:

I do the things that makes it possible. I have a good teacher, but she can't make the
studying for me. I have to do it myself.
Although it was widely acknowledged by the students that practising the target language outside the classroom
contributed positively to their language learning, the influence of the target language on their daily life remained modest.
Most respondents (63%) stated that the target language hardly influenced their daily life. Four students brought up the
importance of using the target language outside the classroom. Here, it must be considered that the languages in

The studen watch TV/films i -

re listen to music in the target language r (3),
plan a trip to the country want to find a job in the country of origin of the target
mix languages or have s read scientific
(2) hear the tar (1). To
summarise, it seemed that independent learning in informal contexts outside of the course seems to be very limited in
the case of languages other than English. Moreover, the responses implied that implicit learning outside of the course
classroom was also guided by the teacher, for instance, through assigned homework, music, and reading tips.

V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

In this article, we aimed to find strengths and good practices of foreign language courses in higher education. The
results of our small-scale questionnaire study among learners of Italian, French, and German (N = 53) at the language
centre of a Finnish university indicate that the focus of university language courses might have shifted from receptive to
productive language usage (cf. Pitkänen, 2018). The strongest evidence from our study was the indispensable role of a
teacher in university language courses. This was the only one item that received 50%-and-above score.
To some extent, our findings imply that face-to-face communication seemed to provide learners with the feeling that
they actually have learned the language. Explicit and intensive use of L3 in the classroom appeared to be an effective
teaching method in adult language courses. Through guided oral activities, students seemed to notice and reflect on
specific language features. At the beginner level (A1 A2), learners appeared to need strongly guided production
activities. In this stage, learners required scaffolding, for instance, supportive word lists or other tailor-made inputs.
These were found to be important to allow learners to produce at least something in the target language.
Our findings are consistent with the results obtained in a recent study by Pitkänen (2018) that was conducted in
faculty-specific English courses at the Language Centre, University of Helsinki. The findings of both studies indicate
that Finnish university students wish to improve their productive skills through language courses offered in higher
education. In English courses, students need to practise discipline-specific interaction and communication, and in the
case of languages other than English, students need to train in interactions for general academic purposes (Pitkänen,
2018). Activities in which interaction and collaboration occurred were rated as being the most useful by the students.
Specifically, the students considered oral activities as meaningful because during these activities, they were able to
produce the target language with their peers. The students clearly needed additional support for training their productive
skills rather than receptive skills (Pitkänen, 2018). Explicit learning of grammar and lexical items (Krashen et al., 1979;
Ellis, 2002; Long, 2005) seemed to be needed to a lesser extent than oral exercises. In terms of grammar instruction, the

(2018) that language courses in higher education should be developed

Over the past decades, language education has gradually shifted from a teacher-led to a student-centred pedagogy.
Although the student-centred approach is emphasised in the course goals (Pitkänen, 2018), students seemed to need
strong guidance from the teacher. The findings of our small-scale study indicated a contradiction between teacher-led
and student-centred practices in these language courses. On the one hand, adult FL learners in our study saw the
language teacher as a central figure in the class. They expected instruction and guiding in the target language from the
teacher. This may be ascribed to the fact that in the case of languages other than English, inputs from the teacher were
important because students do not necessarily hear and read the language outside the classroom. On the other hand, the
students expected the teacher to guide them to use the target language in interactions with their peers. This meant that
the teacher should create natural situations in which the students can use the language with their peers. Based on our
findings it appeared
doing so, the teacher played an important role in shaping the intrinsic motivation of the students, and empowerment of
students is inevitably one of the key factors in adult language learning (cf. Dörnyei, 1994). Moreover, although
efficiency in language courses, language teachers in
adult education may find our results valuable for their teaching practice.

APPENDIX QUESTIONNAIRE
1 8. Basic information (Gender; Age; Nationality; Year of study at the university; Major and minor subject(s) at the university; Information
about the language course (e.g. level of the course).
9. Why did you opt for this language course?
10. Did you speak the target language when you started the course?
11. What are the strengths of the course? Please provide examples where possible.
12. What would you change in your language course? Please provide examples where possible.
13. How does the target language influence your daily life?
14. Please rate how strongly you agree or disagree with the following stat

15. Are you more interested in the target language after attending the course? Please provide examples where possible.
16. Which activities in your language course contributed the most to your learning?
17. How would you like to be assessed in your language course?
18. How does your own contribution affect your learning in the course?

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank students that participated in the study.

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Minna Maijala, Ph.D. in German (2003), Ph.D. in Education (2010), is an Associate Professor of Language Teaching and
Learning at the School of Languages and Translation Studies, University of Turku, Finland. From 2004 to 2018, she worked as a
senior lecturer at the Language Centre, University of Turku and at the Department of Teacher Education, University of Turku. Her
research interests are teaching and learning German as a foreign language, culture teaching and learning, language teaching materials,
preservice language teacher cognition and sustainability in language teaching.
 Comparative Analysis of English Prepositions In
and On Translated Into Albanian
Meliha Brestovci
Faculty of Philosophy/Psychology, University of Prishtina, Prishtine, Kosovo

Arsim Sinani
Faculty of Philosophy/Anthropology, University of Prishtina, Prishtine, Kosovo

Abstract The most common use of prepositions is to express the meaning of words placed before a noun or a
pronoun, and as such they are used very frequently. The English language as well as the Albanian language,
uses prepositions frequently, thus enriching the given language and allowing for a clearer expression of the
functions of a sentence. This research is centered around certain prepositions in English which have a high
frequency of use, and yet are quite simple. While comparing them, we will deepen the knowledge of these most
frequent prepositions in English, their use and how they are translated into Albanian. These language
comparison studies are becoming increasingly appealing. The structure and norms under which words
interrelate are part of the study of language as a method of communication. Scholars are faced with the
requirement to perform research on challenging subjects and make global and local comparisons. Therefore,
this research looks into analytical and comparative analysis with the aim of enlightening and empowering the
current use of prepositions in and on and giving a clearer picture of their translations in Albanian. The
research is based on the analysis of two English novels that have been translated into Albanian.

Index Terms prepositions, analysis, time, in, on

I. INTRODUCTION
The most common use of prepositions is to express the meaning of words placed before a noun or a pronoun, and as
such they are used very frequently. The English language as well as the Albanian language, uses prepositions frequently,
thus enriching the given language and allowing for a clearer expression of the functions of a sentence. According to
Fang (2000), they are statistically frequent in that there is one preposition in roughly every ten running words of
English. Functionally, it plays the largest variety of syntactic roles a grammatical phrase can play in a p.183).
Prepositions serve as binders and are very important in the sentence because they connect words with each other.
Sentences without a preposition could be meaningless, short and fragmented, it would be unclear as to what actions
were committed by whom, or when they should occur, or if they have already occurred. These small words such as in,
on, etc., are used often and have different meanings so there is little hope for all those who want to learn English to
internalize all the meanings of these prepositions. Therefore, mastering them is not an easy task for foreign students due
to these different meanings and their polysemic nature. The meaning of temporal prepositions is again different, Bennett
(1975) says The study of temporal prepositions is considerably more complicated than that of spatial, because it is

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

Prepositions are especially difficult for the English Language Learner (ELL) for a number of reasons (Boquist, 2009)
Since
prepositions cause such a problem for ELL, Evans and Tyler (2003) have proposed a new system for understanding
prepositions: Cognitive Linguistics, in effect, reveals how we subconsciously think about prepositions. Each preposition
has a central meaning, which is the mental picture of a spatial relationship. Once the central meaning of a preposition is
found, it becomes clear that the various meanings branch in a polysemic network (p. 26).
The same opinion is shared by many grammarians, such as Lindstromberg (1997), Swan (2002), Quirk (1985) and
others. According to Lindstromberg (1997), people think of time in one of two ways:
1. like a stream, tide or road carrying us from the past into the future (e.g., ;
and 2. like a wind or tide that moves toward us out of the future, carrying events and time periods (e.g., the upcoming
meeting, the coming week) (p. 50).
Of course, this is not to be discouraged, but it is important to note that not all meanings are equally important. We
have seen that some prepositions are used more frequently than others. Prepositions in and on, as prepositions of time
(Quirk & Greenbaum, prepositions of positions,
although in the time sphere there are only two dimension- (p.154). It
seems from the analysis of the novels that spatial prepositions are the most frequent ones and many of them can be used
as prepositions of time as well.
The most common meaning of prepositions is that they are used to express the meaning of words placed before a
noun or e pronoun, and as such they are used very frequently. Both the English language and the Albanian language use
prepositions frequently. The Albanian language, in terms of grammatical system, has gone through the same route as to
that of other Indo-European languages, since it belongs to that linguistic group. Despite the changes that result from that
path, languages retain many common features as well as differences in their grammar system. In our case of study,
compared to English, Albanian has cases (Xhuvani, 1964) that English does not have (besides genitive case).
The theme of this research is centered around certain prepositions in English which have a high frequency of use, and
yet are quite simple. While comparing them, we will deepen the knowledge of these most frequent prepositions in
English, their use and see how they are translated into Albanian. These language comparison studies are becoming
increasingly appealing. The structure and norms under which words interrelate are part of the study of language as a
method of communication. Scholars are faced with the requirement to do research on challenging subjects and make
global and local comparisons. Therefore, this research looked into analytical and comparative analyses with the aim of
enlightening and empowering the current use of prepositions and giving a clearer picture of their translations in
Albanian. The research is based on the analysis of two novels in English translated into Albanian:
- "White Fang" by Jack London, translated by Mikaela Minga as "Dhëmbi i Bardhë" (hereinafter as W. F. and Dh.
B.); and - "Dubliners" by James Joyce, translated into Albanian by Idlir Azizi as "Dublinasit" (hereinafter used as D.
and Dubl.).
The decision to base the study on the above-mentioned novels derived from the fact that both Jack London and James
Joyce stand in high regard in both languages, and as such have been translated into Albanian. Given the complexity of
the topic, we admit that there is a great deal to say about English prepositions and their Albanian counterparts, as
Blamires (2000) said, "It would not be an exaggeration to say that there is an epidemic of prepositional anarchy around
(p.1).

III. PREPOSITION IN
As stated above, so it is with meanings of the preposition in, which is one of the most basic and frequently used
prepositions in English, not only in cases denoting space but also in cases denoting time. Since the preposition in has a
such as The key is
in the drawer, in cases of time relation the preposition in They arrived in 2005.
If we think of the key inside the frames of a drawer, then 2005 is considered as a time frame (the main action
happened somewhere in 2005). The time phrase expressed in the sentence above (in 2005) is not very precise as it
doesn`t show exactly the time when the action did happen; only that it happened in 2005. This indefinite time may
deepen in the past as can be seen even from the following examples when prepositional phrases in the old days and in
the past do not show exact time as in 2005 does. The moment we see the preposition in showing a rather exact time (in
2005), the next moment of in is indefinite in the past (in the old days, in the past):
1. In the old days, he would have sprung upon White Fang Më parë do t`i ishte sulur Dhëmbit të
Bard [Dh. B. p. 108]).
2. In the past, he had liked the comfort and surcease from pain. (W. F. p. 154); (Më parë ai shikonte rehatin e vet
dhe urrente vuajtjen. [Dh. B. p. 158]).
As both PPs are separated by a comma in English, the translation in Albanian is not found as such, but both
prepositional phrases appear translated with the same prepositional phrase (in the old days/in the past = më parë).
Regarding their indefinite time, the prepositional phrase in Albanian does not show such an indefinite distant time as in
English. From the analyses of Albanian novels, the same PP (më parë) appeared translated with the adverb earlier or
preposition before an adverb dikur
could be replaced with PP më parë, as in Fjalor i Gjuhë së Sotme Shqipe (1981, p. 336) adverb dikur expresses time in a
distant past; a long time ago; long before now.
The meaning of preposition in he following example:
3. I ran around the block in less than a minute.
Lindstromberg (1997) illustrated the meaning of in as a line inside the box and not out of it and therefore the time
limit is not gone out of but the action is finished before that time limit. So, the preposition in is used with longer
periods in the past (in October, in 1995, in the summer holidays, in the 16th century) and parts of the day (morning,
afternoon, evening) such as:
4. They ain`t had a bite in weeks W. F. p. 16)
5. In the fall of the year, when the days were shortening W. F. p. 90)
6. In the morning it was Henry who awoke first. (W. F. p. 9)
7. In the evening my aunt took me with her to visit the house. (D. p. 12)
However, this is not the only meaning of the preposition in as it may show different time meanings such as

rame (Lindstromberg,
1997, p.79), suggesting all along the meaning of duration of time how long something takes to happen, for example:
 8. The train leaves in five minutes.
9. Can you come back in/*after an hour; I`ll be free then?
10. He is a good runner. He can run 1000 meters in two minutes.
From the first two examples one can understand that the focus is on the later edge of the time frame (not more than
five minutes or more than an hour, but very close to the end of that time frame), whereas the third example suggests the
duration needed to complete that action. The distinction between expressions such as time and in a
week/month, is used to tell how soon something will happen (a time in the future measured from the present), not how
long something takes (Swan, 2002), for example:
11. I`ll see you again in a month`s time.
12. It`ll be ready (three weeks from now).
13. He wrote the book in a month. (NOT
English prepositions have their synonymous meanings with other prepositions, when a certain meaning can be
expressed by more than one preposition. In comparison to prepositions indicating place (by/near; next to/beside;
behind/in the back of, etc.), these synonymous meanings get narrowed when it comes to prepositions of time, as they
have fewer synonymous meanings (during/in; in/at). As seen in the previous chapter, the Albanian prepositions are
richer in this field, given the fact that there are cases when three prepositions can express the same meaning
(afër/kah/nga dreka). Let us see some examples in two languages:

14. She always takes a trip to Turkey during the summer.

in
kah
15. Takohemi aty nga dreka.

In some contexts, we can either use the preposition in or leave it out, for example:
16. Profits were $50 million, compared with $30 million (in) the previous year.
In the following section, let us see some examples of when the preposition in can be replaced or not with other
prepositions.
A. In vs At
As stated above, the preposition in is used with periods of time long enough to be considered a time frame (from the
basic meaning of in) and if we continue with this basic meaning, then the preposition at represents points of time. But
these two prepositions can interchange their meanings in certain cases, for example in the phrases in the night and at
night. Let us see the following examples:
1. I heard a noise in the night. (= in the middle of the night)
2. The windows are shut at night. (= when it is night)
The first example includes the meaning of a particular night and the second one has a more general meaning such as
any night or nights in general. According to Swan (2002), in an informal style these two prepositions can be left out,
when plurals show activities happening again and again
3. He would rather study nights than days!
Other ambiguous phrases are in the end/at the end. In the end
problems or uncertainty and at the end simply refers to position at the end of something; there is no sense of waiting or
delay Swan (2002), for example (p.201, 202):
4. The tax man will get you in the end.
5. I wish I was paid at the beginning of week and not at the end.
B. In vs During
Since the preposition in has several meanings and uses, one similar meaning is with the preposition during when
both prepositions are used to say that something happens inside a particular period of time (Swan, 2002) (August, night)
and each preposition can be replaced with the other, for example:
1. We`ll be on holiday during/in August.
2. I woke up during/in the night.
According to the same grammarian (2002), besides similarities shown in the examples above, these two prepositions
may not have the same meaning when we are talking about an action happening all the time in that period, for example:
3. The shops are closed during the whole of August n the whole of August).
C. Analysis of Preposition In
The above-mentioned fact, that the preposition in is one of the most frequent prepositions, is also based on our
research from the analyses of the novels: in White Fang out of 1214 appearances of the preposition in, only 68
occurred in sentences denoting time. In Dubliners, out of 1056 appearances of the preposition in, only 27 denoted time
l
show these numbers in a tabular way and their translation as well. Regarding translation into Albanian, it was not
always translated with preposition në as one might expect, but we found several cases translated with adverbs of time
(ndërkohë, nesër, pasdite), with nouns (ditën, natën), and prepositions (rreth, më, në, nga, gjatë, pas, etc.).
D. English In Albanian Në
1. In the morning, Henry aroused by fervid blasphemy that proceeded Në mëngjes Henrikun e
zgjoi një mallkim i papritur [Dh. B. p. 14]).
2. In the fall of the year, when the dogs were shortening and the bite Në vjeshtë ditët ishin shumë
të shkurtra dhe në ajër ndiheshin [DH. B. p. 94]).
3. in an ironical moment, the headline of an advertisement (D. p. 103) ( dhe në një çast ironie kishte
[D. p. 138]).
4. , and if he could get the copy done in time, Mr. Alleyne might give him an order on the cashier. (D. p. 83) (...dhe
nëse e mbaronte kopjen në kohë, z. Allejni mund t`i jepte një paradhënie. [D. p. 115]).
From the examples above, we see that all prepositional phrases with preposition in are divided by a comma,
regardless whether they are in the beginning or the middle of a sentence, but such a thing is not observed in Albanian
translation.
The first three examples (3.2.1.1; 3.2.1.2.; 3.2.1.3) are very much into the meaning of the preposition in, in two
languages (in, në). In the last example (3.2.1.4), the preposition in (in time) expresses something done before the exact
o We were enough in time to have a coffee before the flight, and the Albanian preposition në
expresses a rather exact time; we think that the prepositional phrase in time should be translated with prepositional
phrase me kohë, as it suggests something done previously (me kohë - më përpara).
E. English In Albanian Adverbs of Time
1. You jes`shut up now, an` go to sleep, an` you`ll be hunkydary in the mornin` W. F. p. 8) (Tani mbylle gojën
dhe fli! Nesër do të jesh sërish fi [Dh. B. p.11]).
2. In the afternoon he blundered upon a ptarmigan. (W. F. p. 43) (Pasdite gjeti një thëllëzë dëbore afër një
shkurreje. [DH. B. p. 48]).
The preposition in, being used with parts of the day (in the mornin`, in the afternoon) appeared translated into
in the
morning`- nesër; in the afternoon - pasdite).
3. In the meantime, Bill had thought himself of the rifle Ndërkohë [Dh. B.
p. 24]).
4. And in the meantime, the she- (W. F. p. 34);
(Ndërkohë ulkonja rrinte shtrirë dhe shikonte përleshjen me qetësi. [Dh. B. p. 39]).
In the above examples, the English PP in the meantime shows the time of the action that was done while something
else was expected, or when two actions are performed at the same time. In both sentences we have an Albanian
translation the adverb of time ndërkohë and translation missing of in - në, which perhaps the translator did not use for
economy of language. We think that in the example (3.2.2.3) the use of the preposition në would be useful, as it would
stay close to the meaning of PP in the meantime, while the example (3.2.2.4) is sufficient.
F. English In Albanian Nouns
1. But, though he worked in the sled in the day, White Fang did not forego the guarding of his master`s property in
the night. (W. F. p. 1560; (Ditën punonte me zell të madh, ndërsa natën ruante me kujdes gjërat e të zotit. [Dh. B.
p. 159]).
2. Not in a day or a generation were the ravaged sheepfolds to be forgotten
ditët nuk do të mjaftonin për të numëruar viktimat. [Dh. B. p. 175]).
3. In its first week, insisted of brighter news or at least Java e parë e tij, në vend të mbyllej me një
[Dub., p. 82]).
From the examples above, it can be seen that PPs in English are translated with nouns into Albanian and these nouns
can be in their definite form, as PP with the preposition in appears to be translated with feminine nouns (ditën, natën,
ditët), singular, in accusative, definite form but the noun (ditët) is plural. This is the advantage of the Albanian language;
because of the case endings, nouns can be used without prepositions.
G. English In Albanian Prepositions (pas, brenda, prej, gjatë)
The preposition in was found translated with the above-mentioned prepositions into Albanian:
1. In a few minutes the train drew up beside an improvised wooden platform. (D. p. 26); (Pas disa minutash, treni u
shkund pranë një platform të sajuar. [Dub., p. 52]).
2. And so was recorded the second epitaph in two days brenda dy
ditësh. [Dh. B. p. 15]).
3. They ain`t had a bite in weeks (W. F. p. 16); (Vë bast se nuk kanë venë në gojë prej javësh [Dh. B. p. 20]).
4. He had not eaten in forty hours, and he was weak with hunger. (W. F. p. 93); (Nuk kishte futur gjë në gojë prej
dyzet orësh. [Dh. B. p. 97]).
 5. In the meantime, they`re willin` to pick up anything` eatable that comes handy. (W. F. p. 16); (Gjatë kësaj kohe
[Dh. B. p. 20]).
6. In the summer the fish failed. (W. F. p. 107); (Gjatë verës nuk kishte peshk. [Dh. B. p. 111]).
in a few minutes]) is
observed to be translated mainly with a PP in Albanian with the same structure (pas pak minutash; pas disa minutash),
and here we have a similarity between two languages based on their structure. In all examples, when the preposition in
is used to show a longer period started in the past and continued for some time or up to the moment of speaking, the PP
was translated with the preposition prej which is in ablative (prej javësh, prej dyzet orësh). However, in sentences
showing a shorter period of time (in a day, in two days) is always translated with the preposition brenda (brenda një
dite, brenda dy ditësh).
In the last example, the preposition in is translated with gjatë, and here we have similarity in translation and
synonyms as well. The preposition in has a similar meaning to the preposition during (in/during the summer) and in
Albanian as well the preposition në is similar to the preposition gjatë (në verë/gjatë verës).
H. English In Translation Missing
1. He straightened up in time to see a dim form disappearing across the snow into the shelter of the dark W.F.
p.10); (Drejtoi trupin dhe pa një hije të vagul [Dh. B. p. 13]).
2. In this time of mystery, White Fang, too, stole away into the woods. (W. F. p. 108); (Dhe Dhëmbi i Bardhë iku.
[Dh. B. p.112]).
3. In the meantime, the canoe had drifted down the stream. (W. F. p. 82); (Varkën po e merte vala dhe Kastori i
Hirtë mori drejtimin e saj. [Dh. B. p. 88]).
4. We were to meet at ten in the morning on the Canal Bridge
dhjetë tek Ura e kanalit. [Dubl., p. 36]).
In the analysis of the novels, besides translations, whether with prepositions or adverbs, there were found many
examples when the preposition in was not translated at all. This phenomenon was found more in the novel White Fang
translated into Albanian and less in Dubliners. In White Fang, the translation was missing because the translator had left
not replaced by other
words or phrases. We do not know the reason for these gaps, but we believe that these missing translations woud have
given additional details
been translated, especially in the last example, because in translation it is not clear (në orën dhjetë?) whether the time of
the action was in the morning or in the evening. Some of the examples we have already mentioned in the previous
chapter when analyzing the above-mentioned Albanian prepositions. On the following page we have illustrated the
frequency of use for the preposition in for both novels and their translation into Albanian.
TABLE 1.
WHITE FANG .
Translation used for analysis Times %
English PP with the head in used - in total 1214 100%
In denoting time 68 5.60%
100%
- with prepositions of accusative - në (10) 10 14. 70%
PP with the head in - other prepositions 13 19. 11%
translated into nga - 2
Albanian më - 2
prej - 2
gjatë - 6
brenda - 4
-with adverbs 13 19. 11%
nesër - 5
ndërkohë - 7
pasdite - 1
- cases when translation missing 25 36. 76%
- conjuctions (megjithatë, pastaj, sapo) 3
- nouns (natën, ditën) 4 5. 88%
 TABLE 2.
DUBLINERS
Translation used for analysis Times %
English PP with the head in used - in total 1056 - 29 100%
In denoting time 29 100%
- with prepositions of accusative - në (10) 15 51. 72%
PP with the head in - other prepositions 6 20. 68%
translated into brenda - 1
Albanian pas - 5
- with adverbs 1 3. 44%
menjëherë - 1
- cases when translation missing 3 10. 34%

- nouns (natën, ditën) 4 13. 79%

From the above tables, one can see that the preposition in is mainly translated with the preposition në into Albanian,
adverbs of time, nouns and other prepositions, but the main burden of translation carries the preposition në (10 times in
White Fang and 15 times in Dubliners) as no other preposition has such a high frequency of translation.

IV. PREPOSITION ON
Based on the analyzed novels, the preposition on is the third most used preposition after the prepositions in and at.
The three prepositions, apart from other adjunctions, can express time, such as in and at which are the most specific. On
is the most general because the PPs in 10 minutes and at 10 o`clock are more specific than on Monday. So, on is used
with days of the week and before months that are used with dates and before that. The preposition on is used to mean
one day of the holiday (Swan, 2002, p. 80, 81), and if we say which morning or afternoon we are discussing about, or if
we describe the morning/afternoon, etc. Regarding position in the sentence, this preposition can have all three positions
(initial, middle and final positions), for example:
1. Come and see us on Christmas Day.
2. What are you doing on Easter Monday?
3. We met on a cold afternoon in early spring.
4. His birthday is on October 11th.
5. The meeting is on 7 August.
6. I have to go to an interview on that day.
The preposition on is also used in formal English, in expressions like these (Lindstromberg, 1997), and here
preposition on
7. On arriving, we went straight to the front desk.
8. On his arrival, the commander gave a speech to his soldiers.
9. I`ll bring it on Friday at 16:00. (NOT - at Friday on 16:00)
As for the last example, as stated in the second chapter on prepositions, certain prepositions are used in one form, on
can be left out but not the preposition at (The party will meet Friday at 16:00). When showing special meanings,
prepositions (on, in) can both be used in a sentence: one with a correct meaning and the other one a bit awkward (I can
meet you in the house/I can meet you on the house). When it comes to indicate time relations, this flexibility is very
rarely applied. This is shown from the example above with preposition on and at, as they cannot be replaced. Therefore,
prepositions denoting time can be used only with certain words or in some cases they can be left out and very rarely
replaced with other prepositions.
As stated in the second chapter, prepositions are not used before some common expressions of time beginning with
next, last, this, that (sometimes) one, every, each, same, any (in an informal style), or sometimes preposition on is left
out before the week days. This is common in American English (Eastwood, 2005) for example:
10. Why don`t you come for a drink (on) Monday evening?
11. I`ll see you (on) Tuesday.
In other cases, we can leave out preposition ON before what/which day(s), such as:
12. What day is your appointment?
13. Which day do you have your music lesson?
A. On vs In
Although prepositions in and at express a more specific time, the PP on time refers to fixed time clock, and it has an
idiomatic meaning as it can be more precise than at ten o`clock. The PP in time (for/to
on time
1. Oh good. You`re back in time for tea.
2. The train left on time at 11.23.
According to the same grammarian, these two PPs in good
time and just in time, for example:
3. We got back in good time for tea. (= with plenty of time to spare)
 4. We got there just in time for tea. (= with little time to spare)
Preposition on is used not only with days (Monday, Tuesday, etc), but also if a day is named or specified
(Lindstromberg, 1997, p. 76) such as:
5. On the first day/the morning I arrived, it snowed.
6. On the day of the earthquake
7. On the twentieth night
8. In the evening we sat around and drank beer.
9. On the evening of the 9th, we were sitting around and drinking beer; suddenly
In the last two examples above (3.5.1.8; 3.5.1.9), the role of the preposition on is to make the time period more
compact, therefore on is used as there is more information after the first PP. In all the above examples, the preposition
on is with a complement referring to a part of a day rather than a whole day (Quirk et al., 1973).
B. Analysis of On
Preposition on was not found to be used very often in White Fang, as from the 489 times used in total, only 12 times
denoted time relat
However, different results were found in Dubliners as it was used 457 times in total but 24 times denoted time
relation. In Dubliners, the preposition on was translated with its equivalent të and with nouns into Albanian, and less
with other prepositions.
C. ENGLISH ON ALBANIAN TË
1. And the men used to go in on Sunday morning before the houses të
diele në mëngjes [Dubl., p. 157]).
2. on Saturday nights had begun to weary her unspeakably të shtunave
mbrëmje nisën ta lodhnin sa s`ka. [Dubl., p. 56]).
3. On special Sundays, when Mr. Kearny went with his family... (D. p. 80); (Disa të diela të veçanta, kur zoti Kirnei
[Dubl., p. 175]).
on denoting days of the week along with parts of the day (On Saturday
evenings, on Sunday morning, etc.) or without them (On special Sundays) appear translated always with të, which
belongs to the nominative case. It is observed that, whether the noun is singular or plural in English (on Saturday
evenings - të shtunave në mbrëmje; on Sunday morning - të shtunave në mëngjes) the translation into Albanian is the
same, meaning that the second preposition në may or may not be used, and the meaning is the same (on Saturday night -
të shtunën në darkë; on Saturday night - të shtunën mbrëma).
As stated in the previous chapter on Albanian prepositions, the preposition në can sometimes be left out and it seems
that, for language economy, the translator did not always use në.
D. ENGLISH ON ALBANIAN NOUN
1. On nights when he came in very late it was, she who warmed up his dinner. (D. p. 62); (Netëve kur ai kthehej
vonë, vetë ajo ia ngrohte gjellën e darkës. [Dubl., p. 92]).
2. Six o`clock on Chistmas morning... (D. p. 195); (Në gjashtë fiks mëgjesin e krishtlindjeve! [Dubl., p. 243]).
3. In all the days he had lived it had not worked so hard as on this one day. (W. F. p. 60; Truri i tij i vogël nuk
kishte punuar ndonjëherë aq shumë sa atë ditë. [Dh. B. p. 65]).
4. Later on that day, Kiche and White Fang strayed into the edge of the wood next to the camp. (W. F. p. 80); (Një
ditë Kisheja dhe Dhëmbi i Bardhë po endeshin së bashku në pyllin aty afër. [Dh. B. p. 87]).
As can be seen from the above examples, in Dubliners the preposition on is translated with nouns that can be
feminine and masculine, and they appear in their definite form, such as natën which is a feminine noun, singular in
accusative case; and mëngjesin - a masculine noun, singular. The first example is a noun in plural (netëve), and the
common characteristic is that they are in their definite form.
Regarding White Fang, there were five cases translated with NPs such as the last two examples above: on this one
day - atë ditë and on that day - një ditë. These are essentially the only NPs translated into Albanian, and they have
modifiers (atë - pronoun and një - numeral). In almost all these cases, there is the invisible presence of the preposition
në.
TABLE 3.
DUBLINERS
Translation used for analysis Times %
English PP with the head on used - in total 457 - 24 100%
on denoting time 24 100%
- with - të 14 58. 33%
PP with the head - other prepositions: me 1 4. 16%
on translated into - nouns (3); NP (1) 4 16. 66%
Albanian - cases when translation missing 2 8. 33%

- with preposition of accusative në 3 12. 5%

 V. CONCLUSION
Prepositions, particularly temporal prepositions, are the focus of our research. The goal of this research was to have a
better understanding of the differences between prepositions and how to utilize them correctly. We attempted to update
the study in order to aid acquisition of English as a foreign language, as well as the work of translators from
English to Albanian and vice versa. This research included internal similarities as well as comparisons between the two
languages. This raises further issues about parallels, replacement options, and differences. To explain the research, we
looked at the usage of prepositions, particularly prepositional phrases with a focus on time prepositions such as in and
on, and compared them to prepositions in Albanian from chosen English books.
The preposition in is one of the most common prepositions in English, and as previously indicated, its time meaning
originates from its fundamental meaning: a "space time" long enough to be thought of as a window. Its meaning might
be exact (as it was in 2005) or it can develop through time (in the old days). The fact that the preposition in is one of the
most common prepositions is supported by our findings from novel analyses: in White Fang, only 68 of the 1214 times
the preposition in appeared in sentences denoting time, and in Dubliners, only 27 of the 1056 instances of the
preposition in denoted time relation. This large figure in both works demonstrates how frequently the preposition is
used. In terms of translation into Albanian, we discovered that it was not generally translated with the preposition , as
one might assume, but rather with adverbs of time (ndërkohë, nesër, pasdite), with nouns (ditën, natën), and
prepositions (rreth, më,në, nga, gjatë, pas, etc.).
The preposition on was not found to be used very often in White Fang as, from the 489 times used in total, only 12

Dubliners, as it was used 457 times in total but only 27 times denoted time relation. In Dubliners, the preposition on
was translated with të and with nouns, and less with other prepositions.

REFERENCES
[1] Bennet, D. ((1975). Spatial and Temporal Uses of English Prepositions: An Essay in Stratificational Semantics. Longman,
London. p.360.
[2] Blamires, H., ((2000). The Penguin Guide to Plain English. Harmondsworth, Penguin.p.1.
[3] Boquist, P. (2009). The Second Language Acquisition of English Prepositions. A Senior Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for graduation in the Honors Program Liberty University. p.8.
[4] Essberger, J. (2012). English Prepositions List, England, p. 11.
[5] Fang, A. C. (2000). Alexicalist Approach Towards the Automatic Determination for the Syntactic Functions of prepositional
Phrases. Natural language Engineering, 6(2). p.183.
[6] Fjalor i Gjuhës së Sotme Shqipe (Albanian Dictionary) (1981). Prishtina.p.336.
[7] Quirk, R. & Greenbaum, S. (1973). A University Grammar of English. Longman Group Limited London. p.154.
[8] Lindstromberg, S. (1997). English Prepositions Explained. John Benjamin`s Publishing Co. Amsterdam.p.50.
[9] London, J. White Fang. (2005). The project Gutenberg .
[10] London, Xh. (2009). . Uegen
[11] Mardale, A. (2011). Prepositions as a Semilexical Category. Bucharest Working papers in Linguistics, p. 35-50. halshs-
00663128.
[12] Joyce. J. (2000). Dubliners. Penguin Books. Reprinted in Penguin Classics 2000, 10.
[13] Joyce, J. (2004). Dublinasit. Zenit Editions. Translated by Idlir Azizi.
[14] Swan, M. (2002). Practical English Usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.p.80.,201., 202.
[15] Tyler, A. & Evans, V. (2003). Semantics of English Prepositions. Cambridge University Press. p.26.
[16] Xhuvani, A. (1964). Parafjalët (Prepositions). Studime Filologjike 1. (Philological Studies). State University of Tirana. Albania.
p.8.

Meliha Brestovci (first author) an English language lecturer at the University of Prishtina was born on
October13th 1972 in Gjilan. She obtained her Basic Studies-English Language and Literature at the
University of Prishtina in 1996 and worked as a teacher of English. She completed her Master Studies in 2010
at the University of Prishtina, Kosovo being part of the university as well. Her Doctoral Degree in Linguistics
was completed in 2015 and she has gained the qualification of Doctor of Philological Sciences from South
East European University, Tetovo, North Macedonia in the Faculty of Languages, Cultures and
Communication.
Dr. Brestovci is currently working as a lecturer at the University of Prishtina, Kosovo, in the Faculty of
Philosophy, Psychology department for the past 10 years. She is also a secretary of the Institute for Social
Studies and Humanities.
Arsim Sinani professor at the University of Prishtina was born on June 4th, 1974 in Tetovo. He obtained his
Basic Studies in the University of Prishtina Faculty of Philology-Literature in 2008.He completed his Master
studies in 2010 International Relationship and Diplomacy in Iliria University in Prishtina. He worked as a
professor at the State University of Tetovo in North Macedonia. He completed Doctoral Studies in 2013 in the
University of Tirana, Institute for European Studies. From 2012 to 2019 he worked as a founder of the Center
for International Relationships and Balkan Studies. He is an editor of the international scientific journal

Dr. Sinani is currently a professor in the University of Pritishtina Anthropology department and is a
director of the Institute for Social Studies and Humanities.
 English as a Foreign Language in Saudi Arabia:
on of Their Language
Experience
Oun Almesaar
Applied College, Taibah University, Madinah, Saudi Arabia

Abstract This study focused on the understudied emotional side of learning. Specifically, it aimed at
understanding the quality of the English learning journey of seven Saudi Arabian college students. For this
purpose, a survey was conducted first to collect personal data, sociolinguistic data, curricular and other
experiences in the path of learning English. Then, this was followed by three qualitative instruments to collect
data presented in narratives, journals, and interviews. Qualitative data were analyzed inductively and
deductively by thematic analysis. It was found that participants evaluated their English language learning
journey in college using more positive emotional states than negative ones. These states, both positive and
negative, affected participants reactions towards their English experience, with pleasant encounters boosting
their motivation and unpleasant encounters decreasing their motivation. Moreover, results indicated that
participants were dissatisfied with their English language skills, even though they seemed to focus more on
their successes than on their failures. The resulting insights can assist teachers in understanding the
importance of a positive and supporting English language learning environment and its impact on increasing
performance and motivation.

Index Terms Saudi Arabian EFL learners, English learning experience, affectivity, positive and negative
emotions

I. INTRODUCTION
researchers,
particularly in the learning and teaching of English as a second language (L2). Many of these studies have primarily
focused on cognition (Imai, 2010; Pavlenko, 2005) while minimal research has been conducted on affective aspects of
L2 lea (2009, p. 219)

yet affect has been an almos , despite evidence that

emotion-
However, affect, cognition, and language should not be studied separately. Emotions are not an insignificant
appendix of cognitive processes and language, but rather something that helps us grasp and shape (or construct) the very
essence of the human cognitive universe (Vigotsky & Kasanin, 1934).
From the perspective of component models of emotions, cognition and affect are inseparable (Scherer, 2005; Smith
& Lazarus, 1993). The component models of emotions have long included subjective cognitive appraisals of events and
responses
experiencing the world and conducting an affective appraisal of these experiences that individuals develop their unique
. In other words, cognition and language are closely interrelated, which recommends against
reductionist dualisms and oversimplifications (Mesquita, 2013; Scherer, 2005). This standpoint was embraced in this
study.

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

A. English Language in Saudi Arabia
The only foreign language taught in Saudi Arabia (SA) is English (Alrashidi & Phan, 2015; Elyas & Picard, 2019).
The Ministry of Education introduced English in a limited number of schools in the 1920s and into the general
education system officially in the 1950s. At first, English was taught only in intermediate and secondary schools, as the
government was concerned that it may lead to students having difficulty learning their L1. Nevertheless, with the
increasing global importance of English, the government extended English education to the primary school curriculum
in, 2010. This suggests the importance of teaching and learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in SA.
B. Research on the Context of Saudi Arabia
 Past studies involving Saudi students generally focused on learning anxiety (e.g., Alrabai, 2014; Rafada & Madini,
2017) and less frequently on language learning enjoyment (Dewaele & Alfawzan, 2018). Little attention has been given
to wider spectrums of affectivity, including motivation (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993; Scherer, 2005), interactions of
-concept of ability and academic
Pekrun et al., 2011, p. 226). The present study aims to address this research gap and explore some of
these generally neglected aspects.
This study inspected the longitudinal trajectory of Saudi EFL learners, quantitatively and qualitatively, paying close
attention to a wide spectrum of emotions, particularly valenced experiences, while learning English. It is important to

psychological and sociological universe, emotions are an element in the wider power-knowledge interplay (Foucault,
1961; McAvoy, 2015, p. 8) and are ultimately subject to change as power-knowledge relationships change.
The dynamics of learning EFL in different contexts (classroom and elsewhere) are taken into account in this study.
are used interchangeably in their non-academic meaning of lay or folk
psychology.

III. MATERIALS AND METHODS

A. Sample
This study included seven young male Saudi Arabian college students in the first year at the same Saudi Arabian
community college. Their average age was 19.71 (SD=1.18). They all had been born in towns other than the one where
their college was located. Their majors were accounting (N=2), computer programming (N=4), and computer
networking (N=1). They reported having started their EFL studies at a mean age of 11.57 (SD=0.54). Thereafter, they
all had two English classes per week in primary school and four classes per week in intermediate and high school. Their
last high school grades were, on average, 87.14 (SD=7.45). They were enrolled in their first three English-medium
college courses.
This sample appeared homogeneous in terms of main demographic traits and institutional English learning journey.
A summary of the demographic characteristics with some degree of variability is presented in Table 1, below.
TABLE 1
PARTICIPANTS DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS
Number Age Degree Program EFL Learning Onset Age Last High School Grade
#1 20 Accounting 11 85
#2 19 Accounting 12 81
#3 18 Computer Programming 11 94
#4 20 Computer Networking 12 80
#5 18 Computer Programming 11 100
#6 21 Computer Programming 12 82
#7 22 Computer Programming 12 88

B. Design
learning experience in Saudi
Arabia. The research design was exploratory in nature and provided a detailed description of the kinds of experiences
Saudi students came across during their English language journey.
C. Sampling Procedures
Convenience purposeful sampling (Neuman, 2004) was used to select participants based on their knowledge,
relationships, EFL level, and accessibility to the researcher. The inclusion criteria were: Saudi Arabia nationality and
residence, attendance of the first year of the selected Saudi Arabian community college and being male. Therefore, any
generalization of findings to individuals with different attributes should be done with care.
After the study was approved by the ethics committee, I personally contacted male students in three English language
classes in different majors at one Saudi Arabian community college. The objectives and methodology of the study were
explained in Arabic to each class, and the students were informed that their answers would be anonymous and
confidential. Students were then asked to participate in the study. Ten participants agreed to participate; however only
seven students completed every step, due to scheduling constraints. All participants gave their written informed consent
to participate in the study.
D. Data Collection Procedures
Four purpose-built instruments were utilized: surveys, narratives, journals, and interviews. The face validity of each
of the items and questions within these instruments was assessed by a peer and resulted in effective changes. The
second, face-validated version of every instrument was piloted with three students during a three-week period. This
helped to refine data collection procedures. Data collection lasted eight weeks. The instruments were presented in
Arabic, and their answers were transcribed and translated into English before data analysis.
The instruments were presented to participants in the sequence specified at the beginning of this section. Surveys
included mainly closed-ended questions and were completed face-to-face, at the college, using paper-and-pencil
versions. Following the surveys, the students were asked to write a narrative about their lifelong EFL experiences and
submit it via email. In addition, the participants were asked to respond via email to forwarded journal questions every
weekday (Sunday-Thursday) for four consecutive weeks.
Upon completion of the journaling phase, participants took part in interviews. Accordingly, four face-to-face semi-
structured interviews were carried out. Every participant was asked the same questions in the same way; however, when
appropriate, prompts were used to clarify or explore the answers further.
E. Instruments and Data Analysis Procedures
The survey was the only instrument subjected to quantitative analysis. It included 26 questions in five sections:
personal data, sociolinguistic data, curricular English, other experiences with the English language, and evaluation of
previous English learning experiences. Microsoft Excel 2010 and IBM SPSS Statistics v.25 were then used to analyze
survey data.
Personal data questions included name, age, place of birth, nationality, current university, degree program, year of
study, number of English courses taken, phone number, and email address. Sociological questions inquired about family
language, friends' languages, and language with which they were most comfortable. The curricular English section had
five open-ended questions: age at English learning onset, frequency of classes in primary school, frequency of classes in
intermediate school, frequency of classes in high school, and last high school grade. The ther experiences with the
English language section asked three questions, on frequency of watching TV programs in English, frequency of
correspondence in English, and frequency of reading long English texts.
In addition, participants evaluated their English learning experiences in primary school, intermediate school, high
school, and college. Answers were provided based on a 4-
with no neutral position. Before completing the survey, participants rated their overall satisfaction with their English
proficiency.
The quantitative analysis included averages, standard-deviations, minimums, and maximums. Closed-ended
questions were used as indicators of nominal/ordinal variables and were transferred into mutually exclusive dummy
variables. For questions about language preferences, new options were created, compliant with the mutual exclusivity
requirement.
As for qualitative data collected from narratives, journals, and interviews, they were uploaded as an NVivo11 Pro file.
Narratives focused on English language experience in the following circumstances: before school, primary school,
intermediate school, high school, college, and outside school, such as reading, working, watching movies. The final
item asked participants to evaluate their overall experience with the English language.
Journals focused on how participants felt about their day-to-day English language experience, how they evaluated
all
English language experience in school and college. Participants were also asked about their future English language
goals and the strategies they use to improve themselves.
F. Thematic Analysis of Qualitative Data
Participants provided 650 answers to the queries posed by qualitative instruments, totaling 6653 words. Thus, on
average, their replies were brief texts with 34.29 (SD=26.82) words. The length, in words, of these texts is represented
in Table 2.
TABLE 2
NUMBER OF WORDS AND ANSWERS PER QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT
Instrument Journals Narratives Interviews Totals
Total words 2168 2617 1868 6653
Total answers 560 48 42 650

Responses to narratives, journals, and interviews were analyzed using NVivo-aided thematic analysis (TA) (Braun &
-

guided specific
TA consisted of five main iterative stages (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012; Taylor & Bogdan, 1984): immersion, first-
level coding, second-level coding, consistency check, and reporting. These steps were performed in sequence for each
separate set of the qualitative data.
Immersion involved becoming familiar with the data by reading available material, as well as coding general
structural aspects. First-level coding involved developing inductively descriptive (What is it?) and interpretative (What
does it mean?) -341).
 Second-level coding involved establishing and refining the first-level categories' relationships and proprieties (i.e.,
operational definition). In addition, it involved forming subthemes and themes while organizing categories into a
hierarchy, with a maximum of three levels: categories, subthemes, and themes. Two analytical processes were utilized:
inductive, based on meaningful contexts and operations involved in the first-level coding, and deductive, based on
-715, 720) word-stem and dimensional proposals.
Consistency checks involved revising the consistency of the remarks included within each level of the hierarchy. This
was performed while revising and improving the thematic hierarchy's coding agendas (i.e., coding rules and examples).
126) the
categories, subthemes, and themes for each separate data set.
Iterations suggested the importance of developing a single hierarchy for the three data sets. This integrated version is
presented here. The data analysis process terminated when iterations started to generate fewer changes in the
organization and meaning of categories, subthemes, and themes.
The names of themes, subthemes, and categories are italicized. Participants are identified by numbers, ranging from
one to seven, preceded by the symbol #. The total number of the participants discussing each topic is numerically
the topic is

IV. RESULTS
The thematic analysis indicated an

states experienced by the participants. Some of these states, as illustrated, could be understood as emotions in the
classical sense (e.g., happiness and sadness). Nevertheless, many of these remarks seemed to refer to emotions as broad
categories, indicative of neurophysiological states holding, potentially, an affective value (e.g., Scherer, 2005; Tracy &

ypical or broader type of state (e.g.,

woke up, went to school, etc.). This was suggestive that an action as simple as waking up could, in potential, bear an
affective value and thus, be regarded as an emotion. It is important to note that classifying how participants felt was
quite complicated. As a result, the analysis focused on how frequently these emotions were experienced and how
participants reacted to them.
A. Frequency of Emotions
Figure 1 illustrates the number of references to each emotion experienced. It shows that positive emotions were
experienced more often than negative ones. This could be regarded as a crude indicator of how often the participants in
this study discussed these emotions. One should note that categories most frequently discussed were, in descending
order of frequency: happy; motivated; mixed and simultaneous valences; absence of negative emotions; a single state;
relaxed, lazy; unwell; stressed; worried; hopeful; grateful; satisfied; sad; confused; and angry.

Figure 1. Frequency of Emotions

B. Frequencies of P Reactions
Participants reacted differently to these emotional states. The most common den
reactions to pleasant and unpleasant experiences were described as types of motivational shifts. Their frequency is
illustrated in Figure 2.
 It can be observed that valence-
boosted in pleasant contexts (the boosted category), and it became weaker under unpleasant circumstances, as assessed
by the dragged-down category. Some participants claimed that their emotional circumstances did not alter their
motivation; they stayed afloat with negativity and stayed put with positivity. In more rare circumstances, they remarked
valence-incongruent reactions; namely, they could become more motivated by negative emotionality and perceptions of
failure, as assessed by the teased-out category. They could also become less motivated when experiencing positive
emotions and perceptions of success, as assessed by spoiled by positivity , which was uncommon.

Figure 2. Frequencies of P Reactions

C. Evaluation of Their EFL Experiences

important to note that these findings were not evidenced for or against specific qualitative observations. They could
only be used as quant
interviews. The findings are detailed here based on the following items: First encounter with EFL, Quality of EFL
classes, Language preferences, and English language activities.
1. First Encounter with EFL
The average age of first encounter with EFL was 11.57 (SD=0.49) years old, which is the age at which Saudi children
finish primary school and start intermediate school. All participants acknowledged in surveys that they had two English
classes per week while in primary school. Participant #4 stated that he had encountered EFL only at a qualitative level
before primary school and reported no EFL in classes in primary school.
2. Quality of EFL Classes
Participants rated the intensity of their EFL experiences throughout the years. Their ratings are illustrated in Figure 3.

College
High school
Intermediate school
Primary school

Figure 3. The Quality of EFL Classes Grade-by-grade

These findings suggested that the quality of English classes became increasingly positive as students progressed
through the school grades, with the number of students giving positive ratings (four or above) being as follows: two for
primary classes, four for intermediate classes, six for the high school, and seven (all) for college.
students were more pleased with their EFL classes in college than any other school grade. This was observed through
all findings, as participants felt that college was the only period during which EFL learning was practical. It was also
found that English was more valued personally and socially by some participants in college than at any other stage.
Therefore, it could be concluded that EFL encounters in college were generally viewed as emotionally positive, which
was not the case with EFL encounters in school.
3. Overall Satisfaction with English Level

satisfied y felt that their skills

, in
which some comments were made regarding success rather than failure. Even though almost every participant was
dissatisfied with their skills, they seemed to focus more in the journals and narratives on their successes than on their
failures.
4. Language Preferences
Every respondent reported speaking Arabic while socializing at home and most felt more comfortable speaking in
Arabic (N=5) than in English or any other language. Moreover, the majority claimed to speak only Arabic (N=5), while
two (#5 and #7) claimed to speak both Arabic and English while socializing with friends. The survey also found that
two participants who only spoke Arabic among relatives and friends claimed to feel more comfortable than before in
speaking both Arabic and English (N=2).
Qualitative findings did not detect language preferences or habits. There were some instances when things were
inconsistent. Specifically, four participants (#1, #3, #4, and #7) claimed to have relatives who helped them with their
English at home. Thus, at least in certain circumstances, to develop their EFL skills, participants spoke English at home.
Additionally, five respondents (#1, #2, #4, #6, and #7) mentioned speaking English with their friends, peers, and other
casual acquaintances, and three used the term,
those who acknowledged using English with friends quantitatively used this term in their qualitative narratives, and
only #7 acknowledged speaking English with friends in both approaches.
5. English Language Activities
The participants were asked about the frequency of their engagement in the following activities: watching English
TV programs, written correspondence in English, and reading long English texts. Figure 4 illustrates the results.

Long English texts

Writing correspondence
TV programs

Never Several Several Several Several Every day

times a times times a times a
year every month week
trimester

Figure 4. English Language Activities

As can be observed, the most common activity was watching English TV programs, with five participants doing so
several times a week (N=2) or daily (N=3) and none claiming to never do so. Findings relating to this category were
congruent with these quantitative results, with participants discussing the use of audio and audio-visual resources for
boosting their study motivation and skills.
 Quantitatively, four participants, #3, #5, #6 and #7, claimed to read long texts in English more often than never. In
addition, #3 and #7 mentioned reading books and long texts in both parts of the study. However, #1 acknowledged

qualitatively but did so in the survey, and #5 acknowledged reading long texts in the survey. As such, the results were
not congruent for this activity.

V. DISCUSSION
A. EFL in Saudi Arabia
As expressed by participants, English was undervalued socially and personally during some school grades. However,
all students agreed that English was valued as a necessity in college and effectively and pleasantly learned. Rahman and
Alhaisoni (2013) suggested that Saudi students viewed English as a futile requisite within a system that placed little
emphasis on mastering the language. Present findings limit the generalizability of this claim to the college environment.
Themes such as the value of English refer specifically to this conclusion. The necessity of English was supported and
contextualized in the college environment (Al-Saraj, 2014a, 2014b; Dewaele & Al-Saraj, 2015).
The implication is that social circumstances affected how participants felt about their English language experience. It
was found that EFL classes in college were more pleasing and effective than classes in school. EFL education in Saudi
educational institutions has changed considerably in the last decade. We may expect to see significant improvements,

school (Bhuiyan, 2016).

All participants identified positive English experiences unrelated to official education. Moreover, unpleasant
encounters did not include any activity which was exclusively performed outside the school context. These findings
negative emotions such as anxiety were more common inside the
classroom, rather than positive ones such as enjoyment and relaxation.
Piniel and Albert (2018) did not posit the existence of any cause-effect relationships. Similarly, in the present study,
the situations associated with positive and negative emotional states, which corresponded to pleasant and unpleasant
encounters, could be claimed to be the causes of positive vs. negative emotions. Participants most often did not
establish causal links between their states and different situations. Therefore, these subthemes were offered as only one

The themes and corresponding circumstances echoed previous findings on the relationship between EFL performance
and subjective evaluation of EFL that suggested that stud
particularly when compared with anxiety. Conversely, negative emotions are prejudicial to EFL performance, as noted
by various other authors (Al-Saraj, 2014b; Dewaele & Alfawzan, 2018; Ismail, 2015).
Götz an

this study may be generalizable to cultures other than Saudi Arabia. As such, positive emotions seem to impact learning
trajectories and performance more markedly and extensively than negative ones. Therefore, encouraging pleasant
encounters through experiences could be an efficient pedagogic strategy, more beneficial than attempting to minimize
aspects of unpleasant encounters. Finally, positive aspects, which facilitate learning and performance, should be
explored together with students.
B. EFL Learner Experiences
The Saudi Arabian students expressed their dissatisfaction with their English level. The majority of students (6
students) were unsatisfied with their level and generally perceived that their skills needed to be promoted. These
findings are compatible with those of Hung et al. (2016), who showed that it was surprising for Asian students to
present their language skills with relatively lower satisfaction ratings than others, due to their willingness and cultural
norms. Regardless of this, most respondents preferred to speak Arabic only as their mother tongue (N=5), while some
reported being bilingual in Arabic and English (N=2). Also, five respondents claimed that the most common activity
was watching English TV programs, doing so several times a week (N=2) or daily (N=3), and none of them reported
paper by Al-Athwary and Laslom (2021)
and proved that audio-visual inputs assisted students and teachers in crafting their English quality, especially in
listening comprehension.

VI. CONCLUSIONS
A. Summary
English learning experiences of the participants differed when recollecting what had been learned in each grade.
The exceptions were primary school and college. Both at quantitative and qualitative levels, participants mentioned that
first encounters with EFL happened during primary school through acquiring passive skills, such as the alphabet.
In college, due to English becoming a mandatory subject, every participant started to value EFL. All believed they
had developed both passive and active skills during college and noted that language classes had a superior quality.
Quantitative findings supported the latter observation by showing that participants felt that the quality of their EFL
classes increased over time, reaching a maximum in college. Among language activities, watching English TV
programs was the most popular activity among the respondents and establishing audio and audio-visual resources aided
them to promote study motivation and skills.
B. Limitation and Trustworthiness Considerations
The findings of this study have to be seen in the light of some limitations. The first is that there were instances in
which the findings did not converge so neatly. For example, when participants were asked about writing in English, it
was found that they engaged in this activity, and four did so rather frequently, either several times a week (N=3) or
daily (N=1). However, only two participants discussed the importance of written English correspondence in the survey.
#7, Narratives, mentioned one occasion when he talked to people online and #3, Journals, described reading (as opposed
Nevertheless, these references
were not frequent enough to accept them as a new category.
Another example can be found concerning reading in English. Respondents #1, #3, and #7 discussed the usefulness
of books (Z=2; N=3) (gathered from our qualitative data). Quantitatively, four participants, #3, #5, #6, and #7, claimed
mentioned reading books and one long text in both
parts of the study. However, #1 mentioned reading English texts in the qualitative part of the study but claimed to
o in the survey, and #5
acknowledged reading long texts in the survey. The results across these approaches were not entirely congruent when it
came to English reading and writing.
y be explanations for these disparities,

responses in the context of self-report surveys may arise due to a plethora of factors, such as the lack of motivation,
higher age, lower education, etc. Even such data as age and gender are often misreported (Akbulut, 2015; Coste et al.,
2013; Huang et al., 2012).
C. Implications for Teaching English in Saudi Arabia
Learning English in Saudi Arabia has become essential,
necessity nowadays, as it equips learners with numerous opportunities in the higher education, business,
communications, and media sectors. Even though the data gathered in this study are based on only seven students, the
findings present valuable new insights into , along
with how they felt about this experience.
I hope the findings can be of assistance to teachers, researchers, and policymakers, enabling them to comprehend the
role of emotions and motivation in language learning. Findings can help raise awareness of the key role that emotions
play lish language experience and motivation. It was clear from the findings that participants
significantly improved in college because they experienced more positive emotions in a constructive and supportive
learning environment. As a result, Saudi teachers must create a positive and supporting English language learning

informat
learning English and the kinds of emotions they experience in the classroom. They will understand what factors
formance and motivate them to enhance their English language skills. This will

improve their overall English language skills, allowing them to truly enjoy the process of learning English.
Finally, with positive changes taking place in the Saudi educational system, particularly with respect to teaching
English from the first grade of primary school starting from 2021, there must be a greater focus on the classroom
environment and the quality of English language exposure. Teachers must do their best to create engaging and positive

engagement with English will be optimal, and their motivation will be high, which will, in turn, allow them to master
most language skills from an early age.

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Oun Almesaar is an assistant professor of Applied Linguistics at Taibah University, Saudi Arabia. He earned
his MA in Linguistics from the University of Sydney, Australia, and his PhD in Applied Linguistics from the
University of Essex, UK. His research interests include EFL, Identity, Emotions and Motivation in Language
learning.
 Syntactic, Semantic and Discourse Effects on the
Processing of Scrambled Japanese Sentences
Shinichi Shoji
Center for International Education and Research, Mie University, Tsu, Japan

Abstract In Japanese sentences, the default word order is subject-object-

-subject-
unscrambled default order. Two self-paced reading experiments in the moving window paradigm were
conducted to test the effe
processing of scrambled Japanese sentences. The first experiment examined how the syntactic factor (NP
order) and semantic factor (NP animacy) affect processing of Japanese sentences. Results revealed that
animacy difference between the subject-NP and object-
processing than default SOV word order, whereas no such difference was found for native Japanese speakers.
The second experiment examined the discourse effect in processing of scrambled OSV sentences. The
experiment revealed that the processing of Japanese scrambled sentences is facilitated by the preceding
context for both native Japanese and English speakers.

Index Terms word order, animacy, discourse, Japanese, English speakers

I. INTRODUCTION
In the field of second language acquisition (SLA) research, the interface hypothesis maintains that it is generally

between different levels of linguistic representation such as discourse and syntax or between different linguistic
modules such as syntax and semantics (Sorace, 2006; White, 2011). This study explored phenomena at the interfaces of

scrambled Japanese sentences. Their processing of scrambled sentences was evaluated as a

function of the effects of semantic factors from lexical animacy and syntactic factors from word order, with a grammar-
external discourse component.

II. SYNTACTIC FACTOR: WORD ORDER

In order to process and comprehend sentences, a parser needs to know the grammatical relationships of the noun
phrases (NPs) such as the subject or object. Gass (1989) lists four cues for finding the grammatical relationships of
arguments, which are lexical items, morphological case markers, word order, and prosody. Also, Bates and
MacWhinney (1989) suggest the competition model, which argues that parsers compute the most probabilistic
interpretation based on various cues including word order, case marker, semantic information, and so forth. According
to the competition model, different languages rely on different cues. Regarding Japanese and English, one big
difference in the use of the cues is the case markers and word order. English (which is an SVO language) is a fixed
word-order language in terms of the order of the subject, verb and object. On the other hand, Japanese (which is an
SOV language) allows scrambling of the order of the subject and object (for example, OSV). Examples are shown
below, which indicates that the order of subject and object is fixed in English but free in Japanese.
(1) a. Unscrambled sentences
English: John ate pasta.
Japanese: John-ga pasta-o tabeta.
John-NOM pasta-ACC ate

b. Scrambled sentences
English: *Pasta ate John. 1
Japanese: Pasuta-o Jon-ga tabeta.
pasta-ACC John-NOM ate

In Japanese, what makes it possible to scramble the subject and object are the case markers (such as the nominative
and accusative markers, ga and o, in (1) above). Since the case markers indicate grammatical roles such as the
subject or the object, the order of the NPs is relatively free in Japanese. English does not utilize case markers, and the
flexible order of the subject and object (OS order) is considered ungrammatical. Thus, English-speaking learners of L2
Japanese may be prone to overlook case markers when reading Japanese sentences and misinterpret scrambled OSV
Japanese sentences as the default SOV sentences.
Numerous studies have been conducted on scrambling in Japanese. As for the comprehension of scrambled sentences
-paced reading experiment, adult native Japanese-speaking participants
read scrambled OSV sentences as quickly as unscrambled sentences with default SOV word order possibly because the
participants utilized information from case markers independently of the word order. On the other hand, another
research suggests that scrambled sentences incur increased processing costs for adult native speakers. Mazuka, Itoh and
2) self-paced reading experiment showed that reading time slowed down when
they read a subject-NP that came after an object-NP in scrambled sentences, i.e., the reading speed slowed down at
- -o Jon-
Among studies with Japanese children, Hakuta (1982) and Lakshmann and Ozeki (1996) found that Japanese
children at the age of 2-6 strongly tend to produce unscrambled/default SOV word-order sentences in their picture
description tasks. However, participating children correctly produced scrambled OSV sentences when requested to start
the description with the object-NP. It was therefore concluded that Japanese children did indeed have some grammatical
knowledge of scrambling. In contrast, many other studies observed that native Japanese children below the age of five
often misinterpreted scrambled OSV sentences as if they were SOV sentences, and never misinterpreted SOV as OSV
(Hayashibe, 1975; Sano, 1977; Hakuta, 1982). These studies found that L1 Japanese children rely on the default SOV
word order of Japanese sentences, paying less attention to the case markers.
Hayashibe (1975) explains that native Japanese-speaking children tend to interpret the first NP as the agent and the
second NP as patient. This explanation is similar to an SLA account, the First Noun Principle (VanPatten, 1996;
VanPatten 2004). The First Noun Principle argues that L2 learners tend to interpret the first NP that they encounter in a
sentence as a subject and an agent. Kilborn and Ito (1989), in their experiment on sentence comprehension, found that
native English-speaking L2 Japanese learners resorted to SOV word order, paying less attention to the case markers,
just as native Japanese children in some earlier studies. Similarly, Iwasaki (2003) tested the L2 Japanese production of
native English speakers in a picture-description task. She found that the participating native English speakers always
produced the unscrambled/default SOV sentence and did not produce the scrambled OSV sentences. She also found that
participants performed significantly more poorly on OSV sentences than on SOV sentences in a fill-in-the-blank-with-
case-markers task. Also, Koda (1993) tested learners of L2 Japanese, whose L1s were English, Chinese and Korean.
English and Chinese are fixed word-order languages, and Korean is a case-marking language that allows scrambling.
The results showed that Chinese and English speakers performed poorly in comprehending scrambled Japanese OSV
sentences, but Korean speakers performed equally well in comprehending unscrambled SOV sentences and scrambled

interfere with interpretation.

III. SEMANTIC FACTOR: ANYMACY

Clahsen and Felser (2006) maintain the Shallow Structure Hypothesis, which argues that L2 learners process the
target language by using semantic information derived from the argument structure of the verb; not by using
information fro
semantic information is relied on more in their comprehension of L2 sentences. A semantic factor related to the
comprehension of the scrambled Japanese sentence is animacy. For example, when native English speakers read a
-o Jon-
an animate entity and pasta is an inanimate entity, the parsers would kn
what is eaten, even without paying attention to the case markers or word order. The animacy of the NP could therefore
be used as a cue to identify the subject/agent and object/patient. This might be true in L1 sentence processing as well.
- & Ferraro, 2002) claims that parsers do
just enough processing to come up with a plausible meaning. When a parser is given three pieces of information such as

information from the NPs and the verb. On the other hand, studies such as Omaki and Schulz (2011) and Hara (2009a, b)
argue that L1 and L2 speak -semantic information.
Note that the Shallow Structure Hypothesis and the good-enough parsing account would not apply when both the
subject-NP and object-NP are animate, as in the Japanese -o Jon-
Caluianu (2005) states, NP-animacy could cause ambiguity when it does not resolve semantic distinctions. In order to
accurately process this type of sentence, parsers would have to pay attention to the case markers.
Overall
comprehension/processing of sentences. In processing Japanese sentences, scrambled word order might be more
difficult to process, and an animacy difference between the subject-NP and object-NP could facilitate their processing.
The first experiment of the current study examined how the syntactic and semantic factors interact, to determine which
is more or less influential of native Japanese processing.

IV. DISCOURSE FACTOR: DEFINITENESS AND PRECEDING CONTEXT

 Another factor relevant to the processing of scrambled sentences is the discourse context. Masunaga (1983) argues
that scrambled sentences are more acceptable when the fronted object-NP is a definite NP. In other words, (2b) is more
acceptable than (2a) in the examples shown below.
(2) a. Pasuta-o Jon-ga tabeta.
pasta-ACC John-NOM ate

b. Sono pasuta-o Jon-ga tabeta.

that pasta-ACC John-NOM ate

Masunaga argues that the fronted definite object-

discourse context and the current sentence, establishing the topic of the current sentence. With the definiteness of the
fronted NP, parsers assume that it refers to an entity in the preceding context and continues to be the current topic. Otsu
(1994) also noted this effect. In his study with native Japanese children, although they initially misinterpreted scrambled
OSV sentences to be unscrambled SOV when the sentence was presented by itself, they comprehended scrambled and
unscrambled sentences equally accurately when preceding context with a referent to the fronted object was provided.
An example is shown below. Children misinterpreted the sentence in (3a), but accurately understood the sentences in
(3b), although the sentence in (3a) and the second sentence in (3b) were both scrambled.
(3) a. Ahiru-o kame-ga oshimashita.
duck-ACC turtle-NOM pushed.

b. Kooen-ni ahiru-ga imashita. Sono ahiru-o kame-ga oshimashita

park-at duck-NOM existed that duck-ACC turtle-NOM pushed

implies that context motivates scrambling movements. According to Masunaga again, the object-NP
is moved to the front in order to bridge the current sentence and preceding context, and in order to establish the topic of
the current sentences. In that case, the fronted object-NP must be a definite NP because it is already mentioned in the
previous sentence. This operation of fronting the object-NP is similar to passivization in English, in which the object is
moved to the front to become the subject, when it is the topic or theme of the sentence, which Keenan called
, 1985). The second experiment of the current study therefore examined how discourse
factor (preceding context and definiteness) interacts with the syntactic factor, i.e., word order.

V. EXPERIMENT ONE
Previous chapters suggested syntactic factor, semantic factor, and discourse factor which may affect processing of
Japanese scrambled sentences. Experiment 1 investigated the first two factors, syntactic factor and semantic factor,
which are reflected by word order and animacy of NPs, respectively.
A. Participants
Twelve native Japanese speakers and eleven native English speakers from the University of South Carolina
participated in Experiment 1. The native English-speaking participants were L2 Japanese learners, enrolled in Japanese
language classes at the University.
B. Materials
For Experiment 1, the independent variables were word order and animacy of the subject-NP and the object-NP.
These were presented on a computer screen to participants as four experimental Japanese sentences (shown below).
(4) a. Unscrambled SO word order, with Animacy difference (S[+animate] O[ animate])
e.g. Jon-ga pasuta-o tabeta.
John-NOM pasta-ACC ate

b. Unscrambled SO word order, with No animacy difference (S[+animate] O[+animate])

e.g. Jon-ga Mearii-o hometa.
John-NOM Mary-ACC praised

c. Scrambled OS word order, with Animacy difference (O[-animate] S[+animate])

e.g. Pasuta-o Jon-ga tabeta.
pasta-ACC John-NOM ate

d. Scrambled OS word order, with No animacy difference (O[+animate] S[+animate])

e.g. Mearii-o Jon-ga hometa.
Mary-ACC John-NOM praised
 In the items above, (4a) provides both the unscrambled word order and animacy difference as comprehension cues;
(4b) provides the unscrambled word order as the cue; (4c) provides animacy difference as the cue; and (4d) provides
neither cue. Also, in order to eliminate any potential influence of word or sentence length, all experimental sentences

concurrent fixation. In addition, the Japanese sentences were shown with an English translation of each content word to
eliminate possible error due to word unfamiliarity. An example question as it appeared on the computer screen is shown
below.
(5) (John) (pasta) (ate)
There were 60 experimental sentences (15 for each condition of (4a), (4b), (4c) and (4d)) and 80 distractor sentences.
All verbs in the experimental sentences were transitive verbs, and the verbs in the distractor items were intransitive
verbs or be-verbs. All sentences were in the past tense. The experimental and distractor sentences were given in random
order. After participants read each item sentence, a comprehension question was then provided in English on a
computer screen, as shown below.
(6) Q: Which is the
1. John ate pasta.
2. Pasta ate John.
C. Procedure
The sentences were given in the self-paced reading design in the moving-window paradigm using E-prime software,
whereby participants read the sentences word by word. The experiment was carried out with each participant viewing
the sentences on a computer. During the experiment, the participants first received the welcome message and
instructions on the computer screen, and proceeded to a practice block by hitting the space bar. The practice block
consisted of four sentences. After they finished the practice block, they received an end-of-practice message and were
prompted to begin the actual experiment by hitting the space bar. In both the practice block and actual experiment, each

of the experimental or distractor sentence appeared. After participants read all the words in each sentence, the

mark
D. Data Analyses
The dependent variables were (i) accuracy of processing, which was assessed by the score of the comprehension
question and (ii) the reading times per sentence and per word. The paired T-test was used to compare the accuracy and
reading times between the unscrambled SO sentences (4a, 4b) vs. the scrambled OS sentences (4c, 4d), and between the
sentences with the subject-object animacy difference (4a, 4c) vs. the sentences with no animacy difference (4b, 4d). If
b) was significantly better than the scrambled OS
sentences (4c, 4d), that would indicate that word
-object animacy difference (4a, 4c) was significantly better
than the sentences without animacy difference (4b, 4d), that would indicate that animacy of NPs significantly affected
their processing.

VI. RESULTS: EXPERIMENT ONE

A. Native Japanese Speakers

The mean values and standard deviations of reading times and accuracy rates in the results from the native Japanese
speakers are summarized in the table below.
 TABLE 1
NATIVE JAPANESE SPEAKERS ACCURACY SCORE AND READING TIMES IN EXPERIMENT ONE
Conditions and Example sentences Accuracy (%) [SD] Reading time (msec) [SD]
Sentence 2346.83 [598.69]
Unscrambled, Animacy difference
99.44 [0.87] 1st NP (animate Subj) 826.78 [233.11]
e.g., (4a) Jon-ga pasuta-o tabeta.
2nd NP (inanimate Obj) 762.88 [191.33]
Verb 757.17 [253.87]
Sentence 2622.46 [578.40]
Unscrambled, No animacy difference
97.78 [1.48] 1st NP (animate Subj) 797.35 [189.24]
e.g., (4b) Jon-ga Mearii-o hometa.
2nd NP (animate Obj) 835.14 [261.11]
Verb 989.97 [264.42]
Sentence 2569.76 [717.58]
Scrambled, Animacy difference
96.11 [2.07] 1st NP (inanimate Obj) 764.57 [204.87]
e.g., (4c) Pasuta-o Jon-ga tabeta. nd
2 NP (animate Subj) 877.40 [296.94]
Verb 927.82 [284.86]
Sentence 2895.29 [697.85]
Scrambled, No animacy difference st
64.44 [12.88] 1 NP (animate Obj) 819.19 [261.62]
e.g., (4d) Mearii-o Jon-ga hometa.
2nd NP (animate Subj) 922.72 [271.06]
Verb 1153.38 [315.95]

For accuracy, sentential reading times and reading times per word, the outcome from the T-test analyses is shown in
the below table. Although no significant difference was found in reading times for the first NP, all other comparisons
showed significant differences: unscrambled sentences (4a, 4b) were more accurately comprehended and required less
time to read than scrambled sentences (4c, 4d); and sentences with the animacy difference (4a, 4c) were more
accurately comprehended and required less time to read than sentences without animacy difference (4b, 4d)).

TABLE 2
T-TEST ANALYSES FOR N ATIVE JAPANESE SPEAKERS ACCURACY SCORE AND READING TIMES IN EXPERIMENT ONE
Unscrambled SOV Animacy difference
(4a) S[+animate] O[-animate] (4a) S[+animate] O[-animate]
(4b) S[+animate] O[+animate] (4c) O[-animate] S[+animate]
vs. vs.
Scrambled OSV No Animacy difference
(4c) O[-animate] S[+animate] (4b) S[+animate] O[+animate]
(4d) O[+animate] S[+animate] (4d) O[+animate] S[+animate]
Accuracy p < .001* p = .002*
Sentential Reading time p < .001* p < .001*
1st NP Reading time p = .229 p = .327
2nd NP Reading time p = .004* p = .045*
Verb Reading time p < .001* p < .001*
Note. An asterisk indicates significant differences (p < .05).

These results show that both word order and NP-animacy significantly affect the task-performance of native
Japanese-speaking participants.
B. Native English Speakers
The mean values and standard deviations of reading times and comprehension accuracy for native English speakers
are summarized in the table below.

TABLE 3
NATIVE ENGLISH SPEAKERS ACCURACY SCORE AND READING TIMES IN EXPERIMENT O NE
Conditions and Example sentences Accuracy (%) [SD] Reading time (msec) [SD]
Sentence 4395.35 [1564.87]
Unscrambled, Animacy difference
95.75 [2.02] 1st NP (animate Subj) 1882.74 [827.89]
e.g., (4a) Jon-ga pasuta-o tabeta.
2nd NP (inanimate Obj) 1452.67 [570.01]
Verb 1059.93 [410.54]
Sentence 5500.34 [2020.74]
Unscrambled, No animacy difference
93.33 [4.02] 1st NP (animate Subj) 2079.23 [964.48]
e.g., (4b) Jon-ga Mearii-o hometa.
2nd NP (animate Obj) 1873.31 [816.87]
Verb 1547.79 [684.68]
Sentence 5046.42 [2112.48]
Scrambled, Animacy difference
92.11 [8.88] 1st NP (inanimate Obj) 2304.52 [1194.91]
e.g., (4c) Pasuta-o Jon-ga tabeta.
2nd NP (animate Subj) 1622.04 [707.95]
Verb 1119.86 [547.32]
Sentence 5502.36 [2290.97]
Scrambled, No animacy difference
58.18 [18.25] 1st NP (animate Obj) 2018.13 [1041.02]
e.g., (4d) Mearii-o Jon-ga hometa.
2nd NP (animateSubj) 1925.48 [1030.94]
Verb 1558.75 [863.39]
 The outcome from the T-test analyses is summarized in the table below. Accuracy rate was found to be significantly
different for both comparative tasks, just as with native Japanese speakers. However, native English speakers differed
from native Japanese speakers with respect to reading times. For native English speakers, word order (i.e., scrambled
(4a, b) sentences vs. unscrambled (4c, d) sentences) resulted in no significant difference while animacy did.
TABLE 4
T-TEST ANALYSES FOR N ATIVE ENGLISH SPEAKERS ACCURACY SCORE AND READING TIMES IN EXPERIMENT ONE
Unscrambled SOV Animacy-difference
(4a) S[+animate] O[-animate] (4a) S[+animate] O[-animate]
(4b) S[+animate] O[+animate] (4c) O[-animate] S[+animate]
vs. vs.
Scrambled OSV No Animacy-difference
(4c) O[-animate] S[+animate] (4b) S[+animate] O[+animate]
(4d) O[+animate] S[+animate] (4d) O[+animate] S[+animate]
Accuracy p = .011* p = .002*

Sentential Reading time p = .159 p = .006*

1st NP Reading time p = .229 p = .353
2nd NP Reading time p = .251 p = .012*
Verb Reading time p = .396 p = .006*
Note. An asterisk indicates significant differences (p < .05).

The results above demonstrate that, in reading Japanese sentences, native English speakers rely on the semantic
information from the animacy of NPs more than the syntactic information from the word order.

VII. DISCUSSION: E XPERIMENT ONE

As shown in Tables 1 and 3, the results indicate that, for both native Japanese and English-speaking participants, the
accuracy scores for (4a) with both syntactic and semantic cues, (4b) with the syntactic cue (unscrambled SO word
order), and (4c) with the semantic cue (subject-object animacy difference) were considerably higher than (4d) with
neither cue. Also, as shown in Tables 2 and 4, comprehension accuracy of the unscrambled sentences (4a, 4b) was
significantly higher than for the scrambled sentences (4c, 4d), and comprehension accuracy of the sentences with
subject-object animacy difference (4a, 4c) was significantly higher than comprehension for the sentences with no
animacy difference (4b, 4d). These results indicate that both cues from unscrambled SOV word order and from the
subject-object animacy difference significantly improved accurate comprehension of Japanese sentences.
shorter than for the
scrambled sentences (4c, 4d). Also, reading speed was significantly faster for the sentences with subject-object animacy
difference (4a, 4c) compared to the sentences with no animacy difference (4b, 4d). This outcome suggests that the
order and animacy difference.
T -object animacy difference (4a, 4c) was
significantly shorter than for sentences with no animacy difference (4b, 4d), while the reading times for the
unscrambled sentences (4a, 4b) were not significantly different from those of the scrambled sentences (4c, 4d). This
suggests that the animacy of NPs (a semantic factor) is reliable for English speakers when attempting to quickly
comprehend Japanese sentences, but the word order (a syntactic factor) is not.
The observation of the reading times per word reveals the effect of NP-animacy in more detail. Regarding the
syntactic factor (word order), native Japanese speakers read the second NP and verb in unscrambled sentences (4a, 4b)
significantly faster than those in scrambled sentences (4c, 4d). In other words, t sentence
processing occurred on the second NP and the verb. This suggests that native Japanese speakers retrieved the first NP
(object) to put it after the second NP (subject) in order to process them in the default SO order, when encountering
scrambled sentences, as illustrated below.
(7) Object NPt Subject NP Object NPt
|_____________________________ |
(Retrieve)
Also, the reading slow-down appearing on the verb could be considered a spill-over effect. Even when the Japanese
speakers processed the verb, they were possibly still trying to construct the default (unscrambled) SOV sentences.
Regarding the semantic factor (animacy), the time required for native Japanese speakers to read the second NP and
verb was significantly longer in sentences with no subject-object animacy difference (4b, 4d) compared to the sentences
with animacy difference (4a, 4c). on the second NP because, when they
encountered the second NP (when both NPs were animate), they were likely to be confused as to which NP was the
subject or object. This slow-down also appeared upon processing the verb, which may be another example of a spill-
over effect; their confusion may have continued onto the end of the sentences.
On the other hand, similar to native Japanese speakers, the time required for English speakers to read the second NP
and verbs was significantly longer in sentences with no subject-object animacy difference (4b, 4d) compared to those
with animacy difference (4a, 4c). However, no significant differences were found between the times required for
unscrambled sentences (4a, 4b) and scrambled sentences (4c, 4d). This clearly suggests that processing speeds were
significantly affected only by NP-animacy, but not word order.
Overall, the results indicate that native Japanese speakers rely on both the syntactic cue from the word order and the
semantic cue from the NP-animacy, but native English-speaking learners of L2 Japanese primarily rely on semantic
cues from the NP- animacy.

VIII. EXPERIMENT TWO

As mentioned, in Japanese, the unscrambled SOV order is default, and the scrambled OSV order is non-default. The
first experiment above revealed that native Japanese speakers read the sentences in the scrambled word order
significantly slower with less accuracy, compared to the unscrambled sentences. A fundamental question arising here is,
when and why do Japanese speakers scramble the subject and object? One possible answer regarding
production/utterance is the different accessibility-levels of each word. In a real-time conversation, speakers may tend to
produce a word, which they first accessed in their mind, and incrementally complete a sentence following the word.
This is not only true to Japanese scrambling. In English also, native English speakers occasionally say the object first as,

In addition, another explanation pertaining to discourse-level effect was suggested by the Otsu (1994) and
the presence of the referent in preceding context and
definiteness of a fronted object motivate scrambling; scrambling occurs in order to topicalize an NP that overlaps with
an NP from the preceding context. Thus, Masunaga argues, if the fronted object-NP is a definite NP that refers to an
entity, the scrambled sentences sound more acceptable. Also, providing the preceding context with a
referent of the fronted object-NP facilitated native Japanese comprehension of scrambled sentences. Along
with this line, the second experiment of the current study tested the effects of definiteness and preceding contexts with
native Japanese speakers and native English-speaking L2 Japanese learners. In other words, this second experiment
examined the discourse-level effect of the definiteness of the fronted object-NP and the preceding context on the
processing of scrambled sentences.
A. Participants
Twelve native Japanese speakers and eleven native English speakers from the University of South Carolina
participated in Experiment 2. Like Experiment 1, the native English speakers were L2 Japanese learners, enrolled in
Japanese language classes at the University.
B. Materials
In this experiment, the independent variables were the definiteness of the fronted object-NP (definite or indefinite)
and whether the fronted object-NP was preceded by a referent, which serves as a contextual cue. Since Japanese does
not have indefinite or definite articles (i.e., sono
in this experiment, consistent with Masunaga (1983) study. The experimental sentences were given to the participants
in three conditions shown below.
(8) a. Indefinite fronted Object
e.g. Ahiru-o kame-ga oshita.
duck-ACC turtle-NOM pushed

b. Definite fronted Object

e.g. Sono-ahiru-o kame-ga oshita.
that-duck-ACC turtle-NOM pushed

c. Preceding context + Definite fronted Object

e.g. Ahiru-ga ita. Sono-ahiru-o kame-ga oshita.
duck-NOM existed that-duck-ACC turtle-NOM pushed.

Just as in the first experiment, the sentences were presented in Japanese texts with English translations for the content
words, as shown below.
(9) (that duck) (turtle) (pushed)
In order to exclude the semantic influence, all the NPs were animate. Also, the preceding context as in (8c) did not
provide a pragmatic clue for finding which NP in the following scrambled sentences was the subject or object. All
sentences were in the past tense, provided with comprehension questions as shown below.
(10)
1. A turtle pushed that duck.
2. That duck pushed a turtle.
 There were 45 experimental sentences (15 for each of (8a), (8b) and (8c)), and they were mixed among 70 distractor
sentences. The experimental and distractor sentences were given in random order. The procedure of this experiment was
the same as the first experiment: self-paced, word-by-word reading in the moving window paradigm.
C. Data Analyses
The measured dependent variables were (i) the accuracy of the comprehension, which was assessed by the score of
the comprehension question, and (ii) the reading time of all the scrambled OSV sentences, excluding the preceding
context. The T-test was used to compare the three conditions with respect to these variables.
According to Masunaga (1983), participants were expected to perform better in comprehension accuracy and reading
times for sentences (8b, 8c) with definite object-NPs than for those (8a) with indefinite object-NPs. Also, according to
Otsu (1994), the participants were expected to perform better for sentences (8c) with preceding context than sentences
(8a, 8b) with no preceding context.

IX. RESULTS: EXPERIMENT TWO

A. Native Japanese Speakers

The mean values and standard deviations of reading times and accuracy rates in the results from the native Japanese
speakers are summarized in the table below.

TABLE 5
NATIVE JAPANESE SPEAKERS ACCURACY SCORE AND READING TIMES IN EXPERIMENT TWO
Conditions and Example sentences Accuracy (%) [SD] Reading time (msec) [SD]
Sentence 2376.79 [997.95]
Indefinite fronted Object
87.23 [14.22] 1st NP (animate Subj) 668.42 [254.90]
e.g., (8a) Ahiru-o kame-ga oshita.
2nd NP (inanimate Obj) 695.77 [208.49]
Verb 1012.60 [599.44]
Sentence 2624.75 [911.88]
Definite fronted Object
90.00 [9.56] 1st NP (animate Subj) 937.13 [394.73]
e.g., (8b) Sono-ahiru-o kame-ga oshita.
2nd NP (animate Obj) 765.63 [241.09]
Verb 921.98 [389.49]
Sentence 2391.23 [572.67]
Preceding context + Definite fronted Object
93.89 [5.42] 1st NP (inanimate Obj) 782.56 [181.43]
e.g., Ahiru-ga ita. Sono-ahiru-o kame-ga oshita.
2nd NP (animate Subj) 807.07 [228.06]
Verb 801.60 [279.70]

The accuracy rates and reading times for the three conditions were compared via T-test, whose outcome is shown
below.
TABLE 6
T-TEST ANALYSES FOR N ATIVE JAPANESE SPEAKERS ACCURACY SCORE AND READING TIMES IN EXPERIMENT TWO
(8a) Indefinite fronted Object (8a) Indefinite fronted Object (8b) Definite fronted Object

vs. vs. vs.

(8b) Definite fronted Object (8c) Preceding context + (8c) Preceding context +
Definite fronted Object Definite fronted Object
Accuracy p = .254 p = .067 p = .066

Sentential Reading time p = .081 p = .465 p = .088

1st NP Reading time p = .003* p = .025* p = .081
2nd NP Reading time p = .007* p = .038* p = .249
Verb Reading time p = .219 p = .038* p = .015*
Note. An asterisk indicates significant differences (p < .05).

Regarding the accuracy rates and sentential reading times, the analyses showed no significant difference between the
three conditions. However, there were significant differences in reading times per word. First, for the first NP
(scrambled/fronted object) and the second NP (subject), the reading times for the (8a) indefinite-OSV sentences were
significantly shorter than for the other two conditions. In contrast, the reading time for the verb in the (8c) definite-OSV
with preceding context was significantly shorter than the other two conditions. In other words, the native Japanese

reading became faster for (8c) sentences with preceding contexts at the end, compared with the other sentences.
B. Native English Speakers
The mean values and standard deviations of reading times and accuracy of native English-speaking participants are
summarized in the table below.
 TABLE 7
NATIVE ENGLISH SPEAKERS ACCURACY SCORE AND READING TIMES IN EXPERIMENT TWO
Conditions and Example sentences Accuracy (%) [SD] Reading time (msec) [SD]
Sentence 4135.37 [2137.26]
Indefinite fronted Object
55.76 [29.26] 1st NP (animate Subj) 1458.82 [862.47]
e.g., (8a) Ahiru-o kame-ga oshita.
2nd NP (inanimate Obj) 1265.43 [792.91]
Verb 1411.12 [630.03]
Sentence 4608.32 [2301.99]
Definite fronted Object
57.31 [28.32] 1st NP (animate Subj) 1862.08 [928.79]
e.g., (8b) Sono-ahiru-o kame-ga oshita.
2nd NP (animate Obj) 1258.84 [618.50
Verb 1487.41 [946.77]
Sentence 3755.45 [1671.16]
Preceding context + Definite fronted Object
70.91 [22.83] 1st NP (inanimate Obj) 1458.95 [741.59]
e.g., Ahiru-ga ita. Sono-ahiru-o kame-ga oshita.
2nd NP (animate Subj) 1173.10 [607.19]
Verb 1123.40 [369.81]

Accuracy, sentential reading times and reading times per word were compared for the three conditions. The outcome
from T-test analyses is shown below.

TABLE 8
T-TEST ANALYSES FOR N ATIVE ENGLISH SPEAKERS ACCURACY SCORE AND READING TIMES IN EXPERIMENT TWO
(8a) Indefinite fronted Object (8a) Indefinite fronted Object (8b) Definite fronted Object
vs. vs. vs.
(8b) Definite fronted Object (8c) Preceding context + (8c) Preceding context +
Definite fronted Object Definite fronted Object
Accuracy p = .419 p = .014* p = .013*

Sentential Reading time p = .005* p = .048* p = .004*

1st NP Reading time p = .001* p = .500 p = .011*
2nd NP Reading time p = .214 p = .322 p = .190
Verb Reading time p = .326 p = .007* p = .044*
Note. An asterisk indicates significant differences (p < .05).

The analyses showed that the accuracy scores for (8c) definite-OSV preceded by context were significantly higher
than the two conditions with no preceding context (8a, 8b). No significant differences were otherwise observed between
them.
As for the sentential reading times, significant differences were found between all conditions; reading for (8c)
definite-OSV preceded by context were significantly faster than the other conditions; and reading for the (8a) indefinite
object-NP condition was found to be faster than (8b) definite object-NP with no preceding context.
Regarding the reading time per word, as for the first NP (i.e., fronted object-NP), the reading time was found to be
longer for (8b) definite object-NP with no preceding context compared to the other two conditions (8a, 8c). No
significant differences were found between these two conditions. Also, no significant differences were found in the
reading times for the second NP (i.e., subject-NP). As for the reading time per verb, reading times for (8c) definite-OSV
preceded by context was significantly shorter than for the other two conditions (8a, 8b).

X. DISCUSSION : E XPERIMENT TWO

Regarding native Japanese speakers, no significant differences were found between the three conditions of (8a), (8b)
and (8c) with respect to the accuracy scores and sentential reading times. Closer inspection of per-word reading times
reveals that when processing the first NP and the second NP, reading speeds were faster for the (8a) sentences with
indefinite object-NP compared to the other conditions with definite object-NP (8b, 8c). This indicates two possible
explanations: first, simply because the indefinite object-NP in (8a) (i.e., ahiru-o -
definite object-NPs in (8b, 8c) (i.e., sono-ahiru-o -
them faster than definite NPs, although all words were sho
possible explanation is that the definiteness of the object-NP in (8b, c) led participants try to search for and retrieve its
referent, which required extra time, thereby increasing reading times.
However -OSV preceded by context
compared to the other two conditions (8a, 8b). This may reflect the facilitatory effect from the preceding context, as
4) study. In other words, participants seem to have less confusion in processing scrambled
sentences, when the referent of the fronted object-NP appeared earlier in the preceding context. Furthermore, the
presence of the preceding context may be motivation for scrambling, and the markedness of the scrambled word order
could be neutralized, thereby allowing participants to process the scrambled OSV sentences relatively quickly.
On the other hand, (8b) sentences with definite object-NP but with no preceding context were not found to be read
any faster than (8a) those with indefinite object-NP. This may indicate that only definiteness alone does not help native
processing of the scrambled sentences: a clear referent for the fronted object-NP was needed to be
quickly processed. This explanation could be still compatible with
scrambling is an option for topicalization of an NP (i.e., whereby a fronted object-NP is made to be the topic of the
sentence). Essentially, the topic-NP in Japanese carries the information that the participants of the communication share
and already know (Kuno, 1972). Thus, in order to topicalize an NP, the NP should be information that has appeared
previously or is otherwise already known. The condition (8b) without preceding context or referent to the fronted
object-NP was not sufficient to establish the topic-hood of the fronted object-NP in scrambled sentences.
The discussion above is summarized as follows: preceding context that
, but definiteness of the
fronted object-NP alone and without referent does not.
As for the results from the native English speakers, first, when observing their accuracy scores, (8c) sentences with
previous context were comprehended significantly more accurately than the other conditions. However, when the
fronted object-NP was definite but with no preceding context as in (8b), comprehension was not improved compared to
when the fronted-NP was indefinite as in (8a). Second, in observing the native English-
time for the verb, it was faster when preceding context was provided as in (8c), compared to the other conditions. These
outcomes should be, similarly to native Japanese speakers, indications of the facilitatory effect from the preceding
context; the presence of the referent for the fronted object-NP successfully helped participants quickly process
scrambled sentences.
However, the native English- more radical effect compared to that of
native Japanese speakers. Their sentential reading times and the reading times per the first NP show that (8b) sentences
with definite object-NP but with no preceding context were read significantly slower than the other two conditions.

an NP logically requires the presence of its referent. Because a definite NP is not preceded by its referent, the English-
speaking readers may have kept searching for it, which appeared as the longest reading time for the first NP (i.e.,
definite object-NP) in the condition (8b).
In summary, the definiteness of the fronted object-NP with the presence of its referent facilitated the processing of
scrambled sentences both for native Japanese and English speakers. Furthermore, definiteness alone without referent
penalized

XI. CONCLUSIONS AND LIMITATIONS

From the results of the first experiment, we found that native Japanese speakers equally rely on both the syntactic
cues from word order and semantic cues from NP animacy, whereas animacy difference contributes more than word
order for native English-speaking L2 Japanese learners. This finding is plausible considering that information regarding
whether an entity is animate or inanimate completely overlaps in English and Japanese as a cue for sentence
comprehension. The information from word order only partially overlaps in English and Japanese because the default
SO word
claim that, while adult L2 learners access lexical and semantic cues in the same ways as native speakers, syntactic
information is less accessible to them.
From the results of the second experiment, it was shown that the preceding context significantly facilitated both the

difference nor default word order available, the participants accurately processed the scrambled sentences when a
preceding context and the referent of the scrambled object-NP was provided. The second experiment also revealed the
significantly slower reading speed of the sentences with definite fronted object-NP without preceding context for native
English speakers. They took a comparably longer time when reading the fronted definite object-NP without preceding
context, which indicates the penalty from the absence of the referent of the definite NP.
eliance on case markers is
relatively small. Their comprehension accuracy for scrambled sentences was low when no distinction was made
between subjects and objects with respect to animacy, despite all being marked by correct case markers. The results
imply that the effect from syntactic cue (word order) and semantic cue (animacy) may be stronger than morphological
cues (case markers): a possible research topic in further studies.
While the two experiments in this study exhibited plausible findings, there are some limitations in this study. One
possible limitation is that the words used in the experiment were presented both in Japanese texts and English
translation for each content word as shown in (5) and (9), which may bias analysis of reading times. Another possible
limitation of the experiments is the small number of participants. Outcomes may potentially differ given more
participants.

proficiency level. Participants in the current study were enrolled in the first or second semester of Japanese classes,
which is why we had to provide English translations for content words. Further research is required to determine
whether highly proficient L2 Japanese speakers may exhibit performance more similar to that of native Japanese
speakers.
In conclusion, this study investigated the effects of the word order and animacy with respect to accuracy and
processing time of Japanese scrambled sentences for native Japanese speakers and native English speakers. The
findings from this study should be tested again after addressing the limitations. Additional research might furthermore
clarify the validity of the findings of this study and contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of how Japanese
sentences are processed.

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crosslinguistic study of sentence processing (pp. 3-76). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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[4] Ferreira, F. & Stacy, J. (2000). The misinterpretation of passive sentences. Manuscript submitted for publication.
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[11] Iwasaki, N. (2003). L2 acquisition of Japanese: Knowledge and use of case particles in SOV and OSV sentences. In S. Karimi
(Ed.), Word order and scrambling (pp. 273-200). MA: Blackwell.
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Clause structure (pp. 243-281). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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[16] Lakshman, U. & Ozeki, M. (1996). The case of the missing particle: Objective case assignment and scrambling in the early
grammar of Japanese. In A. Stringfellow. D. Cahana-Amitay, E. Hughes, & A. Zukowski (Eds.), Boston University conference
on language development (BUCLD) 20 proceedings (pp. 431-442). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.
[17] Mazuka, R., Itoh, K., & Kondo, T. (2002). Cost of scrambling in Japanese sentence processing. In M. Nakayama (Ed.),
Sentence processing in East Asian languages (pp. 131-166). Stanford, CA: CSLI.
[18] Masunaga, K. (1983). Bridging. In S. Hattori & K. Inoue (Eds.), Proceedings of the XIIIth International Congress of
Linguistics (pp. 455-460). Tokyo: Proceedings Publishing Committee.
[19] Omaki, A. & Schulz, B. (2011). Filler-gap dependencies and island constraints in second-language sentence processing. Studies
in second language acquisition, 33. 563-588.
[20] Otsu, Y. (1994). Early acquisition of scrambling in Japanese. In T. Hoekstra & B. Schwartz (Eds.), Language acquisition
studies in generative grammar (pp. 253-264). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
[21] Sano, K. (1977). An experimental study on the acquisition of Japanese simple sentences and cleft sentences. Descriptive and
applied linguistics, 10, 213-233.
[22] Sorace, A. (2006). Gradience and optimality in mature and developing grammars. In G. Fanselow, C. Fery, M. Schlesewsky, &
R. Vogel (Eds.), Gradience in grammars: Generative perspectives (pp. 106-123). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
[23] VanPatten, B. (1996). Input Processing and Grammar Instruction in Second Language Acquisition. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
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commentary (pp. 5-32). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
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Shinichi Shoji received a PhD in linguistics focusing on reference resolution in Japanese from the University of South Carolina,
Columbia, SC, USA, in 2016, with his dissertation The Repeated Name Penalty and the Overt Pronoun Penalty in Japanese.
Currently he is an Assistant Professor at Center for International Education and Research, Mie University, Japan. He was previously
an instructor of Japanese language at University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA and Clemson University,
Clemson, SC, USA.
 A Classroom-Centered Study of Third Tone in
Mandarin Chinese
Bianye Li
George Brown College, Canada

Abstract Phonological third tone sandhi studies in Mandarin Chinese will lead more often to a lab-centered
research, whereas the incorporation of phonetic tone sandhi studies into phonological analyses will shed a light
on a classroom-centered study. This incorporation suggests a revised approach to the third tone sandhi from
an articulatory perspective. As a result, the study of pitch values and pitch contours of a third tone are taken
over by the study of sound positions and jaw/chin movements. The well-known five-level tonal diagram is
challenged and replaced by a seven-level tonal diagram with an application of only two forms of pronouncing
a third tone ---pseudo third tone and pseudo second tone. All these aim to investigate a classroom-centered
study of a third tone as an understudied area to provide practical guidance for Mandarin instructors and
learners of Mandarin as second language.

Index Terms phonological/phonetic third tone sandhi studies, classroom-centered study of third tone, seven-
level tonal diagram, pseudo third tone and pseudo second tone, incompletely/completely neutralized pseudo
second tone

I. INTRODUCTION
A third tone study of phonological nature has been performed for decades. Considerable progress has been made in
our understanding of the processing of third tone sandhi from the phonological perspective. Advances in this literature
have allowed many third tone sandhi problems to be addressed and solved. The outcomes which have been achieved
through computer-generated data and computer-assisted analysis have provided valuable theoretical descriptions of
Mandarin third tone sandhi mechanisms.
However, the successful application of these theoretical analyses to teaching of third tone sandhi for learners of
Mandarin as second language has proven to be difficult. Their experimental results from a lab have been met with
limited enthusiasm in classrooms, likely due to a combination of the following factors:
1. The main aims of their studies and analyses are primarily lab-centered in order to demonstrate that their outcomes
are reliable, accurate and convincing.
2. The authors of these studies might forget that if these experimentally-based outcomes can only be measured and
verified by a computer-assisted device such as PRAAT, WinPitch or EMA, these outcomes might paradoxically fail to
be easily, accurately and reliably perceived by Mandarin teachers and learners in classroom.
3. Most of the experimental studies for theoretical analysis are based on a five-level numerical scale of pitch values
or contours of Fo (fundamental frequency, measured in the units of Hertz). The pitch values, pitch height and pitch
contours are deterrent and not easily and accurately perceived by most Mandarin teachers and students without much
phonological background.
4. The Mandarin teachers and learners in the classroom feel greatly challenged by the theoretical discourses and
linguistic terms used by researchers, linguists and dissertation-writers in phonology, such as autosegmental phonology,
optimality theory, constraint-based analyses, surface and underlying patterns, incomplete neutralization, derivational
process, tonal domains and metrical domains, bimoraic syllables, etc.

II. CLASSROOM-CENTERED STUDY OF THIRD TONE

A phonological tone sandhi study will lead more often to a lab-centered research, whereas the incorporation of
phonetic tone sandhi studies into phonological analyses will shed light on a new approach to a classroom-centered study.
This incorporation suggests a revised approach to the third tone sandhi from an articulatory perspective. As a result, the
study of pitch values and pitch contours at labs will become a study of sound positions and jaw/chin movements in a
classroom. The substantiated empirical findings from sound positions and jaw movements inside the mouth are easier
for teachers and learners without much phonological background to comprehend and to apply to their teaching and
learning experience. The learning process in the classrooms favors these perceptible properties with strong phonetic
bases instead of patterns with abstract phonological features. Although the computer-assisted devices such as PRAAT
and WinPitch are great tools to measure the values of Fundamental Frequency (Fo), human ears and mouths remain the
final judge of any perceivable third tone sandhi behaviors and processes in teaching and learning experience. The
evidence and data generated by computer-assisted devices do not efficiently solve the problem of how to teach the
students to pronounce a sandhi third tone or how students know to correct or avoid their mistakes. At the same time, a
seven-level tonal diagram has been developed in order to provide a potentially better model for variable sandhi
behaviors than the well-established five-level tonal diagram.

III. FIVE-LEVEL TONAL DIAGRAM

Most of previous Chinese tonal studies are based on or related to the five-level tonal diagram developed by Chao
(1930). The five-level tonal diagram can be easily found in many studies of a third tone, even in Tone (linguistics)
Wikipedia:

Many researchers have quoted and used this five-point tonal scale in their discourses. The pitch values and pitch
contours for four tones are transcribed in numbers. A general consensus has been reached in this literature that the pitch
value of 214 on this five point scale is taken for the third tone or the full third tone. As a result, previous studies have
consistently shown that the code of 214 represents the full third tone.
Jin (2018) said, Chao (1930) designed a five-level numerical scale to represent the pitch height, ranging from 1
through 5 with the latter being the highest pitch level. In this representation system, the four basic tones are labeled as
. (P. 68)

comfortable pitch of the vocal range and 5 represents the highest. The first tone (tone 1) (55) is high and level. It is
pitched near the top of the comfortable voice range. The second tone (tone 2) (35) starts around the middle of the voice
range 3 and rises straight towards the level of the first tone 5. The third tone (tone 3) (214) begins near the bottom of the
comfortable voice 2, proceeds to the bottom 1, and then upward to end above the middle 4. The fourth tone (tone 4) (51)
(P. 296).
The third tone as 214 in such a diagram is also introduced across the spectrum of textbooks such as in Integrated
Chinese (2009). Many linguists and researchers still remain convinced that this five-level tonal diagram is a putative
model for the pitch values and contours of the full four tones. If this putative model is challenged, the foundation for
many third tone sandhi analyses will be compromised. For me, the number 214 does not represent the basic third tone or
the full third tone or citation third tone. The third tone with the number 214 turns out to be only one of variable forms
for a sandhi third tone both because the full third tone almost does not occur in our natural utterance and because a
sandhi process for the third tone has already taken place even when four Mandarin lexical tones are pronounced one
after another as a demonstration of teaching. This five-level scale is static in the sense that it represents only four full
tones and cannot be applied to the dynamic third tone sandhi process. This static five-level scale fails to explain the
arbitrary nature of the third tone sandhi in natural utterances from both phonetic and phonological perspectives.

IV. SEVEN-LEVEL TONAL DIAGRAM

If the five-level tonal diagram as a foundation for many third tone sandhi studies is challenged, my seven-level tonal
diagram may potentially provide a better model for four tones as well as for variable sandhi behaviors. In this seven-
level tonal diagram, F0 trajectory and pitch values are replaced by a
by a trajectory of jaw/chin movements when a particular sound is pronounced. A dynamic peak of the sound position
for the departure point of a third tone, a variable valley of sound positions for its falling and a different peak for its
terminal rise within a third tone sandhi contour will be illustrated in the following diagrams instead of simply a static
pitch value such as 214.

First Second Third Fourth

Tone Tone Tone Tone
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Figure 1 for as a Full Third Tone (Third Tone or Citation Third Tone)

Figure 1 is a static seven-level scale diagram. It is static in the sense that it represents the height of a sound position
and the contour of the jaw/chin movement inside the mouth only for s full third tone instead of its dynamic third
of any other vowels
in a third tone or any sounds with the combination of a vowel with a consonant because different vowels have different
sound positions inside the mouth. The number Zero is especially designated to illustrate the citation third tone or full
third tone as a demonstration example when being pronounced in total separation from all the other three tones. The
citation third tone or full third tone in this special case is assigned the number 402 instead of 214, and the number 402
indicates a deep falling with a moderate rise. However, the full third tone as 402 is not common in our natural utterance.
It exists only as a demonstration or simply as a mistake.
The number Zero can only be applied in some very rare scenarios, when we want to show our great feelings or
emotions by pronouncing the word as low as the number Zero in a long drawn-out sound H o in the
same way as shouting the English word Yes: Y e s!. The number Zero is used in another rare scenario:
y The word de is pronounced in a neutral tone which is relatively non-salient/non-significant in meaning.
As a result, its duration is shortened. For the sake of compensation for the shortened duration of the neutral tone of
de will get lengthened in duration instead. Therefore, in a slow speech tempo

derived duration from de in neutral tone. The number for the trajectory of its jaw/chin movement will be 401.
Although is followed also by the
vowel for in a
slow speech tempo instead of 401.
Anyhow, the number Zero is used for these three rare exceptions: full third tone, pronounced with great
feelings and with slow speech tempo.
 First Second Third Fourth
Tone Tone Tone Tone
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Figure 2 for Slow or Regular Tempo Instead of a Quick Speech Tempo

In a slow or regular speech tempo, First Tone in this seven-level scale diagram is characterized by a high
level sound with the number 66; Second Tone is a rising tone with the number 56; Third Tone is a low dipping and
small rise tone with the number 412 instead of 214 (Note: if the third tone is pronounced in a quick speech tempo, its
number will be 546), and Fourth Tone is a falling tone that begins at the top of the number 6 and falls only a half way to
he highest possible sound position for any vowels or sounds,

In the five-level tonal system, the pitch values are divided into five levels: upper, upper middle, middle, lower middle,
and lower, whereas in the seven-level tonal system, the sound positions are divided into seven levels: upper high, lower
high, upper middle, middle, lower middle, upper low, and low. The seven-level scale does not aim to be completely
accurate, but aims to be closer to accuracy and closer to fractions. (It would be better if fractions had been introduced in
the seven-level scale diagram to describe a smaller terminal rise or a smaller initial fall in a sandhi third tone.)
Figure 2 is a partially static and partially dynamic seven-level scale diagram. It is static in the sense that it represents
the sound positions and the contours of the jaw/chin movement inside the mouth only for the four tones in a
slow or regular utterance tempo instead of other vowels or in a quick tempo. In addition, it is static in the sense that it
el
with a consonant. However, as compared with with the number 402 in Figure 1, Figure 2 is dynamic in the sense that
distance to 1 instead
of to 0, and by shortening the distance of its jaw/chin movement from a moderate rise to a small rise due to its
interaction with the other three tones before the involvement of any other adjacent factors.

First Second Third Fourth

Tone Tone Tone Tone
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Figure. 3 for in a Slow or Regular Tempo

First Tone i level sound with the number 77; Second Tone in qí is a rising tone with the
falling contour and followed by a small rise with the number 634 instead
of 214, and Fourth Tone in qì is a falling tone that begins at the top of the number 7 and falls only a half way through
with the number 4 instead of falling to the bottom with the number 1.
Figure 3 is also a partially static and partially dynamic seven-level scale diagram. It is static in the sense that it
represents the sound positions and the contours of the jaw/chin movement inside the mouth only for qi with these four

different combination of a vowel with a consonant.

However, it is dynamic in the sense that Figure 3 has taken some variables into consideration because the height of
Figure Figure 2.
These changes in sound height and contour of the jaw/chin movement are dynamic in the sense that a phonetic analysis
has been incorporated into a third tone sandhi analysis in this literature, and these differences and changes are clearly
perceivable to a learner of Mandarin as a second language even without any phonological background. In addition,
Figure 3 is dynamic in the sense that thi departure point (6 instead of 4
by its falling ( and followed by a small rise with its contour
is a low dipping and small rise tone with a different number 412.

Third Third
Tone for Tone for

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Figure. 4 for in a Slow or Regular Tempo

Figure 4 is another partially static and partially dynastic seven-level scale diagram. It is static in the sense that it
represents the sound positions and the contours of the jaw/chin movement inside the mouth only for these two sounds in
a slow or regular speech tempo without a comprehensive consideration of all dynamic third tone sandhi processes.
However, it is dynamic in the sense that Figure 4 has tak
.

.
The seven-level tonal diagram outlines potential directions to which the studies of Chinese third tone can fruitfully
proceed. Basing on this seven-level tonal scale, we are also equipped to bring new observations to the sound positions,
jaw/chin movement and third tone sandhi behaviors.

V. FULL THIRD TONE AND THIRD TONE SANDHI

As it has been observed, the duration of tone 3 is longer than the other 3 tones in Mandarin. The number one factor
which triggers a third tone sandhi is its extra long duration instead of some other factors. Then, the third tone sandhi is
conditioned by a number of other factors such as syntactic structure, semantic structure, speech prosody, speaking rates,
constituent strength/syntactic hierarchy, etc. Besides, the third tone sandhi is conditioned by its adjacent tones. The
substantial duration of a full third tone cannot be maintained when a third tone is pronounced just with the other three

undertake a third tone sandhi process by compromising its duration, irrespective of any other factors.
So far, there exist only two kinds of full third tones: 1. a full falling and full rising third tone as pronounced like the
shape of third tone graph V ; 2. a full falling and half/moderate rising third tone with its number 402 as pronounced
for a demo of with its total separation from any adjacent tones or syllables.
, starting with its left swing end and reaching its
a V has never existed in natural language
utterances because the jaw/chin movement starting from high falling will never rise to the same height as that of the
pendulum-like third tone graph. It seems that you cannot make your physical jaw/chin perform a full falling and full
rising as the shape of a third tone mark due to the principle of effort minimization. The principle of effort minimization
will take advantage of its tonal faithfulness by being short of the full rising amplitude of a pendulum swing. Therefore,
the first kind of full third tone never exists in our natural utterance. V
3rd tone is mi
mark can be found to replace it.
The second kind of full third tone is pronounced only as a demonstration example totally in separation with the other
three tones or any sounds. In this case, the third tone is able to perform a deeper falling with a higher/moderate rise.
That is why the number Zero in my seven-level scale diagram is designated to represent the full third tone with its
number 402.

VI. PSEUDO THIRD TONE AND PSEUDO SECOND TONE

 If having only two resulting sandhi forms for the third tone--- 1. Pseudo Third Tone; 2. Pseudo Second Tone---, the
third tone sandhi will be much more simplified.
A. Pseudo Third Tone
The third tone is characterized by an initial falling and a terminal rise. The sandhi third tone is also a tone with an
initial falling and a terminal rise. But the movement of the jaw/chin in Pseudo Third Tone has a deep initial falling with
a small or smaller terminal rise instead of moderate or high terminal rise.
It has been observed in the article Hanyu Pinyin for Mandarin Speakers: Tones
four words [ , , and ], " " is pronounced in the half third tone -- there is no rising. Examples like
this abound in speech: "
One of the reasons for the above description might be that a small rising is too small to be measured by the integers
of five-level scale diagram due to a lack of fractions. If the contour of the jaw/chin movement is applied to this third
tone sandhi process, you will definitely notice a small/smaller terminal rise with the jaw/chin for the third tone " " in
the above examples instead of no rising.
The so-
five-level scale is not the contour of a sandhi third tone. Although the terminal rise for this so-

of the jaw/chin movement.

When a third tone is pronounced at a slow or regular speech rate instead of a fast tempo, it becomes a pseudo third
tone with a deep falling and a small/smaller terminal rise or with a shorter falling and a very small terminal rise. (When
third tone is pronounced at a fast speech rate, it becomes a pseudo second tone with a small initial fall and a high/long
terminal rise instead as in 6.2. Pseudo Second Tone).
-final syllable(s) is
(P. 297)
Shi g (1968) is an earlier phonological study of the Tone 3 sandhi in Mandarin. The author
reports that the Mandarin Tone 3 maintains its full tone contour [214] only when it is produced in isolation or on the
final syllable of an utterance followed by a pause (P. 4)
However, the picture presented here by the above authors is far from being complete. For me, whether the initial or
final syllable, all the third tones undergo a tone sandhi to different extents because no syllable can be pronounced in its
full third tone in natural utterances due to shortening their duration or to the principle of effort minimization. That
means that not only will the initial Chinese character with a third tone in a phrase, a sense group or a domain undergo a
tonal sandhi process if followed by another Chinese character, but the final syllable of an utterance or the last Chinese
character of a phrase or a sense group will also undergo a third tone sandhi process if proceeded by another Chinese
character or syllable. That means that the terminal full third tone in an utterance cannot be maintained due to its mutual
interaction with the proceeding tone in the same way as the tone sandhi process experienced by a neutral tone in
reduplication of syllables or Chinese characters. Although with no adjacent syllables following the final syllable, it will
be pronounced with different amounts of articulatory effort when it appears at the end of a phrase or sense group or a
domain, just as the original speed of a vehicle will determine its braking distance for its stop. Taking
example, it is clearly perceivable that can even sounds shorter than
the jaw moving down and up.
B. Pseudo Second Tone
Pseudo Second Tone is different from Pseudo Third Tone because Pseudo Second Tone is similar to a regular second
tone. Although Pseudo Second Tone is similar to a regular second tone, the movement of the jaw/chin in pseudo second
tone has a small initial fall with a high/long terminal rise. It is pseudo in the sense that Pseudo Second Tone still bears
the distinguishing feature of a full third tone with an initial falling and a terminal rise. A third tone becomes a pseudo
second tone when the speech tempo increases for an initial third tone in a disyllabic/trisyllabic domain (phrase or sense
group) as well as for a non-initial/non-final third tone in a trisyllabic domain (phrase or sense group). In addition,
Pseudo Second Tone is divided into two forms: 1. incompletely neutralized pseudo second tone; 2. completely
neutralized pseudo second tone.
1. Incompletely Neutralized Pseudo Second Tone
Incompletely neutralized pseudo second tone is pseudo and incompletely neutralized (in a sense similar to but not
totally identical to a second tone) in perception. When a third tone is changed from a pseudo third tone in a slow or
regular speech tempo to a pseudo second tone (to be more accurate, an incompletely neutralized pseudo second tone)
when the speech tempo increases, specially for an initial third tone in a disyllabic/trisyllabic domain (phrase or sense
group) in a fast speech tempo. However, its initial small, though very small, falling movement can be clearly
perceivable to the speaker. Most of the examples of pseudo second tone belong to an incompletely neutralized pseudo
second tone.
2. Completely Neutralized Pseudo Second Tone
identical to a normal second tone. However, I have also read papers which argue that th (2012-06-03
at 18:54)
So far, it seems that no resolution has been found to address these two above contradictory arguments identified by
Olle Linge. The reason for this lies in two forms of Pseudo Second Tone: 1. incompletely neutralized pseudo second
tone; 2. completely neutralized pseudo second tone. Many examples of an incompletely neutralized pseudo second tone

the
A completely neutralized pseudo second tone is realized in the sense that a sandhi third tone is extremely similar to a
second tone. The difference between this sandhi third tone and the second tone is not clearly perceivable to a human
being. This completely neutralized pseudo second tone is also realized in the sense that it is still pseudo instead of being
100% identical to the second tone. However, the difference, if any, between this completely neutralized pseudo second
tone and the regular second tone can only be identified by a computer-assisted device.
Besides, a pseudo third tone in the initial syllable in a disyllabic or trisyllabic domain (phrase) is very susceptible to
the changes of a speech tempo. It will be changed from a pseudo third tone in a slow or regular speech tempo to
incompletely neutralized pseudo second tone in a fast speech tempo. The same holds true that an incompletely
neutralized pseudo second tone in the initial syllable in a disyllabic or trisyllabic domain (phrase) will be changed back
to a pseudo third tone in a slow or regular speech tempo. However, a completely neutralized pseudo second tone in the
third tone sandhi process will be insusceptible to the increases or decreases of a speech tempo even when it is in the
initial syllable of a disyllabic or trisyllabic domain.
Figure 5 represents a dynamic seven-level scale diagram for a pseudo third tone in a slow or regular speech tempo
and an incompletely neutralized pseudo second tone in a fast speech tempo, and Figure 6 represents a completely
neutralized pseudo second tone.

Pseudo Third Tone in a slow or Incompletely neutralized

regular speech tempo Pseudo Second Tone in a fast
speech tempo

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Figure. 5 for

A third tone becomes a pseudo second tone when the speech tempo increases for an initial third tone in a disyllabic
domain. in a two third tone string is pronounced as a pseudo third tone with an
initial moderate fall and a final small rise in a slow speech rate with the number of 523 due to the relative low sound

more accurate, an incompletely neutralized pseudo second tone) with an initial small fall and a terminal high rise in a
fast speech tempo with the number of 546.
-known pair of
Politzer-Ahles (201
-
t ], in which the first syllable was either underlyingly Rising or was changed to Rising via tone
sandhi, and had to select the appropriate orthographic representation (for this example, either t / "at least"
or t / "ride a horse"). In the discrimination they heard disyllable pairs, where either both disyllables were
the same, or one disyllable was a production with an underlying Rising and one a production with a sandhi-derived
Rising tone. They then judged whether they were the same or different. The participants were not significantly more
accurate than chance level in identifying the tones, but they were significantly above chance in discriminating them.
Above-chance discrimination does not indicate that the tones were incompletely neutralized, though, because there are
many other ways that different acoustic cues can allow participants to perform well on within-category discrimination

Why does Liu in the above testing typically take this pair for examples instead of more common pairs? That is
because the third tone sandhi of
and can be classified as a completely neutralized pseudo second tone instead of an incompletely neutralized pseudo
second tone. At the same time, they fail to find a solution from the phonetic perspective, namely, to figure out how the
sounds of -
level scale diagram for illustration.

qí in qí in
qí lái

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Figure. 6 for qí in
for qí in qí lái (rode over).

completely neutralized pseudo second tone) with the number of 67 in a slow speech rate; it makes no change perceptible
to a speaker even when the speech tempo is changed from slow to fast and it will still keep its number of 67 unchanged.
It sounds almost exactly like is so small that it can only be identified by a computer-
assisted device.
It is important to know that the cases for a completely neutralized pseudo second tone are rare and can be considered
as exceptions. They only exist with the four a sound with
mus ly high position inside
the mouth and almost touch the roof (the hard palate or soft palate) of the mouth. In addition, the final syllable

almost disappear.

stay relatively high there instead. Generally speaking, when a

sound position is extremely high and close to the roof of a mouth, the muscle of a mouth should get intense, and this
intensity of the muscle will keep .
.
open with intense muscles, and the chin will move downward. However, when the muscle of a mouth stays intense, the
t of the chin. This movement of going
upward will prevent fall perceivable before its terminal rising.
lái in Figure 6, we will introduce a new pair of disyllables in
qí lái with the initial syllables qí. In this new case, the vowel in the final syllable is
. qí lái is easily identified and clearly perceivable to the speaker.
terminal small rise in a slow speed with the number 523 or an
initial small fall with a terminal high rise in a fast speed with the number 546. However, qí in qí lái is a second
tone with the number 67.
Another example of a completely neutralized pseudo second tone can be found in y
located in an extremely high position inside the mouth and almost touch the roof (soft palate) of the mouth. In addition,
the final syllable tial
small fall of the third tone in almost disappear. It makes no change perceptible to a speaker even when the speech
tempo is changed from slow to fast with its number of 67 unchanged.
If we just switch the sequence of the disyllable domain to , it is important to
find that
initial small fall and a final high rise in a fast speech tempo. People might start to wonder why
capable of an initial deep fall, whereas
reason for that is because the sound position of
 Figure 6 is dynamic in the sense that it has taken more variables into consideration because the height of the sound
Figure Figure 5. This
change in sound heights and
is dynamic. Besides, Figure 6 is dynamic in the sense that it has taken most variables into consideration not only
because the tonal effect of the final syllable on the

disyllabic third tone sandhi process has been taken into consideration. These important phonetic changes failed to be
incorporated into a phonological third tone sandhi analysis in most previous studies in this literature.

VII. CLASSROOM-CENTERED STUDY WITH VARIABLES OF THIRD TONE SANDHI

A dynamic mapping of a third tone sandhi should include numerous elements of arbitrary and variable nature.
A. Dynamic Seven-Level Tonal Diagram with Variables
Some dynamic features of a third tone sandhi process also have been captured in this diagram when various sound
positions inside the mouth have been taken into consideration to indicate the arbitrary nature of a third tone sandhi. The
sound position inside the mouth for the same syllable with a third tone should not have one single or same starting
height position in a different sandhi environment. At the same time, the sound position inside the mouth for the same
syllable with a third tone should not have one single or same lowest position. Furthermore, the sound position inside the
mouth for the same syllable with a third tone should not have one single or same final ending height position in a
different sandhi environment.
Not only should the whole contour of the jaw/chin movement be illustrated, but different versions of the contour of
the jaw/chin movement in different speech speeds should also be mapped out. For example, the gradient differences in
number should be delineated in a slow, regular or fast articulatory rate.
Taking Figure 412 , 423 or
435 in a different sandhi environment of slow, regular or fast articulatory rate. These productions are still perceived as
gradient differences in a third tone sandhi process.
Taking Figure 3 for example, the contour value of 634 for the sandhi
Figure
regular articulatory rate, and 657 in a fast articulatory rate in Figure 5. Even the asymptotic approximation value of 67
in Figure
Taking
the soft palate with the contour value of 67. The dynamic nature of third tone sandhi process in this case is constrained
by a threshold of minimum and maximum range. It is important to point out that the number of 67 for is not as
significant as the contour values which run beyond this range for a classroom-centred study. For a teacher to know how
a mistake has been made by a Mandarin student or for a Mandarin learner to know how to avoid such a mistake to
happen, it is crucial to have a practical understanding of the potential contour values going beyond the range of limits
which will lead to an error. The potential mistakes in coarticulation of es
with the number of either 624, 635, 647, 657 or 424. The numbers 624, 635, 647, 657 or 424 all indicate that their
falling point is too low.
Students often make mistakes when pronouncing . The number of 412 for
pseudo third tone with a slow or regular tempo and 436 for with a fast tempo are both
within the range of limits. However, the number of 413 with a higher rise in a pseudo third tone is a typical mistake
which goes beyond the range of limits for . One of the most frequent/typical mistakes made by
Mandarin learners is to change a small rise to a moderate rise or high rise in a pseudo third tone, namely a wrong
terminal rise from the number 1 to 3 or 2 to 4 or 3 to 5 in a pseudo third tone with a slow or regular speech
tempo such as in 413, 524 or 635 instead of 412, 523 or 634. Taking for another example, the contour value
of 524 for for the full third tone which should be avoided in a third tone sandhi. The contour values of 523
or 534 are realized in a slow or regular articulatory rate or 546 in a fast articulatory rate. When you say with

will pronounce it as a pseudo second tone. It is crucial for a teacher and for a learner to know which potential contour
values might go beyond the range of limits and lead to a mistake. The potential mistakes in coarticulation of
are realized with the contour values of 66 in a fast speech rate. The number 66 indicates that the starting point with the
number of 6 is too high with intense muscles for the third tone

mistake made by many learners of Mandarin as second language. Taking for another example, the
typical mistake for a Mandarin student is to pronounce number of 74 in a fast tempo instead of 546.
Because máng is neither in a fourth tone nor with intense muscles, the muscle of his/her mouth will easily get intense
in a fast speech tempo if the number for the starting point of contribute to make
sound like a fourth tone. As a result, -POLARITY
constraint, which requires an initial tone to be followed by an opposite tone (Duanmu, 1999). That means that second or
third tone tends to be changed to first or fourth tone or vice versa, and the relaxed muscles tends to be changed to
intense muscles or vice versa. That is why Mandarin students will never have a problem when they pronounce in
very expensive. in guì is a fourth tone with
intense muscles which will avoid
in a pseudo third tone in with the number of 512 or 523 in a third tone sandhi process.
No one fixed number is designated for third tone sandhi in this Seven-Level Tonal Diagram to demonstrate the
dynamic behaviours of a sandhi process. However, the threshold or extremity of its dynamic behaviours can be
determined. Going beyond these extremities will lead to making a mistake in pronouncing a sandhi third tone.
B. Application of Vowels (and consonants) as a Variable to Third Tone Sandhi Process
The take the highest position inside the cavity of the mouth with a
relatively shortened duration in Pinyin, and the highest position with the shortened duration of these sounds will usually
increase the tensity of the muscles of the mouth. The relatively shortened duration and intensified muscle will not lead
to a deep fall or a deep fall with a high rise. Some of diphthongs which have a relatively extended duration with relative

extended duration and can still obtain its fairly high sound position with fairly intensified muscles.
C. Speech Tempos and Syntactic Structures as Variables
The syntactic structure as a variable can be found in many previous phonological studies. Taking
a row. There are
two different ways to pronounce this line due to various speech tempos. In a slow or regular utterance,
pseudo third tone marked by the jaw/chin contour of a low falling and a small rise with the number 412 or 423. In a fast
speech rate, (to be more accurate, an incompletely neutralized pseudo second tone)
marked by the jaw/chin contour of a small falling and a high rise with the number 436;
second tones marked by the jaw/chin contour of a small falling and a high rise with the number 436 whether in a slow
or fast speech rate due to their positions of being non-initial/non-final syllables. marked
by the jaw/chin contour of a low falling and a small rise with the number of 312 different from the number of 412 for
when in a slow speech rate. It is clearly perceivable that the duration of the jaw/chin movement for
is longer than that for rting sound position for

utterance of a sentence can be compared to the movement of a car which moves slowly from its static position and
speed up quickly, and finally come to a stop. The jaw/chin movement for ing a
full third tone due to its interaction with the short duration and fast tempo of the jaw/chin movement for the preceding
syllables
can be pronounced in a pseudo third tone with its number 412 in a slow/regular speech tempo or in a pseudo
second tone with its number 435 in a fast speech tempo. However
domain/phrase) can only be pronounced in a pseudo second tone with its number 435 due to its middle position in a
trisyllabic domain in this case.

VIII. CONCLUSION
The well-known five-level tonal diagram is replaced by a dynamic seven-level tonal diagram for numerous variables
with an application of only two ways of pronouncing a third tone --- pseudo third tone and pseudo second tone. A
classroom-centered study of third tone sandhi is easier for teachers and learners to comprehend and to apply to their
teaching and learning experience.

REFERENCES
[1] Chao, Yuen Ren. (1930). A system of tone-letters. Leaves 1-5. Typescript (photocopy). Le Maître Phonétique, 3rd Series No.
30, 1930 (Note 2), Chinese University of Hong Kong Library
[2] -tuan et al. (1994). Chinese Primer. 2nd Edition. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
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June 2021.
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https://www.ncolctl.org/files/Jncolctl-vol-
25/Acquisition%20of%20Tone%20Sandhis%20by%20English%20Speaking%20Learners.pdf, June 2021.
[7] Linge, Olle. (2012). Learning the third tone in Mandarin Chinese Hacking Chinese, retrieved from
https://www.hackingchinese.com/learning-the-third-tone-mandarin-chinese/, June 2021.
[8] Liu, Yuehua et al. (2009). Integrated Chinese: Textbook Simplified Character, 3nd Ed., p. 8, Published by Cheng &Trui
Company
[9] Language differences - Phonetics and phonology, retrieved from http://esl.fis.edu/grammar/langdiff/phono.htm, June 2021.
[10] Politzer-Ahles, Stephen, et al. (2019). Mandarin third tone sandhi may be incompletely neutralizing in perception as well as
production, retrieved from https://www.polyu.edu.hk/cbs/sjpolit/pubs/447184_Politzer-Ahles_Manuscript.PDF, p. 4, June 2021
[11] Shi, Yibing. (2018). In Phonology-syntax interplay with respect to Tone 2 sandhi in Mandarin Chinese, retrieved from
<http://lt.cityu.edu.hk/dec/lt-repo/201718/dec-201718-u-balla-LT4235-yibingshi2-rpt.pdf>, June 2021.
[12] Wikipedia. Tone (linguistics), retrieved June 15, 2021 from <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)>
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[14] Yin, Hui. (2017). An optimality theory perspective on Mandarin tone 3 sandhi, retrieved from
<https://www.sryahwapublications.com/annals-of-language-and-literature/pdf/v1-i2/4.pdf>, June 2021.
[15] Yin, Hui. (2003). The blocking of tone sandhi in Mandarin Chinese, retrieved from <http://homes.chass.utoronto.ca/~cla-
acl/2003/Yin.pdf>, June 2021.

Bianye Li was born in China. He received his Ph.D in Comparative Literature at State University of New
York at Binghamton (Binghamton University) in 1998.
He taught Chinese as well as Chinese and Western Literary and Cultural Studies in State of University of
New York at Binghamton for two years. Now he is an instructor/professor of Mandarin at George Brown
College. He is the translator of the book René Wellek by Martin Bucco and his translation was published by
China Social Sciences Publishing House, 1992, Beijing. His book Artificiality in Narrative was published by
UMI Dissertation Publishing Services in 1998 online. His three research papers - A Major Difference between
the Formation of English Words and the Formation of Chinese Words in Modern Times, Chinese Character
Teaching and Learning with Marginalized Radicals and Non-Radical Components in a Character, and
Classroom Centered Study of Third Tone in Mandarin Chinese - are published by Journal of Language Teaching and Research
(respectively in 2017, 2020 and 2022). He is specialized in comparative studies, Mandarin teaching and translation.
Dr. Bianye Li received Teaching Award of Excellence (2007, 2008) from Centennial College and Teaching Award of Excellence
(2008) from George Brown College.
 Perception of Saudi Students About Non-Native
English Teachers and Native English Teachers in
Teaching English at Jazan University
Md Nurul Haque
Jazan University, Saudi Arabia

Sumona Sharmin
Jazan University, Saudi Arabia

Abstract This study tries to investigate the perception of Saudi students at Jazan University about native
English-speaking teachers (NEST) and non-native English-speaking teachers based on their teaching the
language skills and grammar. The perception of 50 native English-speaking teachers and 50 non-native
English teachers was collected from the students taught by these teachers. The findings show that native
English-speaking teachers are outstanding at teaching reading, listening and speaking. In contrast, non-native
English-speaking teachers are very good at teaching grammar, reading and writing skills. This study will help
the Saudi government employ and hire teachers from other countries where the native language is English and
countries where English is the second language. This study will also support the university authorities,
educationists, and syllabus designers assigning teachers to teach different language skills based on native and
non-native English-speaking teachers.

Index Terms perception, native, non-native, language skills, Saudi students

I. INTRODUCTION
English was initially brought to Saudi Arabia in the late 1920s when it was thought to be of little value and faced
fierce opposition from society (Alshahrani, 2016). It is believed that English as a foreign language was first taught in
the Saudi Arabian school system in 1928, just a few years after the Directorate of Education was established in 1923.
(Al-Seghayer, 2011, as cited in Al-Seghayer, 2014)). Saud Arabia is unique in its culture, religion, and perception of
English language and English teachers and non-native and native English teachers. It gives readers knowledge of the
cultural, linguistic, and historical backdrop of English in Saudi Arabia, emphasizing the main variables that might affect
successful English teaching and learning in this nation. The study is unique in that it examines difficulties related to in-
country English learning and learners independently from those related to in-country English teaching and instructors
(Moskovsky & Picard, 2018). Although Saudi people have a horrible prejudice against the English language and culture
because it is the center of all Islamic countries and their thriving economic growth, the government has emphasized
English.
The government's Scholarship program, which dates back to the early 2000s, has been crucial in this nation-building
effort. The scholarship program, which incorporates paying many Saudi nationals' tertiary education at overseas
institutions, is practically a vast investment in human resources - a campaign to upskill a new generation of Saudis and,
in the process, create a highly educated, professional, and knowledgeable nation (Alshahrani, 2016). According to (Al-
Seghayer, 2014), education is being expanded at all levels, and the country's economy and its industrial and commercial
foundation are quickly growing. Suppose an accurate image of the current condition of the English language in Saudi
Arabian territory is to be provided. In that case, the flow of foreign personnel and the ever-changing views of the Saudi
people toward English and the existence of numerous media sources must all be considered. Indeed, the new language
was viewed as posing a severe danger to Saudi Arabia's Arabic mother tongue, culture, customs, and religion: Islam, as
a result, due to the language's poor standing in the country (Alrashidi & Phan, 2015). English teaching and learning got
little attention for over seven decades. After 9/11, however, there was a significant shift in the way English was taught
and learned in the country. Since then, the Saudi Government has made considerable efforts to promote English,
resulting in significant advancements in teaching English and its influence. This growth has aided in advancing
English's prestige and the language in general. The Saudi Government recognizes the significance of education, as
evidenced by the government's annual budget. In 2013, for example, the budget for learning was set at 25% of the
overall budget (Ministry of Finance, 2013, as cited in Al-Seghayer, 2014)).
Native language has a tremendous impact on teaching and mastering that language. So, the native and non-native
should be defined linguistically. A person's native language is the first language he learns to speak; he is a native
speaker of that language (Blomfield as cited in Cook, 1999). Native speakers have (a) a subconscious knowledge of
rules, (b) an intuitive perception of meanings, (c) the ability to converse in social conditions, (d) a variety of linguistic
abilities, and (e) language inventiveness, according to (Stern,1983, as cited in Cook,1999).
According to Braine (2010), English instructors' most significant international association is teachers of English to
Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL). TESOL now has approximately 11,000 members from 149 different
countries. In the United States, TESOL is affiliated with 47 autonomous teachers' organizations and 50 comparable
organizations in other countries. The influence of TESOL has grown to around 47,000 members globally due to these
affiliations (see www.tesol.org). The results show a significant difference between native and non-native English
teachers from the students' perspective. The findings show that non-native instructors are better than native English
teachers at classroom teaching and administration. However, native teachers are better at in-class communication and
have more favorable characteristics. The findings will benefit both native and non-native instructors in identifying and
raising awareness of their inadequacies (Ustunluoglu, 2007).
Recent research has begun to untangle the ideological tangle of nativeness, demonstrating that native speaker status is
as much a function of race, accent, nationality, or cultural familiarity as language proficiency (Aneja, 2016). So, we
found that though Saudi Arabia does not have a long history of learning and teaching the English language, it has not
emphasized who are the better teachers, non-native or native English-speaking teachers. It also shows they have cultural
biases toward English in the early teaching period. However, now they send their students with a scholarship to study
English in English speaking countries. On the other hand, they hire teachers from non-native English-speaking countries
like Egypt, India, Sudan, Bangladesh and Pakistan. They also employ some teachers from the USA, UK, Canada,
Hungary, and other English-speaking countries. There is hardly any study conducted on language skills like listening,
speaking, reading, writing and grammar where non-native or native English teachers are compared from the students'
perception.
Though there is a generalization that native English teachers have better in-class communication and reasonable
control over language, non-native teachers are better in class control and class teaching. There is no specific study on
other aspects of classroom teaching like grammar, understanding students, psychology, and other language skills. This
study found skill-based perception, classroom control, teaching strategies and classroom management. Fifty native
English Teachers and fifty non-native English-speaking teachers taught over five hundred students, and data were
collected from the students about the perception of both types of teachers. A descriptive test was done to analyze the
data. Another t-test was conducted to see the difference in perception of both kinds of teachers. In some aspects, non-
native teachers are better than native teachers, and native English-speaking teachers outperform other elements. This
study will add new knowledge about teaching the English language and the perception of native and non-native teachers
in Saudi Arabia. This will also guide Saudi authorities in hiring English teaching personnel, whether from English
speaking countries or non-native countries. Moreover, this study will guide the authorities, educationists, and syllabus
designers to assign teachers in a foreign country like Saudi Arabia based on the native English speaking teachers'
performance skills and non-native English speaking teachers' performance skills. This will also help new researchers
conduct similar research and explore another new research world.
A. Material Studied
In sociolinguistic interviews for a cross-cultural marriage study project, 27 out of 73-second language (L2) users of
English and German claimed to have attained high-level competency in their L2 and could pass for native speakers in
some situations (Piller, 2002). Similarly, Copland et al. (2003) demonstrate that in the setting of the young learner
classroom, instructors who are familiar with the children's first language have a more extensive repertoire of teaching
and can thus give more language learning chances. They also concluded that NESTs (Native English-speaking teachers)
should actively study their students' languages to deliver a psycholinguistically, sociolinguistically, and pedagogically
good learning experience (Copland et al., 2003). Another research shows the distinctive natures of non-native and
native English-speaking teachers from the students' perspective. The results show a significant difference between
native and non-native English teachers. The findings show that non-native instructors are better at in-class teaching and
administration than native English-speaking teachers.
However, native English teachers are better at in-class communication and have more favorable characteristics. The
findings will benefit both native and non-native instructors in identifying and raising awareness of their inadequacies
(Ustunluoglu, 2007). Another contrasting result shows that the ultimate goal of L2 learning should be measured in terms
of L2 knowledge. There is no reason why the L2 component of multicompetence should be the same as the L1
component of monolingualism, if only because multicompetence is inherently more complicated. Whether one agrees
that some L2 users can pass for native speakers or not, these passers make up a tiny proportion of L2 users (Cook,
1999). Non-native instructors had lower self-confidence than EIL teachers, emphasizing native teachers' superiority.
However, after participating in panel discussions, they were able to see their advantages over native teachers (Tajeddin
et al., 2019).
Recent research, however, has found the opposite to be true in the case of native English speakers. Recent research
has started to disentangle the ideological tangle of nativeness, proving that native speaker status is as much a result of
the race, accent, nationality, and cultural familiarity as language proficiency (Aneja, 2016). So, it shows those non-
native teachers who know students' mother tongue has the upper hand in their classroom. Sometimes some non-native
speakers surpass the native speakers' competencies, expert speaking and pronunciations (Alshahrani, 2016). However,
all these perceptions about the non-native English teachers are general and overall but not specific or skilled based on
the native, and non-native teachers, which were not studied at all (Moskovsky & Picard, 2018).
However, all of the non-native educators on the panel agreed that English is now being used as a lingua franca
worldwide to promote communication (Tajeddin et al., 2019). As a result, the needs of native English-speaking teachers
are no longer prioritized because language is mutually intelligible. Another comparison research reveals two distinct
characteristics of both types of teachers. Native teachers rely on extending their language more than non-native teachers
(Rámila Dáz, 2008). Eliciting rather than clarifying terms in the classroom is more crucial.
Similarly, another study minimizes the need for native English-speaking teachers as their performances are not so
widely prominent. Wang and Fang (2020) finds that Stakeholders do not see a substantial difference between the two
types of English instructors; according to findings gathered through a questionnaire and interviews at a university in
southeast China, NESTs cannot be defied justly but do not see a substantial difference between the two types of English
instructors because of their native-speaker status.
Again, from the ideological point of view, native English-speaking teachers in the classroom teaching are stringent
and adherent to their beliefs and methods. However, the study shows nothing differs between both perspectives.
Kesevan et al. (2018) discover that much previous research in this area has concentrated on either instructors' classroom
beliefs or behaviors. So yet, no scientific evidence exists to back up the popular notion that native and non-native
English teachers have distinct teaching beliefs and methods. Tatar (2019) finds out that local teachers mean that non-
native teachers are better in teaching methods and native teachers are better in the use of language. The native-speaker
criterion was given higher weight by participants from schools that employed both expatriate and local instructors.
Moreover, administrators believed that local instructors were more informed about teaching methods, whereas
expatriate teachers were better at language. Again, nominating students to speak in the classroom with questions and
answering local teachers' logic to equal speaking time is more logical than native teachers' strategies. Kesevan et al.
(2018) show that native ETAs prefer to employ open floor nomenclature when asking questions in the classroom. The
pupils choose whether or not to respond to the teacher's queries. Students are under less pressure to engage verbally in
this sort of nomination. Meanwhile, Malaysian instructors argue that individual nomination leads to more classroom
involvement. Individual nomination, they think, helps to distribute turns equitably and allows the instructor to assess
each learner's comprehension.
Here another study shows the supremacy of native English-speaking teachers only in pronunciation and broader
cultural knowledge. NESs have a more exact and conventional pronunciation and a more comprehensive range of
cultural knowledge. According to the instructor participants, the teaching method is more fluid and dynamic, focusing
on communication than grammar (Wang & Fang, 2020). On the other hand, native English-speaking teachers seem to
be more tolerant of errors than non-native English-speaking teachers. According to some researchers, there is some
evidence that the two categories of teachers have distinct teaching styles and, as a result, different tactics. Natives, for
example, appear to be more forgiving of students' mistakes, and non-natives may be more devoted to teaching (Rámila
Díaz, 2008).
Finally, we can conclude that English is no more the language of the native; instead, it has become the international
language. So the superiority of native English-speaking people is no longer seen as the standard. As Tajeddin et al.
(2019) found out, EIL was viewed well by native English-speaking teachers. They were all aware that English is spoken
by non-native speakers and non-native English speakers worldwide. They also felt that English had become the
dominant language in both business and education and that this had had a significant impact on its users worldwide.
However, all but one of them agreed that English is a language that belongs to native speakers.
With the oil boom in the 1930s, English gained broadly applied in commerce, but the government did not implement
it in the curriculum until the 1950s. The Scholarship Preparation School (SPS) in Makkah, founded in 1936 to prepare
Saudis to travel abroad and receive a Western education, was the first place in Saudi Arabia where English was taught
(Alshahrani, 2016). The development of ELT was gradual because Saudi Arabia was still a young and impoverished
country at the moment of integration. The first college in Mecca, established in 1949, required English as a subject for
two hours per week for four years, and the first university in Mecca (King Saud University), established in 1957,
featured an English department (Al-Abed Al-Haq Smadi, 1996 as cited in Faruk, 2014). As a result, the English
language has a short history in Saudi Arabia.
Nonetheless, the government uses various methods to popularize English. The government's Scholarship program,
which dates back to the 2000s, has been crucial in this nation-building endeavour. The scholarship program, which
entails paying a huge number of Saudi nationals' tertiary studies at foreign universities, is essentially a massive
investment in human resources - a campaign to upskill a new generation of Saudis in order to establish a highly
educated, competent, and knowledgeable kingdom (Moskovsky & Picard, 2018).
With economic power came a tremendous influx of people, particularly employees and household labourers, and
Saudis began using English as a lingua franca. As a result, they recognize the importance of English. Furthermore, a
significant influx of non-Arab speaking migrant skilled and unskilled labourers and millions of non-Arab pilgrims
resulted in the significant development of ELT in the late 1970s and early 1980s. English was viewed as crucial to
sustaining the country's economic status since it was the only language of interaction between Arabs and non-Arabs on
the one hand and a portal into the non-Arab world on the other (Faruk, 2014).
 As a result, the Saudi government recognizes the importance of English in all of these fields. English holds a unique
role in the Saudi community for various social, cultural, historical, and economic reasons (Moskovsky & Picard, 2018).
In Saudi Arabia, English is now taught at all levels of education, from primary to university. They hire English
instructors from all over the world. They hire both native English speakers and non-native English teachers.
On the other hand, they have opposing views on native and non-native teachers. As an English university instructor, I
witnessed students' differing attitudes and impressions of non-native and native English professors. That sparked my
interest and motivated me to start the research.
B. Research Objectives
The research objective was to find out the different perceptions of Saudi students about native English-speaking
teachers and non-native English teachers at Jazan University. The students' perceptions proved who were better English
teachers in teaching English in Saudi Arabia. The students' perception was measured from different angles like
language skills, reading, writing, listening, speaking, and teaching grammar.

II. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Fifty native English-speaking teachers and fifty non-native English teachers taught twenty groups of five hundred
students at Jazan University in Saudi Arabia. Non-native English teachers were from India, Bangladesh, Pakistan,
Sudan and Jordan, where English is not their native language. In contrast, teachers from Canada, U.K and America were
native English-speaking teachers. Most non-native English teachers had B.A. honours and masters in English language
and literature; some have Applied Linguistics and ELT background with teaching experience of more than ten years.
Similarly, native English-speaking teachers had TESOL or any Diploma in English language teaching. Both types of
teachers were assigned to teach reading, writing, listening, speaking and grammar in the same groups. They used to
teach them throughout the semester. After the semester, students' perceptions of 50 native English-speaking teachers
and 50 non-native English-speaking teachers about the teaching performance were collected through the Likert scale
from the students for analysis. A non-parametric Chi-square test was conducted to find out the result of the students'
perceptions. A pilot study was conducted to rectify the scale and questionnaire, and the validity and reliability of the
scale were also tested.
A. Research Hypothesis
There is no significant difference in students' perception of native English-speaking teachers and non-native English-
speaking teachers.
B. H1 Hypothesis
There is a significant difference in students' perception of native and non-native English-speaking teachers.

III. RESULT AND ANALYSIS

A Chi-Square test of Independence was conducted after collecting the data from the students after the semester was
over. Below, the test result has been presented and analyzed.
A. Perception of Reading Skills

TABLE 1
Teachers * Reading skill Cross Tabulation
Reading skill Total
good very good Excellent

Teachers NEST Count 0 16 34 50

% within Teachers 0.00% 32.00% 68.00% 100.00%
% within Reading skill 0.00% 34.80% 64.20% 50.00%
NNEST Count 1 30 19 50
% within Teachers 2.00% 60.00% 38.00% 100.00%
% within Reading skill 100.00% 65.20% 35.80% 50.00%
Total Count 1 46 53 100
% within Teachers 1.00% 46.00% 53.00% 100.00%
% within Reading skill 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00%

The table above shows that an equal number of native English speaking (NEST) and non-native English-speaking
Teachers (NNEST) took part in teaching reading skills during the semester. Among the 50 native English-speaking
teachers, 0% of the teachers were good, 32% were very good, and 68% were excellent in teaching reading according to
the students' perceptions. On the other hand, 2% of the non-native English-speaking teachers were good, 60% were very
good, and 38% were excellent in teaching reading skills. Here native English-speaking teachers outperformed the non-
native English-speaking teachers.
TABLE 2
Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymptotic Significance (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 9.506a 2 0.009
Likelihood Ratio 10.019 2 0.007
Linear-by-Linear Association 9.401 1 0.002
N of Valid Cases 100
a 2 cells (33.3%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count
is .50.

According to the Chi-Square Test Independence, the p-value is 0,009, which is smaller than the alpha=0.05. So, we
rejected the null hypothesis and accepted the H1 hypothesis that there was a significant difference between the
perception of native English-speaking teaching and non-native English- speaking teachers in teaching reading skills.

Graph 1

According to the bar chart above, most native English-speaking teachers were excellent in teaching reading skills,
whereas average non-native English- teachers were very good at teaching reading skills.
B. Perception of Writing Skills
 TABLE 3
Teachers * Writing Skill Cross Tabulation
Writing Skill Total
good very Good Excellent
Teachers NEST Count 0 19 31 50
% within Teachers 0.00% 38.00% 62.00% 100.00%
% within Writing Skill 0.00% 73.10% 47.70% 50.00%
NNEST Count 9 7 34 50
% within Teachers 18.00% 14.00% 68.00% 100.00%
% within Writing Skill 100.00% 26.90% 52.30% 50.00%
Total Count 9 26 65 100
% within Teachers 9.00% 26.00% 65.00% 100.00%
% within Writing Skill 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00%

Here, 19% and 31% of the native English-speaking teachers were excellent at successfully teaching writing skills. In
comparison, 18%, 14% and 68% of the non-native English-speaking teachers were good, very good and excellent
successively in teaching writing skills according to the students' perception. Here non-native teachers had more mastery
in teaching writing skills than native English teachers.

TABLE 4
Chi-Square Tests
Asymptotic Significance (2-
Value df sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 14.677a 2 0.001
Likelihood Ratio 18.369 2 0
Linear-by-Linear Association 0.836 1 0.361
N of Valid Cases 100
a 2 cells (33.3%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected
count is 4.50.

According to the Chi-square Test, P= 0.001, smaller than alpha= 0.05, compelled us to reject the null hypothesis. So,
we could say that there was a significant difference in the perception of the NEST and NNEST, which meant non-native
teachers were better than native English-speaking teachers in teaching writing skills.

Graph 2
 In the graph above, native English-speaking teachers dominated students' "very good" perception of students over
non-native English teachers. However, non-native English-speaking teachers dominated over the native English
teachers in the 'excellent' perception of the students.
C. Perception of Speaking Skills

TABLE 5
Teachers * Speaking Skill Cross Tabulation
Speaking Skill Total
very Good Excellent
Teachers NEST Count 16 34 50
% within Teachers 32.00% 68.00% 100.00%
% within Speaking Skill 39.00% 57.60% 50.00%
NNEST Count 25 25 50
% within Teachers 50.00% 50.00% 100.00%
% within Speaking Skill 61.00% 42.40% 50.00%
Total Count 41 59 100
% within Teachers 41.00% 59.00% 100.00%
% within Speaking Skill 100.00% 100.00% 100.00%

In the table above, we can see the dominance of the native English-speaking teacher in teaching speaking skills as
32%, and 68% of the native English speakers were very good and excellent. On the other hand, non-native English-
speaking teachers performed a little less than native English-speaking teachers.
TABLE 6
Chi-Square Tests
Asymptotic Significance (2- Exact Sig. (2- Exact Sig. (1-
Value df sided) sided) sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 3.348a 1 0.067
Continuity Correctionb 2.646 1 0.104
Likelihood Ratio 3.37 1 0.066
Fisher's Exact Test 0.103 0.052
Linear-by-Linear Association 3.315 1 0.069
N of Valid Cases 100
a 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The
minimum expected count is 20.50.
b Computed only for a 2x2 table

In the Chi-square Test result, we observed that the p-value was 0.067, higher than the alpha of 0.05. So, we failed to
reject the null hypothesis, which meant there was no significant difference between the perception of NEST and
NNEST in teaching speaking skills.
 Graph 3

The graph above shows the similarities as it was in the table above. Here an equal number of teachers from both
groups had very good perceptions of the students, while a few NESTs had an excellent perception of the students.
D. Perception of Listening Skills

TABLE 7
Teachers * Listening Skill Cross Tabulation
Listening Skill Total
very Good Excellent

Teachers NEST Count 31 19 50

% within Teachers 62.00% 38.00% 100.00%
% within Listening Skill 57.40% 41.30% 50.00%
NNEST Count 23 27 50
% within Teachers 46.00% 54.00% 100.00%
% within Listening Skill 42.60% 58.70% 50.00%
Total Count 54 46 100
% within Teachers 54.00% 46.00% 100.00%
% within Listening Skill 100.00% 100.00% 100.00%

From the table above, we found that native English-speaking teachers had a very good and excellent performance
perception in teaching listening skills. 62% and 38% of the native English-speaking teachers were very good and
excellent in teaching listening skills. However, almost an equal number of teachers were very good and excellent in the
students' perception, like 46% and 54% of the NNEST were very good and excellent in teaching listening skills.
 TABLE 8
Chi-Square Tests
Asymptotic Significance (2- Exact Sig. (2- Exact Sig. (1-
Value df sided) sided) sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 2.576a 1 0.108
Continuity Correctionb 1.973 1 0.16
Likelihood Ratio 2.588 1 0.108
Fisher's Exact Test 0.16 0.08
Linear-by-Linear Association 2.551 1 0.11
N of Valid Cases 100
a 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The
minimum expected count is 23.00.
b Computed only for a 2x2 table

The Chi-square test found that the p-value was 0.108, which was greater than the alpha of 0.05. So, we failed to
reject the null hypothesis, which indicated no significant difference in perception between NEST and NNEST in
teaching listening skills.

Graph 4

The graph above also proved the null hypothesis that there was no significant difference between the perception of
the NEST and NNEST. Although a very good and excellent perception of NEST was higher than NNEST, this was not
significant.
E. Perception of Grammar Teaching

TABLE 9
Teachers * Grammar Crosstabulation
Grammar Total
good very Good Excellent

Teachers NEST % within Teachers 52.00% 36.00% 12.00% 100.00%

% within Grammar 100.00% 64.30% 13.00% 50.00%
NNEST % within Teachers 20.00% 80.00% 100.00%
% within grammar 35.70% 87.00% 50.00%
Total % within Teachers 26.00% 28.00% 46.00% 100.00%
% within Grammar 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00%
 From the table above, we can observe that a few native English-speaking teachers (12%) got an excellent perception
from the students, 52% of teachers were in very good perception, and 36% of the NEST were in a very good perception
of the students. However, NNEST had extraordinary dominance in teaching grammar as 80% of the teachers of this
group were excellent, and 20% of teachers were very good at teaching grammar.

TABLE 10
Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymptotic Significance (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 53.416a 2 0
Likelihood Ratio 66.508 2 0
Linear-by-Linear Association 52.412 1 0
N of Valid Cases 100
a 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is
13.00.

The Chi-square test shows that the p-value is 0.00, more diminutive than alpha, 0.05. So, the null hypothesis was
rejected, and the alternative hypothesis was accepted. So, there was a significant difference between the perception of
NEST and NNEST. Non-native English teachers were far better than native English-speaking teachers, especially in
teaching grammar.

Graph 5

The graph above shows that non-native English-speaking teachers were better than native English-speaking teachers.
Native English-speaking teachers excelled in excellent and good perception, while many non-native teachers
outperformed in excellent perception in teaching grammar.

IV. FINDINGS
From the above analysis of the result, we found that English-speaking teachers were good at some aspects of
language skills, and non-native English-speaking teachers were good at some other aspects of English language skills.
In reading skills, native English-speaking teachers performed very well according to the students' perceptions.
However, most non-native English teachers had an excellent student perception, which was not negligible.
In writing skills, non-native English teachers had a comparatively better perception of the students since they
knew how to learn writing in a second language. So, they were also good at teaching the same skills.
Native English-speaking teachers had excellent dominance in teaching speaking skills since they had actual
pronunciation and accent and acquired the skill. Here non-native English-speaking teachers had a little less
excellent perception of the students.
We also found the students' very good and excellent perception of teaching listening skills. Non-native English
teachers had a poor perception of teaching listening skills.
In teaching grammar, non-native teachers had a better perception of the students because they learned the
language by memorizing and understanding the grammatical rules. So, they were very good at teaching
 grammar.
Non-native English teachers were very strict with error correction, while native English-speaking teachers
were a bit lenient in errors correction.

V. DISCUSSION
A language has four skills, two receptive skills, like reading and listening and two productive skills, like writing and
speaking. Among these skills, native English teachers are very good at teaching listening and speaking skills, while
non-native English teachers are very good at reading and writing. Moreover, non-native teachers are excellent at
teaching grammar. For spoken English, native English-speaking teachers have a very good perception of the students.
Similarly, they also have very good perceptions about teaching listening skills. This is because of the nativization of the
language, which is not possible by non-native English teachers, and this is the drawback we can find out from this
research.
On the other hand, non-native teachers are very good at teaching grammar, reading and writing. It is like a medical
doctor who has suffered from some diseases, and then he becomes a doctor of those diseases. So, he knows the
symptoms of the diseases and what the remedies for those particular diseases are. So, the research shows that native
English-speaking teachers are better than non-native teachers at teaching listening and speaking. In comparison, non-
native teachers are better at teaching reading, writing and grammar.

VI. CONCLUSION
Saudi students' perception of native and non-native English-speaking teachers shows that none teachers are perfect in
teaching all language skills. Some of the teachers of both types are very good at productive skills and are very good at
receptive skills. However, according to students' overall perception, non-native English teachers have a better
perception of Saudi students. This study brings forth the perception of the Saudi Students and the performances of
NEST and NNEST. Maybe, the Saudi government will hire more teachers from countries where English is the second
language, not the mother tongue. This research also will help the Saudi authority assign teachers based on their native
language and second language. The educationists and new researchers will find assistance from this study to carry out
further study on this subject to find out the setbacks and advantages of NEST and NNEST to guide the authorities and
overcome the drawbacks.

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Md Nurul Haque is a prominent faculty member of ELI at Jazan University in Saudi Arabia. He commenced his career as an
English language teacher at AUB (Asian University of Bangladesh) immediately after completing his M. in Applied Linguistics and
ELT and B. A (Honours) in English Literature and Language from the University of Dhaka. He has vast teaching experience with
distinguished native English and non-native English teachers worldwide at home and abroad. He has published a mentionable
number of articles in the international journal Scopus and Web of Science on the different subject matters of both literature and
linguistics. He is recently pursuing his PhD in comparative linguistics from the Universiti Putra Malaysia.

Sumona Sharmin is a lecturer in English of ELI at Jazan University in Saudi Arabia. She began her career as an English language
teacher at South East College immediately after completing her M. A in Applied Linguistics and ELT from Dhaka University and B.
A (Honours) from Northern University in English Literature and Language. She has vast teaching experience at home and abroad
with distinguished native English and non-native English teachers worldwide. She has published several articles in the international
journal Scopus and Web of Science on the different subject matters of both literature and linguistics.
 N-Words in Dawurotsuwa
Aklilu Abera Naba
Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Abstract This article investigates n-words in Dawurotsuwa, which is classified under the Omotic language
family under the Afroasiatic phylum. Speakers of the language are found in Ethiopia, specifically in the
southwest part of the country. The study aims to describe n-words in this language, which is one of the
scarcely described languages in the area. N-words in the language are formed by suffixing the morpheme -
kka/-nne to content question words. These morphemes also mark indefiniteness in the language. These formed
n-words express negation in fragmented answers but in a complete main clause. In the main clause, they
are accompanied by sentential negative markers to transfer negative meanings. In Dawurotsuwa, n-words are
not inherently negative. These n-word-forming morphemes -nne and -kka are also used for coordinating
conjunction and emphatic coordination, respectively. The morpheme -kka also serves as a scalar focus suffix.
They also express a specificity that is indefinite, but when the specificity is definite, the last vowel changes to -o
and becomes only -kko. Thus, n-words can be named indefinite pronouns.

Index Terms n-word, negative, scalar, indefinite

I. INTRODUCTION
This article investigates n-words in Dawurotsuwa, which belongs to the Omotic language family, and is a member of
the Afroasiatic phylum. KÖhler (2020) says that Omotics are located solely in the Southwest part of Ethiopia.
Dawurotsuwa, the language of the current study, is found in the North Ometo cluster under the North Omotic family
(Bender, 1976; Fleming, 1976).
It was Laka who created the term n-word for the first time. It was used in the work to label those expressions in
Romance that are allowed to occur with a standard negative marker or express negation by themselves even in the
absence of the standard negative marker. T - was given to these expressions because most of them
begin with n- (Lake, 1990). The equivalent in Dawurotsuwa can be named nne/kka-words as these morphemes are
suffixed to the base to form n-
pronouns that are only used in negative sentences and always express negation; in some languages, these indefinite

refer to those indefinite pronouns which can occur in the absence of the negative operator, such as within conditionals
and interrogatives (Haspelmath, 1997).
N-words in Dawurotsuwa are formed by attaching morpheme -nne/-kka to content questions words like áyáá
s like Polish which marks by means of suffixes such as -s, -kolwiek
(Haspelmath, 1997).
This article is organized as follows: in Section (II) n-words will be discussed. Under this section, their occurrences,
scalar meanings, and types will be dealt with. Then in Section (III), the relation between the focus marker and the
negative operator will be discussed. In the last section, a brief etymological source of the negative markers will be
provided.

II. N-WORDS
It is not easy to describe the occurrences and meanings of n-words because they are diverse in the world's languages.
This diversity makes it difficult for n-words to formulate the structural or meaning characteristics to identify them.
However, there are some points to identify their occurrences (Giannakidou, 2006). Thus, in this article, n-words in
Dawurotsuwa are identified based on the following definition:
(1) N-word:
An expression is an n-word iff:
(a) can be used in structures containing sentential negation or another -expression yielding a reading equivalent
to one logical negation; and
(b) can provide a negative fragment answer (Giannakidou, 2006, p.328)
Penka (2006) says n-words consist of both negative and indefinite meanings. When a negative marker and two or
more n-words in a clause result in a single negative interpretation, it is named iannakidou
& Zeijlstra, 2017). The following table gives the standard negation markers in Dawurotsuwa. This paradigm will help to
note the relation between the negative markers and n-words forming morphemes morphologically.
 TABLE 1
STANDARD NEGATIVE MARKER
Persons Verb Paradigm Negative Morpheme
1SG b-á-béí-kk-e -kk-
2SG b-á-béí-kk-a -kk-
3SGF b-á-béí-kk-u -kk-
3SGM b-í-béé-nn-a -nn-
1PL b-í-béí-kk-o -kk-
2PL b-í-béí-kk-ita -kk-
3PL b-í-béí-kk-ino -kk-

In (2), morpheme -nn- is a sentential negative marker for 3SG.M. For the remaining persons, it is -kk-. There is no
other element found in this sentence that expresses negation. On the other hand, in (3), áyáá-nne/-kka
functions as a negative reply to an affirmative interrogative. As we can see, the indefinite pronoun consists of elements
similar to the sentential negative marker -nn-/-kk-. However, áyáá-nne/-kka which expresses negation in the fragment
fails to express negation when it occurs with the sentential negation as in (4a). It has been functioning as a negative
reply in (3). It should be noted that t represent the equivalent meaning for the Dawurotsuwa
áyáá-nne/-kka version. The reason is that the English version is always or inherently negative,
is not. This is a foundation for the discussion in (C). In addition to the negative fragment answers, n-words express
negation in omitted predication in disjunction and coordination. In (4b&c), -nne/-kka -occur with a sentential
negative marker, but it does express negation.
2) dáán-í laatsa-a m-éé-nn-a
Dáána-NOM lunch-ACC eat-3SG-NEG-DECL

3) Q: dáán-í m-íí
Dáána-NOM what eat-3SG.M.IPFV.Q

A: -nne/-kka
what-INDF

4a) dáán-í -nne/-kka m-éé-nn-a

Dáána-NOM what- INDF eat-3SG.M-NEG-DECL

b) táání -a m-áná wóíkkó hárá

1SG.NOM meat-ACC take-FUT or other
-nne/-kka
who- INDF

c) nééní darua -áá-dd-a

2SG.NOM a lot take-2SG-PFV-DECL
-nne/-kka
Pola.NOM what- INDF

A. Functions of -nne/-kka Morpheme

Before going into details, let us observe various occurrences of the morpheme -nne/-kka in the language. In
Dawurotsuwa -nne/-kka has multiple meanings. These in the
glossing. Thus indefinite aspect will be glossed in this study.
One of the functions is that it is utilized as a coordinating suffix. Only -nne serves this function; -kka is not employed
for this. In (5a), -nne functions as a connecting suffix while the use of -kka makes it unacceptable, as in (5b).

5a) dáán-í-nne -á -iino

Dana-NOM-and Anjore-NOM exist-3PL.IPFV.DECL

b) *dáán- í-kka -iino

Intended:
The morpheme -kka is also used for emphasized coordination, as in (6a). When the coordinates are more stressed
than other elements of the sentence, the morpheme -kka is attached to both nominals in the coordination. The morpheme
-nne is not used in this context because it is used in ordinary coordination, and not attached to two coordinates at the
same time, as in (6b).

6a) dáán-í-kka -á-kka

Dana-NOM-and.EMP NOM-and.EMP 3SG.M.ACC
-éé-dd-ino
know-3PL-PFV-DECL

b) * dáán-í-nne -á-nne -í-kk-ino

Intended:
In Dawurotsuwa, the morpheme -kka also describes emphatic negative coordination, as in (7). Although the nominals
that are attached with this morpheme, i.e., dáán-í and ánjóór-á in the example (7) below are negative alternatives that
none of them knows the person referred to, the standard negative marker -kk- is suffixed to the main verb. As we can
see, in both affirmative (6a) and negative (7) emphatic coordination, the same morphological element -kka is used. The
difference lies in the attachment of the negative marker to the main verb.
7) dáán-í-kka -á-kka
Daana-NOM-and.EMP Anjore-NOM-and.EMP 3SG.M.ACC
-í-kk-ino
know-3PL-NEG-DECL

In addition, -kka morpheme is used to represent omitted elements that may agree or disagree with an antecedent. In
(8a), the sentence is affirmative. The second speaker in (8b) attaches -kka to 1SG.NOM by omitting the predicate to
express that he shares the same situation as in (a).
8a) gújj-í -a m-éé-dd-a
Guj-NOM lunch-ACC eat-3SG.M-PFV-DECL
the
b) táání-kka
1PL.NOM-also

Moreover, the same morpheme -kka is used to represent the omitted negative antecedent predicate. In (9a) the
sentence is negative. The second speaker in (9b) attaches -kka to 1SG.NOM by omitting the negative predicate to
express that he shares the same situation as in (a). As we can see, the same morphological element -kka is used for
representing both affirmative (8b) and negative (9b) predications when they are omitted.
9a) gújj-í -a m-í-béé-nn-a
Guj-NOM lunch-ACC eat-3SG.M-PFV-DECL

b) táání-kka
1PL.NOM-also

There is another morpheme -kko which is similar to the -nne/-kka phrase morpheme -kka in element -kk- but different
in its final vowel -o and -a. This morpheme -kko is used to express vocative. It describes a direction in which
something or someone heads on as in (10). On the other hand, this morpheme is also used for expressing specific
indefinite situation as in (10b).
10a) dugé-kko
down-VOC

b) -kko soo-n -ee

Who-INDF home-LOC exist-3SG.M.DECL

Moreover, morpheme -kka is used to express addition to what is already available. In example (11), Guja is just an
additional person to those who are already in the house. In this usage, it is not possible to use -nne. This shows that -nne
and -kka overlap functionally to a certain extent but they are not synonymous.
11a) gújj-í-kka soo-n -ee
Gujja-NOM-also home-LOC exist-3SG.M.DECL

b) *gújj-í-nne soo-n -ee

Furthermore, -kka/-nne is used for forming indefinite pronouns which serve for both affirmative and negative
environment. Morpheme -nne/-kka combines with content question words or numeral íttúú
indefinite pronoun íttú-nne/-kka1

1
This has scalar implicature
(C.1).
Scalar meaning is also transferred by the morpheme -nne/-kka. This function is formed by attaching -nne/-kka to a
nominal. Haspelmath (1997) labels this usage as a negative scalar focus suffix. This suffix is attached to the word
íttú/ íttí or nominals to offer this scalar interpretation. Scalar interpretation involves comparison with a set of
contextually-specified alternative propositions that are ordered in terms of ranking order.
12) -nne/-kka y-í-béé-nn-a
one- INDF come-3SG-PFV-NEG-DECL

The above discussion shows that multiple functions of the morpheme can be found in a single clause. It is difficult to
propose a single gloss for all those morphemes with identical elements, but it is easier to gloss the functions over
consistently. In (13), the first -nne which is attached to marota is functioning as a connector while the second -nne
which is suffixed to galla is serving as a scalar focus suffix. The scalar -kka which can substitute scalar -nne in (13),
-nne which is used as a conjunctive. In the scalar position, -nne and -kka substitute each

meaning. For both functions, the same morphological elements are used.
13) marota-nne dar-i íttí
Marota.NOM-and Dari.NOM one
galla-nne/-kka att-i-kk-ino
day-INDF work-3PL-NEG-DECL

B. Scalar Morpheme
Indefiniteness in a lot of languages is expressed by an item that a

distinguish the two. If the indefiniteness marking element is similar to an element that
then the root cause for this indefiniteness is the scalar functio This phenomenon is clearly
completely the same morphologically.
In the above, we mentioned that scalar usage of -nne/-kka is one of the functions of this morpheme. They are used to
form indefinite pronouns as well. These indefinite pronouns, which are formed by combining this morpheme and the
interrogative pronoun, always co-occur with verbal negation in Dawurotsuwa, as in (13) above. This scalar meaning
forming element is used for forming indefinite pronouns, which is one of the n-words.
For example (14) -kka is used as the focus even in the affirmative. In this example, Dánsa is the least likely person to
eat the honey among persons who are expected to eat it. The scalar -kka . This
element shows a hierarchy of persons in numbers who are expected to eat from the most likely to the least likely person.
In this usage, -nne is not used. It shows that all people have eaten the honey. In the negative, as in (14b), the pragmatic
scale is reversed. In (14b), the most expected person to eat is Dansa, unlike (14a) in which Dansa is the least expected
person.
14a) Dáns-í-kka -a m-éé-dd-a
Dansa-NOM-SFS small honey-ACC eat-3SG.F.M-PFV-DECL

b) Dáns-í-kka -a m-í-béé-nn-a
Dansa-NOM-SFS small honey-ACC eat-3SF.M-PFV-DECL

In example (15) the one who has the greatest proba family is aatto
utmost expected candidate to be helped in the family is not being helped. If this utmost person is not helped, then no
one is going to be supported in the family. This means that the whole members of the family are not supported by Pola.

accompanied by a
15) pol-i bare -kka maadd-é-nn-a
pola-NOM himself mother-SFS help-3SG.M-NEG-DECL

drunk
alcohol. So the scalar focus suffix -nne/kka is attached to the 1SG.NOM in order to show the most likely alternative, but
the most likely person has not done it, which is expressed by the sentential negative marker. If the most expected one is
not doing it, then no one else is doing the event.
16) táání-nne/-kka matsoy-ia -a
1SG.NOM-SFS intoxicate-RELZ drink-ACC
-á-béí-kk-e
drink- 1SG-PFV-NEG-DECL

As we can see above, the Dawurotsuwa -nne/-kka phrase expresses the most likely alternative in the presence of a
sentential negative marker, but it expresses the least likely alternative in the absence of a sentential negative marker. At
(17), the least likely person to drink is táání but he has drunk it.
17) táání-nne/-kka matsoy-ia -a
1SG.NOM-SFS intoxicate-RELZ drink-ACC
-áá-dd-i
drink- 1SG-PFV-DECL

When the morpheme -nne/-kka is attached, the meaning it conveys is based on the members in the sequence to be
shing an event or a situation. The members are
sequenced according to their hierarchy from most likely to the least likely status. The most or the least is determined by
the presence or absence of a sentential negative marker. If there is the sentential negative marker, the morpheme gives
the most likely alternative and vice versa.
On the other hand, -nne/-kka can be used to express an unspecified item, as in (18a). In this example, there is no
ranking interpretation. Rather, it expresses the number of elements of the referents. The number can be one, two, three,
or more, but -
among the members. All have equal chances, i.e. -, to be taken by Pola in the example (18a). When the morpheme
is suffixed to plural nouns, it is unacceptable, as in (18b).
18a) pol-i -a-nne/-kka -i-bee-nn-a
Pola-NOM one goat-ACC-INDF take-3SG.M-PFV-NEG-DECL

b) *pol- -tua-nne/-kka -i-bee-nn-a

Pola-NOM one goat-PL.ACC-INDF take-3SG.M-PFV-NEG-DECL
In the sentence (19a), morpheme -nne/-kka, which expresses negation in (3 & 4)
that role here in collaboration with the sentential negative marker. It is the sentential negative marker that plays the role
of expressing negation. The phrase that is formed of -nne/-kka contributes to the negation. If the morpheme is expected
to contribute to the negation as in (19a), it is accompanied by the sentential negative marker. This contribution is made
irrespective of its pla
contribution. Whether they occur in the subject position, as in (19b), or object as in (19a), they require a sentential
negative marker to contribute to the negation. In this respect, -nne/-kka-phrases have a strict pattern in the language.
the licenser, i.e., sentential negative marker. The
morpheme can also occur in the absence of the sentential ne to the negation, as in
(20a-d).
19a) pol-i -nne/-kka maadd-é-nn-a
Pola-NOM one brother.ACC-INDF help-3SG.M-NEG-DECL

b) -nne/-kka pol-i maadd-é-nn-a

one brother.ACC-INDF Pola-NOM help-3SG.M-NEG-
DECL

20a) pol- balay-nne/-kka baynnan

Pola.NOM one mistake-INDF not.exist
saaf-ee-dd-a
write-3SG.M-PFV-DECL

b) táání -ppe-nne/-kka kaset-ááddé

1SG.NOM what-ABL-INDF before-CVB
woos-ai
pray-1SG.IPFV.DECL

c) -nne/-kka yeekk-ia-wee
what person.NOM- INDF mourn-RELZ-NMN
dig-étt-eeddá-wa
prohibite-PASS-RELZ.PFV-TOP

d) -nne/-kka m-ia-wa -a
what- INDF eat-RELZ-NMN stop-2PL.IMP
C. Types of N-words
Based on the definition given in (1), n-words in Dawurotsuwa will be discussed in this section. They are negative
indefinite pronouns, mule, and minimizers. They serve as a single negative reply for both positive and negative
questions.
1. Negative Indefinite Pronouns
In Dawurotsuwa, negative indefinite pronouns are formed by attaching the morpheme -nne/-kka to the content
question pronouns and íttí the table below for their formation. It should be noted that Dawurotsuwa
indefinite pronouns are not inherently negative because the same form is used for both affirmative and negatives.
TABLE 2
N-WORD FORMATION I N DAWUROTSUWA
No. Item Pronouns Negative Indefinite Pronouns
1 One - -kka
2 Person - - -kka
3 Thing - -kka
4 Time áídé - -kka
5 Place - -kka
6 Scalar Proper noun + -kka Example: Dááná-kka
9 Conjunction - -kka Dááná-

As we can see in the table above, each negative indefinite pronoun is suffixed either with -nne or -kka and forms n-
word class together in Dawurotsuwa. It should be noted that it is not the content question pronoun alone or the suffix -
nne or -kka solely form n-words; it is the combination of both that makes up n-words. Dawurotsuwa n-word forming
morpheme consists of the element of the standard negation morpheme. The standard negotiation in Dawurotsuwa is
made by using the negative operator -nn-/-kk- (TABLE-1), consider examples in (21b&22b) below. On the other hand,
here we observe that the suffix-nne/-kka is used to form indefinite pronouns in Dawurotsuwa. As we can see, both
negative morphemes and n-word forming morphemes have -nn-/-kk- in common.
21a) dáán-í -a m-ee
Dáána-NOM lunch-ACC eat-3SG.M. IPFV.DECL

b) dáán-í -a m-éé-nn-a
Dáána-NOM lunch-ACC eat-3SG.M-NEG-DECL

22a) -á -a m-áu
Anjore-NOM lunch-ACC eat-3SG.F.IPFV.DECL

b) -á -a m-úú-kk-u
Anjore-NOM lunch-ACC eat-3SG-NEG-DECL

The morpheme -nne/-kka is suffixed to the content question words to from a negative indefinite pronoun in
Dawurotsuwa. For instance, in (23), the question word áyáá -nne/-kka in (23A) to
occur as a negative fragment answer: áyáá-nne/ áyáá-kka.
23) Q: -áá-dd-íí
what see-2SG-PFV-Q

A: -nne/-kka
what-INDF

Why are the n-word forming morpheme -nne/-kka and negative morpheme-nn-/-kk- do they have a common element
-word morpheme
developed from the negative morpheme or vice versa? Of course, there is a certain way that they are connected. I think
it will not be an arbitrary as Jespersen states:
The history of negative expressions in various languages makes us witness the following curious fluctuation; the
original negative adverb is first weakened, then found insufficient and therefore strengthened, generally through some
additional word, and in its turn may be felt like the negative proper and may then in course of time be subject to the
same development as the original word (Jespersen, 1917, p.4).
2. Mule
 This is the second type of n-word in Dawurotsuwa. This is represented in Dawurotsuwa by mulokka, mule, ubbakka
as we can see in (24). According to my informant, they prefer ubbakka to mulokka. And they use mule without adding
-kka too. They are categorized under the n-word because they function as a negative reply for both negative and positive
questions; they can be used to express negation in a sentence fragment reply, as in (25&26).
24) mule, mulokka, ubbakka
25) Q: -a laamoti-ssi -aníí
money-ACC Lamote-DAT time give-2SG.IPFV.Q

A: mule/mulo- -kka
all/all-INDF /when-INDF

26) Q: laamot-a -a -áí

Laamote-NOM drink-ACC smoke-3SG.F.IPFV.Q

A: mule/mulo- -kka
all/all- INDF /when- INDF

As negative indefinite pronouns need the sentential negative marker to offer negative interpretation, mule also needs
sentential negative to convey negative interpretation as in (27a&b). In addition, the place where mule is located in a
s
unacceptable. The clause turns positive, as in (28).
27a) -i -a -e-nn-a mule
person-NOM road-ACC know-3SG.M-NEG-DECL all

b) mule -i - -e-nn-a
all person-NOM road-ACC know-3SG.M-NEG-DECL

28) -i -a mul -ee

person-NOM road-ACC all know-3SG. IPFV.DECL

the sentence as the absence of the element will make the sentence positive, as in (27-28) above.
In Dawurotsuwa, if mule is needed to convey a negative interpretation, there must be a sentential negative marker
irrespective of its place where it is located; otherwise, it is changed to positive, as we have discussed above.

negative marker without overpassing in any place they occur. Dawurotsuwa goes into this strict category.
In negative interpretation, mule and -nne/-kka
carry a meaning of ranking, while the latter also serves in a ranking interpretation, i.e., scalar focus suffix. For example,
in (29a) there is a variation in the expected amount of falls in the car, i.e. once, twice, three times, etc. Once is the last
one in the ranking. When this ranking is accompanied by a
interpretation. On the other hand, the mule
most to the least, rather it generally expresses, without mentioning specific frequency or order.
29a) ta kaam-i -nne/-kka kund-i
SG.POSS car-NOM once- INDF fall-CVB
-e-nn-a
know-3SG.M-NEG-DECL

b) ta kaam-i mule kund-i -e-nn-a

SG.POSS car-NOM fall-CVB know-3SG.M-NEG-DECL

Furthermore, both positive and negative questions are replied to using the same form of mule. When the question is
positive, it is answered with mulo-kka as in (30), which gives a negative interpretation. In the negative question also, the
same mulo-kka is used as a reply as in (31) gives a negative interpretation as well. In both questions, mulo-kka conveys
a negative meaning.
30) Q: nééní gaammu-a be - -áí
2SG.NOM lion-ACC see-CVB know-2SG.IPFV.Q

A: mulo- -kka
 at all- INDF /when- INDF

31) Q: gaammu-a nééní -á-béí-kk-ii

lion-ACC 2SG.NOM see-1SG-PFV-NEG-Q

A: mulo- -kka
at all- INDF /when- INDF

On the other hand, in (32) the morpheme -kka is used in the positive sentence and conveys the meaning of
&31)
for both positive and negative questions. This shows that the contribution of either negative or positive meaning
depends on whether there is a sentential negative marker or not.
32) pol-i mulo-kka
Pola-NOM all- INDF neat

The above discussion shows that mule functions as negative replies to both negative and positive questions. It also
needs a sentential negative marker irrespective of its location of occurrence in order to convey a negative interpretation.
When mule is used, there is no ranking unlike -nne/-kka expressions.
3. Minimizers
Minimizers indicate the smallest amount in the ranked items. This gives them even-reading interpretation (Tubau,
2020; Giannakidou & Zeijlstra, 2017). Minimizers consist of implicit even expressing elements (Tubau, 2016).
Indefinite pronouns in certain languages not only occur in collaboration with sentential negative markers but also occur
within positive clauses in the absence of the negative morpheme. They are not limited to the negative context.
Questions and if-clauses are one of those contexts in which indefinite pronouns occur in the absence of the sentential

polarity item, expressions that are used for representing the smallest amount are also included (Haspelmath, 1997).
Minimizers in Dawurotsuwa are suffixed with even marker -nne/-kka explicitly, as in (33). These express the tiniest
quantity and when they are accompanied by the sentential negative marker, they represent something/someone that does
not exist. For example íttí -nne uantity expression as in (33). The last small
thing one can say in a speech is a word;
single sound.
33) -nne/-kka haasay-a-bei-kk-e
one word- INDF speak-1SG-PFV-NEG-DECL

In example (34),
is less than touching the person beaten, i.e., no contact at all, then one has not been beaten. Touching smoothly with the
hand is the first most and least movement in the process of beating. They use this phrase when they want to express they
example below, the negative marker -kk- is attached to the verb.
34) wots- á-béí-kk-e
hand put-1SG-PFV-NEG-DECL

In example (35), ee Saliva a reference when to get something done soon. They spit
saliva on the floor and order somebody to come back or do something before that saliva dries. If something is done after
that saliva dries, then they think it is done late. Hence, saliva is a deadline they give for accomplishing a task.
35) mel-énnaa-ni y-a
saliva dry-NEG-CVB come-IMP

In example (36), sebberee

minimum amount of money you can have.
36) sebberee baawa
single penny not.exist

In example (37), is used when people want to express a lack of water in a pot. They use this minimum
reference: single saliva. For liquid, especially water
amount of water that is assumed to be available is saliva.
37) haats-i soo-ni baawa
saliva water-NOM home-LOC not.exist

In example (38), kafú serves for the existence of people or other animals in certain places. For instance, when there is
no one in a field, use a bird as the least minimum entity which can serve as a reference. Then, it is expressed whether
the bird is flying or not.
38) kafú baawa/paal-é-nn-a
bird not.exist/fly-3SG-NEG-DECL

In example (39), uduts-ia expresses the minimum to assume somebody is beaten. In a process of beating a person,
the minimum thing that can be done is to remove a fly that is sitting on somebody literally. Beyond this, a lot of things
can be done such as kicking, pushing, etc.
39) -ia laagg-a-kk-a/dents-á-kk-a
fly-ACC drive-2SG-NEG-DECL/remove-2SG-NEG-DECL

In the above sentences, minimal unit expressions are , sebberee

, uduts-ia . When these minimal amounts are used with sentential negative markers, it
expresses total absence/lack. These expressions sometimes are suffixed with -nne/-kka.

III. FOCUS AND NEGATION

In the previous sections, we discussed how n-words are formed in Dawurotsuwa. We have noticed that these
morphemes are functioning differently in different places. In this section, more points that will help to grasp the general
pattern of these morphemes will be discussed.
Focus indicates the presence of alternatives that are relevant for the interpretation of linguistic expressions (Krifka,
2007). There are pragmatic and semantic focuses, where the former deals with communicative purposes of the focus,
and the latter offers factual information and affects the truth value. The focus evoking semantic elements such as only,
also/too, or even can be a cause for change of truth values when the focus varies on the alternatives. When the focus
which is placed on alternatives changes, the assertion also changes (Falaus, 2020).
In a similar way, a sentential negation can operate on alternatives. It is assumed that negation is the total
exclusiveness of an alternative in the set just like only. Both sentential negation and focus are sometimes represented
with a similar marker. On the other hand, the scalar element even shows the alternatives are put in order in comparison
with others hierarchically. In this case, both negation and even are scale-reversing items in which they both are related
to one another in this regard (Jackendoff, 1992).
-sensitive particles also function as coordinating particles and can
even introduce negation by themselv 11). This phenomenon is prevalent in
Dawurotsuwa. Let us consider the following examples:
NO Marker Function
1 -nne Coordinating (Non-emphatic)
2 -kka Coordinating (Emphatic)
3 -kka Coordinating (Emphatic negation)
4 -kka Focus particle (even)-scalar
5 -kka/nne Indefinite marker
6 -kka/nne Minimizer
7 -kk-/-nn- Standard negation
8 -kka Additive
9 -kko
This is an interesting occurrence in Dawurotsuwa, where all these functions are represented by the same morpheme
with very few differences. Haspelmath (2007) states that the element which is used for marking emphatic negation
coordination is at the same time employed to express focus particles. In Dawurotsuwa, emphatic negation coordination -
kka is used at the same time to mark scalar focus status. Haspelmath (2007) also adds that the markers of indefiniteness
are most of the time the same as those of negative focus particles, like not even or neither, even though they are not the
same as the sentential negative marker, unlike Dawurotsuwa, where even they are similar to sentential negation.
Watanabe (2004) and Shimoyama (2006) mention that there is a tight relationship in morphology between focus
markers and negative polarity items. In Dawurotsuwa (as stated in the table above), the indefiniteness forming
morpheme is -nne/-kka, which is identical to the focus morpheme -nne/-kka.

IV. ETYMOLOGICAL SOURCE OF THE NEGATIVE MARKER

Poletto presents the following elements as sources of sentential negative markers by conducting various reviews:
Negative auxiliary
A negative copula
Marker of focus
Verbal or adverbial elements originally related to verbs that contain lexical negation
An adverb originally related to the non-
 Elements derived from sentential tags
Minimizers
Possessives
Modality markers (Poletto, 2020, p.137)
In Dawurotsuwa, the sentinel negative marking element has similarities with other functions as we have seen in the
table above. What connection do these elements have with each other? Among these elements, the focus marker is the
best candidate to assume as the source of the negation marker of Dawurostsuwa.

V. CONCLUSION
This paper investigated n-words in Dawurotsuwa, one of the Omotic languages in Ethiopia. N-words in this language
are formed by suffixing the morpheme nn/-kka. The negative indefinite pronouns are constructed by attaching these
morphemes to the content question words. Although the name negative is found
morpheme is inherently negative. These morphemes can appear both in the affirmative and negative. The morphemes
are not restricted to the n-words in the language; rather they can serve various functions. Mule and minimizers are also
found in the category of n-words. In addition, the focus marker, indefinite forming morphemes, and sentential negative
markers consist of resembling explicit particles. This situation creates good ground to assume the focus marker as a
source of the negative marker in the language.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am grateful to my Ph.D. supervisor Binyam Sisay Mendisu (Ph.D.) for his constructive academic and moral support
at Addis Ababa University in the Department of Linguistics and Philology.

REFERENCES
[1] Bender, M.L.(Ed). (1976). The non-Semitic languages of Ethiopia. Michigan: Michigan State University.
[2] Falaus, A. (2020). Negation and alternatives: Interaction with focus constituents. In V. Déprez & M.T. Espinal (Eds.), The
Oxford handbook of negation (pp. 333-348). Oxford University Press.
[3] Fleming, H. C. (1976). Omotic overview. In M.L. Bender et al (Eds.), The non-semitic language of Ethiopia (pp. 299-323).
East Lansing: African Studies Center, Michigan State University.
[4] Giannakidou, A. (2006). N-words and negative concord. In E. Martin and H. van Riemsdijk (Eds.), The Blackwell companion
to syntax (pp. 327 391). Blackwell Publishings.
[5] Giannakidou, A.& Zeijlstra, H. (2017). The landscape of negative dependencies: Negative concord, N-words. In M. Everaert
and H. van Riemsdijk (Eds.), The Blackwell Companion to Syntax, 2nd edn. London, Blackwell.
[6] Haspelmath, M. (1997). Indefinite pronouns. Oxford University Press.
[7] Haspelmath, M. (2007). Coordination. In T. Shopen (Ed.), Language typology and syntactic description: Complex
constructions (2nd ed., Vol. II, pp. 1-52). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[8] Jackendoff, R. (1972). Semantic Interpretation in Generative Grammar. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
[9] Jespersen, O. (1917). Negation in English and other languages. Host (Copenhagen).
[10] KÖhler, B. (2020). Omotic. In R. Vossen & G.J Dimmendaal (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of African languages (pp. 331-340).
Oxford University Press.
[11] Krifka, Manfred. (2007). Basic notions of information structure. In C. Féry, G. Fanselow, and Manfred Krifka (Eds.),
Interdisciplinary Studies on Information Structure 6: 1 50.
[12] Laka, I. (1990). Negation in Syntax: On the Nature of Functional Categories and Projections. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, MIT.
[13] Poletto, C. (2020). The positioning of negatives. In In R. Vossen & G.J Dimmendaal (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of African
languages (pp. 135-151). Oxford University Press.
[14] Shimoyama, Junko (2006). Indeterminate phrase quantification in Japanese. Natural Language Semantics 14: 139 73.
[15] Tubau, S. (2020). Minimizers and maximizers as different types of polarity items. In V. Déprez & M.T. Espinal (Eds.), The
Oxford handbook of negation (pp. 407-425). Oxford University Press.
[16] Watanabe, A. (2004). The genesis of negative concord: Syntax and morphology of negative doubling. LI, 4, 559 612.

Aklilu Abera Naba: Lecturer at Wolayta Sodo University since 2007 in the Department of English Language and Literature. He
also works on language curriculum designing. He is currently a Ph.D. candidate at Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia. His research
interest is in Afro-Asiatics in general and Omotic specifically. He is also interested in studying language in relation to culture, society,
and ideology.
 Assessing of English Morpheme Acquisition
Order of Thai Deaf University Students
Natdanai Subin
Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand

Krisna Lertsukprasert
Department of Communication Sciences and Disorder, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand

Natthapong Chanyoo
Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand

Abstract The purposes of this study were to assess the acquisition order of nine English grammatical
morphemes and to identify types of grammatical morphemes which seem difficult for Thai deaf university
students. Thirty-seven Thai deaf university students completed 18 fill-in-the-blank questions. Data were
analyzed by frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation. The results indicated that the English
grammatical morpheme acquisition order of Thai deaf university students was as follows: 1) article (Mean (M)
=1.38/3.00), 2) plural (M =1.36/3.00), 3) regular past tense (M =1.28/3.00), 4) progressive (M = 1.22/3.00), 5) the
3rd person singular simple present tense (M=1.16/3.00), 6) auxiliary (M = 1.53/3.00), 7) irregular past tense (M
= 1.46/3.00), 8) copula (M = 0.41/3.00), and 9) possessive (M = 0.39/3.00). From the results, the 3rd person
singular simple present tense, auxiliary, irregular past tense, copula, and possessive were considered difficult
for the deaf participants. The findings from this study can be used for further pedagogical and curriculum
development in teaching English grammatical morphemes to Thai deaf students.

Index Terms English morpheme acquisition, grammatical morphemes, Thai deaf university students

I. INTRODUCTION
Mastering the English language takes time and effort. According to Bloom and Lahey (1978), three aspects of
English serve as the foundations for language development are phonemes (the sounds which represent linguistic
content); morphemes (the units which indicate the meanings and forms of words); and syntax (the structures and order
of words of sentences). Figure 1 shows the levels in language development proposed by Bloom & Lahey in 1978.
Hearing students usually develop an awareness of these three linguistic features prior to developing semantical
knowledge (the meanings of phrases and sentences) and pragmatical knowledge (the actual use of language in specific
contexts). In contrast, students with a hearing disability, especially with profound deafness, may lack phonological input
and thus phonological knowledge. As a result, students who are profoundly deaf have to heavily rely upon morphemes
and syntax. Deaf students typically develop gesture-based communication based primarily on a finite set of signed
words with iconicity (Liddell, 1984; Wilbur, 1987). Iconicity refers to the degree of a resemblance between a gestural
sign and a word. Since the language learning pathways and communication systems of the deaf are different from their
hearing counterparts, the morphological development and knowledge of these two groups of students are also different.

Language Use
(Pragmatics)

Language Content
(Semantics)

Language Forms
(Phonology, Morphology, Syntax)

Figure 1. Proposed Levels in Language Development

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

 There is a strong association between morphological knowledge and academic performance in English language
study (Pratt & Brady, 1988; Powers et al., 1998; Reilly et al., 2009). Morphemes appear widely in printed texts and
academic settings in almost all groups of English language students (Deacon & Kirby, 2004). Carlisle and Stone (2005)
found that English language is morphophonemic, implying that students need to develop phonological and
morphological knowledge as basic elements before acquiring more complicated concepts in English language learning.
However, deaf students are likely to lack authentic auditory experience, resulting in a sole dependency on morphemes
and other visual cues such as signed gestures, printed texts, and pictures. This usually results in a different, more
challenging rate of language development in comparison to hearing students. In addition to the impeded language
development of deaf students, the studies in Thailand undertaken in relation to English morphemes and Thai deaf
students are very limited. Insightful studies and public awareness of this issue are necessary to develop appropriate
curricula and teaching techniques for Thai deaf students.
Morphemes are one of the most fundamental linguistic units for English language students. As a result, researchers
started to investigate whether there could be a pattern for English morpheme acquisition among English language
students (Berko, 1958; Brown, 1973; Dulay & Burt, 1973, 1974a, 1974b; Larsen-Freeman, 1975, 1976). One of the
most well-
proposed by Krashen et al. (1975, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1981). Some researchers such as Newkirk et al. (1980), Mayberry
and Fischer (1989), and Gaustad et al. (1998, 2000, 2002, 2004) assessed the morphological knowledge of deaf English
language students whose first language (L1) was American Sign Language (ASL). These studies offer some mutual
insights that both auditory and visual inputs are necessary for morphological knowledge development. When students
have hearing problems such as profound deafness, their morphological knowledge is severely affected. As a result, deaf
students tend to experience underachievement in English language proficiency (Sterne & Goswami, 2000; Lederberg &
Spancer, 2001; Gaustad et al., 2002; Breadmore, 2008).
The number of studies in English morphological development of Thai deaf students is limited. The major points of
previous studies in Thai deaf community were mostly in pedagogical principles, special teaching tools, the integration
of computer software applications, and exclusive teaching procedures to facilitate in teaching deaf students (Saksiri et
al., 2006; Dangsaart et al., 2008; Plaewfueang & Suksakulchai, 2012; Wicha et al., 2012). One study conducted by
Subin and Chanyoo (2018) exclusively assessing the morphological development and knowledge of Thai deaf
university students. derivations, inflections, and a
combination between roots and affixes by using multiple-choice questions. In conclusion, the students scored very low
in all three types of morphemes being assessed. There was a need to further investigate Thai deaf universi
acquisition of English morphemes was highly recommended, leading to more effective English language assessment
and development in Thai deaf students.
A. Objectives of the Study
1. To assess the order of English grammatical morpheme acquisition of Thai deaf university students; and
2. To identify types of grammatical morphemes that are difficult for Thai deaf university students.
B. Research Questions
1. What is the order of English grammatical morpheme acquisition for Thai deaf university students?
2. Which types of grammatical morphemes seem difficult for Thai deaf university students?
C. Theoretical Framework

sequence of English morpheme acquisition in students studying English as a second language (L2). Nine types of
morphemes were grouped into four stages of acquisition in NOH, ranging from morphemes which were acquired early
to those that were acquired later. Theoretically, English language students acquire morphemes in stage one before
acquiring more morphemes in latter stages. Morphemes within the same stage may be acquired in any order. For
example, one student may acquire a knowledge of plural (-s) before progressive (-ing) and the copula (be) while another
student may acquire the copula before the other two morphemes of stage one. Although these two students may show a
potential variation in morpheme acquisition rate within the same stage, they should acquire all three morphemes in
stage one before acquiring morphemes in the next stages. Figure 2 shows a summary of the NOH concept and the
morphemes being assessed by Krashen et al. (1977).
 Stage 1 Stage 4
Stage 2
Progressive (-ing) Stage 3 Regular Past (-ed)
Auxiliary (be)
Plural (-s) Irregular Past The 3rd Person Singular (-s)
Article (a,the)
Copula (be) Possessive (-'s)

Figure 2. The Order of English Morpheme Acquisition in English as a Second Language

III. METHODOLOGY
A. Research Context and Participants
This study was conducted at Sunshine University (a pseudonym for confidentiality) with three major criteria:
1. This university offers academic programs for students with disabilities including deaf students, which satisfies the
objectives of the study.
2. The number of deaf students enrolled in the university during the study period was adequate for statistical analysis.
3. At least three mandatory English courses of ASL are taught to deaf students at Sunshine University. This point
helped to ensure that deaf students at Sunshine University had been exposed to an ASL background to some extent.
A total of 48 students with profound deafness were enrolled at Sunshine University; thus, that was the population
number targeted in this study. As for the initial plan, all profoundly deaf students were expected to be recruited for this
study. It was planned that three students would be recruited for a pilot phase and 45 students would be included in a
study phase. There were four criteria employed in recruiting participants for this study:
1. All participants were required to enrolled and study at Sunshine University, ensuring exposure to English
grammatical morphemes prior to the commencement of the study. Brown (1973) claimed that English language students
should acquire a concept of 14 types of morphemes as early as five years old. All of the participants in this study were
at least 18 years old prior the study. They should have mastered all types of morphemes by the time the study was
conducted.
2. All participants must use Thai Sign Language (TSL) as their L1 and have studied the English language through
ASL. All participants had already finished two compulsory English courses before the study commenced.
3. All participants in this study were required to be congenitally profoundly deaf. This condition was set to avoid
previous auditory experience, which might interfere with the study. It is noteworthy to state that recruitment procedures
were carried out by a professor and teachers of English courses at Sunshine University upon the request of the
researchers.
4. No hearing aids were needed or used by the participants.
Initially the researchers planned to recruit all 48 students to take part in this study. Prior to the actual study, three
students were randomly asked to participate in the pilot phase. The remaining 45 were expected to participate in the
actual study. However, eight students did not show up during the time of actual data collection. Therefore, there were
eventually 37 students who took part in the study phase.
B. Research Instrument
The 18 fill-in-the-
Berko specially designed the WUG test, which contains nonsense words to minimize potential confounding factors such
as age of acquisition, difficulty of roots, and complexity of prompts. The researchers in this study asked for permission
to use and adapt the original WUG test from Berko via emails, and permission to adapt the test was generously granted
by the developer. Regarding the question items, simple sentences and nonsense words
knowledge of grammatical morphemes. The test was designed and developed to be highly visual and colorful to elicit

ecause 1) it was based on a notion of

grammatical correctness, for those who are non-native English speakers, which was
background in this study; 2) Dulay and Burt suggested that a level around 60-70% of accuracy was adequate to claim

C. Validity and Reliability Assessment

The research instrument and research outline were both submitted to three people who are experts in both the SLA
field and in special education for communicative-impaired students to hear their suggestions. In addition, the study
outline and all 18 fill-in-the-blank questions adapted from WUG test were approved by the Institutional Review Board
(IRB) committee. The validity of the research instrument and outline achieved an acceptable level of satisfaction. In

from four different raters. Six randomized answer sheets from participants in this study were selected and scored by

is 1.00 meaning the test and scoring system used in this study were totally
reliable.
D. Data Collection Procedures
1. A research proposal report, an approval document from IRB, and consent letters were submitted to a teacher and
sign language interpreters at Sunshine University. The same teacher helped in recruiting the final 37 participants who
met four criteria, and the interpreters assisted in communication between the researchers and the participants.
2. Participants were thoroughly informed about the details of the study and were asked to signed consent forms if
they were willing to participate in the study.
3. Test procedures were carefully explained to participants. Participants were asked to sit separately from one another
to prevent interference from peers. Question sheets containing 18 questions were given to participants on sheets of A4
paper. Each question was explained by the sign language interpreters. Therefore, all participants went through each
question at the same time. A maximum of 20 minutes was set to complete all questions.
4.

IV. RESULTS
A. Results for Research Question One
ammatical morpheme acquisition for Thai deaf university
M) according to
the BSM scoring system, as follows: 1) article (69.0% accuracy), 2) plural (68.2% accuracy), 3) regular past tense
(63.51% accuracy), 4) progressive (60.81% accuracy), 5) the third person singular simple present tense (58.11%
accuracy), 6) auxiliary (50.90% accuracy), 7) irregular past tense (48.65% accuracy), 8) copula (40.54% accuracy), and
9) possessive (39.19% accuracy). Table 1 shows a summary of the English grammatical morpheme acquisition order
observed in this study.
TABLE 1
RESULTS FOR THE MORPHEME ACQUISITION ORDER OF THAI DEAF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
Rank Type of grammatical Percentage of Mean Frequency of point on Bilingual Syntax
morpheme accuracy Measure
0 0.5 1
1 Article (a, an) 69.00 1.38/2.00 10 26 38
2 Plural (-s) 68.20 1.36/2.00 6 35 33
3 Regular past tense (-ed) 63.51 1.28/2.00 10 34 30
4 Progressive (-ing) 60.81 1.22/2.00 13 32 29
5 The 3rd person singular 58.11 1.16/2.00 14 33 27
simple present tense (-s)
6 Auxiliary (be) 50.90 1.53/3.00 29 51 31
7 Irregular past tense 48.65 1.46/3.00 19 76 16
8 Copula (be) 40.54 0.41/1.00 12 20 5
9 Possessive (- ) 39.19 0.39/1.00 17 11 9

B. Results for Research Question Two

Research question two was
% is the minimum
criterion to claim morpheme acquisition for non-native English-speaking students. As a result, five types of
grammatical morphemes were scored below 60.00%, including the third person singular simple present tense (-s) with
58.11% accuracy; auxiliary (be) with 50.90%; irregular past tense with 48.65%; Copula (be) with 40.54%; and the
possessive (- ) with 39.19%. Therefore, these results suggested that the possessive (- ) is considered the most difficult
type of grammatical morpheme for Thai deaf university students.

V. DISCUSSION
A. Discussion of the Results from Research Question One
An initial assumption of research question one was that the order of morpheme acquisition in this study should
orpheme acquisition order based on the results of this study actually
contradicts the initial assumption. Many potential factors might play a role in the differences between the two orders.
For example, the fingerspelling technique, which is considered an effective way for teaching and learning English, is
somewhat rarely used in the Thai context (Tumtavitikul & Niwatapant, 2008). Some grammatical morphemes such as
copula, auxiliary, and tense-related morphemes are not present in TSL nor in the Thai language; thus, becoming
jed
lik -related
morphemes (article, plural) were acquired before other types of morphemes. This may be because numbers and their

and the order in this study.

TABLE 2
A COMPARISON BETWEEN THE KRASHEN NOH (1977) AND THE ORDER O F MORPHEME ACQUISITION IN THIS STUDY
Rank The order of English morpheme Rank The order of English morpheme Percentage of
acquisition in Krashen's NOH (1977) acquisition in this study accuracy
Stage copula 1 article 69.00
1 plural 2 plural 68.20
progressive 3 regular past tense 63.51
Stage article 4 progressive 60.81
2 auxiliary 5 the 3 rd person singular simple 58.11
present tense
Stage irregular past tense 6 auxiliary 50.90
3
Stage possessive 7 irregular past tense 48.65
4 the 3rd person singular simple present 8 copula 40.54
tense
regular past tense 9 possessive 39.19

B. Discussion of the Results from Research Question Two

or the third person singular simple present tense, auxiliary,
irregular past tense, copula, and possessive were lower than the 60.00% threshold of morpheme acquisition (Dulay &
Burt, 1973) displaying accuracy percentages of 58.11%, 50.90%, 48.65%, 40.54% and 39.19%, respectively. According
to Goldschneider and DeKeyser (2001), there are 5 potential determinants that influence on grammatical morpheme
acquisition, including perceptual salience, semantic complexity, morphophonological regularity, syntactic category, and
frequency. The authors will then discuss the result by these determinants.
In this study, effects of auditory factors - perceptual salience and morphophonological regularity - could technically
pairment. Perceptual salience refers to phonetic perception of a
language student such as stress level, number of phones in particular morphemes, syllabicity, and sonority level.
Morphophonological regularity refers to a relationship between morphemes and their phonological environment,
including allomorphy variation and contractibility. Perceptual salience and morphophonological regularity were deemed
as significant determinants upon the order of English morpheme acquisition as L2 as mentioned by Ravid (1995) and
Peters (1995). Other researchers also highlighted an importance of auditory inputs and oral productions in language
acquisition (Dulay & Burt, 1978; Brown, 1973; Cook 1993). However, auditory and oral experiences are not applicable
to the participants in this study as they are medically diagnosed as profoundly deaf, resulting in an absence of sound
perception and oral language production. These two determinants, therefore, influence on participants difficulties in
perceiving abovementioned morphemes.
Semantic complexity influences an
which claimed that semantic complexity the number of meanings in a particular morphological form affects the order
of morpheme acquisition. That is, the forms which consist of more meanings tend to be acquired later than forms with
fewer meaning. Brown gave a specific example of the third person singular simple present tense of a form with multiple
semantic elements the number of a subject (a person), a subject-verb agreement, and tense (time). Compared to plural
(-s) form, which mainly expresses the number of a subject, the third person singular simple present tense of a form with
multiple semantic elements should theoretically be acquired later. This study shows the same result as proposed by
Brown (1973). Semantic complexity might also be a reason on late acquisition of auxiliary, irregular past tense, and
copula since these morphological forms require knowledge on tense variation and subject-verb agreement, which are
more semantically complex than article and plural.
The third point to discuss is the influence of syntactic category. There are multiple ways to group morphemes based
on Syntactic theory, or Functional Category theory. Krashen et al. (1975) proposed that morphemes which related to
verb phase (VP), such as tense-related morphemes, tend to be acquired later than noun-phase (NP) morphemes, such as
article and plural. Likewise, Zobl and Liceras (1994) gave an example of plural morphemes for an early-acquired
morphological form. An influence of syntactic category might explain why the participants in this study showed two
highest score of accuracy on NP morphemes - article (69.00%) and plural (68.20%) among other types of morphemes.
An early acquisition of NP morphemes might be because Thai deaf students are likely to expose to number-related
inputs at very young age in language classes prior than other language aspects such as subject-verb agreement and
tenses (Tumtavitikul et al., 2009). However, a conclusive explanation upon an effect of syntactic category and Thai deaf
 Another support for difficulty in morpheme acquisition among deaf participants is frequency of exposure. Frequency
regards the number of inputs exposed by an individual. It is not unusual that frequently exposed grammatical
morphemes are likely to be acquired before those with less exposure frequency. Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991) also
supported an influence of input exposure as a significant determinant of morpheme acquisition order. Low-scored
morphemes in this study - the third person singular simple present tense, auxiliary, irregular past tense, copula, and
possessive are less likely to be taught nor used by Thai deaf university students. This group of students typically rely
on adverbial elements such as time markers due to convenience in hand gestures and nature of sign languages (Liddell,
1984; Wilbur, 1987). For
action rather than manually fingerspelled irregular form of a past-tense verb. Furthermore, concepts about auxiliary and
copula are also uncommon for Thai deaf people owing to a nature of TSL. Thai signers are likely to omit auxiliary and
copula elements when signing. Although frequency of exposure and use might be possible factors for English
morpheme acquisition, exclusive studies on this regard with Thai deaf students are relatively scarce.
In addition, the effect of L1 transference is still debatable among researchers. To some researchers, L1 transference
might play a little role in language performance. For instance, Dulay and Burt (1973) claimed that L1 transference only
accounted for only 3% of language errors in children. On the other hands, researchers such as Andersen (1977) and
Anderson (1978) believed that language transference between L1 and L2 is a significant determinant regarding
morpheme acquisition and language accuracy. A more exclusive question arises whether L1 transference between TSL

of cognates (similarities in linguistic elements) since TSL is a result of creolization among indigenous Thai sign
languages and ASL (Woodward, 1996). There is very limited number of studies about L1 transference and English
language performance in deaf community in Thailand. It would be insightful to further investigate whether L1

acquisition.
C. Limitations of the Study
Firstly, this study was carried out as a cross-sectional study due to time constraints. It may not be possible to acquire
extensive insights from a cross-sectional study. There are many further factors, such as L1 transference, frequency of
using morphemes, and communicative strategies of individuals, which should be further investigated. Secondly, ideally
there should have been more participants sourced from different universities, as different universities might have

(Larsen-Freeman, 1975, 1976). Thirdly, this study would have benefited from using more recent research as reference
points. This study was based on studies that were carried out decades ago due to a previous lack of interest in this topic
being explored in a Thai context.

VI. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the learning and acquiring of the English language has proven to be challenging for Thai deaf
university students. Although the students were taught about fundamental English morphemes, they still showed
difficulty in using grammatically correct morphemes in response to given prompts. Types of morphemes which Thai
deaf university students acquired at an acceptable level include article, plural, regular past tense, and progressive tense.
In contrast, the third person singular simple tense, auxiliary, irregular past tense, copula, and possessive were

aforementioned results, such as semantic complexity, syntactic category, frequency of inputs and uses of morphemes,
and perhaps an effect of language transference. The further insightful investigation of potential factors for language
acquisition difficulties, and effective pedagogical interventions, are highly suggested in order to improve the language
comprehensibility and intelligibility of deaf students. Any insights derived from future studies could also be beneficial
to other groups of people with special needs.

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Natdanai Subin (first author) is currently a doctoral student in the International Graduate Program in Applied
Linguistics at the Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University. He received a BSc. in Biological Sciences from
Mahidol University International College in 2016 and an M.A. in Applied Linguistics from Mahidol

language acquisition for people with special needs, and clinical linguistics. He may be reached at
natdanai.subin[at]gmail.com.

Krisna Lertsukprasert (second author) is associate professor of Communication Sciences and Disorders at
the Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University. She received BSc. in Nursing from
Mahidol University in 1976 and an M.A. in Communication Disorders from Mahidol University in 1979. Her
research interests include audiology, and communication sciences and disorders. She may be reached at
krisna44[at]hotmail.com.

Natthapong Chanyoo (corresponding author) is assistant professor in the International Graduate Program in
Applied Linguistics at the Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University in Thailand. He received a PhD in
Instruction and Learning with concentrations in English Education and Applied Linguistics from the
University of Pittsburgh, USA in 2013. His research interests include teaching English as a foreign language,
second language acquisition, and the psychology of language learning. He may be reached at
natthapong.cha[at]mahidol.edu.
 Letting the Struggling Saudi EFL Readers Take
Lead: How Teachers Transform English
Language Instruction
Vipin Sharma
English Language Institute, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia

Abstract The paper intends to divulge and argue the major reading problems Saudi students face and flaws
in contemporary research that affects a lot on developing their reading skills. The problems and pitfalls
related to reading skill, prime facie, seem traditional but widely discussed; hitherto, remain unsettled in the
arena of language learning. The researcher tries to explore and shed light on these problems while achieving
different asymptotic levels of performance, constrained and unconstrained skills to observe and experience
how far and fast the Saudi EFL learners master the reading skills in and out of classroom settings at Jazan
University. It is solely based on experience and observational data that the researcher has collected on his
ous findings contributed

these major occurring problems may endow with an authentic and viable initiative for planning reading
instruction and interventions. Hence, the present study aims to provide in-depth examination and

structure and related aspects on different reading tasks. The paper concludes with some vital suggestions that
would indubitably help learners and teachers practice in realia to lessen anxiety, achieve desired outcomes and
evolve educational policies for language instruction, evaluation and assessment.

Index Terms motivation, reading difficulties, Saudi EFL learners, struggling readers, vocabulary

I. INTRODUCTION
The research has given all of us an incredible chance to have an impact on the academic world. Currently, there are
many institutions, forums, and initiatives that are working to expand access to research higher education. With such

difficult to dispel that global research acknowledges it as an EFL learning paradigm.

The EFL
the one where they are stuck the most. The teachers also discuss at length to take remedial actions consequently strive to
faster develop the reading skill, better their language learning and academic achievement. The recommendations of
various studies also read and found not appropriate and congenial to the learners. The learners have different problems
depending upon their first language, culture, and region. The new syllabi, technology, course objectives, limited time,
social and parental expectations, and academic pressure are a few that hinder the development of reading skills.
Therefore, the contemporary research on reading skills is not sufficient to overcome all flaws and pitfalls the learners
face today, but it needs special attention that makes this research toil at the grassroots. The study pulls out its scope by
getting into the findings of major contemporary studies on developing reading skills in context to EFL learners, which is
discussed in the succeeding heading.
The notion of developing reading skills amongst EFL learners at the same pace also misleads the teachers and affects
the stipulated milestones. We must acknowledge the fact that transformation from a beginner-mid-average to be a
confident and fluent reader needs consistent and headstrong learning. Each learner has to travel through a long journey
to attain pre-literacy skills, knowledge of phonological and phonemic awareness, fluency, cultural factors, simple and
short to long and complex comprehension texts to attain advanced vocabulary and fast reading; consequently, uplifting
and facilitating the learner to boost empathy and motivation, read and comprehend long texts correctly, solve problems,
review, timely completion of homework and achieves the desired learning outcomes efficiently and effectively.
The ce in reading
texts and then suggest remedial actions that the teachers may incorporate in differentiating classroom instruction and
future planning and assessment. Herein, we take up problems of EFL learners that are mainly experiential in nature and
not learners with dyslexia or any other disabilities.

II. PURPOSE OF STUDY

The contemporary research on reading skills is not sufficient to overcome all flaws and pitfalls the learners face
today, but it needs special attention that makes this research toil at the grassroots. The study pulls out its scope by
getting into the findings of major contemporary studies on developing reading skills in context to EFL learners, which is
discussed in the succeeding heading.
Literature Review
Reading difficulties vary from person to person, language to language, and from generation to generation. An array

reading skills in language learning. Reading skill indubitably has its own vivacity in language acquisition and is
considered one of the most important communication skills as it can improve the overall language proficiency (Snow et
al., 1998; Krashen & Brown, 2007; Sharma, 2018). Rivers (1981) named it not only the most important activity, a

the writer, directing

his total prior experience and concepts he attained, as well as the language competence he has achieved. Hoover and
Gough (1990) mention reading as the ability to take lexical information (i.e. semantic information at the word level) and
derive the sentence and discourse interpretation. Ehri (1991) described four different ways to read words; decoding,
reading by analogy, reading by the prediction made from context, and sight word reading.
The aforementioned and the ensuing studies have dealt with the reading difficulties encompassing through varied

question the efficacy of researchers that dealt with these reading problems and assessment; nevertheless, observed that
misnomer.
The results of studies carried out on EFL learners focused on numerous problems the readers repeatedly face. The
learning pace and process information vary among learners because of many differences: personal, cognitive, cultural,

application to text that integrates across a range of sources of information, from lexical features to knowledge

areas of decoding and linguistic comprehension (Kirby & Savage, 2008).

Alsamadani (2008) illustrated that lagging behind is a cognitive difficulty associated with the process of reading in
another language. Qrqez and Rashid (2017) mentioned ambiguous words, unfamiliar vocabulary, accuracy, speed, and
limited available time to cognitively process the text. Raihan and Nezami (2012) stated problems related to spelling and

Elwer (2014) ascertains much instability in compromised oral language skills, such as vocabulary, grammar, and verbal
memory across all test occasions. Rajab and Al-Sadi (2015) identified lack of interest and lack of motivation towards
poor readers might spend less
time reading, therefore, develop limited vocabulary and general knowledge (Yunus et al., 2016; Ismail & Yusof, 2016).
Since researchers do differ about the frequency and occurrence of reading difficulties. Quite a few studies consider
decoding and linguistic comprehension to represent more than 70% of the variance in reading comprehension (Catts et
al., 2005).
After the in-depth analysis of these studies that underscore the reading difficulties among the struggling readers, the
researcher feels much left to explore struggling EFL learners that would ostensibly suggest new ideas and notions and
further open new boulevards concourse to aspiring researchers to move beyond the context and languages. Ensuing
paragraphs will enlighten on the research methodology, major reading difficulties coupled with the observations and
outcomes.

III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The research follows an observatory and experiential approach to investigate and analyze the major difficulties and
challenges that Saudi EFL learners face in formal settings. Anecdotal evidence shows that the quantitative methods and
numeral methodologies may lessen the scope merely to numerical measures and neglect oblique, major revelations,
essential explanations, and clarifications. The researcher who taught observed, and experienced in classroom settings,
considered as a research tool to gather observations from over 150 students in their first academic year studying at Jazan
University during the last three academic years. The major mistakes committed by the student participants during
reading texts in the classroom were identified, their responses to the reading comprehension questions were analyzed
and monitored regularly and their reading skills were evaluated throughout the process and in the formative assessment.

IV. DATA ANALYSIS AND MAJOR FINDINGS ON STRUGGLING READERS DIFFICULTIES AND CHALLENGES

interactive process consisting of inferring, knowing correct sounds and comprehension (Kamhi & Catts, 2008). The
reader should get ample opportunities to learn, develop and excel in their reading skills which are likely to attend and
address their critical problems that crop up constantly in the reading process. A few variables such as reading attitude,
reading purpose, prior knowledge about the text, textual structure, and vocabulary knowledge contribute to success;
comprehension is determined by the interaction o
 The constrained skills include print awareness, phonemic awareness, alphabetic knowledge, spelling, and fluency
which are supposed to be mastered the most at the school level. The aim of classroom instruction is to attain an
understanding of these skills so as to overcome anxiety, apprehensions, and fear to get complete control of texts.
Unconstrained skills are the long-term and life skills that are mainly developed at the tertiary level and consist of verbal
language, lexis, comprehension, analysis, compose and developing critical thinking. The researcher makes a seminal
attempt to take a holistic overview of the inter-related factors which constitute reading comprehension challenges in
their totality. There is no comprehensive observatory and experiential study that determines and analyzes difficulties

illuminate the major problems the struggling EFL learners face.

A. Decoding of Words
Decoding is an interactive and complex process for readers in every language and is evenly vital in reading,
understanding and exploring valuable ideas in English texts. It becomes more essential to extract meaning from
comprehension texts across academic disciplines. Hammerberg (2004) states that the construction of meaning
consists of more than the reader merely decoding words and saying them aloud in his/her head. Rather, it is an
interactive process, which involves the instant and active construction of meaning while reading.
The students while reading texts encounter unfamiliar and out-of-context words made them difficult in sounding out
words, not able to put sounds to letters to sound out the text language. Most students struggled when they met
unfamiliar words. Proper and timely phonics instruction, guidance, motivation, and continual practice with reading
different texts loud eventually improved immensely making students get rid of shyness and hesitation to be confident,
think critically and improve comprehension ability. Klingner et al. (2007) opine when the learner reads words
correctly, s/he must be able to go beyond the text's literal meaning in order to appreciate the author's intent and
think critically about deeper layers of meaning.
B. Prior Knowledge
The
They have implausible strength and incredible potential to learn but lack pre-literacy skills. This affects not only their
performance in the curriculum but also has an adverse impact on their curiosity to learn and use English. The researcher
earlier in his article (2019) observed that a few students have problems with literacy skills, which affect their learning in
the new curriculum and demotivate them to learn English. Moreover, the students have multiple intelligences and
different learning styles, also struggle in reading and writing respectively. Some students are slow learners and do not
have pre-literacy skills. The students have less knowledge of fundamentals, importance, and acceptance of the English
language globally consequently struggle with many reading problems in the class. Kintsch (2013) stated that for a
student with low prior knowledge or experience about the topic of the text he is reading, his reading comprehension, as
a result, will be poor (Kintsch, 2013). And the students studied English subjects in school just to pass, and a few factors
lack practice in class, the limited time allocated to learning English at school also stalled their language learning

skills, igniting the spark to activate their prior knowledge correlating with the prepared pre-reading exercises and also
given in the textbook to enhance their text comprehensively.
C. Inadequate Lexical Knowledge
Strong reading skills constitute adequate lexical knowledge to better comprehend the given texts across expertise.
Ample lexical knowledge makes decoding and reading easy, speedy to critically analyze and evaluate the unseen texts.
The students expand their vocabulary through regular reading that in turn develop and widen up knowledge about world
occurrences. It is through reading that students expand their vocabulary and then put it into practice in writing to
develop ideas and perceptions about the real world and then excel in other communication skills as well (Sharma, 2019).
Most of the students had fewer words in their fold causing poor comprehension, obstruct growth, and being bit-hesitant
to share their reading difficulties. On the other hand, students with good vocabulary had taken less time and shown a
better ability to read and understand texts. We taught them the significance of word-knowledge-power, provided lexicon
prior to reading, and its importance incorporating and correlating with reading comprehension that helps in decoding
and interpreting words correctly. Grabe and Stoller (2011) also affirmed that the most fundamental requirement for
fluent reading comprehension is rapid and automatic word recognition or lexical access the calling up of the meaning
of a word as it is recognized.
D. Reading Techniques
Students having a gamut of learning strategies excel much faster than students without strategies. The learners use or
scaffold them as per their choice, interest, time, and convenience to get the maximum knowledge and understanding.
These strategies help them to ignite their prior knowledge to infer the main idea or contextual guess, enhance lexical
knowledge, and motivate them to improve their literacy skills. Teachers, on the other hand, may use effective
techniques that include: modify their teaching skills; preparing relevant study material, identifying the problematic texts,
struggling readers and their reading difficulties, phonological knowledge, reading aloud, scaffolding, motivational
techniques, and clear and systematic instructions. Duke and Pearson (2002) mentioned that poor teaching skills and
teacher training programs, reading books of their own choosing, listening to the teacher read aloud to the class,
scaffolding, systematic vocabulary instruction, and reading aloud are among the most effective techniques.
E. Reading Fluency and Accuracy
The readers have to be fluent enough to read with correct pronunciation to enable themselves and listeners to
comprehend the read-out text completely and correctly. Reading text has always been a cognitively challenging task
because it needs concentration and promptness to process, connect with the prior knowledge to store vital information
in the mind. Many students who were less fluent struggled in reading texts because of limited word knowledge and poor
decoding ability. The teacher supported the students with systematic instruction on extensive reading, giving students

reading but evaluated how much one has comprehended the text. The authentic reading texts from the assigned book
have many difficult and unfamiliar words and only a few students could infer and guess the given text with the given
clues and pre-reading activities. However, the students gained momentum in reading texts regularly enabling them to
recognize more words effortlessly upward their fluency, proficiency, and accuracy of the reading text. Although the
Saudi educational system has included the teaching of English for a very long time, student
general and in reading in particular, is far from satisfactory (Al-Karroud, 2005; Al-Qahtani, 2010; Al-Roomy, 2013).
F. Arabic vis-à-vis English
Both languages have vast social, cultural, linguistic, and pragmatic differences. Students have sound knowledge of
the Arabic language and are perceived with canards and misconception about the learning of the English language that
L1 (Arabic),
writing pattern (opposite in both), and the difference in pronouncing English words (silent words) and writing the same
differently in English whereas Arabic has similar forms in both reading and writing respectively. Mourtaga (2004)
stated that for Arabic speakers, learning to read English is associated with a variety of challenges and difficulties
including poor vocabulary, grammar, and syntax which need to be explored in order for them to be taught and these
problems overcome. The teacher ga
language and taught the differences in both languages (L1 & L2) in the beginning, and also demonstrated in the course
of reading texts. The researcher in his previous article (2015) found few English consonants as problematic ones for
Arabic speakers that make students commit several errors while reading, speaking, or writing in English because of the
great influence of their mother tongue. The students could succeed in processing information faster and constructing
meaning in reading texts on the basis of their real-life experiences.
G. Phonetics and English Spelling
The English language has many silent letters and unexpected sounds and the students often get astonished to
experience this. Students struggle to draw sounds to alphabets and sound out words in reading texts. They faced
difficulties in pronouncing letters and words then decoding, poor understanding of words (phoneme, syllables, stress
words, silent letters, and different sounds, etc.), sentences to the text reading. This reading created chaos,

various features of phonetics to articulate the words correctly. It took time to convince and motivate students by altering
teaching strategies to more student-friendly, planned lessons, and activities using technology connected to their level
and real-life experiences. These eventually facilitated students to feel confident and reading less challenging. All
students had smartphones with different applications on language learning used them whenever and wherever which
surprisingly and unexpectedly enhanced their reading and literacy skills considerably.
H. Quizzes and Exam Phobia
The main cause of struggling students in reading is to take up formative and assessment exams. Students feel
insecure and focus more on scoring marks rather than strive to improve their reading skills. Mustafa (2002) stated that
much of the teaching inside the classroom is test-driven instruction that is generally geared towards passing the final
exams. All the courses have their standard schedule to criteria to assess students and the teachers have to abide by the
instructions. Similarly, the researcher herein followed the given schedule but was flexible in conducting formal exams
but monitored strictly that often led to change teaching strategy, study materials, and activities (pre-reading, while
reading, and post-reading) prepared for the students within the purview of the University curriculum. The texts were
selected from the main course-book for the activities developed for the students to read, participate and observe. Pre-
reading activities were very useful to activate prior knowledge, to read, comprehend and anticipate pictures given in the
text, together led to yearning to learn, and prompt to ask questions about the text. While-reading activities assisted the
teacher to read and discuss in pairs, forming new ideas relating their real-life experiences with the pictures and contents
given in the text. Post-reading activities helped to know how far the previous reading facilitated them to think, feel,
understand, analyze and summarize the main points on the text. The students displayed encouraging performance not
only with the planned, organized, and flexible approach from the teacher but also unconditional and constructive
support from the course-administration.
I. Lack of Interest and Motivation
Saudi students often feel in odd situations when they come across reading text that is unfamiliar and new to them.
They expect the texts to be related to their previous knowledge, directly relate to their personal interest and subject.
They get less time given to EFL reading because of more emphasis on the core subjects, fixed credit hours, and time
constraints. As a result, the students lose interest and are demotivated to read the texts. Hidi and Renniger (2006) claim
that personal interest originates from an intrinsic desire to understand particular topics. However, the researcher
observed that the planned and organized contents of the course curriculum (consisting of many activities) with sound
teaching strategies gradually create interest and motivate students. The activities that make acquaintances between the

the key ingredient to develop reading, and motivated readers interact and participate more in analyzing, discussing, and
summarizing the texts. Anecdotal evidence found this concept a huge upshot on learning any language (Brown, 2007;
Hedgcock & Ferris, 2009).
J. Lack of Reading Habit
The
inculcate reading habits at the school level and home and also no one inspired and motivated them either. The

never told about the importance of reading. However, some students have positive opinions and approaches for reading

establishing groups on social media for reading purposes. It led them to share, participate and read messages, quotes,
and short paragraphs that enable them to use at their convenience. The students learned how to preview, skim, scan,
infer, and guess new, unseen and unfamiliar words using cues while reading the text. The researcher in an article (2019)
on social media argued that it has a great pedagogical potential for improving language awareness, grammar,
vocabulary, and fluency; thus, the course designers must step forward to develop curricula and programs to keep abreast

skills i.e. reading and writing given in the course-book also facilitated students to read more attentively. It is tedious,
long, and consistent monitoring and mentoring, but gives satisfaction as students display confidence and interest in
reading texts.
K. Lack of Reading Environment
This is the least attentive area to develop reading but contributes the most resulting in students being hesitant, shy,
anxious, and worrisome in reading context. Every student needs a conducive environment to succeed in the subject s/he
wants. In reading, the readers gain their comfort, relaxation, and eagerness to read and comprehend the desired texts.
Teachers, administration, parents, elders, and friends may create a healthy environment that may help readers keep
away stress, strain, anxiety, passivism they encounter while reading. Teachers may motivate, guide, and support in the
classroom; parents may inspire and encourage at home; administration may support providing the trained teachers, time,
enhanced reading programs, reading room, and library. Without the aforementioned means, students cannot get the help
needed to resolve their problems and they experience adaptation problems in their classes (Bender, 2012). Timely

reading skills. The struggling readers started to interact, discuss and participate in peer/group activities with the sound
and peaceful conditions eventually effective performance at par with motivated students. This is already proven in
several studies (Lyon et al., 2003; Sharma, 2018).
L. Lack of Support and Guidance
The EFL readers have misconceptions about the English subject; therefore, they study this subject just to pass the
school exam. This creates a lack of interest in them towards reading English texts. Even if they start, they struggle to
read and lose interest. Then, the onus lies on teachers and parents to direct them in the right spirit of reading; create
positive conditions ignoring and forgetting previous mistakes; work shoulder-to-shoulder with students; create a homely
and healthy environment both in the classroom and at home; appreciate and acknowledge their strengths and work on

curriculum, and making students at ease and pleasure. Paananen et al. (2009) confirmed that the home environment can
affect students' reading ability either positively or negatively. Parents should monitor their children and follow up with
their homework studies as a daily
desired outcomes on the other part because of several personal and cultural reasons. But students, who got support and
guidance at both ends, had performed exceptionally well. They became confident, no fear, picked up pace in fluency in
reading and comprehending the given texts. Their performance indubitably not only set precedence for the peers and
successors but also showed a ray of hope for the teachers as well. This is established by the research on how effective is
(Torgesen,
2000; Westwood, 2008).
M. Perception and Professional Development
 Students do pe
unfamiliar topics with difficult content but selected books with a vision to acquire new knowledge to accomplish the
desired outcomes. Al-Hazmi (2003) endorses that Saudi EFL teachers are not highly qualified and lack proper training

sound and depth knowledge of the subject and gained adequate experience studying in native countries like UK, USA,

knowledge, and classroom environment are vital ingredients to teaching and learning any language because they
altogether help students give free space, ample opportunities, willingness, and encouragement to develop their
communication skills. Good teachers always show empathy and assist students with study material, suggesting good
reading strategies, building lexical knowledge, classroom support, use of technology in instructions, good assessment

desired speed, fluency, accuracy that further instigate them to read and comprehend the text critically, analyze, infer,
guess and construct meaning from clues in the text. The authorities are dynamic, compassionate, and tread high to
update and upgrade teachers with the latest developments on courses, textbooks, technology and so forth conducting
workshops regularly.

V. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This study illustrates how EFL teachers are able to identify reading difficulties, capture individual attention, progress
trajectory, encourage and motivate struggling readers by timely addressing their reading difficulties by transforming
their teaching instructions. Getting expertise in reading skills is the sum of small efforts repeated day-in and day-out.
The researcher concludes that inculca
journey to your favorite destination. One should focus on the goals, self-belief, keeping patience, and practicing each
day will lessen reading difficulties and shorten the path to gain momentum and finally achieve excellence in reading
skills. We must convince our learners that the grades and marks scored are temporary but the knowledge gained through
consistent hard work is permanent. Soon most of the struggling readers would get rid of reading difficulties;
subsequently, it will help them transform their struggles into strengths. The potential for continued research in the
domain seems nonstop. Each question once answered masquerades another challenge. Similarly, one boulevard and
gamut in language learning examined and explored to get solution open gateways to the researchers to again question its

and learning.

success by overcoming the effects of the new curriculum, misconceptions about EFL learning and all apprehensions,
difficulties, and challenges have arisen on the part of students, teachers, parents, environment, culture, language, and
administration. The outcomes of the study overall align with other studies;
English (Jraissati, 2010; Bendriss & Golkowska, 2011; Al-Yacoub, 2012; Kechichian, 2012); lack of reading (Rajab &
Al-Sadi, 2015; Al-Mansour & Al-Shorman, 2011). The students made the best use of technology and used social media
applications and language apps in smartphones to participate in group reading activities and solve problems to utilize
the time they are habitual of wasting on social media. Sharma (2019) asserts that Saudi students have a first-class
perspective on social media (SM) usage and its usage have shown remarkable development and advancement in Saudi

constructive opinions about reading, enhances classroom participation, and further develops cognitive abilities, cultural,
linguistic and global awareness, and critical thinking skills. The students are now basking in the reflected glory of the
knowledge group.
The researcher advised students to read regularly to get more knowledge, wisdom, and awareness of the subject and
world affairs in order to improve their personality. The reading coupled with technology also facilitates students to
improve their reading productivity by tracking time. They can organize their reading activities, set their priorities, track
the time spend on them and get insights about how they use their time judiciously by viewing innate data/statistics
through online applications. This would help create niches in the realm of their expertise. The researcher affirms that
the Saudi students have embedded themselves as the important cogs in the EFL wheel. Most of the struggling readers
often grab their opportunities with both hands. They feel that reading develops vocabulary, invokes deeper interest,
cognitive ability to comprehend, increases concentration, attention duration, and props up deep improved diagnostic and
analytical thinking. The reading problems together might take a toll on their minds; although, they prefer to make it
simple and easy with conscious efforts, courage, conviction, and determination. The students overcoming these reading
difficulties indubitably fill the empty void with timely guidance, encouragement, constructive feedback, and a positive
evaluation record that the teacher and family desperately need.
Positive learning outcomes are only built from building a strong foundation of basics; it grows gradually each day,

overcoming all difficulties and challenges in the end. The teachers should toil on the grassroots and work their way up

students, and administration that convert predetermined goals into a reality that eventually turns into a strong foundation
for a bright career.
This study contributes to a better understanding of what difficulties and challenges EFL readers face reading
authentic texts and how teachers address from first to last using planned and organized instructions. Evidence shows
that struggling students benefit from the suggestions much more than other students. In essence, students must be highly
motivated and highly disciplined if they are to learn effectively in and out of the classroom environment. We precisely
reckon that the determined struggling readers struggle at text reading never look back at the school days that they were
at; however, embark on their new journey as keen readers and herald their new future. The EFL readers need to believe
that the academic credentials without communication skills would no longer harvest the same returns that might have
been true even a decade ago.
are the only p
problems and it would certainly swing struggling learners to arrive at middle-of-the-road where EFL teachers would
facilitate and guide them under any circumstances. The learners have immeasurable talent and unbelievable potential
which require to be tapped. The students overcoming reading difficulties and challenges indubitably fill the empty void
with timely guidance, encouragement, constructive feedback, and a positive evaluation record that the teacher and
family desperately need. What the enthusiastic readers have upheld is a reminder of the importance of EFL learning, at
a time when it has been integrated into courses, but the EFL learning, by and large, is still beyond recognition in public
life. The researcher strongly believes that budding EFL learners are the precious glow we perceive or misconceive in
this gathering gloom.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The researcher would like to extend his profound gratitude and appreciation to his students, colleagues and Eli
administrators for their unswerving and earnest support to work freely and provide valuable inputs for this publication.

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students at Yarmouk University in Jordan. Arab World English Journal, 8(3), 421-431.
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International, 4(1), 112-118.
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Arab EFL learners with special reference to Najran University in Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Social Sciences &
Education, 2(3), 306-316.
[36] Rajab, H & Al-Sadi, A. (2015). An empirical study of reading habits and interests of Saudi University EFL learners.
International Journal of Linguistics, 7(2), 1-17.
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15-28.
[38] Rivers, W.M. (1981). Teaching Foreign-Language Skills. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
[39] Sharma, V. (2015). How do Productive Skills of Saudi Students Affect EFL Learning and Teaching? Asian Journal of
Humanities and Social Sciences, vol. 3 (2), pp. 91-99.
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Saudi Arabia. Journal of Literature, Languages and Linguistics, vol. 50, pp. 37-47.
[41] Sharma, V. (2019). Saudi Stu International Journal of
Linguistics, Literature and Translation, vol. 2 (1), pp. 129-139.
[42] Snow, C. E., Burns, M.S., & Griffin, P. (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National
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-Veli Görüsleri
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Vipin Sharma is currently working as faculty and Head, Planning and Development Unit at English Language Institute, Jazan
University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia. His research interests include second language acquisition, technology-mediated language learning,
sociolinguistics, ecocriticism, and American literature. Prof. Vipin Sharma has contributed more than sixty articles in national and
international journals of repute. He has authored two books and edited six books.
Integration of Perceptual Similarity With Faithful
Mapping of Phonological Contrast in Loanword
Adaptation: Mandarin Chinese Adaptation of
English Stops
Mosi He
Department of Linguistics and Translation, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

Jianing He
Center for Linguistics and Applied Linguistics, School of English for International Business, Guangdong University of
Foreign Studies, Guangzhou, China

Abstract In loanword phonology, perceptual similarity and faithful mapping of phonological contrast are two
main factors which influence loanword adaptation. Previous studies observe that English phonological voicing
contrast is mapped to Mandarin Chinese (hereafter, Mandarin) phonological aspiration contrast, indicating
faithful mapping of phonological contrast. Nevertheless, the role of perceptual similarity in adaptation of
English stops to Mandarin has not been fully explored. The current study investigates the influence of
perceptual similarity on loanword adaptation by examining how English voiced and voiceless stops are
adapted in Mandarin Chinese using a data set of 1427 novel Mandarin loanwords from English. The results
show consistent adaptation of English voiced stops as Mandarin unaspirated stops and English aspirated
voiceless stops as Mandarin aspirated ones, while inconsistent adaptation patterns are found for the English
unaspirated voiceless stops. In particular, English post-/s/ unaspirated voiceless stops which occupy a similar
voice onset time (VOT) region to Mandarin unaspirated stops are adapted as Mandarin unaspirated ones,
whereas the rest are mapped to aspirated stops in Mandarin. The overall adaptation patterns provide partial
support to faithful mapping of phonological contrast and provide robust evidence for an integration of
perceptual similarity with faithful mapping of phonological contrast in loanword adaptation.

Index Terms loanwords, consonant adaptation, Mandarin Chinese, perceptual similarity, phonological
contrast

I. INTRODUCTION
When a word is borrowed by one language (the borrowing language) from another language (the donor language),
sound adaptation of the word must conform to the segmental inventory, prosodic patterns and phonotactic constraints of
ss to the words in the donor language (Kenstowicz &
Suchato, 2006).
Various accounts have been put forward with regard to the ways in which loanwords are adapted. Currently, three
main approaches have been proposed, namely the phonological approach (e.g. Jacobs & Gussenhoven, 2000), the
perceptual approach (e.g. Boersma & Hamann, 2009; Peperkamp & Dupoux, 2003) and the phonetics-phonology
approach (e.g. Yip, 1993, 2006). The major difference between the first two approaches lies in whether the foreign
inputs to adaptation are processed at the phonological level to maintain faithful mapping of phonological contrast, or at
the perceptual level where perceptual similarity matters. Taking an intermediate position, the third approach integrates
perceptual similarity with phonological contrast to obtain the best match of the foreign inputs in adaptation.
In the current study, we examine how a native speaker of Mandarin Chinese (hereafter, Mandarin) adapts English
voiced and voiceless stops, aiming to investigate the influence of perceptual similarity on loanword adaptation revealed
by the adaptation patterns of English stops to Mandarin. We use a new and larger data set of Mandarin loanwords from
English than those in previous studies which mainly collected a limited number of established Mandarin loanwords
from English in dictionaries.
In the segmental inventory of English, there are three pairs of stop phonemes /p, b/ 1, /t, d/ and /k, g/. The oppositions
within each pair are distinguished by the distinctive feature of voicing. In different contexts, the voiceless stops are

2014, p.163), is a nondistinctive feature in

1
Slash brackets / / are used to refer to underlying or phonological representations of sounds while square brackets [ ] repres ent the surface forms
(phonetic realisation) of the sounds.
 -/s/ unaspirated voiceless
stops occupy a similar VOT region to Mandarin unaspirated stops.
TABLE 1
DIFFERENCE IN PHONOLOGICAL CONTRAST AND PHONETIC SIMILARITY BETWEEN ENGLISH AND MANDARIN STOPS
[±voice] [±aspirated] Phonetic similarity
phonological contrast allophonic variation depending on different
voiceless vs. voiced contexts Similar VOT values
English
e.g. pie /pa / vs. buy /ba / allophones for English voiceless stops between English post-/s/
e.g. pot [ t], super ['su.p ], spy [spa ] unaspirated voiceless
phonological contrast stops and Mandarin
Mandarin (not applicable) aspirated vs. unaspirated unaspirated stops
e.g. [ [t
Note: post-

The different phonological contrasts between English and Mandarin stops, and neutralised distinction between
English unaspirated voiceless stops and Mandarin unaspirated stops in terms of perceptual similarity, warrant
examination from the perspective of the three approaches which differ in what kind of information matters in loanword
adaptation. In particular, Mandarin has a phonological aspiration contrast, whereas in English voicing is a
phonologically contrastive feature and aspiration is a nondistinctive feature. Paradis and Tremblay (2009) find a
consistent mapping of English phonological voicing contrast to Mandarin phonological aspiration contrast in adaptation
of English stops to Mandarin, supporting the phonological approach. Kim (2012) and Hui and Oh (2015), however,
report a few observations of adapting English unaspirated stops to Mandarin unaspirated ones, indicating that perceptual
similarity plays a role.
The current study extends the previous research in that we not only examine the general adaptation patterns for
English voiced and voiceless stops to Mandarin, but also separate English unaspirated voiceless stops by different
surrounding contexts into post-/s/ and single stops to further explore the issue of perceptual similarity and phonological
contrast in loanword adaptation.

II. BACKGROUND
This section first introduces three major approaches regarding the ways in which loanwords are adapted. Next, the
phonological features and phonetic properties of English and Mandarin stops are introduced. On the basis of previous
studies, research questions of the study are proposed.
A. Approaches to Loanword Adaptation

1. The Phonological Approach

of a language plays a crucial role in adaptation of foreign segments. For instance, native speakers of Cantonese (a
dialect of Chinese) perceive the voiced stop coda /b/ /kl b/
in their native language. Paradis and Tremblay (2009), in favour of the phonological approach, report that English
voiceless stops are adapted as Mandarin aspirated voiceless stops regardless of aspiration. They conclude that English
-to-tone mapping of
tonal feature model of native phonology, while
aco
the borrowing language identify segmental contrasts in the donor language as phonologically equivalent sounds in their
native language that stand for similar contrasts.
2. The Perceptual Approach
-based account
of loanword phonology. At the Perceptual Level, the inputs are not processed at the phonological level but have a

predictable and hence it is not in the underlying representation but in the phonetic form. Because of perceptual
'm .t ] into
Cantonese [m .ta]. In other words, the adapters process the inputs based on aspiration which is phonemic in Cantonese.
In addition, Silverman (1992) notes that less salient segments are deleted because they are less likely to be detected than
the salient ones at the Perceptual Level. Furthermore, Peperkamp and Dupoux (2003) state that the adaptation of an
e phonetic distance matters. Paradis and
Tremblay (2009), though argue against the perceptual approach, admit that the perceptual approach correctly predicts
the adaptation of English voiced stops as Mandarin unaspirated ones based on similar VOT regions between them. To
sum up, according to the perceptual approach, speakers of the borrowing language map the sounds in the donor
language to the perceptually closest ones in their native language and faithful mapping of phonological contrast does
not play a role.
3. The Phonetics-phonology Approach
Neither the phonological nor perceptual approach is sufficient to explain variable loanword adaptation. Alternatively,
the phonetics-phonology approach believes that both perceptual and phonological factors matter in loanword adaptation
and tries to integrate perceptual similarity with phonological equivalence. Silverman (1992) favours the perceptual

Perceptual module non-native percept L1 grammar Adapted

et al. (2009) also argue that perceptual salience forms an important dimension of
phonological faithfulness. Furthermore, perceptual similarity seems to be mediated by phonological system of the
adapters. Kang and Schertz (2021) investigate the r -native
language in cross-language mapping and find that though they are sensitive to perceptual similarity between the foreign
e (perceived) phonological categories of the
[non-
vowel duration, syllable duration and nasalization on loanword adaptation and report that phonotactic constraints play a
more crucial role than phonetic cues do in accounting for adaptation of singleton nasals over nasal geminates.
In a nutshell, the phonological approach argues that the inputs of adaptation come from underlying representation in
the donor language, namely the phonological contrast. The perceptual approach claims that the inputs are phonetic
details and emphasises perceptual salience of segments. Yet neither of the two approaches can perfectly predict patterns
of loanword adaptation. An intermediate approach is thus proposed that both perceptual similarity and phonological

B. English and Mandarin Stops

Differences in segmental inventory and similarities in phonetic properties between English and Mandarin stops will
be introduced below, which can provide a window into the investigation of the influence of perceptual similarity on

1. Phonological Features of Stops in English and Mandarin

English stops are categorised according to voicing and the place of articulation, namely labial voiceless /p/ and
voiced /b/, dental voiceless /t/ and voiced /d/ and velar voiceless /k/ and voiced /g/ (Table 2). Voicing is contrastive in
English such that a voiceless stop and a voiced stop are two phonemes in the same place of articulation. For example, /t/
k/.
TABLE 2
INVENTORY OF ENGLISH CONSONANTS (G IEGERICH, 1992, P.41)
Labial Dental Velar
p b t d k g
Note: voiceless phonemes on the left and voiced ones on the right within a cell

For each voiceless stop, there is a classification of aspiration. Aspirated and unaspirated allophones of the English
voiceless stops do not contrast word meanings and only differ in phonetic manifestation. The environment for aspirated
stops is
t] (Rogers, 2013, p.50), whereas
unaspirated stops are found in other contexts such as before an unstressed nucleus or after the fricative /s/ (Hayes, 2009,
.p ], respectively (Table 3).
TABLE 3
ALLOPHONES FOR ENGLISH VOICELESS STOPS (CRUTTENDEN, 2014, P.173)
Context [±aspiration] Example
Syllable initial, accented aspirated p t]
Syllable initial or final, unaccented unaspirated to slightly aspirated super ['su.p ]
Post-/s/, accented unaspirated spy [spa ]
Note: post-/s/ stops = stops in /sC/

In Mandarin, all the stops are voiceless and are categorised according to aspiration and the place of articulation
/ /
/t /
meanings.
 TABLE 4
INVENTORY OF MANDARIN CONSONANTS (D UANMU, 2007, P.26)
Labial Dental Velar

Note: unaspirated phonemes on the left and aspirated ones on the right within a cell

2. Phonetic Properties of English and Mandarin Stops

Acoustically, an aspirated stop has a long positive VOT and an unaspirated stop a short VOT in English (Table 5).
Among unaspirated voiceless stops, syllable-initial post-/s/ stops show similar VOTs to voiced stops (Cho et al., 2014).
On the other hand, VOTs of single unaspirated voiceless stops preceding an unstressed vowel are slightly longer than
those of post-/s/ stops (Antoniou et al. .p ] has a longer VOT than that
]. With regard to places of articulation, labial stops have shorter VOTs than
those of dental stops which are shorter than those of velar ones (Menyuk & Klatt, 1975).
TABLE 5
MEAN VOT S (MS) OF ENGLISH STOPS IN THE LITERATURE (JONES & MEAKINS , 2013; KLATT, 1975)
voiced voiceless
[b] [d] [g] [p] [t] [k] [ph] [th] [kh]
single 11 17 27 22 38 39 47 65 70
post-/s/ n.a. n.a. n.a. 12 23 30 n.a. n.a. n.a.
Note: single stops = single stops before an unstressed vowel -
not applicable

Furthermore, English and Mandarin stops fall in the similar VOT regions. The VOT values of English voiced stops
and unaspirated voiceless stops are similar to those of Mandarin unaspirated stops while VOTs of English aspirated
stops are relatively shorter than those of Mandarin aspirated stops (Tables 6 and Fig 1).

TABLE 6
MEAN VOT S (MS) OF MANDARIN STOPS (R AN & SHI, 2007)
unaspirated aspirated
[p] [t] [k] [ph] [th] [kh]
13 14 30 106 104 112

voiced stops (e.g. single unaspirated aspirated voiceless

buy /ba /) voiceless stops (e.g. stops (e.g. pie /pa /)
post-/s/ unaspirated super ['su.p ])
English
voiceless stops (e.g.
spy)

unaspirated stops aspirated stops (e.g.

Mandarin (e.g. [t [ )
)

VOT 0-30 ms 30-40 ms > 40 ms

Figure 1. Comparison of VOTs of Stops in English and Mandarin

In sum, there exists an overlap of VOTs between voiced stops and post-/s/ stops in English as well as similarity in
VOTs between English and Mandarin stops. Thus, the current study collects a new and larger novel loanword data set to
investigate the influence of perceptual similarity on adapting English words into Mandarin, from the perspective of the
three approaches to loanword adaptation.
C. Research Questions
Three specific research questions will be addressed:
(1) Is voiceless-vs-voiced contrast for English stops adapted as aspirated-vs-unaspirated stops for Mandarin? (If yes,
it supports the phonological approach which favours faithful mapping of phonological contrast.)
(2) Are English aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops adapted as Mandarin aspirated and unaspirated stops
respectively? (If yes, it supports the perceptual approach which favours perceptual similarity and disfavours faithful
mapping of phonological contrast.)
(3) Is voiceless-vs-voiced contrast for English stops adapted as aspirated-vs-unaspirated stops for Mandarin, with an
exception that English unaspirated voiceless stops with two different surrounding contexts (post-/s/ and single) are
adapted as different segments in Mandarin? (If yes, it supports the phonetics-phonology approach which integrates
perceptual similarity with faithful mapping of phonological contrast.)

III. METHOD
A. Data Collection
The source of the data is a vocabulary book covering English vocabulary written and released by a user at
www.topsage.com, an online education resources sharing forum in China. The book includes the English vocabulary in
secondary school textbooks in China. The author made an adaptation form on each word from English to Mandarin to
help readers (secondary school students in China) to memorise English pronunciations and word meanings in the
following way:
English word: spider
Mandarin sentence:
Pinyin: si.bo de er.zi hua si.bai.kuai.qian mai.le yi.zhi zhi.zhu
IPA: szz.p oo t jii.t rr t rr.t uu
Gloss: fourth uncle of son pay four hundred buy one spider

The novel Mandarin loanwords from English in the data set are nonwords and are rarely used in real life, which
means most of them are not found in formal loanword corpora or dictionaries containing established loanwords such as
Mandarin loanwords from English brand names. Therefore, it provides new data for Mandarin loanwords from English
which is less affected by non-phonological factors such as analogy (Paradis & Tremblay, 2009).
The data set consists of 1465 stops in 1427 Mandarin loanwords from English after removing irrelevant words. The
novel words which were not adapted solely on the English pronunciation were not relevant to this study, and hence
were not included. There were 645 (44%) aspirated voiceless stops, 301 (20%) unaspirated voiceless stops and 519
(36%) voiced stops. The procedures of processing each English word and its made-up Mandarin word are as follows.
English words were automatically transcribed in International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) by one of the largest online
The 21st Century Unabridged English-Chinese Dictionary (Li, 2003).
Pinyin was added on the Mandarin words and segments were transcribed in IPA based on the phonological forms of
Mandarin syllables in Duanmu (2007).
B. Different Predictions by the Three Approaches
The three approaches predict different adaptation patterns of English stops to Mandarin. The predictions are as
follows (See Figures. 2-4). We expect that the data set will provide evidence to support one or more of the predictions.
(1) The phonological approach predicts the mapping of English phonological voicing contrast to Mandarin
phonological aspiration contrast. For instance, both English [p] and [p h] are adapted as Mandarin [ph] and English [b] is
adapted as Mandarin [p].
(2) The perceptual approach predicts the mapping of English stops to Mandarin stops based on perceptual similarity
and perceptual salience, regardless of faithful mapping of phonological contrast. For instance, English [p h] is adapted as
Mandarin [ph], whereas English [p] is adapted as Mandarin [p]. English [b] is adapted as Mandarin [p] as well.
(3) The phonetics-phonology approach predicts the mapping of English phonological voicing contrast to Mandarin
phonological aspiration contrast while perceptual similarity plays a role in salient context such as post-/s/ stops. For
instance, English [ph] is adapted as Mandarin [ph]. English single [p] preceding an unstressed vowel or at a syllable-final
position is adapted as [ph] as well, whereas [p] in /sC/ clusters is adapted as Mandarin [p]. English [b] is also adapted as
Mandarin [p].

English Mandarin
p ph

b p

1. Phonological Approach

Figure 2. Predictions of Adaptation of English Stops Into Mandarin by the Phonological Approach
 English Mandarin
ph ph
p single p
post- s p

b b p
2. Perceptual Approach

Figure 3. Predictions of Adaptation of English Stops into Mandarin by the Perceptual Approach.
Note: single stops = single stops before an unstressed vowel or at a syllable-final position -/s/ stops = stops in /sC/ clusters

English Mandarin
ph ph
single p
post- s p

b p

3. Phonetics-phonology Approach

Figure 4. Predictions of Adaptation of English Stops Into Mandarin by the Phonetics-phonology Approach.
Note: single stops = single stops before an unstressed vowel or at a syllable-final position -/s/ stops = stops in /sC/ clusters
such as [s

IV. RESULTS

A. General Adaptation Patterns of English Voiced and Voiceless Stops

As shown in Table 7, English aspirated voiceless stops are all adapted as Mandarin aspirated ones, and English
voiced stops are all adapted as Mandarin unaspirated voiceless stops. English unaspirated voiceless stops are more often
adapted as Mandarin aspirated stops than unaspirated stops, implying a less significant role of perceptual similarity.
Nonetheless, there is still inconsistent adaptation of English unaspirated voiceless stops. Chi-square tests were
conducted to compare the number of words being adapted as aspirated stops and the number of words being adapted as
unaspirated stops in Mandarin. There are significant differences between the two adaptation patterns across different
English stops.
TABLE 7
NUMBER OF ASPIRATED AND UNASPIRATED STOPS IN MANDARIN ADAPTED FROM ENGLISH STOPS
Voiceless stops in English Voiced stops in
aspirated unaspirated English
Aspirated stops in
301 (100%) 536 (83%) 0
Mandarin
Unaspirated stops in
0 109 (17%) 519 (100%)
Mandarin
Sum 301 645 519
2 2 2
= 301, df = 1, = 282.7, df = 1, = 519, df = 1,
Chi-square
p < .001 p < .001 p < .001

Examples of the adaptation patterns for English voiced and voiceless stops are listed in Table 8. For the adaptation of
English unaspirated voiceless stops, the two distinct patterns are found where the pre-unstress single stop in (2) and the
post-/s/ stop in (3) are adapted as the aspirated and unaspirated stops in Mandarin respectively. It appears that different
surrounding contexts may affect the adaptation of English unaspirated voiceless stops.

TABLE 8
ADAPTATION OF ENGLISH STOPS TO MANDARIN
Adaptation English word Context IPA Mandarin word IPA
h
(1) publish accented ['p b.li [p aa p oo l ii rr]
(2) [p] carpet single ['k .pit] [ka ii ]
(3) [p] [p] spot post-/s/ [sp t] rr pau t aa]
(4) [b] [p] bitter n.a. ['bi.t [p ii t aa]
Note: single stops = single stops before an unstressed vowel -
not applicable
B. Adaptation of Single and Post-/s/ English Unaspirated Voiceless Stops
A closer examination of adaptation of English unaspirated voiceless stops with different surrounding contexts shows
two distinct patterns. English post-
Mandarin [p], whereas single stops before an unstressed vowel or at a syllable-
tend to be adapted as the Mandarin aspirated stop [ph] (Table 9). Chi-square tests reveal that the number of words being
adapted as aspirated stops and the number of words being adapted as unaspirated stops are significantly different across
surrounding contexts and places of articulation.
Since the VOT of a post-/s/ stop is relatively shorter than that of a single stop, the two distinct patterns imply the role
of perceptual similarity in mapping post-/s/ stops to Mandarin unaspirated ones while single stops to Mandarin aspirated
ones. Furthermore, the English unaspirated voiceless stops in the two types of structures have identical features of
[+aspiration] and [-voice], indicating that perceptual similarity overrides the faithful mapping of phonological contrast
in the adaptation of English unaspirated voiceless stops in Mandarin.
Among the three English post-/s/ unaspirated voiceless stops, the percentage of being adapted as Mandarin aspirated
stops increases as the place of articulation for the stops goes from labial to velar.
TABLE 9
NUMBER OF ASPIRATED AND UNASPIRATED STOPS I N MANDARIN ADAPTED FROM ENGLISH UNASPIRATED VOICELESS STOPS
[p] [t] [k]
single post-/s/ single post-/s/ single post-/s/
Aspirated stops in
79 (98%) 0 277 (98%) 6 (12%) 170 (98%) 4 (17%)
Mandarin
Unaspirated stops
2 (2%) 34 (100%) 7 (2%) 43 (88%) 4 (2%) 19 (83%)
in Mandarin
Sum 81 34 284 49 174 23
2 2 2 2 2 2
= 73.2, = 34, = 256.7, = 27.94, = 158.4, = 9.8,
Chi-square
df = 1, p<.001 df = 1, p<.001 df = 1, p<.001 df = 1, p<.001 df = 1, p<.001 df = 1, p<.01
Note: single stops = single stops before an unstressed vowel or at a syllable-final position -/s/ stops = stops in /sC/ clusters

V. DISCUSSION
The current study examined the adaptation patterns of English words into Mandarin based upon novel Mandarin
loanwords from English, aiming to investigate the influence of perceptual similarity on loanword adaptation. Overall,
the results reject the perceptual approach but provide partial support to the phonological approach and provide robust
evidence for the phonetics-phonological approach.
The answer to the first research question is partly YES. The results show that English voiced stops [b, d, g], and
English aspirated voiceless stops [ph, th, kh] are adapted as Mandarin unaspirated and aspirated stops respectively,
indicating the partial preservation of phonological contrast.
The answer to the second research question is NO. There is no consistent adaptation of English aspirated voiceless
stops to Mandarin aspirated ones and English unaspirated voiceless stops to Mandarin unaspirated ones.
The answer to the third research question is YES. English unaspirated voiceless stops [p, t, k], however, are either
adapted as Mandarin aspirated or unaspirated stops, suggesting integration of perceptual similarity with faithful
mapping of phonological contrast. Compared with the unaspirated segments [p], the segments [k] and [t] have relatively
lower percentages of being adapted as Mandarin unaspirated stops.
In what follows, we further discuss partial preservation of phonological contrast, and integration of perceptual
similarity with faithful mapping of phonological contrast.
A. Partial Preservation of Phonological Contrast
English phonological voicing contrast is mapped to Mandarin phonological aspiration contrast, which echoes the
previous studies (Hui & Oh, 2015; Kim, 2012; Paradis & Tremblay, 2009) which report adaptation of English voiced
stops to Mandarin unaspirated and English voiceless stops to Mandarin aspirated stops. Underlying phonological
contrast in

English and aspiration in Mandarin are both phonemic categorisation. The results partially confirm the predictions by
the phonologi & Paradis, 2005; Paradis & Tremblay, 2009).
B. Integration of Perceptual Similarity with Faithful Mapping of Phonological Contrast
Firstly, distinct patterns are found in English unaspirated voiceless stops in different places of articulation. The
English post-/s/ dental and velar stops [t] and [k] have a relatively higher percentage of being adapted as Mandarin
aspirated stops than the velar stop [p], which echoes Hui and Oh (2015) who report a larger ratio of aspirated
adaptations for both English unaspirated [t] and [k] than [p]. This is explained by the facts that the segments [t] and [k]
have longer VOTs than that of the segment [p]. As the place of articulation moves from the labial to the velar, the ratio
of adapting English post-/s/ stops as Mandarin aspirated ones also increases.
Secondly, the current study finds that English post-/s/ unaspirated voiceless stops are adapted as Mandarin
unaspirated ones while the single ones are adapted as Mandarin aspirated stops. The distinct adaptation patterns
between single and post-/s/ stops are accounted for by differences in VOT values. Since English post-/s/ unaspirated
voiceless stops occupy the 0-30 ms VOT region where is also occupied by English voiced and Mandarin unaspirated
stops, it is expected that hearers of the borrowing language perceive the shorter VOTs and map the sounds as
unaspirated in their native grammar. Despite belonging to the same phonological category, post-/s/ stops have shorter
VOTs than those of single stops, which means that they are more likely to be perceived as English voiced stops and
Mandarin unaspirated stops than single stops. In contrast, , English single unaspirated voiceless stops are consistently
assigned to Mandarin aspirated stops since they normally have longer VOTs than those of the post-/s/ stops, and more
importantly, their surface phonetic details are less salient than those of post-/s/ stops. It is speculated that the degree of
perceptual saliency interacts with perceptual similarity in loanword adaptation. When it is less salient, adapters tend to
preserve faithful mapping of phonological contrast rather than try to achieve the best match to the surface phonetics of
the inputs.
The variable adaptation patterns for English unaspirated voiceless stops are not explicitly examined in Paradis and
Tremblay (2009) who report consistent mapping of English unaspirated voiceless stops to Mandarin aspirated ones.
Though Kim (2012) and Hui and Oh (2015) show a few cases where English unaspirated stops are adapted as Mandarin
unaspirated stops, they do not differentiate post-/s/ stops from the single ones and treat them as the same category,
which might be a confounding factor.
These results confirm the predictions in the phonetics-phonology approach (Hsieh et al., 2009; Kenstowicz, 2012;
Kim, 2012; Yip, 1993, 2006). Perceptual similarity plays a role because it overrides preservation of phonologically
contrastive feature in the adaptation of post-/s/ English stops. Nonetheless, English phonological voicing contrast is
consistently preserved in the mapping to the phonologically equivalent aspiration contrast in Mandarin, indicating that
perceptual similarity is mediated by phonological factors (Chen & Lu, 2020; Kang & Schertz, 2021).

VI. CONCLUSION
Through a study of the adaptation of English novel loanwords in Mandarin, this study attempts to answer the
questions of how English voiced and voiceless stops are adapted to Mandarin and whether perceptual similarity plays a
role in adapting English words into Mandarin, from the perspective of the three approaches to loanword adaptation.
Firstly, the results show that English voiced are adapted as Mandarin unaspirated stops and English aspirated
voiceless stops as Mandarin aspirates stops, which disfavours the perceptual approach but provides partial support to the
faithful mapping of phonological contrast proposed by the phonological approach.
Secondly, for English unaspirated voiceless stops, the single stops are adapted as Mandarin aspirated stops and the
post-/s/ stops as Mandarin unaspirated stops, providing robust evidence for the phonetics-phonological approach which
integrates perceptual similarity with phonological contrast in loanword adaptation.
Future research can include more data of adaptation of English stops to Mandarin from various sources. Users of

of English unaspirated voiceless stops are complex. An English unaspirated voiceless stop can have more than one
segment mapping in Mandarin. An analysis with OT (Optimality Theory) may offer more insights into the various
adaptation patterns.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This article is the revised version of a
collected the data and wrote the draft of the paper. Jianing He reviewed and edited the draft.

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Mosi He, MA, is a PhD candidate at the Department of Linguistics and Translation, City University of Hong Kong. Her main
research interests are second language speech acquisition and the interface of prosody and pragmatics.
E-mail: [email protected]

Jianing He, PhD, is a Professor at the School of English for International Business and a part-time researcher at the Center for
Linguistics and Applied Linguistics, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies. His main research interest is Lexicography.
 Challenges in Translating Scientific Texts:
Problems and Reasons
Hadeel M. Al-Smadi
Department of English Language and Translation, Applied Science Private University, Amman, Jordan

Abstract The demand for scientific and technical translation has increased because of the rapid scientific and
technological development in developed countries and the need to spread these sciences and technologies in
developing countries. This study aims to investigate the main problems encountered by translators in
translating scientific texts from English into Arabic and reveal the main reasons behind these problems. In this
study, a qualitative research design is applied, and the sample of this study consists of one scientific text with
(938 words) translated by twenty BA students. The study reveals that translators faced lexical and syntactic
problems while translating scientific text, such as word diction, preciseness, terminological consistency, word
order (markedness), agreement, tense and aspect, and passive structure. Moreover, the study shows that a lack
of translators' experience in this domain, students' total dependence on a literal translation, and the lack of
awareness of the sensitivity of scientific texts are some of the most important reasons for these problems.

Index Terms scientific translation, terminology, problems, English, Arabic

I. INTRODUCTION
Science and technology play a tremendous role in our lives. They are closely linked with aspects of society and
human civilization's progress. The rapid development in scientific and technical fields has led to the growing demand
for the technical translation since most products are published in English as a universal lingua franca. In this light, a
technical translation could be viewed as one of the essential branches in the field of translation since what we have seen
today is that approximately 90% of the translations on the global market are technical ones (Kingscott, 2002). However,
dealing with such specialized texts is not easy because several issues and factors affect these texts, such as style and
terminology (Al-Abbas & Haider, 2021). Farghal (2009) states that translating any text from one language into another
may encounter many linguistic problems due to the structural variations between Arabic and English regarding
vocabulary and syntax and the lack of linguistic knowledge of translators, which is the core of the translation
competence.
According to Bell (1991), the notion of translator competence entails a lot of meanings which are; target-language
knowledge, text-type knowledge, source- -
knowledge, , and discourse). However, PACTE
(2000) states that translation competence is built upon six subcomponents: communicative competence, extra-linguistic
competence, psycho-physiological competence, transfer competence, and strategic competence. Therefore, the
translator's competence in both languages (ST and TT) is a prerequisite to producing an appropriate text in the target
language. This study aims to answer the following questions:
1. What are the main problems encountered by translators in translating scientific texts?
2. What are the main reasons behind these problems?

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Scientific Translation and Requirements of Scientific Translator
With the development of science, scientific translation is considered one of the most important branches in the field
of translation nowadays. According to Ghazalla (1995), scientific translation is mainly the process of rendering terms
from one language into another in the fields of science and technology from different domains such as medicine,
physics, chemistry, mathematics, and computer sciences. In a similar vein, Byrne (2006) states that a scientific
translation could be related to science which the Chambers Dictionary defines as ascertained by
2). In

(Byrne, 2006, p.8). In addition, Byrne (2006) determines three essential characteristics: the subject matter, type of
language, and purpose to distinguish this branch of translation from others, such as the technical one.
The development of science in developed Western nations and the emergence of new scientific terms may create
problems to find equivalents for them. Nida (1964) states that rendering scientific terms that appeared in advanced
western countries to languages of third-world developing countries could be a problematic task. This is due to the fact
that the main aim of scientific and technical translation is not only to deliver the translated information correctly and
accurately from the SL into the TL but also to convey it in such a way that ensures recipients understand the
information easily, properly, and effectively (Byrne, 2006).
Thivierge (2002) sheds light on the role of the translator in rendering any scientific text. He states the work of

(Thivierge, 2002, p. 188). Furthermore, He determines nine requirements that any scientific translator should observe,
which are: w
sciences, and having complete background information related to the ST, mastering the SL and the TL, asking
constructive questions, working appropriately for publication, learning current practices, and delivering the product on
time.
Similarly, Byrne (2006) investigates the requirements of scientific translators and their roles in the rendering process.
He concludes that the scientific translator has a communicative role via the translated text since he should draw
information about the text from different resources to ensure the correct understanding of the original text and then
transfer it to the second language so that the recipient also understands. Byrne (2006, p. 17) adds,

the same time ensuring, by means of revisions and corrections, that the text conforms to target language norms
and target audience expectations.
B. English- Arabic Scientific Translation
Rendering scientific and technical texts to the Arab World could reveal many linguistic issues. One of the most
problematic ones is terminology and translation. Seiny (1985) mentions that Krollman (1976) states that terminology is

50%
scientific terms to solve this problem before anything else (Sieny, 1985).
Following the same sense, Al-Hassnawi (2010) considers the translatio real intellectual
that needs several requirements, such as skills, intelligence, and mastery of both the SL and the TL. Cabr
and Sager (1999) define the terminology based on three levels; field, practice, and produc
terminology is a subject which is interested with specialized terms; as practice it is the series of principles oriented
across term classification; finally, as product, it is a & Sager, 1999, p.8).
Thus, Byrne (2006) concludes that terminology is the first noticeable part of any technical text and the fuel for
transferring the text between languages.
Yowell and Lataiwish (2000) classify technical terms into two types; cross-cultural recognized terms and cultural
specific terms. While the former deals with universal terms, i.e., terms that do not belong to a particular culture, the
latter deals with terms that are specific and belong only to one language, i.e., the grammar terms and cultural specific
terms which cause critical problems in translating texts.
C. Translation Equivalence
Comparing texts among different languages can be the main drive behind the appearance of equivalence theory. The
emergence of this new notion causes many problems and heats the debates in the field of translation. Many theorists,
such as Vinay and Darbelnet (1958), Jakobson (1959), Nida (1964), Catford (1965), House (1977), and Baker (1992),
introduced different points of view regarding this concept based on different translational approaches (Leonardi, 2000).
According to a definition provided by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) (in Kenny, 1998, p. 342), an equivalence-oriented
replicates the same situation as in the original, whilst using
. Furthermore, they demonstrate that using such a procedure during the translation
process will preserve the impact of the style used in the ST in the TT. Thus, based on their study, the method of
equivalence is the optimal method to translate proverbs, idioms, clichés, and nominal or adjectival phrases.

the field of translation. He relies on his semiotic approach to classify translation into three main types, which are
intralingual (within one language by paraphrasing and reordering), interlingual (between two different languages), and
inter-semiotic translation (between sign-langua
translators to utilize synonyms to convey the message embedded in the ST, meaning that there is no full or exact
translation involves two equivalent messages in two different
translation is still
possible.
Leonardi (1959) theory emphasize
that the translator is a decision-maker in the process of translation. When the translator feels that the linguistic approach
is no longer appropriate to do the task of translation, he embarks to apply other procedures, such as loan translations and
neologisms.
However, Nida (1964) distinguishes two different types of equivalence; formal and dynamic. While the formal
equivalence aims at focusing attention on the form and the content of the original text, dynamic equivalence emphasizes
the creation of the same equivalent effect on a target reader, i.e., the principle of equivalent effect. In his study, Nida
(1964) determines three basic requirements that should exist to achieve a successful translation, which are: utilizing
natural expression, creating equivalent response (reader-oriented), and conveying the manner and the spirit of the
original text (author oriented).
At the same period, Catford (1965) adopts different translation equivalence and develops a linguistic-based approach
to translation. He differentiates between two types of equivalence, formal and textual, based on the functional

replacement of textual m He illustrates that

textual equivalence ranges between linguistic and contextual features.
It is worthy of mentioning here that the most significant achievement made by Catford in 1965 is the introduction of
departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from
hifts and
category shifts. The second type falls into four levels; structure-shifts, class-shifts, unit-shifts, intra-system shifts.
House (1977) studies the semantic and pragmatic equivalence by highlighting the importance of the function of ST
and TT. She demonstrates that the original and translated texts must have the same function determined by the situation
in which the original text is embedded. House (1977) acknowledges that if the situational features of the ST differ from
the TT, it is impossible to have the same equivalent function. Therefore, the quality of the translational product will not
be high enough.
Finally, since the notion of equivalence has been a controversial field of discussion, it has been modified differently
according to different linguistic levels such as grammar, texture, pragmatics, and others (Leonardi, 2000). In her work,
Baker (1992) believes that the concept of equivalence can be defined upon certain conditions. It can be studied at
different levels, including all various features of translation combining the linguistic and communicative approaches.
She differentiates the following forms of equivalence:
1. Equivalence at the Level of Word and above the Word
In her viewpoint, Baker claims that any translator should consider the equivalence of word-level as a first element.
Many translators begin their work by looking for terms in the TL that directly give the equivalent of single words
in ST. Baker defines this term because sometimes, the same word can be used to provide different meanings in

These factors are number, gender, and tense.

2. Grammatical Equivalence
Baker claims that sometimes there could be some differences in the grammatical structures between the SL and
the TL. These differences may encourage the translator to delete or add information in the TT because the TL
itself lacks specific grammatical devices. In this regard, she is interested in number, tense, aspect, voice, person,
and gender.
3. Textual Equivalence
It is a form of equivalence that pays attention to information and cohesion between the ST and the TT. Although
translators have the option to preserve the cohesion and the coherence of the ST or not, they have to consider the
following factors: the target audience, the purpose of the translation, and the text type.
4. Pragmatic Equivalence
is

readers can clearly understand.

As demonstrated earlier, the notion of equivalence causes a problematic issue in the field of translation. Therefore,
different scholars discussed this notion from different viewpoints to shed light on the importance of this concept to have
a successful translation.
D. Translation Strategies
Many scholars have conducted many studies to examine translation strategies; such topic is discussed according to
their points of view (Al-Khalafat & Haider, 2022; Al-Abbas & Haider, 2020; Debbas & Haider, 2020). However, most
of them look at translation strategies as techniques, procedures, or methods used by translators to overcome any
translational problem (Owji, 2013

1. They involve text manipulation

2. They must be applicable
3. They are goal-oriented
4. They focus on the problem
5. They can consciously be applied
6. They must be empirical and understandable by the readers in addition to the person who uses them.
Although many scholars offer different definitions and classifications for the translation strategies, this study is
concerned with the classifications of translation strategies introduced by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958 1995) and Baker
(1992).
1995) point of view, there are two methods of translation: direct/ literal
translation and oblique translation, which can be used when the direct translation is impossible because of lexical and
syntactical differences between the two languages. In addition, oblique translation includes seven subcategories which
are:
1. Borrowing:
It is a strategy used when there is a gap between the SL lexicon and the TL one. In such a case, translators may
, ,
hijj jihad Imam .
2. Calque:
Firstly, it is a special kind of borrowing where the form of the SL expression is borrowed into the TL, then all
elements and components of the borrowed expression will literally be rendered into the TL. For example,
part-time job
by-structure xample of structural calques.
3. Literal Translation:
This type of translation transfers expressions, phrases, and clauses that existed in the ST into the TL literally
without any change in terms of the TL grammars. What follows elaborate this strategy:
ST:

.
TT:
Experts of the electricity and energy have begun carrying out a project for the proper use of energy by substituting
natural gas for solar and fuel oil in the operation of power stations to save the solar for export.
4. Transposition:
That means using a one-word class instead of another without changing the meaning of the message. The
following example illustrates this strategy:
ST:
Shake well before use. Hold can upright and spray from face and body. Note that the spray is released upwards
from the top of the cap.
TT:
. .
.
As seen from the example above, the translator opts to render the English adverb into the Arabic
prepositional phrase because of
instead of .
5. Modulation:
This subcategory means conveying the ST message in a different form by changing a point of view. For example,
an oscillation between passive and active forms.
6. Equivalence:
It is used to translate any idiom, proverb, or nominal or adjectival phrase by presenting different stylistic and
structural methods. For example, rendering the Arabic idiom
7. Adaptation:
It occurs when there is a cultural difference between the source and target languages. In this case, a special kind
of equivalence is required, i.e. situational equivalence. For example, changing the proper English noun in a simile
into in the Arabic expression
However, Baker (1992) introduces a taxonomy of eight translation strategies used by professional translators to cope
with non-equivalence issues of translation. These strategies are:
1. Translation by a more General Word
This strategy is used with many types of non-equivalence, especially in the field of propositional meaning.
Since meaning is not language-dependent in the semantic field, Baker believes that this strategy works
appropriately in most languages, if not in all.
2. Translation by a more Neutral/less Expressive Word
This strategy is concerned with the semantic field as well.
3. Translation by Cultural Substitution
This strategy replaces a culture-specific item or expression with another item in the target language. However,
a target expression does not have the same propositional meaning of a source expression, but it creates the
same effect on the target reader. Such a strategy results in making the translated text more natural, more
understandable, and more familiar to the target reader. According to Baker, applying this strategy depends on
two factors:
a. The degree of freedom the translator enjoys.
b. The skopos of the translation (i.e. the purpose of the translation).
4. Translation Using a Loan Word or Loan Word plus Explanation
 This strategy looks helpful with culture-specific items, modern concepts, and buzz words, especially when
the word is repeated many times in the text. In this case, the translator will mention the loan word with an
explanation to clarify its meaning to target readers at the first time; then, the word will be used as it is next
time.
5. Translation by Paraphrase Using a Related Word
This strategy is used in two cases; if a concept in the SL is lexicalized in the TL by a different form or if a
concept with a certain form is repeated many times in the ST, that would not be natural and readable in the
TT.
6. Translation by Paraphrase Using Unrelated Words
This strategy can be used when a particular concept in the ST is not lexicalized in the TL. In this case,
translators may rely on modifying a superordinate or unpacking the meaning embedded in the source item.
7. Translation by Omission
Omitting an item or expression could sometimes be necessary to avoid lengthy explanations when that item
or expression does not add much to the text's overall meaning.
8. Translation by Illustration
This strategy can be used when the item in the target language fails to convey all the features and aspects of
the word in the source language. In order to avoid over-explanation and to translate the item or expression
concisely, this strategy can be used successfully.
able set of strategies that
professional translators can test to check its applicability.
E. Empirical Studies

strategies utilized by translators to overcome these problems to produce an adequate translation. The research data in
her study is dawn from five issues of Majallat al- , the Arabic version of the Scientific American, and their
translations. The data are analyzed based on H
levels: genre, cultural, semantic, formal, and varietal. Sharkas (2009) concludes that there are some translation problems
on different levels. For example, idioms and names of people, institutions, and projects are the main issues on the
cultural level. The translation of scientific terms is the main problem on the semantic level, and compound structures
and nominalizations are the main problems on the formal level. Finally, the register is the central problem in this genre
on the varietal level.

from English into Arabic. The sample of this study consists of one SL text containing 28 sentences. These sentences are
simple, compound, or complex, rendered by translators on several occasions. The data are analyzed based on several
levels: syntactic, semantic, and stylistic. The study reveals that employing loan translation (transference) in many cases
is irreplaceable because of a wide gap between the SL and TL. In addition, it is possible to reach the stage of complete
loyalty to the original text, but this is at the expense of the stylistic level. Finally, translating biochemical texts from one
language into another encounters several problems at different levels of analysis; syntactic, stylistic, or semantic levels.
The most serious one is the semantic one since the whole meaning could be distorted.
Argeg (2015) examines the problems of translating medical terms from English into Arabic and how competent
postgraduate students and Arabic translators who work in the medical field have tackled these problems. In her study, a
quantitative research design, as well as a quantitative, is adopted in collecting data. The sample of this study consists of
forty-five English medical terms extracted from different medical reports, namely National Health Service (NHS)
leaflets and flyers, and World Health Organization (WHO) reports for 2007 and 2008. The study finds that translating
medical terms from English into Arabic poses many challenges to both students and professional translators.
Furthermore, it highlights the importance of training translators who work in the medical field. Also, the study

translation, literal translation, inconsistency, and the lack of using up-to-date English-Arabic medical dictionaries.
However, Awang and Salman (2017) study the main translation and Arabicization strategies utilized by the academy
in its terminology work. The sample of this study consists of ten English scientific and technical terms with their
translational and Arabicized equivalents collected from the Arabic Language Academy of Cairo (Cairo ALA). A
descriptive and comparative analysis is adopted in this study. The study reveals that different translation methods, such
as borrowing (loan word), loan translation (calque), and literal translation (word-for-word) are employed to compensate
the loss resulting in the process of translation, and Arabicization ones, such as outright phonetic borrowing, loan
translation, derivation, and composition, are also utilized.

III. METHODOLOGY
This section explains the methodology followed in conducting the current study. It starts with a description of the
data selected and is followed by a description of data analysis.
A. Data Source and Sample of the Study
 The sample of this study consists retrieved from this
website https://www.gadourychiropractic.com/blog/72056-facts-on-honey-and-cinnamon, and its translation is done by
20 undergraduate students, at the third and fourth level, studied at Jadara University in Jordan. Those students were
taught by the researcher in 2020. The text consists of 938 words composing different types of sentences as simple,
compound, and complex.
B. Data Analysis and Procedures
This study relies on syntactic issues and lexical items to analyze data. These issues involve word order (markedness),
agreement, tense and aspect, passive structure, word diction, preciseness, and terminological consistency.
C. Procedures
In this study, the following procedures are adopted:
Step 1: Selecting an English scientific text and ensuring that the text is not translated on the internet.
Step 2: Sending the ST to the students to translate.
Step 3: Comparing the ST with the different translation versions.
Step 4: Determining the translated extracts with lexical or syntactic errors in the translation.
Step 5: Classifying these extracts based on the type of the error, whether lexical, such as word diction, preciseness,
and terminological consistency, syntactic, such as word order (markedness), agreement, tense, and aspect and passive
structure or translation strategies, such as and substitution.

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This study aims to analyze and assess the translation of a scientific text entitled Facts on Honey and Cinnamon from
English (as a SL) into Arabic (as a TL), and investigate the main reasons behind these problems. According to Nord
(2018), determining the type of the text affects the type of lexis, vocabulary, syntactic structure, even cultural items, etc.,
used inside that text. Thus, the selected text falls under the informative text type.
Analysis (Assessing the Translation Product)
The translator may encounter several problems during the translation process due to the differences among languages
in terms of sound, lexis, grammar, and style. Thus, the analysis of the selected text is based on two main issues:
linguistic issues (lexical and syntactic problems) and issues regarding translation strategies (addition, deletion, and
substitution) followed when needed to emphasize a theoretical thought and/or idea by the most relevant research.
A. Linguistic Issues
In this section, the translation of the selected text is analyzed in terms of lexical items and syntactic issues.
1. Syntactic Issues
Differences among languages may cause various syntactic problems. The number of these problems depends on the
relations among languages, i.e., whether they belong to the same language family. As for Arabic and English, the
probability of encountering many syntactic problems is very high because each language belongs to a different family.
Based on the analysis, the most syntactic problems encountered by the translator of the selected translated text are the
following:
a. Word Order (Markedness)
According to Hawkins (1980), English is considered an analytic language, meaning the word order and the function
words are the main determinants of the syntactic relationships. In contrast, Arabic is considered a synthetic one which
means the inflectional forms are the determinants of the syntactical relationships among the components of the sentence.
In English, SVO is the basic unmarked word order, and this word order determines the syntactic function of sentence
elements. However, thematic reordering in English is allowed. It can be achieved by thematic fronting and thematic
postponement. On the other hand, the basic word order in Arabic is VSO, and the variation in the ordering of sentence
elements is dependent on syntactic, stylistic, rhetorical, and contextual factors (Khalil, 2010). Thus, according to
Saraireh (2014, p.
any syntactic positions of sentence elements within a functional structure of any clause will overtly indicate different
interpretations (Gunther, 2012).
Regarding the translation process, the translator should not change the word order from unmarked in the ST into
marked in the TT or vice versa if it is not justifiable. The following tables include various examples that show how
unmarked sentences translated into marked and vice versa.
 TABLE 1
EXAMPLES OF UNMARKED SENTENCES TRANSLATED INTO MARKED
ST TT Suggestion
Honey and Cinnamon are used to
solve serious health problems.
Scientists of today also accept honey
as a 'Ram Ban' (very effective)
medicine for all kinds of diseases.
Regular use of the above process
relieves loss of breath and strengthens
the heartbeat.
Arthritis patients may take daily,
morning, and night, One cup of hot
water with two spoons of honey and
one small teaspoon of cinnamon
powder.

As Table 1 shows, the English sentences have unmarked word order (SVO), which means that the original writer
would not focus on any element of the sentence since marked order is utilized for encoding pragmatic information such
as focus and saliency and marking information structure (Khalil, 2010). However, in the target text, the translator
changed the word order of the sentences from unmarked (VSO) into marked (SVO), but reordering sentence elements in
Arabic, whether obligatory or optional, are based on certain conditions which are not applied here. Even when
translating unmarked into marked might be understood by the Arab readers, it is not acceptable in standard Arabic.
On the other hand, analysis of the text along with the translation shows that some English sentences which have
marked word order were translated into unmarked Arabic ones. Table 2 shows specific examples of sentences translated
from marked into unmarked.
TABLE 2
EXAMPLES OF MARKED SENTENCES TRANSLATED I NTO UNMARKED
ST TT
Honey is produced in most of the countries of the world
Honey can be used without any side Effects for any kind
of diseases.
Recent research in Japan and Australia has revealed that
advanced cancer of the stomach and bones have been
cured successfully

As Table 2 shows, marked English sentences (passive sentences) are rendered into unmarked Arabic verbal sentences
because fronting and postposing in Arabic have syntactic and rhetorical motivations which are not applied here (Khalil,
2010). i.e., the syntactic system of the Arabic language does not allow maintaining markedness. Thus, the translator was
forced to shift markedness.
b. Agreement
According to Khalil (2010), the English language has two types of concord, grammatical and notional. Subject-verb
agreement and pronoun reference agreement fall under the grammatical concord, whereas semantic plurality falls under
the notional one.
In English, reflexive, relative, and demonstrative pronouns should agree with their antecedents in gender and number,
whereas in Arabic, pronouns should agree with their antecedents in number, gender, and case. Thus, a good translator
should take these distinctions into consideration (Aziz, 1989).
Analysis of the text along with the translation shows that the translator paid attention to this point except for two
instances, as shown in Table 3.
TABLE 3
EXAMPLES OF LACK OF PRONOUN REFERENCE AGREEMENT
ST TT Suggestion
Make a paste of honey and cinnamon
powder, apply it on bread, instead of jelly
and jam, and eat it regularly for breakfast.
Take two tablespoons of cinnamon
powder and one teaspoon of honey in a
glass of lukewarm water and drink it. It
destroys the viruses in the bladder.

As Table 3 shows, the pronoun it in the first example refers to a paste as an antecedent, whereas in the TT there is no
gender agreement between the bound pronominal clitic hu and its antecedent where is feminine in gender. So,
the translator should use the pronoun haa to agree with its antecedent. However, in the second example, the pronoun it
refers to a glass of lukewarm water. In Arabic, glass is masculine in gender, and thus the translator should use the
bound pronominal clitic hu instead of haa in the first instance and the independent nominal pronoun huwa instead of
hiya in the second one.
c. Tense and Aspect
Regarding tense, English, as well as Arabic, has two simple tenses: past and present. On the other hand, the aspect of
perfectness that commonly appears in English is missing in Arabic. Therefore, translators should be careful that the
English perfective is realized by have + ed participle, whereas the Arabic perfective is realized by qad + perfect.
Based on the researcher's analysis, it is observed that the translator encountered a problem in rendering the present
perfect tense in different parts of the selected text. The following examples illustrate this point:
TABLE 4
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS IN RENDERING TENSE AND ASPECT
ST TT Suggestion
Weekly World News has
given the following list of
diseases that can be cured by
honey and cinnamon
In America and Canada,
various nursing homes have
treated patients successfully
and have found
A scientist in Spain has
proved that honey contains a
natural ingredient

As Table 4 shows, the translator rendered the present perfect tense has given, have treated, have found and has
proved by using the past tense which are equivalents to past tense in Arabic without adding the
particle qad . Therefore, he fails to convey the identical meaning of the ST in terms of aspect.
d. Passive Structures
Arabic prefers active structures rather than passive whenever the agent of the sentence is known. However, the
translator of this text tended to render the agentive English passive into agentive Arabic passive by borrowing the
English syntactic structure. The following examples illustrate this point:
TABLE 5
EXAMPLES OF ENGLISH PASSIVE STRUCTURES TRANSLATED LITERALLY
ST TT Suggestion
If it is taken regularly by arthritis
patients, they can be cured.
as it was researched by western .
scientists:

As Table 5 shows, the translator resorted to borrowing the English syntactic structure to transfer the agentive passive
by using the Arabic prepositional phrase
but he should have used the active form.
2. Lexical Items
The second issue that the analysis touches upon is problems with regard to lexical items. It is observed that the
translator encountered some lexical problems in terms of word diction, such as preciseness, consistency, and borrowing.
a. Word Diction
Diction refers to word choice, which is important to express human emotions and thoughts. One of the problems
faced by translators is choosing the appropriate word that fits the context. In this analysis, word diction with regard to
preciseness, consistency, and borrowing is discussed.
b. Preciseness
In translation, the precision in choosing appropriate words is considered one of the most critical points that technical
translators should pay more attention to it because dealing with specialized texts is a very sensitive issue. Therefore, a
good translator is one who picks the precise words among the groups of semantically related words in the TL which fit
the context.
The analysis of the selected text showed that the translators encountered a problem in the precision of the word
diction in many instances in the translated text. This is illustrated in the following table.
 TABLE 6
EXAMPLES OF LACK OF PRECISION
ST TT Suggestion
Today's science says that even
though honey is sweet, if taken in
the right dosage as a medicine, it
does not harm diabetic patients.
Upset Stomach
Those suffering from common or
severe colds should take
And digests the heavy meals
Weight Loss

As Table 6 shows, the translator rendered the word dosage into , but according to the context, the choice is
the wrong Arabic equivalent in this context since dosage here means amount of medicine that you should
take at any one time rather than
word upset is rendered into which is an incorrect choice since is used with intestines. Thus, the correct choice is
. In the third example, the translator tended to use the adjective as an equivalent to severe to modify the
noun colds. This choice is incorrect since is collocated with rather than . Whereas, the translator
translated the adjective heavy into , in the fourth example, which is an incorrect choice. In Arabic is collocated
with the adjective not . Finally, in the last example, the translator translated the word loss into , which is
a wrong choice in this context. The precise choice is which means
c. Terminological Consistency
Using synonyms for the same concept is not preferred in technical translation since inconsistency in terminologies
may cause confusion for non-specialist readers. Thus, whenever a specific signifier is used by the translator for a
specific concept, this concept should be used throughout the whole text.
In this parallel text, it is observed that students oscillate among two categories of inconsistencies in the TT. The first
one uses the synonymous Arabic words alternately, and the second one uses the Arabic and the loan forms alternately.
Good examples are provided in the Table 7.
TABLE 7
EXAMPLES OF LACK OF CONSISTENCY
ST TT Suggestion
Arthritis
Cold
Pimples
Influenza

As can be seen in Table 7, the translator in the first three examples varied in using the synonymous Arabic words of
the same concept. However, in the last example, the word is once rendered as a loan word and
another as . Such inconsistencies are considered errors in translation since they may confuse non-specialist
readers.
d. Borrowing
Borrowing is considered one of the common translation strategies that can be achieved by several techniques, such as
loan form, loan translation, and loan blends Vinay and Darbelnet (in Venuti, 2000). Depending on the analysis, it is
observed that students tended to use the loan form technique in many instances to transfer the concepts and their lexical
items from the ST into the TT. The following table illustrates this point.
TABLE 8
EXAMPLES OF LOAN WORDS
ST TT Suggestion
Viruses
Bacterial
Eczema
Vitamins
Cholesterol

As Table 8 shows, the translator resorted to using the loan form technique to render the ST terms cholesterol, viruses,
bacterial, vitamins, influenza, and eczema into Arabic. However, when referring to Arabic dictionaries, we observed
that there are Arabic equivalents for viruses, bacterial, and eczema, which means that the translator did not give priority
to the native creation and immediately jumped to the loan form. However, we observed that the translator used this
technique correctly regarding the terms cholesterol and vitamins because there are no Arabic equivalents for them.
B. Translation Strategies (Addition, Omission, and Substitution)
Global translation strategies determine the local ones. Addition, omission, and substitution are common techniques
that translators may resort to solve lexical or pragmatic problems. Newmark (1988) points out that translators may tend
to add extra information to clarify some cultural, technical, and linguistic elements or may tend to omit unnecessary
information. Thus, using such techniques should be justifiable.
Based on the analysis, translators added extra information in two instances and omitted information in one instance,
as illustrated in Tables 9 & 10.
TABLE 9
EXAMPLES ON ADDITION
ST TT Suggestion
In America and Canada, various nursing
homes have treated patients successfully.

Applying honey and cinnamon powder in

equal parts on the affected parts, cures
eczema, ringworm and all types of skin
infections.

As Table 9 shows, the translator in the first example added the phrase in the TT
to clarify that the main reason for the recovery is using honey and cinnamon. Whereas, in the second example, the
translator added the noun phrase, to clarify that ringworm is an infectious disease since is
uncommon in Arabic. Thus, these additions are justifiable since they were used to make the text clearer to the target
readers.
TABLE 10
EXAMPLES OF OMISSION
ST TT Suggestion
Weekly World News, a Magazine in
Canada, on its issue dated 17
January, 1995 has given the
following list of diseases

As Table 10 shows, the translator deleted the nonrestrictive appositive a Magazine in Canada, which does not
contain any essential information for identifying the noun. Thus, such deletion is justifiable since it did not change the
basic meaning of the sentence.

V. CONCLUSION
This study aims to investigate the main problems encountered by translators in translating scientific texts. In addition,
it aims to analyze the main reasons that could lie behind these problems. Based on the analysis above, the study reveals
that the main problems encountered by the students in translating scientific texts are syntactic problems that cover word
order (markedness), agreement, tense and aspect and passive structure, lexical issues, which cover word diction,
preciseness, and terminological consistency, and inaccurate use of translation strategies which cover addition and
omission.
, and the
need to train students more on this domain, and to offer more than one course for technical and scientific translation.
Furthermore, students do not differentiate between stylistic variation and inconsistency regarding technical and
scientific terms. Utilizing synonyms in such texts is very difficult since it creates a kind of ambiguity and inconsistency
in concept-signifier correspondence. In addition, students' total dependence on a literal translation and the lack of
awareness of the sensitivity of scientific texts is one of the most important reasons for these problems. These findings
are in agreement with Argeg (2015) and Saraireh (2001 & 2014).

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Hadeel M. Al-Smadi is a lecturer in the Department of English Language and Translation at the Applied Science Private
University, Amman, Jordan. She received her Master's in Translation from Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan. Her main areas of
interest include Media Translation, Scientific Translation, Narrative Theory, and Religious Translation.
 A Change in Saudi Attitudes From Use of
Euphemism to Taboo: A Sociolinguistic Study
Salma M. Alqahtani
Department of English Language, Faculty of Languages and Translation, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia

Najat A. Busabaa
Department of English Language, Women's College, Hadhramout University, Yemen

Hala M. O. Salih
Department of English Language, Faculty of Languages and Translation, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia

Abstract For this paper, we studied the use of linguistic taboo words in Saudi Arabian society. Three main
taboo topics were addressed in the current study: the use of taboo words in social contexts, the use of taboo sex
words, and the use of taboo swear words. A randomly chosen sample of 253 Saudi females from two different
age groups participated in the study. A closed-ended multiple-choice questionnaire was used to collect the data.
The findings provided considerable insights into the behavior of Saudi society. Saudi society rarely uses taboo
words. The strategy people use to avoid using taboo language is euphemism; sex topics, for instance, which
may be overtly discussed in some cultures, are prohibited in Saudi culture. The findings also revealed that
Saudi society is too sensitive to the use of swear words because they are culturally and religiously prohibited,
though they were occasionally used by younger female participants. In general, this study showed that
although the Saudi society is a conservative society, the younger generations of Saudi females are moving
slowly toward making linguistic changes in society.

Index Terms sociolinguistic, taboo, swear, social, context

I. INTRODUCTION
Language has an effective impact on the lives of individuals and societies. In everyday life, people are used to
speaking about their emotions and feelings. Some of the words they use may be appropriate, and others may not be. The
use of words the society considers inappropriate or offensive is known as a taboo (Chu, 2009; Gao, 2013). Yule (2014)
defined taboo words as words and phrases that people in society use inappropriately. Khursheed et al. (2013) stated that
a taboo is the restricted use of words due to social constraints. They are words that violate cultural beliefs and religious
norms. Linguistic taboos are culturally rule governed (Chu, 2009). Therefore, words that are considered taboo in one
culture may not be considered taboo in another culture. Gao (2013) indicated that in the American culture, for instance,

prohibited in some societies (Murphy, 2010) because the topics may cause anxiety, embarrassment, or shame
(Wardhaugh, 2010).
attitudes, and the sociocultural factors affecting the use of those words, uncovering the differences between a younger
age group and an older one. The sample we considered younger participants was aged 18 29 years, and the older
participants were aged 30 59 years.

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Euphemisms in Saudi Arabian Contexts
Saudi Arabia is currently undergoing great change. Naturally, this change is affecting people and their lifestyles.
Studies on taboos in Saudi contexts are relatively rare. To the best of our knowledge, the paper by Alfaleh (2019) is the
only one that has dealt with taboo words in Saudi society. Most studies have been conducted on euphemism and its
strategies. Euphemisms are used to relieve and ease the harshness of taboo words (Gao, 2013). They are used when
speakers want to make their speech more delicate and inoffensive. To do this, the speaker uses a roundabout word or
expression so as not to violate social norms (Willis & Klammer, 1981).
attracted the attention of many researchers ( -Qarni, 2012).
Al-Azzam et al. (2017) investigated the semantic and pragmatic functions of euphemisms in Saudi Arabia. The study

structure of the values, beliefs, religion, customs, and the Al-Azzam et

al., 2017, p. 64). Moreover, Almoayidi (2018) investigated euphemisms mostly in Saudi Arabic. He examined death,
sex, body parts, and bodily functions. The Saudi participants preferred using euphemisms to avoid being impolite and
too direct when talking about sensitive topics such as death, sex, body parts, and bodily functions.
-Qarni (2012) investigated the use of euphemistic strategies and methods in Saudi
Arabic and British English. The findings revealed differences and similarities between Arabic and English that might be
caused by cultural values, customs, and religious beliefs. The Saudi participants provided numerous strategies of
-for-whole, overstatement, understatement, deletion, metaphor, general-for-specific learned
words, and jargon p. 730). The British participants employed understatement, deletion, learned words and jargon,
metaphors, and general-for-specific words. The results revealed that gender did not prove to be an influential factor on
the use and choice of euphemistic strategies. The Saudi and British participants were in favor of using taboo words
when dealing with death and lying.
B. Topics of Linguistic Taboos
Societies encourage their members to follow certain procedures to encourage people to behave in acceptable ways.

violation of normal values may be considered taboo. Some taboo topics are common and shared among all societies;
these are social, religious, and cultural taboos (Gao, 2013). Some taboo topics, such as swearing and sex, are related to
specific cultures. Swearing is considered taboo in certain social contexts (Fägersten, 2012). Swearing or cursing is

(Jay, 2000, p. 87). Swearing is being used more frequently to express anger and frustration (Jay & Janschewitz, 2008, p.
267). Using swear words might cause a person to be classified as an impolite. However, Peckham and Crystal (1986)
urn on the inanimate

B
woman her age is impolite in American culture; in contrast, talking about age and salary is permissible in Chinese
culture (Gao, 2013).
Linguistically, the use of taboo words may have either positive or negative effects depending on the way it is
employed. Psychologically, human beings tend to form their identities through their speech, and using taboo language is
the most powerful and helpful way for them to reach this goal. People express themselves by manipulating language
negatively, often using taboo words to hurt, embarrass, punish, or cause anxiety to other people. However, if it leads to
a desirable consequence such as humor or relaxation, it may cause a kind of excitement (Jay, 2000). Social factors such
as age, gender, religion, education, and class determine the acceptance of a word or its prohibition as taboo. Teenagers
are believed to use swear words more than elderly people (Qanbar, 2011). Abdul Aziz et al. (2020) found that on the
internet, swear words were used mostly in jokes by younger people to illustrate their sense of humor. To show gender
differences in the use of taboo words, Lakoff (2004, p. 80) stated that men are creative in telling dirty jokes without
experts at euphemism Al-Abbas and Mohammed
(2020, p. 405) ring,
and aging are sta . The Arabic culture prohibits talking overtly about some body parts, because it
is considered socially taboo.
C. Linguistic Taboos in Arab Countries
Linguistic taboos have been investigated only rarely in Arabic countries, by Arabic scholars as Al-Khatib (1995),
Qanbar (2011), and Al Dilaimy and Omar (2018). Before the new millennium, studying taboos was considered an
unhealthy job. It was done by Arabic researchers who studied in Europe and the United States and they brought the
influence of Western culture back with them. When they returned to their home countries, they wrote on some serious
topics concerning taboos to cope with the new developments in this world.
Al-Khatib (1995) studied the influence of sociocultural factors such as age, education, topic, and setting on the use of
taboo words in Jordanian society. He explained the strategies of taboo words; how they are determined, what they are
produced and developed for, how speakers can avoid taboo words, and how speakers use replacements for linguistic
taboos. Al Dilaimy and Omar (2018) examined the use of taboo words in Iraqi Arabic. They found Iraqi males use
the context of situation,

Qanbar (2011) studied how taboo words are used contextually in the Yemeni society. She classified them into two
main categories: context-specific and general. In the context-specific category, she included words and expressions that

category, she classified taboo words into two subcategories: mentionable and unmentionable general. The mentionable
general subcategory refers to words that have been euphemized in a polite setting. It includes and phrases
that are considered taboos and shocking if mentioned unaccompanied with certain fixed conventional phrases
2011, p. 94). It includes words referring to unclean objects and places, metaphysical things, and admiration for things.
The unmentionable general Qanbar, 2011, p. 92) and words
prohibited religiously and socially, such as words that refer to private parts of the human body, words that refer to
that are used to condemn religious beliefs and symbols. The study concluded that Yemeni people avoid using taboo
words and instead replace them with euphemistic expressions.
To the best of our knowledge, the only paper that has investigated taboo words in the Saudi community is of Alfaleh
(2019). She provided a description of different expressions considered taboos linguistically, socially, and religiously
use of taboo
role of women gender [sic] in public
Alfaleh concluded that
th are aligned with their religious and cultural beliefs that are responsible for contributing to taboo behavior
and various expressions 2019, p. 15 16).
Little has been published investigating the phenomenon of linguistic taboos in Saudi society in particular and by
other scholars in Arab countries in general. This study shed light on a complicated issue in the conservative Saudi
society. Because most of the previous studies were written on euphemism and its strategies, this study uncovered the
linguistic behaviors of people toward the use of taboo words. Therefore, this study might contribute to an understanding
of the sociocultural and linguistic behavior of Saudi society, and it will fill the gap in the literature on this topic.

III. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This paper is aimed at providing a sociolinguistic analysis of taboo words as they are used in Saudi society. We
investigated the linguistic taboos Saudis commonly use regarding their relationship to the social cultural context.
Additionally, due to the recent societal changes and the new technology to which people have been exposed (e.g., media,
social networking), we investigated the attitudes and behaviors of Saudi society toward the use of taboo words,
sing them. By analyzing them, we attempted to construct a framework defining

considered the leaders of change in any society. Thus, this study aimed to answer the following questions:
1. Do Saudi females use linguistic taboos? If yes, what are they?
2. What are their attitudes and behaviors toward the use of linguistic taboos?
3. Are the linguistic taboos younger females (18 29) use the same as those older females (30 59) use?

IV. METHODOLOGY
A. Participants
A sample of 253 Saudi females participated in this study. The participants were chosen randomly from King Khalid
University (KKU) and comprised two age groups: younger (18 29) and older (30 59). They lived in the Southern part
of Saudi Arabia, mainly in Abha and Khamis Mushayt. The participants had different educational backgrounds, such as
BA, Master of Arts, and PhD students, employees, and teaching staff of KKU. The participants took part in this study
voluntarily.
questionnaire. Table 1 shows their age distribution.
TABLE 1
A GE DISTRIBUTION
Participants Age Range No. of Participants Percentage
Younger Group 18 29 years old 191 75.5%
Older Group 30 59 years old 62 24.5%
253 100%

B. Instruments and Procedure

quantitative data, an online questionnaire was designed using Google Forms. It was written in English and Arabic to
a closed-ended multiple-
choice question, and the questionnaire consisted of 30 items in addition to demographic data. The statements were
-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly agree)
to 5 (strongly disagree) to obtain various responses. To det we used
0 items were shown to be consistent at (
The questionnaire consisted of two parts. The first part was designed to collect demographic data. The participants
were asked to provide information about their ages and occupations. The second part was designed to collect data about
30 items of the second part were divided as
follows: 18 o expressions,
. Items 1,
2, and 5 on swearing were adopted (with some modifications to match the statements on the questionnaire) from Kapoor
(2016, p. 272), and we developed the other four items on sex (see Appendix A). We shared a link to the questionnaire
with t The
participants spent about 10 15 min completing the questionnaire.
C. Data Analysis
To analyze the collected data, we used the descriptive analytical approach. It is an effective method frequently
utilized to collect and analyze data (Borg & Gall, 1989). The results were explained statistically using IBM SPSS
Statistics (Version 24) to calculate frequencies and percentages for easy interpretation of the attitudinal differences
between the two age groups younger and older regarding their use of taboo words. The data were analyzed at three
levels: (a) taboo words used by the female participants in their everyday social lives, (b) taboo words related to sex, and

types of lingu

V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A. The Use of Taboo Words in the Saudi
taboo words in their social lives.
, generally speaking, to the statements showed that a large number of
them deviated from using taboo words in their social lives.
 TABLE 2
FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE OF THE USE OF TABOO WORDS I N SAUDI Y OUNGER AND OLDER GROUPS SOCIAL LIVES

Frequency and Strongly agree/agree Strongly disagree/

percentage Neutral disagree
Item Younger Older Younger Older Younger Older
group group group group group group
1. I use taboo words a lot in f 7 4 17 2 167 56
public. % 4 7 9 3 87 90
2. I use taboo words with my f 20 4 29 11 142 47
friends and family members. % 11 6 15 18 74 76
3. I feel embarrassed when my f 3 4 4 1 184 57
% 2 6 2 2 96 92
front of others.
4. I feel embarrassed when my f 14 8 17 4 160 50
name is mentioned in front of % 7 13 9 6 84 81
men.
5. I call my friend names such as f 61 8 43 13 87 41
% 32 13 23 21 45 68
6 f 33 13 68 14 90 35
% 17 21 36 23 47 56
7. I do not feel embarrassed f 102 29 64 13 25 20
when I talk to others about my % 53 47 34 21 13 32
husband.
8. It irritates me when someone f 90 43 54 10 47 9
asks me about my income. % 47 70 28 16 25 15
9. It is acceptable to call a f 37 7 34 12 120 43
divorced woman mutalagah. % 20 11 18 19 62 70
10. I feel embarrassed to refer to f 114 41 24 3 53 18
a single woman as a spinster. % 60 66 13 5 28 29
11. It is acceptable to call my f 43 23 47 13 101 26
maid shagala instead of % 23 37 24 21 53 42

12. It is acceptable to call the f 12 5 10 9 169 48

lady who is cleaning in the % 6 8 5 15 89 77
college farasha instead of khala
[aunt].
13. It is acceptable to call f 25 5 20 4 146 53
someone who is overweight
matin or samiin.
% 13 8 10 6 77 86
14. When you have diarrhea, you f 26 7 33 13 132 42
express it explicitly to others.
% 14 11 17 21 69 68
15. When you need to urinate, f 59 5 29 13 103 44
you express it explicitly.
% 31 8 15 21 54 71
16. Opening the window is better f 138 55 39 4 14 3
than telling my friend that she
smells bad.
% 73 89 20 6 7 5
17. I prefer to use the expression f 33 14 69 17 89 31
khabith
% 17 23 36 27 47 50
18. It embarrasses me to use the F 148 46 18 3 24 13

of a disabled person.
% 78 74 9 5 13 21

For Items 1 and 2, the younger and older participants were clear and direct in defining their attitudes toward the use
of taboo words in public and with their families and friends. In Item 1, the majority of the younger participants (87%)
and the older participants (90%) did not agree with using taboo words in public. Similar attitudes were obtained for
Item 2: The majority of the younger participants (74%) and the older participants (76%) did not agree with using taboo
words with their friends and family members.
n feel embarrassed to mention the names of
females in front of others. For Items 3 and 4, the younger and older participants were clear in showing their feelings
ed in front of men:
84% of the younger group and 81% of the older group expressed that they did not feel embarrassed when their names
were mentioned in front of men, and 96% of the younger participants and 92% of the older participants did not feel
embarra
unexpected, showing that these usages were not considered taboo among the Saudi females. This result does not support
 ch the Yemeni participants considered the use of female names a major taboo in their
society.

of the younger group and 68% of the older group, expressed their refusal to call their friends animal names. However,
32% agreed they call their friends animal names, and 23% were neutral. This suggests using these taboo words is not
common or accepted in Saudi society. Similar results were obtained with the older group, showing that 13% of them
agreed they did this and 21% were neutral.
Saudi females are deeply conservative about their personal lives; they do not refer to their husbands by using the

attributable to the separation between males and females in this society. However, for Item 6, 47% of the younger group
and 56% of the older group disagreed with referring to their hus
that there has been a change in the society, and it is no longer considered a taboo, although 17% of the younger group
and 21% of the older group agreed with referring to their husbands with the pronoun
of the younger group and 23% of the older group were neutral. This suggests that a small number of the Saudi females
were conservative. For Item (7), the majority of the younger group (53%) and the older group (47%) overtly expressed
feelings of embarrassment when talking about their husbands to others. However, 34% and 21% of the two groups
agreed that they talk about their husbands to others, and 13% and 32% were neutral. This again suggests that the Saudi
society is still conservative and the younger generations are moving slowly toward change in this society.
tem 8, the percentages were
high in both the younger and older groups (47% and 70%, respectively), demonstrating that they felt irritated when
someone asked them about their incomes. Clearly, this is considered taboo in Saudi society.
in normal
discourse puts them on the right social footing, depending on the culture. Referring to a woman as divorced, a spinster,
an aunt, or a houseworker in a general context may be considered appropriate and may indicate a positive sense.
However, when these words are used in specific contexts, they become taboo words. They may hurt the feelings of
those people because they are meant to undermine and even ridicule them. Referring to a woman as mutalagah
[divorced] in front of others or to a single woman as a spinster or calling a woman who works in houses shagala
[housekeeper] or the lady who cleans in the college farasha [cleaner] instead of khala [aunt] underestimates their social
status. Because people do so, the words have lost their general sense and have become taboo. It is a noticeable sign of

For Items 9 12 tem 9, 62% of the younger group and 70%

of the older group refused
11% of the two groups agreed with its usage. Similarly, for Items 10 and 11
responses 77% and 89%, respectively did not agree with call
12
woman in Saudi society seems to
be increasingly less common. The participants showed embarrassment about using such a word. For Item 10, 60% of
the younger group and 66% of the older group overtly displayed their feelings as being anxious and embarrassed about
using taboo words in their social interactions with other people. This was in line with the work of Whaduragh (2010),
who found that any topic that devalues the feelings of others might cause anxiety and embarrassment. In addition, the
attitudes toward the taboo word mentioned above provided some insights into Saudi female behaviors. It

sensitive. Their behaviors are a mirror of the sociocultural performance of the society in which they live. The results
showed above were in line with our expectations. They indicated the participants had a positive attitude in relation to
n their attitudes.
For Item 13, 77% of the younger group and 86% of the older group believed it was not acceptable to use the words
matin [fat] or samiin [obese] to refer to an overweight person. Thus, the Saudi females believed it was taboo to use the
wor
others, especially overweight people. As shown for Item 14, 69% of the younger group believed that it was taboo to
express overtly to others that they had diarrhea, whereas 14% did not feel embarrassed to discuss such an issue with
others, and 17% were neutral. In the older group, 68% thought that it was inappropriate to express overtly that they had
diarrhea, whereas 21% were neutral, and 11% showed that they could express it overtly. The findings for this item show
that the Saudi females regarded overtly discussing diarrhea with others as taboo. This finding supports the work of
-Qarni (2012), who found that the Saudi and British participants in their study rarely used taboo words
related to bodily functions such as the process of bodily excretion; thus, it is regarded as taboo.
A similar finding was obtained for Item 15, 54% of the younger group and 71% of the older group considered overtly

Egyptians used different expressions, specifically euphemistic phrases such as [I will be right back].
Interestingly enough, for Item 16, the majority of both groups, 73% of the younger group and 89% of the older group,
preferred to open a window rather than telling a friend that they smelled bad. The Saudi females considered it taboo to
express their discomfort to others.
For Item 17, 17% of the younger group agreed that they preferred to use the expression khabith [malignant] instead

However, 23% of the

Saudi females preferred to use the exact scientific term directly rather than its euphemistic equivalent. Therefore, the
an interesting and unexpected finding. This
s (2011) study, showing people in Yemeni society introduce phrases such as afana
Allah [May God cure us all] when they talk about serious diseases such as cancer. Thus, Yemeni people euphemize the
word in their culture. Our finding
s (2020) study, showing people who speak Egyptian Arabic avoid using the word
il-maraD ( )il-wiHi [the bad disease].
For Item 18,
disabled person, whereas 13% could use it, and 9% showed it was neutral to them. As for the older group, 74% believed
it was difficult to use such a term in front of a disabled person, 21% did not mind using it, and 5% were neutral. Thus,
the Saudi females
s (2020,
p. 67 68) study, showing Egyptians use euphemistic expressions such as [He has some issues] when
referring to the mentally impaired.
B. The Use of Taboo Sex Words and the Saudi F Attitudes
The Saudi society is still a conservative society guided by religious norms and rituals. Hence, Islamic rituals greatly
influence the use of social taboos. Table 3 summarizes the frequency and percentage of the use of taboo sex words
among the two groups.
TABLE 3
THE FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE OF THE USE OF TABOO SEX WORDS IN SAUDI Y OUNGER AND OLDER GROUPS

Frequency and Strongly agree/agree Strongly disagree/

percentage Neutral disagree
Item Younger Older Younger Older Younger Older
group Group group group group grou
p
1. You feel embarrassed when F 107 47 49 10 35 5
you talk about sensitive parts of % 56 76 25 16 18 8
your body.
2. You feel embarrassed when F 143 54 29 4 19 4
someone else talks about % 75 88 15 6 10 6
sensitive parts of your body.
3. It is normal to use dirty words F 28 6 28 6 135 50
% 14 10 14 10 72 80
4. It is normal to speak about sex f 35 2 35 12 121 48
among friends. % 18 3 18 19 64 78

participants were clear in expressing their attitudes. They positively agreed that they felt embarrassed when talking
about sensitive parts of their body among themselves or in front of the others. In Saudi society, it is taboo to talk about
ious about such a thing, whereas 18%
disagreed, and 25% showed it was neutral to them. In contrast, the older group firmly made their feelings clear. To them,
it was taboo to deal with this topic: 76% agreed it was definitely prohibited, 8% disagreed, and 16% were neutral. This

Similarly, for Item 2, the participants were asked whether they felt embarrassed when someone else talked about

in percentage. Both the younger and the older female groups responded negatively: 72% and 80%, respectively, showed

both groups showed that there was cause for not appreciating the use of taboo sex words in their daily interactions: 64%
of the younger Saudi female participants disagreed, and 78% of the older group responded negatively about using taboo
sex words with their friends.
Based on the above results, there are two ways of analyzing linguistic sex taboos in Saudi culture; the first is general,
and the second is specific. The general taboos are related to topics that are forbidden socially and their usage is
absolutely prohibited. The participants were asked general attitudinal questions about taboo sex words to determine

eir culture; their responses showed that they

responded negatively to the use of these two terms. We introduced these two words to explore the reactions of the two
groups and whether the participants had been affected by the new lifestyle of the Saudis nowadays. Their responses
revealed that their sociocultural background affected their attitudes. People with different cultural backgrounds
previously would not deal with the same issue in exactly the same way (Gao, 2013). To the Saudi female participants,
talking about sex among friends was forbidden, and that was shown in their responses. Talking about sexual intercourse
is regarded rude in public (Al-Azzam et al., 2017). Because talking about sex overtly was prohibited according to their
societal beliefs and values, the Saudi female participants avoided using sex words and expressions. This indicated they
were socially conservative because of the cultural values and religious norms governing their lives. This aligns with the
results indicated by Gao (2013),

Swear words are considered taboo language (Fägersten, 2012). The severity of the swear words differs from one
society to another. As stated above, swearing is used mostly to express anger, frustration, and disappointment (Jay &
Janschewitz, 2008). The Saudi society is conservative and is committed to Islamic rules. Thus, Islamic rituals greatly

words.
TABLE 4
THE FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE OF USING SWEAR WORDS IN SAUDI YOUNGER AND OLDER GROUPS

Frequency and Strongly agree/agree Strongly disagree/

percentage Neutral disagree
Younger Older Younger Older Younger Older
group Group group group group group
1. While drinking some soup with f 41 7 38 7 112 48
my friend, I feel embarrassed to % 21 11 20 11 59 78
say, Oh, fuck! I burnt my
tongue!
2. I feel embarrassed to say to my f 65 21 50 17 76 24
colleague, I think this is bullshit. % 34 34 26 27 40 39
You will have to redo the report.
3. I feel embarrassed to say to my f 65 29 47 4 79 29
colleague, Who is the idiot who % 34 47 25 6 41 47
ate my sandwich?
4. It is normal to say to a friend, f 64 10 51 10 76 42
who made a suggestion, Come % 33 16 27 16 40 68

possibly quit my job?

5. I feel embarrassed to say to my f 66 27 48 11 77 24
friend while talking about % 35 43 25 18 40 39
another friend

6. I always swear to make others f 23 7 34 17 134 38

believe me. % 12 11 18 27 70 62
7. I swear when I want to express f 104 39 51 11 36 12
strong feelings. % 54 63 27 18 19 19
8. I would say it is generally f 39 26 55 18 97 18
frowned upon to swear at work. % 20 42 29 29 51 29

use i
friends, 78% did not, and 11% were neutral. This result indicated that the Saudi females did not use the swear word
ey were firm in making it clear that to swear using such a word was taboo. The cultural and
religious norms of their society may condition this belief. which
in a casual context.

whereas 40% did not (they could use it), and 26% showed it was neutral to them. As for the older group, 34% felt
embarrassed
neutral. The percentages of those who avoided using it were identical for both age groups (34%) and almost identical
for those who could use it (40% of the younger group and 39% of the older group). The results for this item indicated
that the Saudi female participants to some extent
For Item 3, 34% of the younger group felt embarrassed to use the swear not, and 25%
showed it was neutral to them. As for the older group, 47% felt embarrassed to swear using such an expression with
colleagues, whereas 47% did not an identical percentage; however, 6% showed it was neutral to them. The result for
this item was not clear-
did not among the older group, but the younger group used it a little more. In this case, we inferred that they used it to

friends, 68% did not, and 16% were neutral. The result of this item indicated that the Saudi females did not use the

usage of such a word is taboo in Saudi society, specifically among older people.

did not, and, 25% showed it was neutral to them. As for the older group, 43% felt embarrassed to use the swear word

little more. This differs from

swear regularly, using their favorite swear words
For Item 6, only 12% of the younger group said they swear to make others believe them, whereas 70% did not, and 18%
showed it was neutral to them. As for the older group, only 11% said they swear to make others believe them, 62% did
not, and 27% were neutral. The result of this item showed that the Saudi females did not swear to make others believe
them. Both the younger and older groups announced this firmly (70% and 62% respectively). An interesting result was
that the percentage of the younger females who did not swear was higher than that of the older females, which was
unexpected.
For Item 7, 54% of the younger group could swear to express strong feelings, whereas 19% did not, and 27% showed
it was neutral to them. As for the older group, 63% could swear to express strong feelings, 19% did not, and 18% were
neutral. This result indicated that the Saudi females could swear to express strong feelings. It may be connected with
formal situations to finalize critical issues. Finally, for Item 8, 20% of the younger group felt embarrassed to swear at
work, whereas 51% did not, and 29% showed it was neutral to them. As for the older group, 42% felt embarrassed to
swear at work, 29% did not (they could swear at work), and 29% were neutral. This result indicated that the older Saudi
females believed swearing at work was taboo, but the younger females could swear at work.

VI. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, this study essentially uncovers the concept of taboo words in the Saudi society. As shown, Saudis are
in favor of using euphemisms rather than taboo words, a strategy speakers use when they adjust their words and
expressions to articulate unpleasant, uncomfortable, or embarrassing emotions or ideas. The degree of using taboo
words differs from one group to another, revealing the social and cultural attitudes of Saudi society as a whole. The
responses show complete disagreement among Saudis on the use of sex words in their daily interactions. Swearing also
is culturally and religiously prohibited.

APPENDIX
Dear participants,
The researchers are co
Arabia". So, you are kindly requested to respond to the items of the questionnaire.
Taboo language means the words and expressions that people avoid to use because they are not acceptable religiously,
socially and morally.
Part 1. Demographic information (Required)
Age 18 29 30 59
Occupation
Part 2
Please respond to the questionnaire items by choosing one of the alternatives:
Strongly agree = 1 Agree = 2 Neutral = 3 Disagree= 4 Strongly disagree = 5
 Item
I use taboo words a lot in public.
I use taboo words with my friend and family members.

I feel embarrassed when my name is mentioned in front of men.

I do not feel embarrassed when I talk to others about my husband.

It irritates me when someone asks me about my income.
It is acceptable to call a divorced woman mutalagah.
I feel embarrassed to refer to a single woman as a spinster.
It is acceptable to call my maid shagala
It is acceptable to call the lady who is cleaning in the college farasha instead of khala [aunt].
It is acceptable to call someone who is overweight matin or samiin.
When you have diarrhea, you express it explicitly to others.
When you need to urinate, you express it explicitly.
Opening the window is better than telling my friend that she smells bad.
I prefer to use the expression khabith

You feel embarrassed when you talk about sensitive parts of your body.
You feel embarrassed when someone else talks about sensitive parts of your body.

It is normal to speak about sex among friends.

While drinking some soup with my friend, I feel embarrassed to say, Oh, fuck! I burnt my tongue!
I feel embarrassed to say to my colleague, I think this is bullshit. You will have to redo the report.
I feel embarrassed to say to my colleague, Who is the idiot who ate my sandwich?
It is normal to say to a friend, who made a suggestion,
job?
I feel embarrassed to say to my friend while talking about another friend
I always swear to make others believe me.
I swear when I want to express strong feelings.
I would say it is generally frowned upon to swear at work.

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Salma M. Alqahtani is an assistant professor of linguistics in the Department of English Language, Faculty of Languages and
Translation, King Khalid University, Saudi Arabia. Her fields of interest are linguistics, applied linguistics, Saudi Arabic morphology
and syntax, language learning and teaching, and First and Second language acquisition. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0055-8349

Najat A. Busabaa is a professor of applied linguistics in the Department of

University, Yemen. Her fields of interests are applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, contrastive linguistics, ELT, and discourse analysis.
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2937-4706

Hala M. O. Salih is an assistant professor of applied linguistics in the Department of English Language, Faculty of Languages
and Translation, King Khalid University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Her fields of interests are applied linguistics, sociolingu istics,
and ELT.
 A Didactic Strategy to Favor the Development of
Oral Expression in Students at UEES and
ECOTEC Universities
Fabricio Ayala-Pazmino
Universidad Tecnológica Empresarial de Guayaquil (UTEG), Ecuador

Yeimer Prieto-Lopez
The Espiritu Santo University, Ecuador;
ECOTEC University, Ecuador

Beatriz Loor-Avila
The Espiritu Santo University, Ecuador;
ECOTEC University, Ecuador

Abstract The research attempts to solve some of the limitations students present in their oral expression in
the university context, which causes scientific and academic production difficulties. An exhaustive
bibliography related to the subject was consulted for its realization, and different instruments were applied.
The use of theoretical methods and methodological background support the research. Furthermore, interviews
and surveys were used to diagnose the current state of the development of oral expression in university
students from UEES and ECOTEC. The results allowed the development of a set of activities to promote the
development of the oral expression of these students. Additionally, based on the criteria offered by the
discussion groups and experts, it was possible to verify the proposed strategies' effectiveness in educational
practice. Oral communication appears as a necessary instrument for establishing relationships between man
and the environment where he lives. Thus, it plays an essential role in forming and developing people's
academic lives.

Index Terms linguistics, oral communication, research, teaching-learning processes

I. INTRODUCTION
As a result of oral expression, students can make assessments and present their points of view. In addition, it is
evidence of the cultural level that the individual possesses. Those arguments lead researchers to ensure oral expression
could be developed as one of the teaching skills to be addressed in universities. However, from the didactic point of
view, oral expression becomes one of the components of the language that needs more attention and, given its level of
complexity, there are difficulties in its development on the part of the students.
One of the main aspirations of educational work in Ecuador is to form individuals who possess communicative
competence, capable of transmitting their ideas appropriately, unambiguous, and concise. These arguments indicate the
fundamental place that oral expression skills occupy in a Research Methodology class at the university level.
This research focuses its study in the Faculty of Marketing and Communication at ECOTEC University and the
Master's Degree in Educational Management at UEES. From a population of 2000 students, we selected 200 students
from the two universities who are enrolled in the Research Methodology subject.
There are still severe contradictions between the level of integration demanded by education and the actual
preparation that students receive since they cannot always incorporate and systematize linguistic and research
knowledge in practice.
The bibliographic inquiry and the theoretical systematization carried out by this research lead us to affirm that the
ability of oral expression constitutes an object of study that has not been sufficiently studied from the didactic,
pedagogical, and methodological point of view. However, the contributions of García-Alzola (1975), Roméu-Escobar
(2012), Cassany et al. (1994), Ruiz-Iglesias (1999), Ferrer-Díaz (2003), who have developed theoretical-practical
proposals aimed at developing the skill, were found and assumed. Furthermore, these authors have presented critical
analyses related to the theoretical assumptions supporting the studied process.
At present, the teaching of oral expression is an essential link to achieve the levels of knowledge required by the
university of the XXI century. However, through observations, surveys, and interviews with students in the field of
Research Methodology, we found inadequacies in teaching this skill, which leads to limitations in developing students'
logical thinking and other skills they must possess for academic and scientific production.
 Teaching the oral language is subject to didactic requirements for its development; therefore, the teacher has to teach
the students to be increasingly competent in their communication without prioritizing accuracy over fluency. Sometimes,
students only manage to reproduce information without orally giving their points of view.
After applying different research instruments (surveys, interviews, analysis of normative documents, observations,
among others), and the experience as teachers at UEES and ECOTEC, we can state that there are insufficiencies in the
treatment of the oral communication skill. The most significant limitations are:
- Students show limited expressiveness and fluency when exposing their ideas, given by their lack of vocabulary.
- They show insecurity in presenting their ideas.
- The subject Research Methodology does not systematically prepare students to develop oral expression skills.
- Teachers do not take sufficient advantage of the scientific material developed at the university to develop oral
expression in students. The spaces used to develop oral expression are limited in both curricular and extracurricular.
- Insufficient activities in which conversation, oral presentations of research papers, dialogue, and debate among
students are promoted.
The results obtained in this diagnostic study indicated the relevance of investigating this matter. There is a need to
pay special attention to developing oral communication skills. Therefore, the following scientific problem is presented:
How to favor the development of oral expression in the teaching-learning process of the UEES and ECOTEC Research
Methodology class?
This research aims to elaborate didactic strategies to favor the development of oral expression in the Research
Methodology classes at UEES and ECOTEC. The current situation led to the formulation of the following scientific
questions:
1. What theoretical assumptions support the development of oral expression skills?
2. What potential does the Research Methodology program offer for developing oral expression?
3. What is the current situation of oral expression with the Research Methodology students?
4. What didactic strategies can be designed to contribute to the development of oral expression in university students
of the Research Methodology class?
The following scientific tasks were drawn to meet the objective of the research:
1. Systematization of the theoretical foundations that support the development of oral expression in the university
context.
2. Diagnosis of the current state of oral expression in students studying Research Methodology at UEES and
ECOTEC.
3. Elaboration of didactic strategies to contribute to the development of oral expression in university students from
Research Methodology.
The methods and techniques used in this research were the analytical-synthetic, which was used to analyze the
diagnosis, and the processing of data to systematize the necessary theoretical foundations about the development of oral
expression. The historical-logical analysis was used to reveal the background of the teaching of oral communication and
systematize the theoretical foundations that support it, which made it possible to reach meaningful conclusions.
Observations were used to specify the diagnosis of the mode of action of teachers and students in the development of
oral expression. Interviews and surveys of students and teachers contributed to knowing the conception of oral
expression. The analysis of documents encourages the revision of the methodological orientations of the subject.
Descriptive statistics were used to present the information collected concerning the development of oral expression, and
inferential statistics were used to interpret the results obtained from the diagnosis and its assessment.

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Theoretical and Methodological Foundations that Support the Development of Oral Expression as a Skill
This scientific article analyzes the theoretical and methodological foundations that support oral expression as a skill
from the bibliography consulted.
B. Communication Skills: Speaking.
Communication reflects people's need for association and cooperation. It is also a condition for developing
individuality, originality, and integrity. Several authors advocate that the teacher possesses skills for the communicative
process: Petrovsky (1985) proposes skills related to information, mobilization, orientation, and development. In addition,
he refers to skills to organize and direct communication between students. Those competencies are related to the
development of oral and written communication of students. Ortiz (2020) proposes the skills for expression, observation,
and empathic relationships between teachers and students.
It is expected that the student learns to take notes, to elaborate content sheets, concept maps, summarize information,
express their ideas orally, and present reports; as well as make oral presentations about the knowledge acquired in their
Research Methodology subject so that it can also be linked to the development of research skills. The class aims to
stimulate oral and written communication; this involves producing and receiving information. Production is done by
speaking and writing, and reception by listening and reading. These skills should not be treated separately.
 According to Rodríguez (2006), to achieve the development of communicative skills, speaking and writing must go
through three stages that cannot be altered:
- Acquisition of ways of expression (Knowledge of operations).
- Understanding of the ways of expression (Mastery of operations).
- Sufficient, varied, and creative expression. (Systematization).
These stages are critical, but they are not exclusive because they are necessary to achieve motivation, efficient
understanding of expression, and frequent practice. Oral and written expressions have been the subject of multiple
studies from different perspectives. When directing the teaching-learning process, students must receive adequate
didactic treatment, independently, according to their needs, taking into account the relationship between expression and
communication.
C. Oral Expression as a Skill in Teaching Activity
The purpose of a university is to help students express their ideas and knowledge. On the other hand, the skills
correspond to the know-how and are achieved by powerfully expressing themselves. This can lead to the transformation
of their environment, from the classroom and the rest of the activities in the institution or outside.
To refer to oral expression, it is first necessary to specify what is meant by skill. Many authors have defined the term.
González (2001) states that "skills constitute the domain of operations that allow a rational regulation of activity."
Álvarez (1999) defines skill "as the dimension of content that shows people's behavior in a branch of knowledge proper
to the culture of humanity. It is the system of actions and operations dominated by the subject responding to a goal." For
Zilberstein (2005), skill implies mastery of cognitive, practical, and evaluative forms; that is, the knowledge in action.
Salazar (2002), Chernousova (2008), Núñez (2013), Hidalgo (2013), and Ortiz (2020); all these works are evidence of
how much progress has been made in this field. The theoretical positions provided allow us to assume the dialectical
unity between thought and language, among other vital issues.
Therefore, the usefulness of the studies carried out is recognized; however, it is considered that they are not sufficient
to conceive the work with oral expression aimed at enhancing its development in students. For the authors of this
scientific article, teachers must know the actions and operations that the student must perform to comply with the
scientific direction of the teaching-learning process. Therefore, Zilberstein's (2005) conception is assumed where skill is
seen as the student's ability to express their ideas and criteria orally in social and academic life.
Oral expression is a socio-linguistic process to transmit information and is highly dependent on the situational
context. It is based on other significant means: inflections, modulations of the voice, face and body expressions, which
allow the transmission and reception of the message (Ferrer-Díaz, 2003). García-Alzola (1975) refers to the general
aspects of oral expression, emphasizing its structural aspect. Roméu-Escobar (2012) talks about developing coherent
language as a school task. These works are sources of obligatory consultation when it is intended to develop
communicative skills in oral expression.
Oral expression is one of the most frequent problems in Research Methodology classes. For years, inadequacies in
pedagogical research have led teachers to employ their intuition or professional experience to promote and develop oral
skills in Research Methodology classes. Precisely, the limitations in the studies on the subject impose the need for its
deepening, given the difficulties that the deficient use of the language produces in the students who daily are involved
in fundamental interactions in a given social or academic environment. Nevertheless, according to Ferrer-Díaz (2003),
"... it has not yet been possible to reach results that allow scientific support for the didactic procedures that promote the
development of this skill."
Báez (2006) assumes that "in oral expression, thought and word are aimed at achieving one or more objectives,
which vary according to the nature of the subject and the circumstances in which they occur, with a predominance of
referential and persuasive functions." Thus, it consists of a series of micro-skills, such as knowing how to provide
information and opinions, show agreement or disagreement, resolve conversational failures or know in which
circumstances it is pertinent to speak and in which it is not. It integrates the formal aspects of the language, that is, the
linguistic resources that facilitate communication, with pragmatic and socio-cultural factors, which have a lot to do with
the universe of the speaker's knowledge, with their culture, which allows a better adaptation to the context of interaction
according to the intention and communicative purpose.
To be good communicators, speakers and listeners must decode gestures, mimicry, intonation, the use of hyperboles,
unfinished phrases, repetitions, onomatopoeias, among others. Numerous activities can be carried out to give a didactic
treatment to this type of communication in the Research Methodology class, but the most used are the didactic
conversation and the formulation of questions and answers. It is necessary to ensure that the student dominates the
subject thoroughly. The questions must be formulated with precision. Real communication situations could be more
motivating for students and favor the development of this critical skill.
Another aspect is the ability to listen carefully. It is crucial to train the student in listening to understand what is
being said and respond or intervene better. According to Roméu-Escobar (2012), the oral language must have a
"priority character" since it supports written communication. Therefore, it is necessary to devote special attention to oral
language exercises since this allows the student to become familiar with the subject, organize their ideas, and enrich
subject concepts. For these reasons, teaching oral expression requires teachers to create meaningful contexts for
learning by placing students in complex situations that lead them to produce texts.
 The receiver must patiently wait for the speakers to present their ideas without showing impatience for proper
communication. In this case, the teachers of Research Methodology must consider that each student communicates their
ideas by sharing their experiences, beliefs, and other factors related to their socio-cultural context. Thus, current studies
in discourse and pragmatics allow students to become efficient, creative, and critical language users and develop a
linguistic awareness that allows them to express themselves coherently and transparently.
When the oral language is taught, according to García-Alzola (1975), three general aspects of oral expression must be
taken into care: phonic, lexical, and structural. Phonic comprises the pronunciation, intonation, and intensity of the
voice. Lexicon refers to words; the activities aim to enrich students' active vocabulary. Among the errors made in this
sense is accentuation, grammatical, and idiomatic. Finally, the structural aspect refers both to the organization of
thought and to the general structure of its expression. Among the most frequent errors are twisted, incomplete,
imprecise sentences, verb concordance with a subject, incorrect use of prepositions, and some forms of personal
pronouns.
The authors of this research propose new indicators that the teachers of Research Methodology should take into
account and consider to evaluate oral expression.
1. Adequacy of ideas: Oral interventions will consider adjusting to the topic in question and the ideas' sufficiency and
quality.
2. Pronunciation: the correct articulation of the different phonemes and the accentuation of the words when
pronouncing them (diction, articulation, intonation, speed) will be measured.
3. Lexical precision: The correctness and precision, that is, that the precise words are used according to their meaning
to express the ideas.
4. Coherence and cohesion: Coherence is fundamentally semantic. A text is coherent when each of the units that
make it up can be interpreted concerning the meaning of the whole text. Cohesion is the correct use of conjunctions,
prepositions, and contextual references.
5. Fluency: Pauses, silences, repetitions, and clarity, avoiding imprecision and ambiguity.
García-Alzola (1975) alludes to two dimensions to be taken into account in oral expression: content and form.
Content indicators:
- Mastery of the theme
- Correspondence between speech and topic
- Quality of ideas
- Parts of the discourse: introduction, development, conclusions
- Communicative intention
Indicators of the form:
- Phonic
- Morphosyntactic
- Semantic
In the teaching activity, difficulties are frequently presented that threaten students' adequate development of oral
expression. Among the causes is the low participation of students in the programmed activities, insufficient feedback
from teachers, and lack of the accurate diagnosis of the students to draw strategies from their difficulties.
The essential qualities, which should not be missing in the elocution or the style of each one when speaking are:
- Clarity, by which we communicate our thoughts to others
- The use of our voices to express our ideas
- Naturalness
- Expressiveness to give words and phrases the strength and intonation appropriate to the content
To properly communicate ideas, people must be careful with the transmitted content. Listening is also critical to
comprehend the speaker's message. The word listening means hearing with attention and paying attention to what
another person says. Hearing refers to the physical reception of sound waves through the ear. On the other hand,
listening includes receiving and using the information captured through the ear canal.
Listening comprehension and oral language are closely related as they have many aspects in common. Therefore, it is
necessary to develop listening to achieve an adequate development of oral expression. Indeed, attentional listening is
used very frequently in the classroom to listen to orders, instructions, and messages. On the other hand, analytical
listening is when the listener analyzes the message to answer or solve some questions. Therefore, teachers in the
Research Methodology classes must teach their students the following:
- Keep silent.
- Respect the words and ideas of others.
- Analyze what others say.
- Know how to ask questions.
- If they want to say something, they should wait for their turn.
- Do not shout.
- Do not make exaggerated gestures while others speak.
 Those elements become essential guidelines for modeling activities to develop oral expression in the teaching-
learning process in the Research Methodology classes.
D. Forms of Oral Expression
Today's life demands a very high level of oral communication. Roméu-Escobar (2012) presents two forms of oral
expression: spontaneous and directed. The first favors the rapid exchange of ideas between people to attract attention,
narrate events, argue, and express feelings, desires, moods, or problems. On the other hand, the directed is conscious
and must have exceptional attention from educational institutions.
The oral expression reflects geographical and social varieties, which reveal the origin and culture of the speaker.
Sometimes discourse is poorly elaborated, for instance:
1. Momentary interruptions, repetitions, inconsistencies, and ramblings.
2. The generic use of certain verbs.
3. Words that are repeated by habit: well, eh, right?, do you know what I mean?
4. Exclamative and interrogative expressions.
5. Linguistic inaccuracies, such as eliminating certain sounds or words.
6. Unfinished sentences.
7. Colloquial metaphors.
8. Diminutive or augmentative suffixes.
9. Expressions to show conformity, disagreement, and anger.
On the other hand, the discussion develops students' analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, and generalization
skills. It requires learning to listen carefully to what each one raises, not to be exalted in the heat of the discussion, and
not to interrupt others.
E. Reflective or Directed Speaking
The primary function of thoughtful oral expression is to persuade the listener. Its structure is more elaborated than
spontaneous oral expression. The vocabulary is broader and varied. Efforts are made to avoid linguistic inaccuracies.
Multiple activities can be carried out to give a didactic treatment to this type of communication in the class, but the
most used are the didactic conversation and the formulation of questions and answers. Students' responses to well-
formulated questions are the most widespread form of speaking. Nevertheless, students must learn to lead the
interlocutor towards the desired path.
Many values can be attributed to the conversation as a procedure for learning the oral language:
- It enriches the student's vocabulary.
- It allows deepening in the subject of the class.
- It stimulates students' abilities to observe and think while offering the teacher the possibility of guiding students in
the methods and techniques of research and reasoning so that students can discover the answers to their questions and
the problems posed by the class.
- It forces students to direct their thoughts to the general progress of the conversation.
- It allows for correcting the defective forms of expression, either by the students themselves or by the careful
observations of teachers.
Teachers must be prudent when correcting the student and adapt to each individual's characteristics. In addition,
teachers must master the speaker's behavior to evaluate the level of competence shown by their students.
Another of the most educational forms of oral expression is debate. It develops the capacity for analysis and synthesis,
forces us to listen very carefully and to respect the criteria of others. It also requires the organization of thought to refute,
persuade and convince. Also, panels, interviews, summaries, among others, constitute forms of oral expression that
have to be worked on in the Research Methodology classes. The use of them would facilitate students to acquire
necessary skills in the use of the oral language.

III. ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS OF THE SURVEYS APPLIED TO 89 STUDENTS FROM UEES AND ECOTEC UNIVERSITIES
WHO CURRENTLY UNDERTAKE THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY COURSE:
 Prieto & Ayala (2021)

After analyzing the surveys, the researchers can state the following:
1- In the first question about motivation when expressing themselves orally in classes, 82% said they feel
stimulated by adequate and correct oral expression, and 18% do not. Considering the results, we conclude that
Research Methodology teachers must design various activities, tasks, and presentations that motivate students
to participate and use their research and communicative skills.
2- In the second question, students could select several options for improving their vocabulary and oral
expression. In addition, 38.2% of respondents expressed motivation from teachers to achieve a higher level of
communicative production; 23.6% referred to their relatives; 20.2% to their peers. Finally, 56.2% stated that
reading habits are a fundamental and decisive aspect to improve their vocabulary and stimulate oral and written
expression as communicative skills.
3- The third question was related to the frequency of reading. The results were as follows: 19.1% expressed that
they always read; 39.3% almost always; 39.3% sometimes; 2.2% hardly ever; and 0% never. The results in this
question show that we must encourage students to read, especially in the Research Methodology classes.
4- In the fourth question, students could select several options about their reading taste to achieve adequate oral
expression skills. They are interested in novels (30.3%), poems (15.7%), adventures (16.9%), randomly
selected topics (51.7%). In Research Methodology, readings related to research and scientific works should
increase.
 5- In question 5, which was about ways to communicate with peers, most stated that they do it passive or
indirectly. They prefer to communicate with each other through social networking sites.
Results of the Analysis to the Criteria of Experts
The expert criterion method was applied to corroborate the relevance of the Methodological Strategy for the
stimulation of oral expression as a communicative skill aimed at UEES and ECOTEC students studying the subject
Research Methodology. Procedures proposed by Prieto (2010) were used through the use of the tables of the Delphosoft
program elaborated in Excel. There are two critical moments in applying the method: the selection and consultation of
experts. The applied criteria were the following:
Work experience in communication, research, and literary production and stimulation of oral expression.
Academic experience and research.
Scientific publications.
The experts selected showed a broad willingness to collaborate with the investigation.
Master in Education - Wilson Cardoza: more than 30 years of experience teaching high school students scientific
methods and academic writing. He is the current Director of the English Department at Torremar High School in
Guayaquil Ecuador.
Ph.D. in Pedagogical Sciences - Francisca Marrero Salazar: more than 30 years of expertise in Higher Education
teaching the subjects of Research Methodology and Academic Writing. She has published scientific articles in indexed
journals, such as Redalyc, Scopus, Scielo, Latindex, and Dialnet. In addition, she has tutored several graduate theses in
education, didactics, and methodology.
Indicators to be evaluated:
1. Didactic strategies to stimulate oral expression in the Research Methodology classes at UEES and ECOTEC
Universities.
2. Methodological actions for the stimulation of oral expression skills.
Experts were given the possibility to issue their criteria for the refinement of the proposal. These were as follows:
1. The theoretical-methodological conception constitutes an excellent way to enhance the stimulation of oral
expression in university students who study Research Methodology.
2. They evaluate as successful the methodological actions to achieve the stimulation of oral expression in the
subject of Research Methodology.
3. The experts' responses showed an increase in the coincidence of the opinions expressed.
 TABLE 1
RESULTS OF THE LEVEL OF COMPETENCE OF POTENTIAL EXPERTS
PRIETO & AYALA (2021)
LEVEL OF
No Kc Ka K=1/2 (Kc+Ka) COMPETENCE
1 0,6 0,75 0,675 MIDDLE
2 0,4 0,85 0,625 MIDDLE
3 0,7 0,55 0,625 MIDDLE
4 0,6 0,9 0,75 MIDDLE
5 0,5 1 0,75 MIDDLE
6 0,7 0,85 0,775 MIDDLE
7 0,6 1 0,8 HIGH
8 0,5 0,9 0,7 MIDDLE
9 0,6 0,95 0,775 MIDDLE
10 0,7 1 0,85 HIGH
11 0,6 0,75 0,675 MIDDLE
12 0,5 0,85 0,675 MIDDLE
13 0,5 1 0,75 MIDDLE
14 0,7 0,9 0,8 HIGH
15 0,6 0,95 0,775 MIDDLE
16 0,8 0,85 0,825 HIGH
17 0,5 0,75 0,625 MIDDLE
18 0,7 1 0,85 HIGH
19 0,6 0,95 0,775 MIDDLE
20 0,7 0,9 0,8 HIGH
21 0,8 1 0,9 HIGH
22 0,8 0,75 0,775 MIDDLE
23 0,7 0,85 0,775 MIDDLE
24 0,7 0,95 0,825 HIGH
25 0,8 0,9 0,85 HIGH
26 0,8 0,85 0,825 HIGH
27 0,9 1 0,95 HIGH
28 0,9 0,8 0,85 HIGH
29 0,7 0,95 0,825 HIGH
30 0,6 0,9 0,75 MIDDLE
31 0,8 1 0,9 HIGH
32 0,7 0,75 0,725 MIDDLE
33 0,8 0,8 0,8 HIGH

TABLE 2
TABULATION OF THE PROCESSING OF EXPERT ASSESSMENTS FOR THE STIMULATION OF ORAL EXPRESSION IN UEES AND ECOTEC STUDENTS
FROM THE SUBJECT OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .
PRIETO & AYALA (2021)
Primary data
C1 C2 C3 S4 S5 TOTAL
Q1 13 11 6 3 0 33
Q2 21 9 3 0 0 33
Q3 24 9 0 0 0 33
Q4 16 9 5 3 0 33
Q5 19 14 0 0 0 33
 TABLE 3
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY
PRIETO & AYALA (2021)
Cumulative frequency table
C1 C2 C3 S4 S5 TOTAL
Q1 13 24 30 33 33 33
Q2 11 30 33 33 33 33
Q3 11 33 33 33 33 33
Q4 12 25 30 33 33 33
Q5 10 33 33 33 33 33

C1 C2 C3 S4 S5
Q1 0,3939 0,7273 0,9091 1,0000 1
Q2 0,3333 0,9091 1,0000 1,0000 1
Q3 0,3333 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000 1
Q4 0,3636 0,7576 0,9091 1,0000 1
Q5 0,3030 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000 1

TABLE 4
RELATIVE CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY I N THE EXPERT OPINION
PRIETO & AYALA (2021)
The relative cumulative frequency table
C1 C2 C3 S4 SUM AVERAGE
Q1 -0,2691 0,6046 1,3352 3,7200 5,3907 1,3477
Q2 -0,4307 1,3352 3,7200 3,7200 8,3445 2,0861
Q3 -0,4307 3,7200 3,7200 3,7200 10,7293 2,6823
Q4 -0,3488 0,6985 1,3352 3,7200 5,4049 1,3512
Q5 -0,5157 3,7200 3,7200 3,7200 10,6443 2,6611
SUM -1,9950 10,0783 13,8304 18,6000 40,5137 10,1284
AVERAGE -0,3990 2,0157 2,7661 3,7200 8,1027 2,0257

IV. CONCLUSIONS
It was found that the methods and ways from the educational process for the development of the oral expression of
the students in the university context selected are still insufficient.
Communicative competence must follow a sequenced path in which the student in the Research Methodology classes
participates in significant communicative activities such as oral presentations and debates. The oral expression must
allow students to formulate ideas, solve problems, propose hypotheses, answer academic questions, show agreement or
disagreement, and establish contacts with experts and specialists.
This research offers possibilities to develop oral communication by enriching students' vocabulary and increasing
their scientific and academic production. Research Methodology classes should be a space for developing oral
communication strategies that prepare students to be better interlocutors and make them aware of their possibilities as
possible researchers. Teachers must promote the analysis of the factors that affect oral expression and seek activities or
tasks to improve it.

REFERENCES
[1] Álvarez, C. (1999). The School in Life. Didactics. Editorial Pueblo y Educación. Havana.
[2] Báez, M. (2006). Towards a more effective communication, Ed. Pueblo y educación, Havana.
[3] Cassany, D., Luna, M., & Sanz, G. (1994). Oral expression. In Teaching Language, Ed. Grao, Barcelona.
[4] Chernousova, L. (2008). Stimulation of verbal communication of schoolchildren with special educational needs in general
language development. (Doctoral Thesis)
Childhood Education, Cuba.
[5] Ferrer-Díaz, M. (2003). Professional skills in the teaching of oral and written communication: a didactic model for the initial
training of the pre-university teacher. Thesis (Master in Pedagogical Sciences), ISP Félix Varela.
[6] González, V. (2001). Psychology for educators. Havana: Editorial Pueblo y Educación.
[7] García-Alzola, E. (1975). "Forms of oral expression" In, Language and Literature, Havana: Cuban Book Institute
[8] Hidalgo, P. (2013). Early stimulation of oral language. (Diploma Thesis). University of Pedagogical Sciences "José de la Luz y
Caballero". Faculty of Early Childhood Education, Cuba.
[9] Núñez, R. (2013). Teaching literacy in second-graders with mental retardation. (Diploma Thesis). University of Pedagogical
Sciences "José de la Luz y Caballero". Faculty of Early Childhood Education, Cuba.
[10] Ortiz, E. (2020). Educational Communication. University of Holguín (Digitized material).
[11] Petrovsky, A. (1985). Evolutionary and Pedagogical Psychology. Moscow: Progress.
[12] Prieto, Y. (2010). The stimulation of educational communication in the formative process of the primary school. (Doctoral
thesis). University of Holguin.
[13] Rodríguez, C. (2006). "How to improve oral communication in a multicultural context. University of Cienfuegos.
http://www.monografias.com/trabajos21/mejorar-comunicacion/mejorar-comunicacion.shtml [Consulted 12/1/20]
[14] Roméu-Escobar, A. (2012). The cognitive, communicative, and socio-cultural approach in the teaching of language and
literature. Havana: Editorial Pueblo y Educación.
[15] Ruiz-Iglesias, M. (1999). Didactics of the communicative approach. National Polytechnic Institute. Mexico
[16] Salazar, M. (2002). Didactic model for the direction of the process of preparation and acquisition of reading in children from
four to seven years old with learning difficulties.
Facultad de Educación Infantil, Cuba.
[17] Zilberstein, J. (2005). "Didactic developer from the cultural-historical approach." Chapter 5. Learning, problems, challenges,
and solutions. CEIDE Editions, Mexico.

Fabricio Ayala-Pazmino has degrees in Computer Science, Business Administration, Education Sciences and received his Ph.D.
in Education from the University of Melbourne in Australia, in 2018, with his highest concentration of study in foreign language
teaching and learning, pedagogy, educational management, and higher education. He is an educator and has experience as an
Academic Coordinator. His previous experience also includes working as head of Humanities and Community and Service
departments. He was a professor at Monash University in Melbourne, Australia, at Universidad de las Americas in Quito, and at
Universidad de Guayaquil. Dr. Ayala is a member of the Monash University Hispanic Studies Teachers Association, Australia.
Email: [email protected]

Yeimer Prieto-Lopez. Doctor of Educational Sciences. Bachelor of Education. Associate Professor. Professor at UEES in the
Faculty of Liberal Arts and the Master of Educational Management. Professor at ECOTEC University in the Faculty of Marketing
and Communication. Teacher and Academic Auditor at Torremar Bilingual School. He has participated in various national and
international events. He has more than twenty publications in Indexed Magazines, such as Latindex and Scielo. Doctoral Thesis
Tutor at the Universidad del Rosario, Argentina, and the University of Holguín, Cuba. He has received more than one hundred hours
of education and pedagogy training in 2021.
Email: [email protected]; [email protected]

Beatriz Loor-Avila. Doctor in Social Communication Sciences. Bachelor's Degree in Languages and Linguistics and Master in
Higher Education. Professor at the ECOTEC University in the Faculty of Marketing and Communication. Teacher in the Master of
Educational Management at UEES. She has participated in several national and international events. She has publications in Indexed
Magazines, such as Latindex and Scopus. Thesis Tutor at ECOTEC and UNEMI.
Email: [email protected]
 Proposed 21st Century Learning Themes in
English Classrooms
Tuti Alawiah
Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Indonesia

Abdul Hakim Yassi

Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Indonesia

Nasmilah
Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Indonesia

Abidin Pammu
Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Indonesia

Abstract In many universities in Indonesia, English is still a mandatory subject. The universities provide the
courses under the names Bahasa Inggris (English), English for Academic purposes, English I to II, English for
Proficiency, English for Health Science, etc. Different universities give 2 credits, 3 credits, or more than 4
credits. The teaching materials used are from various sources, such as from the internet, English books
published by famous publishers, or modules written by the lecturers. However, the materials provided are
often not suitable for the current situation. Therefore, this research was conducted to investigate and seek
better alternatives for English learning. What are the with respect to English class
materials development? What are the with respect to the development of English class
material for Social and Political Science And what suitable materials are available that are in line
with 21st-century learning? This study surveyed 437 new students in the first semester from the Social and
Political Science Faculty and eight English lecturers National University of Indonesia. Google form
questionnaires were used to collect and analyze data. The three main indicators to be analyzed were:
e results show that 60.9%
agree that the topics discussed relate to 21st-century learning, 80.3% of all necessary English skills are learned
by the students, and they prefer learning from YouTube/social media and academic journals. Nearly half
(46.9 %) were comfortable with learning through blended learning, and 95.6% agreed with the use of Google
meet, Google classroom, and Zoom meetings. Furthermore, the materials considered appropriate to 21st-
century learning include global awareness, finance, economics, business and entrepreneurial literacy, civic
literacy, health literacy, and environmental literacy.

Index Terms 21st Century learning, 21st century interdisciplinary themes, present situation analysis, target
situation analysis, learning situation analysis

I. INTRODUCTION
As educators, in the problem of teaching and learning education in the modern era, teachers and lecturers must pay
close attention to their students in order to achieve a good teaching and learning process. It means that lecturers or
teachers must improve their professionalism to develop student understanding. As a result, student comprehension is
being prioritized in order to improve the quality of teaching English as a second language. They hope their students will
be satisfied with the subject, English for example. The success of the teaching and learning process relies on the success
of both lecturers and students. The learning process is important things to do. However, it must be realized that teaching
strategies, teaching materials, and learning methods will determine the outcome.
On the one hand, students go to universities to gain skills and knowledge through their studies while on the other
hand the lecturers should facilitate their students to gain appropriate knowledge and skills as well as ethical and social
norms and values so that they will be able to compete in the real world after they have completed their studies. That is
why education should be oriented towards meaningful learning so that students will be equipped with meaningful
knowledge and a variety of life skills to face competition in the 21st century and to face the great challenges of the
future. In this context, schools and universities play an important role in molding character through education, as well as
transferring and advancing science and technology relevant to lives and livelihoods. As technology advances,
the universities have to provide a greater opportunity for anyone to access knowledge and skill related information in
order to develop literacy, so that the learning process becomes integrative, holistic, and contextual in ways that are
compatible with life's demands (Menggo et al., 2019, p. 21).
 This study is focused on the situational context of students at the National University of Indonesia (UNAS),
specifically Political and Social Science students. In order to graduate, every student must obtain a passing grade in
English during several semesters. This poses a challenge for teachers to create syllabi and teaching materials which are
in accordance with student needs. At present there is no standard for the textbooks used, the teaching materials utilized,
what student projects should be done or what specific skills need to be learned. This situation means that the lecturers
must each create their own syllabi and teaching material. In this case, the researchers were interested in designing
teaching materials appropriate to a 21st-century learning framework.
According to Trilling and Fadel (2009, p. 18), there is a global discourse about how the world has changed, what this
means for education, what everyone needs to learn to be successful, how 21st century learning differs from 20th century
learning, and what such learning will or should look like. These questions encouraged the authors to seek answers. In
addition, Trilling and Fadel (2009, p. 49), while critical thinking and problem-solving abilities were already required in
millennia before, there are now new talents to learn, such as digital media literacy, that were not even envisioned fifty
years ago. This reality should be a primary concern for teachers and course creators in order to construct English syllabi
and content that are relevant to the current situation and the specific abilities in demand in the 21st-century.
According to Andrade (2016, p. 146), the production of teaching materials in higher education must be matched with
the accomplishment of learning outcomes suited for the global world of the 21st-century. Critical thinking, problem
solving, written and oral communication, cooperation, information literacy, and other global competences are examples
of these (Weda et al., 2021a, p. 3). In a similar vein, Fandiño (2013, p. 202) considers that teachers working in English
as a foreign language (EFL) classrooms should provide opportunities for practice and facilitate activity-based learning
processes that focus on cross-cutting skills such as creativity, critical thinking, collaboration, media literacy, initiative
and self-direction, and social and cross-cultural skills. According to Weda et al. (2021b, p. 729), they stated we cannot
imagine our students graduating from their studies without having a worthwhile skill-set; however, According to
Trilling and Fadel (2009, p. 7), some students who graduate from high school still lack of certain skills, particularly in
oral and written communication, critical thinking and problem solving, professionalism and work ethics, teamwork and
collaboration, technology application, leadership, and project management. Moreover, according to Partnership for 21st
Century Learning-P21 (2015, p. 9), the very skills that many graduates still lack are among the key 21st-century skills.
In addition to specific skills, the themes that should be addressed in learning aligned with 21st-century trends include
global awareness, finance and economics, business and entrepreneurial literacy, civic literacy, health literacy, and
environmental literacy.

II. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The research objectives were designed to analyse and typify eds and learning needs most
relevant to the development of English class materials. These research objectives were formulated based on two
research problems, as follows: 1) What are the student target needs with respect to English class material development?
and 2) What are the student learning needs with respect to English class material development?

III. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

In recent years, people around the world have been faced with 4.0 industry issues, with the result that companies
need to be more selective in recruiting their employees. The people who will have the best chances of being hired will
be those who are able to use and have skills in information communication technology (ICT) as well as having 4 C-
skills (critical thinking, critical problem solving, communication, and collaboration). Students need to acquire not only
strong skills in their core subject areas such as language, arts, mathematics and science, but also cross-cutting
competencies like collaboration, creativity and problem-solving, as well as developing character qualities like
persistence, curiosity and initiative.
In line with the fourth industrial revolution, which is characterized by global access and disruptive technology,
developing means for learners to gain 21st-century skills is critical for enabling graduates to survive and function
successfully in this fast growing, global, and complicated environment. The 4C skills are an expression of UNESCO's
four learning pillars, which were revealed in learning to know, learning to do, learning to be, and learning to live
together. In a nutshell, students are to be prepared to become graduates who are well applied, well-organized, and well-
prepared. As in the real world, the future employer will not necessarily be looking for the person with the highest
literacy and numeracy but rather they will be seeking people with creativity, critical thinking, good communication
skills, and the ability to collaborate in an adaptive situation. As a result, teachers and practitioners must adapt to this
situation by revising and reconsidering their instructional practices. These include, inter alia, the development of
learning materials suitable for the current situation for use in the classroom.
The P21 Partnership for 21st Century Learning was established in 2002 as an outcome of a successful US effort to
bring the power of technology to all aspects of teaching and learning. The Framework for 21st Century Learning was
created by leaders from industry, education, the community, and government. According to the P21 Partnership for 21st
Century learning (2009, p. 4), 21st-century education is a learning process that can produce individuals with knowledge,
skills, and abilities in the fields of technology, media, and information, as well as learning and innovation skills and life
and career skills. This framework also explains the skills, information, and expertise that students must acquire in order
to be successful in life and at business.
According to the P21 concept, the Indonesian Ministry of Education and Culture interprets the 21st-century learning
paradigm as a learning process that emphasizes students' ability to seek and find knowledge and information from
various sources, formulate problems, think analytically, and collaborate in problem solving. According to Trilling and
Fadel (2009, p. 30), a 21st-century education system combines information with a variety of abilities that can contribute
to personal skills, produce civilized citizens, and preserve a high respect for traditional values. P21 has become an
increasingly important force in equipping young people to prosper as persons, citizens, and workers.
The following are some of the skills that students must master in 21st-century education, according to the American
Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE) and the Partnership for 21st Century Skills: Creativity and
innovation, critical thinking and problem solving, and communication and collaboration are all examples of learning
and innovation skills. Information literacy, media literacy, and information/communications/technology literacy are all
examples of information, media, and technology skills. Finally, life and career skills include adaptability and flexibility,
initiative and self-direction, social and cross-cultural abilities, productivity and accountability, and leadership and
responsibility (AACTE, 2010, p. 33).
Furthermore, The American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE, 2010, p. 34) also underlines
the basic principles for educators in realizing a vision of education that is integrated within the 21st-century knowledge-
skills rainbow scheme, which describes the knowledge and skills of the learners. The framework of knowledge skills
can be seen in Figure 1.

(Source: P21 Partnership for 21 st Century Learning)

Figure 1: The 21st-Century Knowledge-Skills Rainbow (AACTE, 2010)

The College Council for the National Coalition for Core Art Standards (2011, p. 20) was mapped out thirteen
standard skills that students must master in 21st century education (21st Century Skills Map) as follows: 'Critical
thinking and problem solving, communication, collaboration skills, creativity , innovation, information literacy, media
literacy, information communication & technology literacy, flexibility and adaptability, initiative and self-direction,
social and cross-cultural skills, productivity and accountability, and leadership skills and responsibilities'. Trilling and
Fadel (2009, p. 73) also present three main themes or groups of skills as the basis for 21st century education: (1) career
and life skills, (2) digital literacy skills, and (3) learning and innovation skills.

IV. 21ST CENTURY LANGUAGE LEARNING ORIENTATION

As previously mentioned, the 4.0 industrial revolution has had an impact on all aspects of life including education.
This era is also called the digitalization era, where there is often no longer a clear dividing line between real and virtual
life. This situation forces everyone to follow the stream of change unless they want to be left behind.
The concept of 21st century education highlights how learners can be enabled to incorporate a variety of content
including the knowledge, specific skills, expertise, and literacy needed to succeed in work and life (Ledward & Hirata,
2011, p. 13). In addition, the skills acquired must include more than just technological literacy; they need to include
skills in critical thinking, problem solving, communication, and teamwork (Rahman & Weda, 2018, p. 166). Creativity,
critical thinking, problem solving, communication, and collaboration are important learning and motivational skills
(Joynes et al., 2019, p. 56).
Partnership for 21st Century Learning-P21 (2005, p. 13) research reports and studies cover standards and assessments,
curriculum content and instruction, professional development, and learning environments. Another study (Tan et al.,
2017, p. 427; Trilling & Fadel, 2009, p. 175) identified eleven skills required for 21st-century success. Communication
and collaboration, critical thinking and problem solving, creativity and innovation, information literacy, media literacy,
ICT literacy, flexibility and adaptability, initiative and self-direction, social and cross-cultural aspects, productivity and
accountability, and leadership and responsibility are some of the skills covered.
Furthermore, the P21 movement has identified key subjects and themes for the 21st-century, such as reading,
languages and literature, world languages, arts, mathematics, economics, science, geography, history, government, and
citizenship. In addition, P21 schools must adopt special interest themes that can be applied in everyday life, such as
Global Awareness, Finance, Economics, Business and Entrepreneurial Literacy, Civic Literacy, Health Literacy, and
Environmental Literacy. https://www.battelleforkids.org/networks/p21

V. TARGET NEEDS AND LEARNING NEEDS

Dudley-Evans and St John (1998, pp. 123-124) summarized some basic concepts related to English language
education needs. Objective and perceived needs are external factors that do not come from the learners; these needs are
influenced by the employers, the teachers, and the alumni. On the other hand, subjective and perceived needs are factors
internal to the learners which are related to cognitive and affective aspects; to put it simply, the learners know what they
know and what they feel about their own needs.
In developing teaching materials, course developers consider learner needs as a necessary starting point. According
to Hutchinson and Waters (1987, p. 54), there is a distinction between target needs (what the learner must do in the
target situation) and learning needs (i.e. what students need to do to learn). They go on to say that target needs to
include necessities, deficiencies, and desires. Necessities can be interpreted as the learner's desire to function effectively
in the target situation. The term "lacks" refers to students' difficulties in dealing with their target situation. Wants are
associated with the learners' post-course expectations. Meanwhile, learning requirements include four components:
input, procedure, setting, and the learner's role (Nunan, 2005, p. 26). Furthermore, Hutchinson and Waters (1987, p. 54)
stated that establishing a course design solely on the target objectives is always insufficient, just as thinking that a
journey can be planned solely in terms of the starting point and the destination is insufficient. Learning requirements are
also concerned with the path from the starting point (lacks) to the destination (necessities). As a result, learning should
be enjoyable, fulfilling, manageable, and generative. Course designers must assess learners' learning needs based on
their motivation, the conditions of the learning situation, and their prior knowledge and skills.
The present study was conducted to examine and typify student target needs and learning needs with respect to
English class material development, specifically for Political and Social Sciences Students, in order to produce suitable
materials in line with 21st-century learning. In this context, the researchers considered that the present situation of
learners also needed to be analyzed.

VI. METHODS
In order to seek answers to the research questions, questionnaires were distributed to students taking English classes
and to English lecturers. Questionnaire delivery and response via Google forms was adopted due to the limitations
imposed by the Covid-19 pandemic regulations in vigor. The questionnaire was sent to the respondents in November
2020. In order to evaluate whether the questionnaire could fulfill the expectations of the researchers, a validation
process was carried out before the survey was implemented. During this validation stage, questionnaires were shared
with a few students and English lecturers. To provide additional information and input for developing the materials,
interviews with English lecturers were also an important and integral part of this study.
A. Population and Sample
The research population was 437 new students in Political and Social Sciences. The students were from several
departments: International Relationships, Political Science, Public Administration, Sociological Science, and
Communication Science (Table 1).
TABLE 1
RESEARCH POPULATION
No Department Number of Students
1 International Relationships 45
2 Political Science 49
3 Public Administration 74
4 Sociological Science 68
5 Communication Science 201
Total 437
 This research also involved 13 lecturers who teach English in the Political and Social Sciences Faculty (Table 2).
These lecturers participated in a Focus Group Discussion (FGD) to formulate Learning Themes in the English
Classroom to achieve the 21st-Century Knowledge-Skills Rainbow are
shown in Table 2.
TABLE 2
ENGLISH TEACHING STAFF (LECTURERS IN THE FACULTY)
No Department Base Number of Teaching
Staff
1 International Relationships 2
2 Political Science 2
3 Public Administration 3
4 Sociological Science 2
5 Communication Science 4
Total 13

The main expertise of the lecturers involved in the FGD included classroom management, syllabus design, teaching
material development, and English for specific purposes (Figure 2).

Figure 2: The Main Expertise of English Language Teaching Staff Involved in the FGD

B. Instruments
This research used a questionnaire to collect data. The items were checked by expert judgment to evaluate their
relevance or irrelevance with respect to content validity before the questionnaire was distributed. The data were divided
into three main question groups:
Student's Learning Situation. There were twenty-two questions and for each question the students were asked to choose
one of the options given. The questions had different numbers of options. Four questions had four options, three
questions had five options, two questions had three options, and four questions had two options. Six open-ended
questions were also given in order to obtain more in-depth information from the students. The questionnaire was also
given to seven lecturers, and two of the lecturers were also interviewed with respect to their knowledge of 21st-century
learning.
C. Data Analysis Procedures
Data were collected through two procedures: (1) the questionnaire was distributed to the respondents in stages, due to
the procedures used to share the Google form link (URL). The respondents spent around five to seven minutes
answering the questions; (2) in-depth interviews were conducted for about thirty minutes. These two procedures took
place on different days. In addition, the in-depth interviews were carried out based upon an agreement between the
researchers and the English lecturers.
D. Data Analysis
The data obtained during this study were analyzed using Google form analytics with qualitative interpretation. Data
from the questionnaire downloaded by the researchers already included basic statistics, in particular the percentages for
each response to each of the questions. Data from the in-depth interviews were analyzed qualitatively, as they relied on
respondent responses.

VII. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

The following discussion includes the results of interviews with a representative sample of two out of the seven
English lecturers as well as the results from the questionnaires completed by the new students at the first lecture session
and by the seven English lecturers. The results of the questionnaires answered by Political and Social Sciences Faculty
students were the pivot of the analysis on subjective and perceived needs; in other words,

Teaching Context Analysis, as adopted from Philp et al (2010, p. 277). The student questionnaires also covered some
points related to

The present situation analysis discussed the current situation of new students in the Faculty of Political and Social
Science at the first meeting of the class. The information covers the students' level in English skills, their ability to
understand journals, news on TV, or other social media, and whether they are able to write an English essay or compile
a report in English. Based on the results, 65.2 % considered that their current English language skill level was moderate.
Furthermore, 71.9 % answered that they were mostly able to understand journals, news on TV, or other social media,
albeit not perfectly; and 70.3 % said that they were able to write an essay or simple stories, and compile English reports.
These questions are considered necessary because course developers need to know their students' initial level of
language knowledge. According to Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998, p. 125), "analysis of the present situation
estimates strengths and weaknesses in language, skills, and learning experiences."
B. St
Second Language Acquisition (SLA) ; this is subjective and relates to how they are
feeling their needs and what kind of learning situation they want, based on learner preference with respect to the
learning process and their learning styles (Ortega, 2018, p. 72). Furthermore, Hutchinson and Waters (1993, pp. 59-63)
also use WH questions (what, when, where, who, whom, which, whose, why and how) while analyzing the target
situation and the learning needs. In brief, both analyses of target situation need and analyses of learning needs are
vitally important in order to elucidate the reasons of learners and how they learn the language (Rahman et al., 2019, p.
164).
The results of the SLA section show that 73.2% of the students prefer learning through YouTube, Facebook,
Instagram, and Twitter as the main media for increasing their English skills. Regarding the tasks, 53.1% consider that
both individual and group assignments could be given. As the classes take place virtually, the students are asked to

C. Findings from English Lecturers

In the questionnaire, all respondents (100%) said they "agree" that there is a need for changes in teaching materials
based on 21st-century learning approaches. This confirms that there is a real need for teaching materials to be improved.
They all also agree the themes for teaching materials should be related to Health literacy, Civic literacy, Environment
literacy, Media literacy, Finance and Entrepreneurship literacy. These responses demonstrate that all respondents
consider those topics are particularly appropriate for use in teaching the students. Regarding media as a supporting tool
in the teaching-learning process, 71.4% highly recommended the inclusion of social media such as videos available on
YouTube when designing teaching materials. All but one of the lecturers (85.7%) were willing to take part in designing
a module or English book for this class. These responses show that teaching materials adjusted to students' needs and
adopting 21st-century learning approach will be more useful and that it should be possible to provide them.

VIII. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

This study examined the results of
learning situation analysis in order to discover what the students actually need to learn in English lessons and what
suitable teaching materials are available and could be used. Based on the discussion, the researchers found two
important points; firstly, the is that their English language knowledge is moderate, and they
clearly said that they expect to be able to speak English fluently and correctly. Most of them are able to read English
journals and news. In addition, they can write essays, simple stories, and English reports. Secondly, regarding the
results of the , they need to improve all their English
language skills and they agree on the topics that should be taught under 21st-century learning approaches. Meanwhile,
with respect to learning needs, they like studying by using social media such as YouTube, Facebook, or Instagram to
assist them in understanding English. Giving tasks or assignments to the students also needs to be discussed; this is
because if there is a pre-discussion between teachers and students, each party will abide by the agreement made. The
students agree on both individual and group tasks; in addition, as the AACTE classes are not fully implemented on-site,
they willingly accept to study via an online application such as Zoom meeting or Google Meet. Furthermore, the
findings reveal that the majority of lecturers are willing to design an English book or module for students at the Faculty
of Political and Social Science and to include topics or themes that follow the themes and adopt the approaches of 21st-
century learning. The results also show that the teachers are willing to accept the use of social media as a tool in the
teaching-learning process. Based on these results, the researcher suggests follow-up steps such as designing a suitable
syllabus supported by an English Course Book for students at the Faculty of Political and Social Science at the National
University in Jakarta, Indonesia.
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Tuti Alawiah is a postgraduate student at Hasanuddin University majoring in linguistics. She has worked as a
lecturer at the National University, Indonesia.

Abdul Hakim Yassi is a senior lecturer at Hasanuddin University. He teaches in the Faculty of Cultural Sciences.

Nasmilah is a senior lecturer at Hasanuddin University. She teaches in the Faculty of Cultural Sciences.

Abidin Pammu is a senior lecturer at Hasanuddin University. He teaches in the Faculty of Cultural Sciences.
 Comparing L2 Incidental Vocabulary Learning
Through Viewing, Listening, and Reading
Dukhayel M Aldukhayel
Department of English Language and Translation, College of Arabic Language and Social Studies, Qassim University,
Buraidah, Saudi Arabia

Abstract The aim of this study is to determine the most effective mode of input for L2 vocabulary learning by
investigating three types of input: audiovisual input, audio input, and written input. Using a pretest-posttest-
delayed posttest design, this study recruited 95 university EFL students who were randomly assigned to four
groups. The same TV documentary was presented to each group in four different modes: viewing the
documentary, listening to the documentary, reading the printed transcript, and a control condition in which
no treatment was given. Vocabulary learning, which was operationalized as the receptive knowledge of the
form-meaning connection of the target words was measured by checklist and multiple-choice tests. Two
variables were considered in the investigation: prior vocabulary knowledge and the word frequency of
occurrence. The findings suggest that participants learned vocabulary incidentally through viewing, listening,
and reading. They also successfully retained gained vocabulary through the three modes of input. The study
found no significant differences in vocabulary gains between viewing and reading on the posttests suggesting
that vocabulary gain and retention are similar through these types of input modes. The study found a
significant impact of prior vocabulary knowledge and frequency of occurrence on vocabulary learning. As the
results suggest that viewing is as effective as reading, this study provides further support for the use of
television in L2 learning.

Index Terms incidental vocabulary learning, L2 viewing, L2 listening, L2 reading

I. INTRODUCTION
Through viewing, listening, and viewing, the different modes of audiovisual, audio, and written L2 input contribute
to incidental vocabulary learning. However, some studies found that EFL learners, especially young population prefer
audiovisual materials to written materials in learning English outside of the classroom (e.g., Lindgren & Muñoz, 2013;
Peters, 2018; Peters et al., 2019). Peters (2018), for example, found that young adult Flemish learners (ages 16 and 19
years) were exposed to large amounts of English language input outside of the classroom including songs, TV programs,
movies, and computer games. Interestingly, she found that 40% of the participants watched L2 television and movies
several times a week compared to only 1% of them who read L2 books to the same extent. In another survey study,
Lindgren and Muñoz (2013) reported that participants spent an amount of time listening to songs and viewing television
and movies that was more than three times that of reading. In fact, there is an increasingly supported evidence that L2
viewing of TV yields incidental vocabulary learning and improves vocabulary learning through increasing the amount
of meaning-focused spoken input (e.g., Montero Perez et al., 2018; Peters & Webb, 2018; Puimège & Peters, 2019;
Webb, 2009).
Vocabulary learning is deemed incidental when learning occurs during reading or listening to a meaningful input
without paying attention to vocabulary items. Also, incidental learning has been operationalized in terms of test
announcement (Hulstijn, 2003; Peters & Webb, 2018; Rodgers & Webb, 2020) when students are not informed of a
vocabulary test. Incidental learning of vocabulary occurs when unknown words are encountered repeatedly in meaning-
focused input and refers to learning vocabulary from context when the focus is usually on comprehension not on
vocabulary acquisition (Gass, 1999; Hulstijn, 2001; Schmitt, 2010) making it different from the direct intentional
learning of vocabulary. Learning vocabulary from context means that learning occurs during activities such as reading
or listening to a language input while concentration is on the content of the input be it brief or extended
(Schmitt, 2010). Thus, learning from context includes learning from various types of language activities including
extensive reading, being involved in conversations, listening to stories and the radio, and viewing television. As stated
by Nation (2001), most of our first language vocabulary learning occurs through incidental learning during reading and
listening times.
Whereas the impact of reading on L2 vocabulary learning has been empirically established (e.g., Pellicer-Sanchez &
Schmitt, 2010; Waring & Takaki, 2003), more research efforts are still needed to show the impact of other modes of
input on vocabulary acquisition. Two main cognitive theories have been suggested for vocabulary learning through
viewing; The Multimedia Learning Theory (Mayer, 2001) and the Dual Coding Theory (Sadoski, 2005; Sadoski &
Paivio, 2001). The first theory proposes that processing channels for words in working memory are different from
channels responsible for processing pictures. The second theory is based on the idea that there are two coding systems
in human cognition, a verbal system that deals with items that are formulated in verbal mode, and an imagery system
that deals with items formulated in nonverbal mode. These two theories assume that better learning occurs when
information is presented both in verbal and pictorial forms. Therefore, we suggest that viewing might yield better
vocabulary learning than reading and listening. To the best of our knowledge, Feng and Webb (2020) is the only
empirical study that compared the three input modes in their most-frequent encountered ways, that is, viewing without
captions, listening only, and reading only. The purpose of the current research is to follow up Feng and Webb (2020)
study which suggested comparing the three input modes with participants from different backgrounds and different
contexts to find out whether their findings can be generalized across different demographic characteristics of L2
learners.

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Incidental Vocabulary Learning through TV Viewing

Recent studies on L2 vocabulary have suggested that viewing TV plays an important role in L2 incidental vocabulary
learning (Ahrabi Fakhr et al., 2021;
Peters & Webb, 2018). One of the most common and effective types of L2 input is television because of the increased
popularity of audiovisual input (TV shows, movies, documentaries, and so on) and the spread of streaming services,
smartphones, and computers (Peters, 2019). Peters (2018) found that L2 watching of TV without captions contributed to
vocabulary learning in secondary-school and university level learners. L2 watching might have the same potential for
L2 vocabulary learning as reading because TV programs are popular among young L2 learners and are easily accessible
nowadays. There are several advantages of audiovisual input compared to written and audio inputs: (1) it is motivating,
(2) it contains visual support, and (3) it recycles low-frequency words (Peters, 2019). As opposed to written and audio
inputs, the key feature of audiovisual input is that aural text and visual images are combined together. In his explanation

from
Recent research shows that TV provides multiple exposures to the more-frequent words as well as less-frequent
words and that regular viewing of TV would likely contribute to L2 lexical development (Rodgers & Webb, 2017;
Webb, 2015; Webb & Rodgers, 2009). There is a support for this claim in studies that investigated incidental
vocabulary learning through watching TV programs. For example, Peters and Webb (2018) found that L2 learners were
able to recognize almost 14% of the unknown words after watching one full-length television documentary. Similarly,
Rodgers and Webb (2020) found that L2 learners could learn 25% percent of the unknown unfamiliar target words after
watching 10 episodes of a TV series. In the same vein, Puimege and Peters (2019) reported that TV viewing had an
effect on learning unknown lexical items (single words as well as formulaic sequences). All in all, there is growing
evidence that L2 vocabulary can be picked up incidentally through TV viewing and that the influence of extensive
viewing of L2 television, i.e., viewing a large amount of L2 programs for pleasure could be similar to the influence of
extensive reading on vocabulary development (Webb, 2015).
B. Incidental Vocabulary Learning through Listening
A large number of studies have indicated that listening to aural input (e.g., songs, podcasts, academic lectures, and
recordings of graded readers) can contribute to L2 incidental vocabulary learning (Arndt & Woore, 2018; Brown et al.,
2008; Feng & Webb, 2020; Pavia et al., 2019; van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013; Vidal, 2003, 2011). Similar to other modes
of input, learners need multiple encounters to learn new words through listening. Learners might need different contexts
in order to acquire different aspects of vocabulary knowledge including the spoken forms of unknown words, their
grammatical functions and collocations, and their meanings (Webb & Nation, 2017). Therefore, the value of listening
for learning words is influenced by the amount of spoken input; a larger amount of input likely yields more robust
learning of words because words will be met more times (Feng & Webb, 2020). As opposed to reading; however,
research showed that L2 incidental vocabulary learning through listening requires a higher number of encounters with
unknown words.
Interestingly, the comparison between L2 vocabulary learning gains through reading and listening has revealed that
listening can be as effective as reading. For example, Brown et al. (2008) who compared words learned from graded
readers through reading only, listening only, and reading-while-listening found that gains from reading were
significantly higher than that from listening, yet word retention from listening was better than that from reading. Vidal
(2011) also compared incidental vocabulary gains from reading and listening to academic texts. Their results
demonstrated that words were incidentally picked up through both input modes, the reading mode resulted in
significantly higher scores than the listening mode, and word retention from listening was better than that from reading.
Taken together, these studies suggest that listening might be inferior to reading for incidental vocabulary learning.
Possible reasons why written input might contribute to larger vocabulary gains than aural input are related to the
complexion of spoken versus written language: aural input requires quicker cognitive processes likely making it
difficult for listeners to pay enough attention to unfamiliar words because they have less time than readers to focus on
individual words (Goh, 2000; Renandya & Farrell, 2011; van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013). Also, aural input is continuous
and, as opposed to the written, there are no obvious boundaries between words input likely making it more difficult to
segment new words encountered (e.g., Goh, 2000).
C. Incidental Vocabulary Learning through Reading
Research has demonstrated the efficacy of reading for incidental learning of L2 vocabulary (e.g., Feng & Webb, 2020;
Pellicer-Sanchez & Schmitt, 2010; Pigada & Schmitt, 2006, van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013; Waring & Takaki, 2003).
When unknown words are encountered repeatedly in meaning-focused input, such as reading, incidental learning might
occur. Word knowledge achieved by reading includes knowledge of written form, part of speech, and collocation, and
the word meaning from the context. As knowledge of encountered words is likely to accumulate when words are met in
various contexts, the value for incidental vocabulary learning through reading happens through reading a large amount
of written input which can be achieved through extensive reading. Extensive reading refers to an L2 approach in which
learners read a large amount of materials for pleasure for an extended period of time. The value of extensive reading for
improving L2 vocabulary knowledge has been shown in empirical research (Horst, 2005; Pigada & Schmitt, 2006;
Webb & Chang, 2015). The rationale for extensive reading is that it provides multiple encounters of words across texts.
Regarding the role of frequency of occurrence, various thresholds have been suggested for incidental vocabulary
learning through reading. For instance, studies such as Waring and Takaki (2003) and Pigada and Schmitt (2006) who
used graded readers have suggested that more than 20 encounters with words were needed for vocabulary knowledge to
be retained. On the other hand, there are studies that have suggested fewer encounters. For example, the results obtained
by Webb (2007) who used sets of short sentences as research materials suggest a minimum of 10 encounters was
enough to ensure a relatively large increase in vocabulary knowledge through reading. Also, in a study examining
incidental word learning using self-composed short stories as reading materials, Chen and Truscott (2010) found that
learning rates for words that have several occurrences in the text were significantly higher than those of the words that
had only one occurrence. Overall, it appears that it is difficult to draw a conclusion on the threshold of frequency of
word occurrence by which vocabulary learning can be ensured because learning occurred with words that have a few

D. Comparing the Three Modes of Input

There are a great deal of studies that compared written and audio modes of input (e.g., Brown et al., 2008; Vidal,
2011; Webb & Chang, 2015), but Feng and Webb (2020) are the first and remain the only study that included
audiovisual input in the investigation along with the other two modes of input. Seventy-six university students learning
English in China participated in the study that used a pretest-posttest-delayed posttest design at one-week intervals. The
same full-length television documentary was presented to the participants in three different modes: viewing the
documentary without captions, listening to the documentary, and reading the printed transcript. Incidental learning of
target words was assessed by checklist and multiple-choice tests. The results indicated that L2 incidental vocabulary
learning occurred through viewing, listening, and reading and no significant differences were found across the three
modes. The researchers suggested that each mode of input should yield similar vocabulary learning gains. The study
also found that vocabulary learning was significantly influenced by prior vocabulary knowledge, but not by frequency
of occurrence.
However, the finding that listening and reading led to similar amounts of vocabulary gain contrasts previous findings
from earlier studies (e.g., Brown et al., 2008; Vidal, 2011). Brown et al. (2008) found that EFL learners incidentally
learned more words from graded readers through reading than through listening. In a similar vein, Vidal (2011) used
academic reading texts and academic listening lectures in a study with undergraduate students in an ESP course. He
found that the Reading participants made greater vocabulary gains than the Listening participants. Due to these
differences in findings, Feng and Webb (2020) suggested that more research comparing these two modes of input is
needed. Another surprising finding in their study is that viewing did not result in superior vocabulary learning gains to
listening and reading given that multimodal input should yield greater vocabulary learning than unimodal input as it is
suggested by the Multimedia Learning Theory (Mayer, 2001) and Dual-Coding Theory (Sadoski & Paivio, 2001). One
explanation for the contrast, as proposed by the researchers, lies in the speculation that EFL Chinese students
experience in learning through viewing is much more limited that learning through reading and listening largely
because L2 television is not a common way for teaching English in China whereas reading and listening are the regular
modes used in schools.
E. Prior Vocabulary Knowledge and the Three Modes of Input
Regarding the impact of prior vocabulary knowledge on vocabulary gain through viewing, Rodgers (2013) examined
the effects of viewing ten TV episodes on incidental vocabulary learning. Significant correlations were found between
prior vocabulary knowledge and vocabulary learning as assessed by two tests measuring knowledge of form-meaning
connection at differing sensitivities. Montero Perez et al. (2014) examined the effects of viewing video clips in French
by Dutch-speaking learners of French at a Flemish university. They found that the vocabulary size correlated
significantly with vocabulary test scores. Peters and Webb (2018) conducted a study with Dutch-speaking EFL learners
to explore the influence of viewing a single full-length TV program on incidental acquisition of target vocabulary. They
also found that incidental vocabulary learning was affected by prior vocabulary knowledge. More recently, Ahrabi
Fakhr et al. (2021) examined prior vocabulary knowledge and incidental learning of target words through viewing a
full-length captioned episode of an English TV program by Iranian EFL students. They found that learning was affected
by prior vocabulary knowledge and its effects persisted after 3 months.
The relationship between prior vocabulary knowledge and vocabulary learning through reading was examined in a
few studies as well. Webb and Chang (2015) used 20 graded readers with 60 EFL learners over 37 weeks to study how
prior word knowledge affected vocabulary learning progress in an extensive reading program. They found a significant
relationship between prior vocabulary knowledge and word gains through extensive reading. Feng and Webb (2020)
also found a significant positive relationship between prior vocabulary knowledge and vocabulary learning through
reading. The explanation suggested by researchers for the impact of greater vocabulary knowledge on learning more
vocabulary than limited vocabulary knowledge is that greater vocabulary knowledge should yield better comprehension
of the text which makes the context easier for guessing meanings of unfamiliar vocabulary (Liu & Nation, 1985;
Schmitt et al., 2011; Webb & Paribakht, 2015).
Listening studies; however, found no relationship between prior vocabulary knowledge and vocabulary learning.
Zhang and Graham (2020) investigated the influence of prior vocabulary knowledge and listening proficiency on word
gains through listening on EFL Chinese learners. Research materials were three different kinds of spoken vocabulary

learning through listening than their prior vocabulary knowledge. Similarly, Feng and Webb (2020) found no significant
positive correlations between prior vocabulary knowledge and vocabulary learning for the Listening group. Two
explanations for the lack of a significant correlation between prior vocabulary knowledge and word learning through
listening have been presented by Feng and Webb (2020). The first explanation has to do with the inaccuracy of the
vocabulary size test that often measured knowledge of written form-meaning connections rather than the spoken form
meaning connections of words, the way in which they were tested. The second explanation takes into consideration the
impact of other factors such as understanding of the characteristics of L2 spoken input, the ability to process fast speech,
and the load of connected speech on vocabulary learning.

III. THE PRESENT STUDY AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The differences and contradictions in findings in the abovementioned studies demand more research in this area. The
primary aim of this study then is to compare vocabulary learning through viewing, listening, and reading. An English-
language TV documentary was used as the research material for three experimental groups: Viewing Group who
viewed the documentary, Listening Group who listened to the audio of the documentary, and Reading Group who read
the transcript of the documentary. This research design ensured a direct comparison of vocabulary learning in different
modes of input by controlling the input, i.e., the same input was presented to participants across the three groups. This
study is necessary because if TV viewing should be used in L2 classes as promoted by some researchers (e.g., Peters &
Webb, 2018; Rodgers & Webb, 2020; Webb, 2015; Webb & Nation, 2017), understanding its effectiveness in relation
to the other modes of input is necessary. To that end, the present study attempts to answer the following research
questions:
1. To what extent is vocabulary knowledge learned and retained through viewing audiovisual input, listening to
aural input, and reading input written?
2. How do vocabulary acquisition and retention compare across audiovisual, aural, and written input?
3. In each input mode, is there any relationship between vocabulary learning and prior vocabulary knowledge and
frequency of word occurrence?

IV. METHODOLOGY

A. Participants
This quasi-experimental study was conducted in an EFL context with 95 male Arabic-speaking students (Mage= 19.33
years, SD = .41). The participants were students in an English program in a Saudi public university. Participants had
been studying EFL for a minimum of seven years in public schools. Their English proficiency levels were considered to
be pre-intermediate to intermediate according to an in-house English proficiency exam. They were in four similar-size
classes that were randomly assigned by the program. The Viewing Group had twenty-six participants; the Listening
Group had twenty-three participants; the Reading Group had twenty-five participants; and the Control Group had
twenty-one students. Data collection took place during their class time and their preassigned classes were used as the
experimental groups.
The participants were administered the updated Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT; Webb et al., 2017) at the 1,000-,
2000-, 3000-, 4,000-, and 5,000-word levels to assess their prior vocabulary knowledge. The total possible score for all
five
results obtained from the test indicated that all participants knew the most frequent 1,000 words, 82 (86.31%) of them
knew the most frequent 2,000 words, and 57 (60%) of them knew scores
on the VLT were used as an indicator of their vocabulary knowledge. ANOVA (F(2, 92) = .726, p = 2.40) indicated no
significant difference between the groups on the V
were equivalent among the four groups. The VLT results are shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1
PARTICIPANTS AVERAGE SCORES ON THE VLT
Viewing Group Listening Group Reading Group Control Group All Groups
N 26 23 25 21 95
M 122.12 118.40 120.91 122.03 120.86
SD 10.02 14.33 12.28 13.93 12.64

B. Source of Input
One full-length, 51- Building Sea City oaded on YouTube by Spark was used as
the research materials. The documentary follows a team of engineers on the ground in Kuwait where they have to build
a futuristic sea city. The transcript contained 7,088 running words and was examined to ensure that it was not different
from the vocabulary in the video. The transcript was analyzed through using the
BNC/COCA word lists to statistically ascertain its vocabulary load, i.e., the percentage of words found across different
frequency vocabulary lists. The analysis showed the most frequent 3,000-word families provided 95.1% coverage of the
words found in the documentary. The vocabulary load of the transcript was believed to be at an appropriate level for all
participants.
C. Target Words
The target words were chosen based on their frequency levels in the BNC/COCA word lists and their frequency
within the documentary. Words that were from the most frequent 1,000, and 2,000-word families were not selected
because there was a reasonable chance that the participants had a sufficient knowledge of most of these word levels.
The frequency of the vocabulary was determined by running the transcript in . Lextutor
also sorted the vocabulary in the documentary in relation to their inclusion in the BNC/COCA twenty-four 1000-word
frequency lists. Word types that most commonly occurred from the word families in the documentary were used as the
vocabulary test items. Thirty-eight vocabulary items were selected from the documentary as target words. The range of
frequency of the target words was from 1 to 23 occurrences. Table 2 provides the target words, their word-family levels,
and their number of occurrences in the documentary.
TABLE 2
TARGET WORDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE FREQUENCY I N UILDING SEA CITY
Target word (Word Word list Frequency of Target word (Word Word list (1,000) Frequency of
family) (1,000) occurrences family) occurrences
1. assess 3 3 20. peg 6 3
2. circulate 3 5 21. groin 7 2
3. impact 3 6 22. gush 7 1
4. vast 3 5 23. hydraulic 7 3
5. unique 3 5 24. ingenious 7 1
6. marine 3 17 25. lagoon 7 23
7. monitor 3 3 26. throttle 7 1
8. align 4 2 27. silt 8 8
9. ambition 4 3 28. stagnant 8 4
10. compact 4 9 29. stagnate 8 2
11. flush 4 17 30. stockpile 8 2
12. habitat 4 4 31. dyke 10 1
13. excavate 4 6 32. bulkhead 10 1
14. grid 4 2 33. legume 11 1
15. creek 5 3 34. mangrove 11 5
16. override 5 2 35. impound 12 3
17. quarry 5 3 36. vestry 12 1
18. reef 5 1 37. dewater 17 2
19. patronage 6 1 38. revetment 19 8

V. DATA COLLECTION

A. Checklist Test
checklist test. The paper-and-pencil test required
participants to write yes or no next to each target word to assess their knowledge yes/no EFL
vocabulary test, 50 word items were included in the test: the 38 target words, 7 easy words that are believed to be
familiar to all participants, and 5 fake words. The 12 easy and fake words were excluded from the analysis. The
inclusion of 7 familiar words was hoped to encourage the participants to complete the test. The five nonwords were
selected from the ARC Nonword Database developed by Rastle et al. (2002). The rationale for using nonwords was to
taking the test seriously receives
given to a real word, the response receives percentage of known words is estimated by the following
formula proposed by Anderson and Freebody (1983) and Shu et al. (1995): the proportion of hits on real words minus
the proportion of false alarms on nonwords, divided by one minus the proportion of false alarms on nonwords. Each
word was read twice and there was a five-second pause between the items.
B. Multiple-choice Test
The multiple-choice test measured the receptive knowledge of the form-meaning connection of the target words. The
test included the same 50 items from the checklist test and consisted of a key word and three distractors in the
participa

same 12 easy and nonwords from the checklist test were also included in the multiple-choice test for the same purposes,
but were excluded from the analysis. Table 3 shows how items appeared on the test by taking Item #28 as an example.

TABLE 3
EXAMPLE OF THE MULTIPLE -CHOICE TEST; ITEM #28
Target word Stagnant
A. B. C. D.
Options E.
English A. B. C. D. E.
translation Diagonal Eruptive Still Pure this word

VI. RESULTS

A. Preliminary Analyses: Descriptive and Inferential Statistics

Descriptive statistics were first calculated for the checklist test and multiple-choice test at the three test times (see

was calculated to assess reliability between the tes

= .79. From the pretest to the immediate posttest, all groups (including the Control Group) showed higher mean scores
both on the checklist test and on the multiple-choice test. On the delayed checklist and multiple-choice posttests,
experimental participants scores had increased, while the Control Group failed to increase their scores on both
tests. From immediate posttest to delayed posttest, the Viewing, Reading, and Control groups showed relatively little
lower mean scores on both tests, while the Listening Group had increased their average scores only on the multiple-
choice test. Inferential analyses (Repeated Measures ANOVA, one- r correlation) were
then performed to examine the statistical significance of the observed differences.
TABLE 4
MEANS (M) AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS (SD) OF THE SCORES ON THE CHECKLIST TEST
Pretest Posttest Delayed posttest
Group N M SD M SD M SD
Viewing 26 0.518 0.346 0.677 0.125 0.659 0.978
Listening 23 0.497 0.834 0.576 0.903 0.519 0.265
Reading 25 0.481 0.118 0.648 0.482 0.635 0.537
Control 21 0.503 0.226 0.514 0.740 0.499 0.091
Note: 1 is the maximum possible score (100%).

TABLE 5
MEANS (M) AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS (SD) OF THE SCORES ON THE MULTIPLE-CHOICE TEST
Pretest Posttest Delayed posttest
Group N M SD M SD M SD
Viewing 26 15.72 7.12 20.05 5.03 19.45 4.86
Listening 23 17.86 8.23 19.74 7.49 20.16 5.38
Reading 25 16.93 6.87 20.91 5.57 20.10 4.77
Control 21 15.90 3.81 16.01 2.59 15.13 2.72
Note: Maximum score is 38.

B. Research Question 1: To What Extent Is Vocabulary Knowledge Learned And Retained Through Viewing
Audiovisual Input, Listening To Aural Input, And Reading Input Written?
Repeated Measures ANOVA was carried out to provide an answer to the first study question. Results of ANOVA
indicate that the interaction of Time and Treatment had a significant effect on the scores both of the checklist test,
(F(3.49, 153.61) = 43.17, p < .001, R2 = .72, eta 2 = .72) and of the multiple-choice test (F(3.82, 151.92) = 46.83, p
< .001, R2 = .68, eta2 = .68). The results of the Wilcoxon tests corrected with Bonferroni showed where the divergences
between Time across the experimental groups.
 For the checklist test, the results showed that the experimental groups had significantly higher scores on the
immediate and delayed posttests (p < .001 for the Viewing and Reading Group; p < .05 for the Listening Group), but no
significant differences were detected for the Control Group (p > .05). The experimental groups
posttest were not significantly different from their scores on the immediate posttest scores (p > .05). Regarding
multiple-choice test data, the same results were obtained. Scores on the immediate posttest and delayed posttest were
significantly higher than the pretest scores for all the experimental groups (p < .001 for the Viewing and Reading Group;
p < .05 for the Listening Group) but no significant differences were detected for the Control Group (p > .05). The scores
on the delayed posttest were not significantly different from scores on the immediate posttest scores for all the
experimental groups (p > .05).
C. Research Question 2: How Do Vocabulary Acquisition and Retention Compare Across Audiovisual, Aural, and
Written Input?
To provide an answer to the second question, ANCOVA was used to assess which mode of input yielded
significantly better vocabulary acquisition and retention after controlling for the pretest scores. Results obtained from
ANCOVA revealed that the scores on the posttest were significantly different between groups after the pretest scores
were controlled both for the checklist test (F(3, 90) = 22.66, p < .001, R2 = .43, eta2 = .43) and for the multiple-choice
test (F(3, 90) = 28.14, p < .001, R2 = .36, eta2 = .65). Scores of the delayed checklist and multiple-choice posttests were
not significantly different from those of the immediate posttests across the groups (p > .05). A Bonferroni post-hoc test
of the immediate posttest revealed that the experimental groups had significantly higher scores both on the checklist
posttest and on the multiple-choice test than the Control Group (p < .001 for the Viewing and Reading Group; p < .05
for the Listening Group). Also, the post-hoc test revealed that the Viewing Group and the Reading Group both had
significantly higher vocabulary gains (p < .05) than the Listening Group both on the checklist and on the multiple-
choice posttest after controlling for the pretest scores.
D. Research Question 3: In Each Input Mode, Is There Any Relationship between Vocabulary Learning and Prior
Vocabulary Knowledge and Frequency of Word Occurrence?
To investigate if there was a statistically significant association between prior vocabulary knowledge (the VLT scores)
in the three experimental groups and their posttest scores, Pearson Correlation (r) correlation was computed. The
direction of the correlation was significantly positive only for the Viewing and Reading Group, which means that
te posttest and delayed posttest scores both on the checklist and
on the multiple-choice tests. The significance levels (p) were < .001 for the Viewing and Reading Group and >.05 for
the Listening Group. This suggests that the more vocabulary the students knew when viewing or reading a text, the
greater their vocabulary learning gains.
To answer the second part of the question and to explore the effect of frequency of occurrence on incidental
vocabulary learning, learning rates (number of students who learned each word) were calculated to assess vocabulary
learning (Feng & Webb, 2020). Word occurrences had an average frequency of 4.45 (SD = 4.87). Pearson Correlation (r)
correlation was computed and was used to investigate the relationship between frequency of occurrence and the
learning rate of each word. The direction of the correlation was significantly positive, which means that frequency of
occurrence was significantly related to incidental vocabulary learning in all the three modes. The significance levels (p)
were < .001 for the Viewing and Reading Group and < .05 for the Listening Group. This means that the more a word
occurs in a text, the greater vocabulary learning chance.

VII. DISCUSSION

A. Incidental Vocabulary Learning Through Different Modes of Input

The study found that significant vocabulary learning occurred through the different modes of input. This finding is
consistent with previous studies where vocabulary knowledge was achieved incidentally through viewing audiovisual
input (e.g., Ahrabi Fakhr et al., 2021; Feng & Webb, 2020; Montero Perez et al., 2014; Peters & Webb, 2018), listening
to audio input (e.g., van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013; Vidal, 2003), and reading written input (e.g., Waring & Takaki,
2003). With regards to retention, students successfully retained all gained words after one week of the treatment in all
three modes of input. These findings are also consistent with earlier studies where gained words were retained one week
after viewing audiovisual input (e.g., Ahrabi Fakhr et al., 2021; Feng & Webb, 2020), listening to audio input, and
reading written input (e.g., Brown et al., 2008; Feng & Webb, 2020). More importantly, these findings provide an
informed support of learning L2 vocabulary through viewing L2 television which is a common mode of L2 input by
many EFL learners (Gieve & Clark, 2005; Peters & Webb, 2018; Rodgers, 2013). This is particularly important because
previous research has been focused on incidental vocabulary through viewing short segments of videos (e.g., Montero
Perez et al., 2014; Sydorenko, 2010) or specialized materials such as academic speeches (e.g., Vidal, 2003, 2011) which
might be less favorable forms of viewing in many L2 contexts.
B. The Comparison of Vocabulary Learning across the Three Modes of Input
 Our results showed that viewing and reading led to more vocabulary learning gains than listening. This suggests that
the three modes of input are not equally effective for incidental vocabulary learning. This finding contrasts Feng and
indings showing that viewing, listening, and reading led to similar vocabulary learning gains. Our
s indicating that reading graded readers led to more
incidentally word gains by EFL learners than l s showing that
ESP students gained more vocabulary through reading academic texts than listening to academic lectures. These
findings are consistent with Multimedia Learning Theory (Mayer, 2001) and Dual-Coding Theory (Sadoski & Paivio,
2001) that suggest that presenting information in verbal and pictorial forms together can improve learning. Therefore, as
explained by previous studies (e.g., Peters et al., 2016; Peters, 2019; Peters & Webb, 2018; Rodgers & Webb, 2020) the
combination of aural text and visual images could have influenced vocabulary learning through viewing. Listening was
inferior to reading for incidental vocabulary learning in this study because spoken input requires faster processing and
provides less time than reading to focus on individual words (Goh, 2000; Renandya & Farrell, 2011; van Zeeland &
Schmitt, 2013). Also, there are no obvious boundaries between words in spoken input, making lexical segmentation
more difficult (e.g., Goh, 2000).
C. The Relationship between Vocabulary Learning and Prior Vocabulary Knowledge
The results indicated that the relationship between prior vocabulary knowledge and incidental vocabulary learning
was significant for the Viewing and Reading Group, but not for the Listening Group. This is consistent with earlier
findings indicating positive correlations between prior vocabulary knowledge and vocabulary gain through viewing
(Ahrabi Fakhr et al., 2021; Feng & Webb, 2020; Montero Perez et al., 2014; Peters & Webb, 2018; Rodgers, 2013) and
through reading (Feng & Webb, 2020; Webb & Chang, 2015). There might be various reasons for the lack of a
significant correlation between prior vocabulary knowledge and word learning through listening. The first explanation

impact of other factors such as familiarity with L2 spoken input, tone of voice, speech rate, contextual information from
gestures, and the amount of connected speech on vocabulary learning through listening.
D. The Relationship between Vocabulary Learning and Frequency of Occurrence
The findings showed that there was a significant relationship between frequency of occurrence and incidental
vocabulary learning in all the three modes of input. This is supported by earlier findings indicating that the chance for
incidental learning of a word increases when the number of encounters increases in viewing (Ahrabi Fakhr et al., 2021;
Peters & Webb, 2018), in listening (Brown et al., 2008; Vidal, 2011), and in reading (Brown et al., 2008; Waring &
Takaki, 2003). The correlation results showed that the effect of frequency of occurrence in listening was smaller than
viewing and reading. This is also in line with previous findings. For example, Brown et al. (2008) found that listening
yielded a 3% learning chance for words that had 15 to 20 occurrences, while reading yielded a 20% learning chance for
words that had 10 to 13 occurrences. Again, the reason why there is a smaller effect of frequency of occurrence in
listening for incidental vocabulary learning is that listening does not provide enough support to listeners who have to
process words fast in real time.

VIII. CONCLUSION AND PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

Regardless of the limitations, this study provides several implications for teaching. First, it is useful to learn new
vocabulary in any of the three of the input modes. Teachers in classrooms are encouraged to train and support their
students learning L2 vocabulary with a range of modes of input. When learners view, listen, or read large amounts of
input outside of the classroom, meaning-focused input should enhance their L2 lexical development (Webb & Nation,
2017). Additionally, the fact that extensive reading has been promoted and introduced as the sole important resource for
lexical growth, this study found that lexical development is also possible with extensive viewing and extensive listening.
This study suggests that extensive viewing and extensive listening can be used together with extensive reading (Rodgers
& Webb, 2017; Webb, 2015). In conclusion, the study found that L2 incidental vocabulary learning occurred through
viewing, listening, and reading and that vocabulary gain was retained one week after encountering the input. However,
these modes of input were not equally effective for incidental vocabulary learning. Vocabulary gains in viewing and
reading modes were greater than the listening mode. A significant relationship between prior vocabulary knowledge and
vocabulary learning gains and retention was found for the viewing and reading modes and between frequency of
occurrence and vocabulary learning for the three modes. Finally, because extensive reading has long been supported
and promoted by research for L2 learning, there should be programs developed based on extensive listening and
extensive viewing.

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Dukhayel Aldukhayel is an Associate Professor in the Department of English Language and Translation, College of Arabic
Language and Social Studies, at Qassim University in Saudi Arabia. He holds an MA degree in TESL/TEFL from Colorado State
University and a PhD in Applied Linguistics from the University of Memphis. His research interests include L2 vocabulary, L2
listening, and CALL. E-mail: [email protected]
 The Role of Study Habits in the Relationships
Among Self-Esteem, Self-Control, and Academic
Performance: The Case of Online English Classes
Jie Hua
Faculty of Foreign Languages, Huaiyin Institute of Technology, China

Abstract This paper investigates the influences of self-esteem and self-control on Chinese students' academic
performance taking online English classes. This paper also studies the role of study habits in the relationships
among self-esteem, self-control, and academic performance. Data were gathered through validated
instruments utilized in the past literature from the 103 Chinese students taking online English classes. Our
findings reveal that higher self-esteem and self-control have positive and significant implications for academic
achievement. Moreover, study habit mediates the relationship between self-esteem, self-control, and academic
achievement. Lastly, the importance and relevance of the determinants of academic performance have been
elaborated.

Index Terms self-esteem, self-control, study habits, academic performance, online classes

I. INTRODUCTION
Scholars considered many factors to determine academic performance. Students' academic achievement has an
integral part in the teaching and learning process (Olutola et al., 2016). Its goal is to create an adequate intervention to
foster success and keep away from failure in the academic context (Robbins et al., 2004). Some of the studies reflected
on self-esteem, self-control, and study habit to predict academic performance. Even though existing studies were
explaining the implications of different factors on academic achievement, students' variation of success remains (Stadler
et al., 2016).
Self-esteem is one of the determinants of academic achievement (Baumeister et al., 2003; Learyet al., 1995). In the
19th century the concept of self-esteem was first put forward in the book of the Principles of Psychology by William
James, the founder of functionalist psychology. He believed that self-esteem is the degree to which an individual
achieves his ambition, and proposed a formula to express self-esteem, namely, self-esteem = success/ambition.
Self-esteem is an individual's judgment of self-worth, perception of self-ability and acceptance of the whole self
(Rosenberg, 1965). Alves-Martins et al. (2002) mentioned that in the context of education, the study of self-esteem is
essential to give a full explanation of students' behavior in various situations. It mirrors the self-worth evaluation of an
individual (Leeson et al., 2008). The studies of scholars like Marsh and Craven have provided positive evidence.
Aside from self-esteem, self-control is another determining factor to explain academic performance. Learning self-
control is the ability of students to consciously control their emotions, desires and behaviors according to social
requirements and certain internal standards in order to achieve their academic goals in the learning process. Self-control
relates to academic performance because it is an endless challenge for students to choose between study and
entertainment. According to Duckworth et al. (2019), self-control refers to alignment of thoughts, feelings, and
An individual can
voluntarily control the automatic response to achieve long-term goals regarding its values and standards (Baumeisteret
al., 2007). Hence, students should resist short-term temptations and concentrate on achieving their long-term goal to
obtain an academic degree. During this course, self-control plays an essential role in achieving positive outcomes,
desirable social conduct, and educational achievements (De Ridder et al., 2012).
Another determinant is study habit. Study habit is a common construct explaining academic performance. Study
habits reflect on student engagement in the appropriate studying routines that occur in a conducive context (Crede &
Kuncel, 2008). Those are typically students' means and behavior in planning their private studies outside the school
hours to gain mastery of the subject matter (Azikwe, 1998). Students should observe the practical implication of study
habits on academic performance to achieve great success at any education stage (De Escobar, 2009).
The past literature has augmented our knowledge and understanding of the factors affecting academic performance,
such as self-esteem and self-control, particularly on the traditional and face-to-face mode of learning. However, these
factors have limited explanations for students' academic performance in the online learning environment. Study habit is
usually used as a predictor for schoolwork performance in the past literature. This construct might explain the link
between self-esteem, self-control, and students' online learning achievements. In addition,
knowledge, no published studies have investigated the relationship between self-esteem and self-control and academic
achievement when learning habits are used as an intermediary to explain this phenomenon. Hence, an empirical study
was developed to address these gaps and contemplate: How do self-esteem and self-control relate to Chinese students'
academic performance taking online English classes? Moreover, it reflects on: How does study habit influence self-
esteem, self-control, and academic performance of Chinese students taking online English classes?
The present condition of the world due to the COVID-19 pandemic creates a new normal setting and wherein online
classes are set up in the university. This action serves as a precautionary measure to avoid and minimize the
transmission of the virus. This paper examines the effects of study habits on the relationship between self-esteem, self-
control, and Chinese students' academic performance in their online English classes. Adapting to the new normal, this
study conjectures that students' academic performance in their online classes depends on self-esteem and self-control
and can be induced by the good study habits of students. This conjecture is motivated by the past literature's findings,
which contemplated in the context of the traditional offline learning mode. Taking the students of Huaiyin Institute of
technology as an example, this paper studies the participation in online English course of Chinese students. English is
not the main language use by these students. Hence, this study conjectures that self-esteem implies their academic
performance. Moreover, students are studying online facing the challenge of short-term temptations through the
unlimited access of the internet, which can hinder the achievement of their long-term goal (De Ridder et al., 2012).
Consequently, this study contemplates the beneficial impact of high self-control over the academic performance of
these students.
The paper's remainder is organized as follows: Section 2 will review relevant literature regarding self-esteem, self-
control, and academic performance, before developing hypotheses and outlining the conceptual framework. Section 3
will discuss the methodology and analysis applied. Section 4 will present and discuss results, while Section 5 will make
a conclusion and provide recommendations for future studies.

II. LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT

This study contemplates the different theories explaining the phenomenon regarding self-control, self-esteem, study
habits, and academic performance. Self-control is choosing an alternative that is more valuable than an immediate
outcome with less value (Ainslie, 1975), and an individual with high-self-control could resist temptation because of
recognizing the foregone benefits. On the other hand, self-esteem is another essential factor explaining academic
achievement (Marsh et al., 2006). Leeson et al. (2008) mentioned that self-esteem is a channel for evaluating his self-
worth. Based on social identity theory, Robinson and Tayler (1991) explained that students' low self-esteem could
induce low academic achievement.
Furthermore, study habit is a way for the student to assess their efficiency. Ayodele and Adebiyi (2013) explained
that good studying habit creates a favorable implication on academic performance. Ajzen (1991) explained this
phenomenon through the theory of planned behavior, in which he stated that attitude and subject norms as well as
perceived behavioral control jointly shape an individual's behavioral intentions and behaviors. These theories have been
contemplated by scholars and advanced their research to explain the phenomena.
Previous literature explains that high self-esteem helps create better academic achievement. For instance, Alves-
Martins et al. (2002) analyzed the strategies pursued to protect self-esteem and found that students' unsatisfactory
academic performance can be explained by less good behavior in school. Another study has been conducted by
Tremblay et al. (2000) and analyzed the strategies employed by underachievers to maintain their self-esteem at an
acceptable level. Their study conjectures that optimistic self-representations maintain self-esteem in a non-academic
slant of self-concept about the devaluation of academic ability. They also mentioned that younger students have less
maintenance of self-esteem by devaluing education experiences. Di Giunta et al. (2013) explored personality
characteristics, self-esteem, and self-efficacy as determinants of students' academic performance. Their findings
revealed that conscientiousness, openness, and self-esteem were positively interlinked. These factors mediate the effect
of individual conscientiousness and self-esteem, which have a favorable implication on students' academic performance.
On the other hand, Baumeister et al. (2003) explained that high self-esteem is not an indication of good performance.
The-high self-esteem is one of the components in the outcome of good performance in school. They mentioned that
students' low academic performance has an indirect implication about the feelings of personal devaluation. Their
conjecture supports the notion of Leary et al. (1995) that high self-esteem is a global perception of an individual
implicating in all domains of performance.
This study conjectures that high-self-esteem plays a beneficial role in students' academic performance taking online
English classes. Hence, the following hypothesis was developed.
H1: Self-esteem has a positive and significant relation to academic performance.
Moreover, other literature explained the connection between self-control and academic performance. The previous
findings revealed that higher self-control has a positive influence on academic performance. Stadler et al. (2016)
analyzed the influence of self-control on students' education performance beyond their general cognitive ability. Their
findings revealed that self-control holds an essential value to explain students' objective and subjective academic
performances. Duckworth and Seligman (2005) revealed that high self-control positively affected academic
performance and surpassed the effect of IQ. They mentioned that a significant factor for students lack in intellectual
potential is their failure in self-control. Regarding this phenomenon De Ridder et al. (2012) illustrated that self-control
has a link to university and work performance.
This study conjectures that high-self-control has a beneficial impact on students' academic performance taking online
English classes. Hence, the following hypothesis was developed.
H2: Self-control has a positive and significant relation to academic performance.
In this study, we conjecture that self-esteem and self-control imply Chinese students' study habits taking online
English classes. Study habit is a skill that induces students' learning capabilities (Ahmed et al., 2018). Sherefat and
Murthy (2016) mentioned that it is one of the essential issues in educational research. Hence, the following hypothesis
was developed.
H3: Self-esteem has a positive and significant influence on study habits.
H4: Self-control has a positive and significant influence on study habits.
Furthermore, previous literature discussed the relation between study habits and academic performance. Sherafat et al.
(2016) revealed that the study habits facilitate higher academic performance. Ahmed et al. (2018) studied the effect of
self-esteem and study habit on students' academic performance and discovered that self-esteem and study habits have a
positive and significant effect on academic performance. Aluede and Onolemhemhen (2001) examined the implication
of study habit counseling on secondary school students' academic performance in the English language. Their findings
showed that there would be an improvement in the academic performance of students when good study habits are
ingrained in students. Alimohamadi et al. (2018) identified the effect of study habits on nursing students' academic
achievement. Their result revealed that there is a positive relationship between study habits and academic performance.
They mentioned that this issue should be contemplated by education authorities to evaluate the students' learning
process.
This study conjectures that study habit has a beneficial impact on Chinese students' academic performance taking
online English classes. Hence, the following hypothesis was developed.
H5: Study habit has a positive and significant relation to academic performance.
In the past literature, factors such as self-esteem and study habit have been used to explain academic achievement
(Ahmed et al., 2018). Galla and Duckworth (2015) studied the influence of habit and self-control on positive life
outcomes. They contemplated the mediating effect of habit on the phenomenon. They found that study habits mediate
the influence of self-control on after class assignment completion, and two long-term academic outcomes measured
objectively. In this study, we conjecture that study habit can explain the connection among self-esteem, self-control, and
academic performance. We propose that one of the causes why students with higher self-esteem and better self-control
with less effort has more significant academic performance in online learning due to their study habits. Hence, the
following hypotheses were developed.
H6: Study habit mediates the relationship between self-esteem and academic performance.
H7: Study habit mediates the relationship between self-control and academic performance.

Figure. 1 Conceptual Framework

Figure 1 shows the conceptual framework of the study. It indicates the study's dependent variable, such as self-
esteem and self-control, the dependent variable of the study, which is the academic performance of Chinese students
taking English classes. Moreover, it shows the mediator variable of the study, which is the study habit.

III. METHODOLOGY
This study investigates the influences of self-esteem and self-control on Chinese students' academic performance
taking online English classes. In addition, this study studies the role of study habit in the relationships among these
variables. A descriptive research design was adopted. This study collects data from a sample of respondents to represent
and make a generalization on the study population. (what year level: year of 2018, school: Huaiyin Institute of
Technology, country: China; the population of Chinese students in the university: over 20,000). In this study, a simple
random sampling technique was employed to select the respondents.
In this study, the researcher arranges the survey instrument according to the objectives of the study. It is composed of
scales to measure the study's independent variables, such as self-esteem and self-control and study habit for the
mediator variable. The instrument has a designated section for academic performance in English classes, which serves
as the study's dependent variable. The students' profiles, such as gender and the types of devices used in online learning,
were also gathered and considered a control variable to avoid any other plausible explanations in testing the connection
between the independent and dependent variables of the study.
Validated and reliable instruments were employed to measure the variables. Following the study of Ciarrochi et al.
(2007) and Baumeister et al. (2003), the self-esteem scale (Rosenberg, 1979) was utilized. This scale estimates global
self-esteem, which offers a general view of the self (Baumeister et al., 2003). They also mentioned the excellent
reliability and validity of this scale. The Rosenberg self-esteem scale is the widely used self-report instrument in the
field to evaluate individual self-esteem. In terms of self-control measurement, the modified version of the low self-
control scale of Grasmick et al. (1993) by Rocque et al. (2013) was used. This scale contains 12 items with a four-point
Likert-type scale of Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree. Rocque et al. (2013) mentioned that this
scale demonstrates enough estimate features and validity. Furthermore, this study adopts the study habit scale developed
by Olutola et al. (2016), which comprises twelve items with a four-point Likert-type scale of Strongly Agree, Agree,
Disagree, and Strongly Disagree. This questionnaire had a Cronbach's Alpha reliability coefficient of 0.81. The
dependent variable of the study is academic performance. Richardson et al. (2012) mentioned that a grade point average
(GPA) is the most commonly employed estimates of academic achievement because it measures various course
assessments throughout a student's education journey. We calculate the average value of the four English classes as an
estimate of academic performance.
An online survey was utilized to gather data from the students of the university. These data were arranged and
analyzed to attain the objectives of the study. In the descriptive level, frequency, percentage, and mean were used. In
the inferential level, this study employs multivariate regression to examine the association of self-esteem and self-
control on academic performance and the mediating effect of study habit in the relationship among the variables. We
include several factors as control variables that are known to affect academic performances, such as gender and the
device used in online learning. We consider a dummy variable for these control variables and assign a 1 if the
respondent is male and 0 otherwise. In addition, we assign a value of 1 if the device use is a personal computer or laptop,
and 0, otherwise. Furthermore, this study follows Baron and Kenny's (1986) causal steps approach wherein the mediator
variable regresses on the dependent variable. The dependent variable is regressed on the mediator and independent
variables.

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Table 1 shows the average values of each item per scale employed in this study. In terms of the self-esteem scale,
Table 1 shows an average of 3.05 with a verbal interpretation of "agree," an indication that Chinese students taking
online English classes have higher self-esteem. Items SE2, SE5, SE6, SE8, and SE9 are reverse scored. On the other
hand, the low self-control scale shows an average of 1.47 with a verbal interpretation of "strongly disagree," indicating
that Chinese students taking online English classes have higher self-control. Moreover, Table 1 shows that in terms of
study habits, the mean value is 2.70, which indicates that the respondents have good habits in studying.
 TABLE 1
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS PER ITEM OF SELF -ESTEEM , LOW SELF -CONTROL, AND STUDY H ABIT SCALES
Items Average Verbal Interpretation
Self-esteem
SE1 On the whole, I am satisfied with myself. 2.69 Agree
SE2 At times I think I am no good at all. 2.79 Agree
SE3 I feel that I have a number of good qualities. 2.46 Disagree
SE4 I am able to do things as well as most other people. 2.31 Disagree
SE5 I feel I do not have much to be proud of. 2.84 Agree
SE6 I certainly feel useless at times. 3.61 Strongly Agree
SE7 I feel that I'm a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others. 3.65 Strongly Agree
SE8 I wish I could have more respect for myself. 3.68 Strongly Agree
SE9 All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure. 4.00 Strongly Agree
SE10 I take a positive attitude toward myself. 2.45 Disagree
Average 3.05 Agree
Self-control
SC1 I act on the spur of the moment without stopping to think 1.85 Disagree
SC2 I do whatever brings me pleasure here and now, even at the cost of some distant goal 1.86 Disagree
SC3 2.39 Disagree
SC4 I like to test myself every now and then by doing something a little risky 1.88 Disagree
SC5 Sometimes I will take a risk just for the fun of it 1.23 Strongly Disagree
SC6 Excitement and adventure are more important to me than security 1.01 Strongly Disagree
SC7 I try to look out for myself first, even if it means making things difficult for other people 1.05 Strongly Disagree
SC8 1.01 Strongly Disagree
SC9 I will try to get the things I want even when 1.00 Strongly Disagree
SC10 I lose my temper pretty easily 1.85 Disagree
SC11 1.17 Strongly Disagree
When I have a serious disagreement with
SC12 about it without getting upset 1.35 Strongly Disagree
Average 1.47 Strongly Disagree
Study Habits
SH1 I always do my assignment on time 3.23 Agree
SH2 I always read my books even if there is no Exam 2.65 Agree
SH3 I read my book everyday 2.46 Disagree
SH4 I go through my books after every lesson 2.52 Agree
SH5 I always ahead of my teacher 2.50 Agree
SH6 I always have group discussion with my colleagues 3.15 Agree
SH7 I have a personal time table which I try to follow 2.60 Agree
SH8 I am not easily distracted by friends when it is time to study 2.69 Agree
SH9 When I miss anything while copying notes, I try to correct it immediately after the class 2.49 Disagree
SH10 I am easily distracted by noise or radio when it is time to study 2.99 Agree
SH11 I try to read other materials to get more information on the topics taught in the class 2.50 Disagree
SH12 I read my class work during holiday period 2.65 Agree
Average 2.70 Agree

Table 2 indicates the summary statistics of the variable applied. Academic performance reveals a mean value of 3.36
which shows that majority of the respondents have B scores. Self-esteem, self-control, and study habits show 3.05, 1.47,
and 2.70 mean values, respectively. Gender reveals a mean value of 0.74 whereas device use shows 0.33 mean value.
TABLE 2
SUMMARY STATISTICS
Variables Mean Median Std. Deviation Minimum Maximum
Academic performance 3.36 3.25 1.14 1.00 6.00
Self-esteem 3.05 3.20 0.48 1.70 3.90
Self-control 1.47 1.42 0.15 1.33 2.17
Study habit 2.70 2.67 0.79 1.00 4.00
Gender 0.74 1.00 0.44 0.00 1.00
Device 0.33 0.00 0.47 0.00 1.00
N =103

Table 3 presents the Pearson correlation coefficients between variables. We examine the correlation matrix to
identify any strong relationships and determine any relations between the variables of interest and other variables that
may cause multicollinearity in our subsequent regressions. The correlation matrix shows a strong correlation between
self-esteem, self-control, and study habits. Hence, we conduct a separate regression analysis of each variable. In
addition, Table 3 shows that academic performance has a positive correlation with self-esteem and study habits (p <
0.01), whereas academic performance shows a negative correlation with self-control at (p < 0.01).
 TABLE 3
CORRELATION AMONG VARIABLES
Academic
performance Self-esteem Self-control Study habit Gender Device
Academic
performance 1.00
Self-esteem 0.93*** 1.00
Self-control -0.57*** -0.59*** 1.00
Study habit 0.97*** 0.96*** -0.53*** 1.00
Gender 0.02 0.05 0.00 0.04 1.00
Device -0.25** -0.25** 0.25** -0.24** 0.09** 1.00
Note: ** indicates significance, two-tailed, at the 5% level; ***, indicates significance, two-tailed, at the 1% level.

Table 4 presents the multivariate regressions of the mediating effect of study habits on the relationship between self-
esteem and academic performance. Table 4 shows that Self-esteem has a positive and significant relationship with
academic performance (p < 0.01). This result supports the study's conjecture that students' higher self-esteem has
beneficial implications on the academic performance of students taking online English classes, consistent with H1. In
addition, Table 4 shows that self-esteem has a positive and significant effect on study habits (p < 0.01). This result
supports the hypothesis of the study that students' higher self-esteem has beneficial implications on the study habits of
students taking online English classes, consistent with H2.
Similarly, a positive and significant effect is revealed in the relationship between study habits and academic
performance (p < 0.01). When study habits were controlled in the analysis of self-esteem and academic performance
relationship, Table 4 shows that self-esteem has an insignificant effect. In contrast, study habits show a positive and
significant effect on academic performance (p < 0.01). This outcome reveals that study habits fully mediate the
relationship between self-esteem and academic performance, findings which accept H4. This result indicates that self-
esteem has a relation to academic performance because of study habits, similar to Ahmed et al.'s (2018) findings.
TABLE 4
MULTIPLE REGRESSIONS OF THE MEDIATING EFFECT OF STUDY H ABIT O N THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF -ESTEEM AND ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE
Academic performance Study Habit Academic performance Academic performance
Self-esteem 2.20 1.57 0.10
(25.09) *** (33.73) *** (0.47)
Study Habit 1.39 1.33
(36.91) *** (9.95) ***
Gender -0.08 -0.02 -0.05 -0.05
(-0.90) (-0.50) (-0.73) (-0.76)
Device -0.03 0.01 -0.05 -0.05
(-0.36) (0.28) (-0.84) (-0.78)
Constant -3.26 -2.06 -0.36 -0.51
(-11.60) *** (-13.81) *** (-3.01) *** (-1.49)
F 227.02*** 405.82*** 488.51*** 363.56***
Adjusted R 0.87 0.92 0.93 0.93
Note: Values per column are the unstandardized coefficients, while t statistic values are in parenthesis. *** indicates significance, two-tailed, at
the 1% level.

Table 5 presents the multivariate regressions of the mediating effect of study habits on the relationship between self-
control and academic performance. Table 5 shows that self-control has a negative and significant relationship with
academic performance (p < 0.01). This study reflects on the low self-control scale. Consequently, the lower the
response of the students, the higher the effect on academic performance. This result supports the study's conjecture that
higher self-control of students has beneficial implications on the academic performance of students taking online
English classes, consistent with H5. In addition, Table 5 shows that self-control has a negative and significant effect on
study habits (p < 0.01). This result supports the hypothesis that higher self-control of students has beneficial
implications on the study habits of students taking online English classes, consistent with H6. However, a positive and
significant effect is revealed in the relationship between study habits and academic performance (p < 0.01), which
supports H3. When study habits are controlled in the analysis of self-control and academic performance relationship,
Table 5 shows that self-control has a negative and significant effect. In contrast, study habits show a positive and
significant effect on academic performance at (p < 0.05) and (p < 0.01), respectively. This outcome reveals that study
habits partially mediate the relationship between self-control and academic performance, findings which support H7.
This result indicates that self-control causes academic performance because of study habits and some other reasons.
 TABLE 5
MULTIPLE REGRESSIONS OF THE MEDIATING EFFECT O F STUDY H ABIT O N THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF -CONTROL AND ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE
Academic performance Study Habit Academic performance Academic performance
Self-control -4.05 -2.61 -0.55
(-6.41) *** (-5.80) *** (-2.51) **
Study Habit 1.39 1.34
(36.91) *** (31.46) ***
Gender 0.07 0.09 -0.05 -0.05
(0.35) (0.59) (-0.73) (-0.72)
Device -0.29 -0.19 -0.05 -0.03
(-1.41) (-1.33) (-0.84) (-0.47)
Constant 9.36 6.54 -0.36 0.59
(10.00) *** (9.82) *** (-3.01) *** (1.49)
F 16.99*** 14.08*** 488.51*** 387.48***
Adjusted R 0.32 0.28 0.93 0.94
Note: Values per column are the unstandardized coefficients, while t statistic values are in parenthesis. ** indicates significance. Two-tailed, at the
5% level; ***, indicates significance, two-tailed, at the 1% level.

V. CONCLUSIONS
This paper investigates the influences of self-esteem and self-control on Chinese students' academic performance
taking online English classes. It also studies the role of study habits in the relationships among self-esteem, self-control,
and academic performance. It conjectures that self-esteem and self-control positively affect academic performance, and
study habit influences these relationships.
Our main findings reveal that self-esteem and academic performance have a positive relationship. Similarly, a
positive relationship is present in the relationship between self-control and academic performance. These findings
indicate that their representation of oneself and self-discipline have a beneficial impact on students' academic
performance taking online English classes. This evidence is similar to the findings from the past literature. Moreover,
good study habits show a positive influence on academic performance and influence the relationships among self-
esteem, self-control, and academic performance. These findings suggest that the impact of high self-esteem on
academic performance is caused by the good study habit of Chinese students taking online English classes. In contrast,
study habits and other factors explain the relationship between high self-control and Chinese students' academic
performance taking online English classes.
This study infers several implications based on our findings. The present study integrates study habit as a mediator
variable to explain the phenomenon and address the gaps in the past literature. Theoretically, it advances the knowledge
about the phenomenon in social identity theory, self-control theory, and the theory of planned behavior. Our evidence
contributes to the cognizance of the determinants of academic performance in the context of online learning. Moreover,
educational policymakers may contemplate the findings to formulate some action plan to help students enhance their
academic performance, particularly classes held online. Future research about this issue may contemplate other factors
and boundary conditions to understand better the implications of self-esteem and self-control on academic performance.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was financially supported by the Foreign Language Teaching Project of Philosophy and Social Science
POC in Intelligent
(Project Number: 2019SJB997)

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 Jie Hua Translation from Nanjing
University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China in 2010. She is currently a lecturer of English teaching in the Faculty of Foreign
Languages at Huaiyin Institute of Technology. Her research interests include translation and culture, English teaching and research.
 Metacognitive Knowledge in Performing a
Speaking Task: A Report From High and Low
Proficient Thai University Students
Thiwaporn Thawarom
School of Liberal Arts,

Jeffrey D. Wilang
School of Libera

Wareesiri Singhasiri
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

Abstract This study analyzes the use of metacognitive knowledge in performing a speaking task between
high-proficient and low-proficient university students. The data was collected by employing stimulated recall
interviews from 34-first year students. The data was coded deductively by using metacognitive knowledge
frameworks. The results showed that the students employed all types of metacognitive knowledge in their
speaking. Both high-proficient and low-proficient students prominently manifested strategy knowledge such as
vocabulary strategies, planning strategies and problem-solving strategies. However, the high-proficient
students were found to use some strategies differently from the low-proficient students. The high-proficient
students showed the highest percentage of task knowledge, while the low-proficient students displayed the
lowest percentage. The former group clearly showed understanding of the purpose, nature and difficulty of the
task, which could influence the task management. Both groups exhibited person knowledge at a low
percentage. While the high-proficient students were found to depict knowledge that facilitated their learning
and speaking, the low-proficient students were concerned about variables such as limited vocabulary
knowledge and grammatical deficiency that inhibited their learning and speaking. The finding implies the
importance of raising metacognitive knowledge to accomplish learning tasks.

Index Terms metacognitive knowledge, speaking task, vocabulary use, university students

I. INTRODUCTION
The ultimate goal of English language learning and teaching is to provide learners with the ability to use language to
communicate effectively and correctly (Davies & Pearse, 2000). Among all language skills, speaking is perhaps the
most essential skill that serves the learning goal for communicating in various situations. At a tertiary level, speaking is
one of the key aspects of language skill assessments and speaking proficiency may include descriptions, discussions,
and effective presentations. In addition, university students tend to perform speaking activities within a specific context
They are
expected to achieve their academic and professional goal by combining acquired language knowledge and content
knowledge (Douglas, 2000), together with specific knowledge of particular subjects (Feak, 2013). In this regard,
learners need to combine both general and technical words to convey messages in specific contexts.
Nonetheless, second and foreign language learners generally find effective speaking challenging and difficult (Paquot,
2010). Besides, second language teachers accepted that developing speaking ability is an arduous task
(Pawlak et al., 2011). This is because speaking does not only involve vocabulary knowledge
(Nation, 2013; Zipagan & Lee, 2018) but also a mastery of language subsystems (Pawlak et al., 2011), consistency of
practice (Burns, 2016), and familiarity of situations and variety of topics (Richards, 1976).
In the field of psychology education, researchers have investigated a
direct impact on successful learning outcomes (Mokhtari & Reichard, 2002; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001).
empower students to take charge of their own learning and to increase the
Metacognitive knowledge and skills are critical for
learners to become successful (Altoik et al., 2019) because it fo
what to do (Claxton, 2002). For this reason, it is interesting to investigate how university students employ their
metacognitive knowledge to regulate their learning. This study, therefore, is designed to seek answers to the question

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Types of Metacognitive Knowledge
The concept of metacognition emerged in the late 1960s when Flavell studied the significance of metacognition and

scholars, the notion of metacognition lies in the heart that it is a key element to enhance and regulate successful learning.
It
ve
processes and products or anything related to them.
knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition (Flavell, 1979; Paris & Winograd, 1990; Schraw et al., 2006;
Wenden 1998; White & Frederiksen, 2005). Knowledge of cognition or metacognitive knowledge refers to an
whereas regulation of cognition or metacognitive control refers
to the ive knowledge.
Metacognitive knowledge is essential for effective learning strategies (Wenden, 1998) and is influential to learning
outcomes (Choyet al., 2019). Butler and Winne (1995) and Baker and Brown (1984, as cited in Wenden, 1998) argue
that metacognitive knowledge is a prerequisite to self-regulation. This is probably because accurate self-assessment is
the principal to effective self-regulation (Schoenfeld, 1987). Thus, learners who understand their thinking and learning
processes can make choices or applications of strategies in planning, evaluating and monitoring pertaining to a learning
task (Wenden, 1998; Zhang & Goh, 2006).
Metacognitive knowledge is divided into three categories: person knowledge, task knowledge and strategy
knowledge (Flavell, 1979; Wenden, 1998; Vandergrift & Goh, 2012). Person knowledge is a part of our stored
knowledge or our long-term memory that is acquired formally or informally, deliberately or incidentally and this
knowledge is relatively stable (Flavell, 1979). In language learning, Wenden (1998) points out that person knowledge is

beliefs, and motivation. This knowledge includes knowledge learners s,

and grammatical knowledge, knowledge of learning efficiency and achievement beliefs. In listening, Vandergrift and
Goh (2012) acknowledge person knowledge as knowledge of ourselves as learners and the beliefs we have about what
leads to success or failure in learning (Vandergrift & Goh, 2012, p. 87). It can be summarized that person knowledge is
knowledge of self-assessment towards a learning task. Task knowledge is knowledge about the purpose, the nature, and
the demand of the task to be accomplished (Flavell, 1979; Vandergrift & Goh, 2012; Wenden, 1998). To clarify,
knowledge of a understanding that a speaking task aims at improving an ability to orally describe
something and it has a relationship with expanded vocabulary after task completion. Knowledge of the nature of a
learning task is understanding that a speaking task is different from a writing task because it requires knowledge and
skills of grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciat
the task is probably challenging; as a result, knowledge and skills are deliberated for accomplishing a general task or a
specific task. Strategy knowledge is knowledge about what strategies are, why they are useful, and when they should be
used to complete a particular task. According to Flavell (1981), strategy knowledge happens during a learning process
rather than a planning process. In some cases, however, learning strategies are considered strategy knowledge. This is

process which requires them to draw upon their stored metacognitive knowledge about learning strategies. As a result,
strategies learners may use or what they think they use or should use - can also be viewed as evidence of their strategic
knowledge (Wenden, 1998, p. 519).
B. Effects of Metacognitive Knowledge on Speaking Performance
A study of oral skill -Szelest (2011) showed a high degree of
metacognitive awareness among them. They were able to assess their speaking abilities and realized the nature of the
speaking task. According to Putri (2019), metacognitive awareness allowed the learners to reflect upon problem areas
such as vocabulary, accuracy, and confidence that they faced in speaking. In addition, they were aware that
communicative competence required combinations of various factors such as teachers, learners, environment and time.
Another study by Karim (2019) revealed that learners who were aware of metacognitive knowledge of their English
language background, difficulties in their learning, and learning resource access could apply these kinds of knowledge
to accommodate metacognitive strategies planning, monitoring, and evaluating, for developing their speaking skill.

language speaking. The use of audioblogs as the mediating information and communication technology (ICT) tool was

interactions in their audioblogs. The results revealed significant improvement in the mean scores of pre- to post-test oral
performance. It was found that the systematic approach in their reflection: evaluating --> monitoring --> planning, was
adopted with a greater amount of attention devoted to the monitoring strategy. However, the distribution of
-assessment was unbalanced. Among the types of
metacognitive knowledge, task knowledge was the metacognitive knowledge predominantly used by the students. On
the other hand, person knowledge and strategy knowledge were not adopted by the students. The findings implied that
more attention could be given to the person knowledge and strategy knowledge.
 Previous studies reported positive relationships between awareness of metacognitive knowledge and speaking skills.
Nonetheless, how learners employ metacognitive knowledge in their learning processes needs further inspection.
Therefore, this study attempts to explore the use of metacognitive knowledge in oral production in both high and low
proficiency university students. In addition, it is interesting to examine the metacognitive knowledge of EFL students in
a task that is closely related to a specific context.

III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A. Participants of the Study

The participants were first-
of Technology Thonburi (KMUTT), Thailand. Their general English proficiency was assumed to be comparable to
intermediate level. The participants were selected from fifteen different groups (418 students), and they were taught by
different teachers. To examine the use of metacognitive knowledge in the speaking task between high- and low-
proficient students, participants were obtained based on their scores of a speaking task. The criteria of speaking
assessment include content, language accuracy, fluency and one-minute time required to complete the task. In this
process, the researchers asked for the names of the six students regarding their speaking scores. In other words, only
extreme cases were focused. That is to say, three students who gained the highest scores and three students who gained
the lowest scores from each group were singled out. Then, the researchers made contact with each student (90 students
in total) for permission to an interview. However, the students were not informed about their gained scores. In the end,
34 students voluntarily took part.
B. Speaking Task
The speaking task was a requirement of Technical English. The course aims to develop English communication skills.
Particularly, the course focuses on the use of skills in meaningful communicative tasks in academic and technological
contexts. In line with the aim of the course, students are required to accomplish a task, which is an oral report of a
situation on the topic of safety at the workplace. There were five different pictures and the students were allowed to
prepare in advance. The task is a one-minute picture description and the students should report the situation according
to the guidelines, which includes the scene, the equipment or materials appearing in the pictures, potential accident and
safety. On the actual task performance, each student randomly picked one picture, prepared the speaking for one minute
and performed it. During the task performance, the students speech was audio recorded for the stimulated recall
interview process.
C. The Interviews
In order to explore the use of metacognitive knowledge in a speaking task, a stimulated recall interview was

As the participants were high- and low-proficient students, the interviews might allow the researchers to see how
different metacognitive knowledge was used between the two groups. The interview was conducted individually one
week after the speaking task. The time and venue were set according to the availability of the interviewee, and they
were asked to participate in the interview outside the classroom. Prior to the interview, each of the participants gave the
researchers consent for data collection.
D. Coding
To analyze the data, the schemes for coding wer 79

strategy knowledge that could influence an outcome of a

-proficiency in their learning in
general and speaking in particular. This also includes self-beliefs and attitudes, cognitive ability and styles in learning.
Strategy knowledge involves knowledge
about what strategy, when to use, and why it could be effective for task completion.
 TABLE 1
MODIFIED SCHEMES FOR CODING METACOGNITIVE K NOWLEDGE IN SPEAKING AND EXAMPLES FROM THE STUDENTS I NTERVIEWS
Variables of
Metacognitive knowledge about Examples of metacognitive
metacognitive Metacognitive knowledge
speaking knowledge of students
knowledge
Person knowledge Beliefs or perceptions about the 1. I was not confident about the part
nature of learning and proficiency terms of strength and weakness in of speech of the vocabulary because I
of oneself and others. learning and cognitive processing am not good at grammar.
Beliefs about what leads to in general, e.g., how good their
success or failure in learning. memory is, how they learn the 2. Most of my friends prepare the
Knowledge of the cognitive and language scripts, but I don't like to memorize
affective factors that facilitate or Learning styles, e.g., one may them. I don't like reading it from the
inhibit learning. prefer understanding to memorize script.
Beliefs and attitudes towards
speaking, e.g., perception towards
learning and speaking English
Knowing their own language
proficiency and speaking
proficiency in general such as how
well they can speak, how much
grammar they know
Task knowledge Information available to the Knowledge and skills acquired 1. I tried to recall what I have learnt
students during a cognitive from accomplishing the speaking in the class and remembered that we
enterprise. task, e.g., the oral ability for
Knowledge of the nature and describing the task, target
purpose of the task and how it vocabulary and knowledge of 2. I focused on what related to the
will serve their language learning language structure for describing
needs. damages criteria of the scores.
Knowledge of task demands. Knowledge and skills needed for
completing the task e.g.
vocabulary
Needed, sentence points and
structures, source of information
for the task processing
Mental, affective factors towards
speaking task, e.g., level of task
difficulty
Factors that influence speaking
e.g. nature of the task, time
constraints and scores
Strategy knowledge Knowledge concerning effective 1. I wrote a script and checked the
strategies for accomplishing a useful for accomplishing a structures and vocabulary. I checked
task. speaking task, e.g., what a student whether a word looked strange in the
Knowledge about what strategies does or should do in order to context or were there any other
are, why they are useful and achieve the speaking task words. I studied how they were used.
specific knowledge about when
and how to use them. such strategies are helpful for 2. I used the Thai language to search
accomplishing the speaking task for vocabulary in English. I typed my
sentences in Google to check if other
employ strategies for the speaking people used the same sentences or
task attainment not.

the strategies should be regulated

The schemes based on Flavell (1979); Wenden, (1998) and Vandergrift and Goh, (2012)

In the next step, metacognitive knowledge was coded deductively (see Table 1). In the coding process, two
researchers familiarized the data by reading and re-reading the interviews data. Then, specific words or phrases relating
to the descriptions of person knowledge, task knowledge, and strategy knowledge were pinpointed. For example, the
phrase I am not good at speaking was coded PK (Person knowledge) as it described a belief of specific skills that the
participant self-assessed. Then, phrases and keywords of each type of metacognitive knowledge were examined and
grouped into broader categories to capture the meaningful themes. The researchers conducted the intra- and inter-
reliability checks. To explain, the data was coded by the same researchers and two experts in the fields. Subsequently,
the agreement is 92 percent, indicating high reliability.

IV. RESULTS

A. Types of Metacognitive Knowledge in the Speaking among University Students

Table 2 shows types of metacognitive knowledge used in speaking among EFL university students. As can be seen,
strategy knowledge was prominently elicited with the highest percentage (54%), followed by task knowledge (30%),
whereas person knowledge was least frequently produced (16%).
 TABLE 2
TYPES OF METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE I N PERFORMING A SPEAKING TASK BY THAI UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
Numbers of
Types of metacognitive knowledge Percentage
occurrences
Person knowledge 60 16%
Task knowledge 111 30%
Strategy knowledge 202 54%
Total (occurrences) 373 100%

Table 3 displays percentages of metacognitive knowledge between the high-proficient students and the low-proficient
students. It is noticeable that the high-proficient students were able to reflect higher percentages on all types of
metacognitive knowledge than the low-proficient students. Among the three types of metacognitive knowledge, 70
percent of task knowledge, 56 percent of strategy knowledge, and 55 percent of person knowledge were reported among
the high-proficient students. At the same time, the low-proficient students elicited 45 percent of person knowledge, 44
percent of strategy knowledge and 30 percent of task knowledge. Among these types of knowledge, task knowledge
demonstrated the greatest difference between the two groups

TABLE 3
METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE IN A SPEAKING TASK BETWEEN H IGH AND LOW PROFICIENT STUDENTS
Types of Person knowledge Task knowledge Strategy knowledge
metacognitive Numbers of Percentage Numbers of Percentage Numbers of Percentage
knowledge occurrences occurrences occurrences
High-proficient 33 55% 78 70% 113 56%
students
Low-proficient 27 45% 33 30% 89 44%
students
Total 60 100% 111 100% 202 100%

Subsequently, themes of each type of metacognitive knowledge emerged. Under person knowledge, three themes
have been found. The first theme is recognizing self-
and skill such as grammar knowledge, vocabulary knowledge, speaking ability and pronunciation knowledge. The
second theme is knowledge of self-beliefs and attitudes towards learning and speaking. The last is understanding of
task knowledge: knowledge of task purpose,
nature of the task, task difficulty and other factors that can affect the task completion. Strategy knowledge consists of
five elements covering knowledge of vocabulary strategy, planning strategy, problem-solving strategy, rehearsing
strategy and evaluating strategy. The themes of each type of metacognitive knowledge between the two groups are
shown in Table 4.
TABLE 4
THEMES OF METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE IN THE SPEAKING TASK BETWEEN HIGH AND LOW PROFICIENT STUDENTS
High-proficient Low-proficient
Types of metacognitive knowledge Total
students students
1. Person knowledge 33 27 60
1.1 knowledge of self-proficiency 13 (50%) 13(50%) 26
1.2. knowledge of self-beliefs and attitudes 5 (50%) 5 (50%) 10
1.3. knowledge 15 (62.5%) 9 (37.5%) 24
2. Task Knowledge 78 33 111
2.1 knowledge of task purpose 56 (67%) 27 (33%) 2
2.2. knowledge of the nature of the task 8 (89%) 1 (11%) 9
2.3 knowledge of task difficulty 12 (80%) 3 (20%) 15
2.4. knowledge of other factors that can affect the task
2 (50%) 2 (50%) 4
completion
3. Strategy Knowledge 113 89 202
3.1 knowledge of vocabulary strategies 20 (74%) 7 (26%) 27
3.2 knowledge of planning strategies 31 (55%) 26 (45%) 57
3.3 knowledge of problem-solving strategies 44 (51%) 42 (49%) 86
3.4 knowledge of rehearsing strategies 13 (54%) 11 (46%) 24
3.5 knowledge of evaluating strategy 5 (62.5%) 3 (37.5%) 8
Total 224 149 373

B. The Use of Metacognitive Knowledge between High and Low Proficiency Students

1. Person Knowledge
In order to perform a speaking task, the students show that they were conscious about themselves in terms of self-
proficiency, self-beliefs and attitudes, and knowledge of self-beliefs and attitudes.
a. Knowledge of Self-proficiency
 Examination of self-proficiency revealed that the high-proficient students were found to self-assess vocabulary
knowledge or lexicon which easily helps make choices of vocabulary to complete the task. On the contrary, the low-
proficient students showed severity in learning proficiency and speaking. This indicates that they may have receptive
vocabulary knowledge, but may lack productive vocabulary knowledge.
high-proficient I check my vocabulary, how much vocabulary I know in the picture. S2
student
low-proficient ,
students I will think in Thai when I have the test, so I wrote the script in Thai. S31
b. Person knowledge of Self-beliefs and Attitudes
The finding revealed that the students were able to reflect beliefs and attitudes towards the speaking task. The high-
proficient students assessed their learning ability in more positive ways than the low-proficient students. It is noticeable
that the first group had self-efficacy beliefs to attain the task. On the contrary, low-proficient students had low

towards learning foreign languages can affect vocabulary selection for their speaking.
high-proficient Well, I think even though there are mistakes, the vocabulary that I used is
students appropriate and understandable. I am quite satisfied with it. S22
low-proficient I had no confidence that my English script was grammatically correct. S6
students
c. bility
Another aspect of person knowledge elicited among
cognitive abilities and learning styles. High-proficient students were found to be aware of the way that they can learn
best, which may be different from their friends. When performing a speaking task, they tended to regulate the way that
matched their cognitive ability. In contrast, despite low- learning differences,
they did not elicit clearly how it influenced different choices of controlling their speaking.
High-proficient ke to memorize them. I
student
Low-proficient I think the friends who are studying engineering are familiar with
students
study this topic nor use this kind of vocabulary. S 28
2. Task Knowledge
In order to accomplish the speaking task, the students elicit task knowledge which includes the task purpose, task
nature, task demand and other factors that can affect the task.
a. Knowledge of Task Purpose
As prompted in the interview, both groups of students were aware of the purpose of the task. To explain, high-
proficient students analyzed the main message of the description and came up with target vocabulary and language
structures. Similarly, low-proficient students studied details in the picture and potential consequences. The findings can
be implied that task knowledge could help students to make word choices that embrace the main message of the task.
high-proficient I looked at the five pictures at the same time and pondered what they had in
students common such as they are not allowed to do something. S7
low-proficient I looked for the meanings of vocabulary. I used Google and other search
students engines. I checked the one that is the most sensible to serve the purpose and
the context of the task. S20
b. Knowledge of Nature of the Task
Understanding the nature of the task is essential for students to become aware of the specific knowledge and skills
they should gain. The findings showed that both groups show an understanding of the nature of the speaking task.
However, high-proficient students appeared to take into consideration the connection of task and skills needed, task
type and vocabulary to be used in the speaking task.
high-proficient
students it because I think it is a speaking task, vocabulary is more important. S18
low-proficient I think that when I perform the speaking, I would try to think in English so
students that it would not sound like memorizing the script. S 32
c. Knowledge of Task Difficulty
Due to the context of the task which is relatively technical, the students understand that it was not easy to achieve it.
In the speaking task, high-proficient students were conscious of levels of task difficulty and the context. One student
(S27) realized that he needed to utilize vocabulary from the course book to serve the context of the task. Another
student elicited that vocabulary items in her speaking were determined by the context of the task, especially words for
describing tools. On the other hand, low-proficient students found that the task was demanding. However, they could
not show a clear understanding of how the context shaped the vocabulary needed for this task.
high-proficient Even though I employed some vocabulary from the book, I think the task is
students more complex than what we learned in the class.S27
low-proficient When preparing the task about this picture, I struggled with vocabulary
students (stumble, trip). I used an online dictionary to look for English vocabulary.
S33
d. Knowledge of Other Factors that Can Affect the Task Completion
Aside from previous factors, the students were able to recognize there exist other factors that could also affect the
speaking task. High-proficient students expressed that the amount of time given for the speaking task may affect their
speaking. Thus, they needed to limit information in the description. In addition, different pictures seemed to be an other
factor that could impact choices of vocabulary use in the description. Consequently, the students were likely to employ
easy-to-memorize words in their descriptions.
high-proficient Before I did the speaking task, I prepared it by taking notes about the scope
students of the talk. I consider the amount of time for speaking. S22
low-proficient When I prepare vocabulary, I go for words that are easy to memorize like the
students
know which I will pick. S28
3. Strategy Knowledge
To reach the final product of the task, the students were found to be thoughtful of several ways of task management.
Both groups had relatively high metacognitive knowledge ranging from vocabulary, to planning, problem-solving,
rehearsing, and evaluating, which seemed effective to achieve their speaking.
a. Knowledge of Vocabulary Strategies
Based on the finding, students were aware that vocabulary is essential for speaking. In this regard, high-proficient
students were able to reflect knowledge of vocabulary strategy which emphasizes vocabulary from their mental lexicon.
To perform, they relied upon their lexicon as the main vocabulary source. In a similar vein, low-proficient students
chose stored vocabulary and focused on simple words to carry the direct message in the talk. Moreover, some students
managed to avoid using words they cannot pronounce correctly.
high-proficient know both
students
low-proficient If I have a problem with vocabulary, if I cannot pronounce it clearly or
students correctly, I avoid using that word. S28
b. Knowledge of Planning Strategies
The planning strategy is unavoidable for students to attain the speaking specifically when description should serve
the learning purposefully and contextually. The findings demonstrated that the students employed different approaches
to manage their ways to speak. Knowledge of planning strategies helps them arrange the scope of the talk, make use of
guidelines, take notes and make a list, prepare scripts and translate scripts. High-proficient students addressed that they
were engaged with translating the scripts, arranging ideas, and taking notes/making a list of what information they
should present in the speaking. On the other hand, low-proficient students addressed that they were occupied with
preparing scripts in Thai and translating them into English.
high-proficient First, I looked at the picture and made a list of vocabulary in the Thai
students language. I listed the objects that I saw in the picture. S26
low-proficient I studied what happened in the scene, prepared the script in Thai and
students translated the Thai script into English. S29

c. Knowledge of Problem-solving Strategies

Due to the task difficulties, university students exhibited how they could get the problems resolved. However, it is
of solutions were deployed.
Both high-proficient and low-proficient students relied heavily on technology, namely online dictionaries and machine
translation in seeking resources to cope with their problems. Both groups were found to have similar strategies for
rechecking the correct meaning of vocabulary. However, some discrepancies of employed strategies were found
between the two groups. Secondary to utilizing technology, high-proficient students center their attention to deal with
the task by themselves. In contrast, low-proficient students managed to deal with difficulties by seeking help from
friends or teachers.
high-proficient I used some words from the book, but it's not enough. I have to use other
students sources to get the vocabulary for describing this picture. S26
 low-proficient I used Google Translation to translate the whole Thai script. S21
students
d. Knowledge of Rehearsing Strategies
The students were found to understand that practice was the best policy to perform a speaking. However, this
knowledge was applied in different ways by two groups. To clarify, high-proficient students employed strategies that
are applicable for the actual speaking when they practiced. For instance, only keywords were emphasized in the
rehearsal although rote memorization of the full scripts was another option. In contrast, low-proficient students were
found to be generally overwhelmed with memorizing the full scripts, despite the fact that some of them tried to focus on
keywords.
high-proficient When I practiced, I memorized keywords. After that, I tried to recall details
students about that picture. S16
low-proficient When I practiced, I memorized the script and practiced a lot. S19
students
e. Knowledge of Evaluating Strategy
Lastly, university students were found to have knowledge of evaluating the effectiveness of their speaking strategies.
Self-evaluation can impact levels of self-confidence or self-efficacy in achieving the task. The findings showed that
revision and source of vocabulary use in the speaking allowed high-proficient students to evaluate how successful the
task attainment is. In contrast, one of the low-proficient students mentioned that the details in some pictures were not
clear enough, so there was a limited degree of certainty that their description would be reasonably understandable.
high-proficient I would say I was 70-80% confident about the vocabulary that I used to
students describe this picture. I think it was comprehensible because some of it was
from the course book. S17
low-proficient When I prepared the task, I would say about 60-70% of my description is
students understandable. This is because I felt that there is not enough information to
talk about in this picture. S19

V. DISCUSSION
This section discusses types of metacognitive knowledge used in performing a speaking task by high-proficient and
low-proficient students. The discussion starts with person knowledge, task knowledge and strategy knowledge
respectively.
A. Person Knowledge
-Szelest (2011) and Putri (2019) suggested that proficient learners were able to assess their
speaking ability, difficulty, confidence and nature of speaking tasks. In this study, both high-proficient and low-
proficient students were able to assess person knowledge in three different aspects: knowledge of self-proficiency, self-
These aspects of person knowledge
influence vocabulary selection for their speaking performance. To clarify, when students were able to assess their
language proficiency in terms of English language learning and speaking, they realized what vocabulary they already
know and what words they need to gain in order to accomplish the task. In addition, beliefs and attitudes towards
language learning and speaking influence word choices for speaking. One possible explanation is that, if the students
find English language and speaking difficult, they are likely to select vocabulary that they think could help gain a higher
score. This alternative can be affected by another aspect which is understanding of cognitive ability. That is when the
students understand that their own cognitive ability differs from their friends, those students relatively select vocabulary
based on their cognitive memory, which is to avoid using unknown or unfamiliar words. However, the findings of this
current study show different perspectives of person knowledge between high-proficient and low-proficient students. To
elaborate, high-proficient students could assess themselves in the ways that person knowledge facilitated their learning
and speaking. For example, one student expressed that he/she understood that using difficult words in their description
was uncomfortable because there is a possibility to otherwise forget them. In another example, one student recognized
that their learning style was different from that of their friends, so when they prepared the speaking task, he/she
employed strategies that matched his/her learning style and facilitated task achievement. On the other hand, albeit low-
proficient students were able to be aware of themselves as English language learners, depictions of their language
proficiency, beliefs about learning, and factors are found to relatively inhibit them from learning and speaking. In their
reflections, they depicted themselves to be overwhelmed with cognitive-affective variables such as a low level of self-
efficacy due to limited vocabulary knowledge and grammatical deficiencies. For instance, one addressed that he/she
was not good at speaking English, and another admitted that he/she was uncertain to be able to perform the one-minute
speaking.
B. Task Knowledge
 Among the three types of metacognitive knowledge, task knowledge could be noticeable to differentiate high-
proficient students from low-proficient students. It is necessary to highlight how high-proficient students employ task
knowledge to manage their learning outcomes. The results were in line with Tan and Tan (2010), that task knowledge
was dominantly used in speaking. Based on the findings, high-proficient students were found to be more knowledgeable
regarding the purpose and nature of the speaking task, and difficulties of speaking task and when a deliberate effort is
needed to accomplish the task. In other words, high-proficient students appeared to
as an accident in the workplace, safety and prevention, vocabulary such as laboratory, contaminate, and fatal and their
tion, understanding levels of task difficulty made them realized that
vocabulary choices are shape by their context. For example, they expressed that they needed to supply themselves with
a range of technical words such as circuit, chainsaw, screwdriver and hazard to serve the meanings and clarification of
the description. Unlike high-proficient students, low-proficient students were found to understand and employ task
knowledge superficially. Even though they could address the purpose of the task, they were not able to describe a deep
understanding of nature or the difficulty of the task. For example, one student expressed that he/she was trying not to
memorize the script when speaking. Another student reported that he/she encountered vocabulary difficulty in speaking,
but did not explain the relationship between the task and vocabulary in context.
C. Strategy Knowledge
The findings revealed that strategy knowledge is prominently used in the speaking task as previous studies reported
in the literature (see -Szelest, 2011; Karim, 2019; Putri, 2019). This could be explained by the nature of the
task. As the task requires the students to describe situations relating to safety in the workplace within one minute,
students must perform the speaking purposefully and meaningfully. To serve the task meaningfully, students should
have sufficient resources/sources of strategies for effective speaking performance. In addition, they have to understand
how and when such strategies should be used. One strategy includes using the first language (Thai) to plan the content
of the talk and frame details of speaking. Another is selective attention, which helps students understand the purpose of
a task before opting for key information to perform the speaking. Consequently, the students make use of technology to
ascertain the appropriateness of vocabulary use. They increased the level of their vocabulary accuracy and precision by
cross-checking their meanings from different sources. However, preparing the speaking for five different pictures, one
of which they would randomly pick up, can affect their cognitive load. Thus, recognition of strategy knowledge aids
students in managing the task more effectively by spending less (saving) time on some pictures or choosing familiar
words to reduce cognitive loads. Finally, a variety of rehearsal strategies helped establish fluency in their speaking. The
findings of the current study are in line with Cerón Sánchez et al. (2015) that strategy knowledge about speaking
involves direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of the target language, and at the same time, the use of these
strategies helps them acquire the target or needed vocabulary.

VI. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

This study examined the use of metacognitive knowledge in speaking among Thai university students. Metacognitive
knowledge plays a critical role in accomplishing a learning task. Person knowledge provides the students with different
angles of language learners, and it can help reflect the distance between the task and their ability to reach it. At the same
time, strategy knowledge can be used to direct choices of task management such as planning, problem-solving and
rehearsing based on available sources. Nonetheless, task knowledge seems to be a key for successful task attainment
among the high-proficient students as this type of knowledge helps them place their concerns on what kind of task they
were going to perform, what kind of vocabulary they need to use in the task, and what difficulties they are going to
meet.
The findings of this study imply raising awareness of the use of metacognitive knowledge to accomplish a speaking
task successfully. Despite the fact that both high-proficient and low-proficient students were able to use metacognitive
knowledge as resources of information for accomplishing the speaking task, it is essential for the low-proficient learners
to promote task knowledge in order to attain it successfully. To do so, metacognitive awareness should be trained at the
very first stage of a learning task. As suggested by Goh and Burns (2012) and Burns (2019), teachers may need to
highlight the importance of task preparation, thus students have enough time to prepare themselves to meet
requirements of a learning task. This provides opportunities for learners to reflect upon their proficiency, beliefs,
cognitive ability, the task they are going to perform, and the strategies needed for approaching the learning task. In
addition, task knowledge should be raised in order to help students engage with the context and language use in a task.
For specialized contexts, they are expected to demonstrate a fluent use of language, which is relatively technical
(Coxhead, 2013). Therefore, they need a precise and deep understanding of vocabulary and language patterns to attain
their academic and professional goals.

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Thiwaporn Thawarom is a Ph.D.

Technology Thonburi. Her research interests include vocabulary learning and assessing, Content and Language Integrated Learning
(CLIL) and learning strategies.

Jeffrey Dawala Wilang is a lecturer

of Technology Thonburi. He received his Ph.D. in Applied Linguistics
His research interests include language anxiety, English as a Foreign/Second Language, World Englishes, and research methodology.

Wareesiri Singhasiri is an associate professor at Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Khon Kaen University. Her research
interests cover learning strategies, learning styles, and research methodology.
 Acquisition and Mobile or Computer Assisted
Language Learning: A Qualitative Study
Wael A. Holbah
English Language Institute, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia

Abstract The study underscores issues of teachers' perspectives, their understanding, awareness, utilization,
and effectiveness of technological mediated mobile capabilities in foreign language acquisition (FLA). Seven
teachers (FLA) from five nationalities were interviewed online, and the data collected and compiled along with
notes were descriptively analyzed. The findings illustrate that although FLA teachers are ready to embrace
changes and accept the usage of technology-mediated computer and mobile-assisted language learning
(C/MALL) in online classes; however, this adaptability posits some challenges, which need technical support,
training, interactions on its usage for language acquisition. The argument emphasizes the discourses between
FLA teachers, parents, and institutions for creating a conducive environment and technological affordances
for executing computer and mobile-assisted language learning in significant ways. Besides, it highlights the
contradiction between the usage of Smart Mobile Devices (SMDs) for language acquisition and lack of
efficiency and effective use of such devices by teachers, and the formalities of mobile use for teachers to include
student-
future studies based on the perception of FLA teachers, and parents towards the use of the computer or SMDS
viewed as CALL or MALL.

Index Terms mobile-assisted language learning, language acquisition, language learning, teacher perception,
CALL

I. INTRODUCTION
Before March 2020, the concept of virtual and online learning was known to very few people. The sudden arrival of
unprecedented and unforeseen pandemics has brought pernicious impacts on human lives and academia remains no
longer an exception. Online learning, perhaps, gained momentum in the last decade of the last century, but today, it has
become the main source of learning. There have been revolutionary changes in academia that recognized the vitality of
technology-mediated learning in its contexts and purviews. This century witnessed a massive usage of mobile
technologies by people making them aware of abrupt changes in global scenarios. Numerous advantages like handiness,
smooth functioning, customization, and connectivity, make mobile phone users easy to adopt from different
perspectives; alike, students and teachers today use it in learning and teaching. This provided a silver line in the dark

expertise in substantial mobile usage in daily life. Thus, the millennials are given ample opportunities to exploit their
technological skills and this provided the required impetus to online learning. A little action required is to change the
direction of studen
mobile phone usage to guide them how Smart Mobile Devices (henceforth, as SMDs) may facilitate language learning
by adequate access to resources to gain knowledge, acquaintance of language that can be translated through better
communication and contribution to the native culture and global business world. Similarly, parents, teachers, students,
and stakeholders who never had experienced such measures and technology-mediated and computer or mobile-assisted
language learning (henceforth, C/MALL) affordabilities have now become familiar to utilize it effectively in online
learning. These, for now, replace as an effective tool for offline classrooms. The attitude, method, panache, and
approach to learning might differ to different subjects, but the fundamental requisites remain the same for all subjects.
Alike, foreign language acquisition (FLA) has its own unique features to language learning since it facilitates different
tools, techniques, and resources to solidify learning situations and opportunities for language learners. Therefore, the
study tries to comprehend different perceptions around the orientation of the stakeholders and technical affordances. It
also makes a seminal attempt to underscore issues of teachers' perspectives, their understanding, awareness, utilization,
and effectiveness of technological mediated mobile capabilities.
Though several studies on C/MALL deliberated on teacher efficacy, student efficiency, knowledge, skills to operate
mobile applications, and affordances, there is still ample scope of studies examining and focusing on the perception of
FLA on the use of the technology-mediated C/MALL. These perspectives assist students to integrate their know-how
into online classes; on the other hand, teachers may create such ambiance that invites, engages, and makes language
learning complete. For this to happen, the researchers prepared a questionnaire that dealt with all the burning issues
teachers meet in language learning. Its main aim is to collect required information, via online personal interaction and
online questionnaire, on how the prevailing learning concepts utilizing technology-mediated sources like C/MALL
contribute to FLA and the findings, thereafter, assist researchers to understand how effective these devices and methods
are in enhancing lear
best utilization of SMDs in offline classes, and also to introduce technology in the curriculum to influence the primitive
notion of traditional practices in language acquisition and language learning.
In the further explanation
to make concepts clear for the worthy readers to better comprehend the forthcoming proceedings.
A. Computer-assisted Language Learning (CALL)
Today, we witness students attending online classes replacing the classical education methods. Modern technologies
have created a plethora of opportunities to create computer software programs, journals, and lessons that include
exercises on reading comprehension, vocabulary building, writing, grammar, listening, and speaking for attaining
fluency and correct pronunciation for language acquisition and language learning. Students take more interest in the
easy access to data, multimedia-based improved audio-visual study materials and data transmission technologies, and
try to explore and learn more for better interpretation of language concepts. Levy (1997) has defined CALL as they
search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning. Egbert (2004) defines it as
learning a language through computers or with the aid of computers beyond the matter and the context. Simply defining
Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) as an innovative instrument and method to assist language learners to
develop their language skills, which enhance their communication skills, cognitive skills, and develop creativity,
autonomy, efficiency, and collaboration.
Since the start of its journey in the 1960s, CALL picked momentum in the last lap of twentieth century with the
invention of new storage devices CD-ROMs, CD, MP3, DVD, e-books, journals blog, website, and e-library that cater
encyclopedia information, language course content in the
latest video forms using graphics, animations, and other multimedia tools to make learning interesting and affordable.
Lee (2000) believed that CALL focuses on individual needs; further, Ravichandran (2000) revealed that it allows
learners to work on their own learning material to meet their learning objectives. Kung (2002) affirmed that language
teachers using CALL have increased strikingly due to a range of language experiences. Therefore, CALL facilitates
students with adequate contents to study their course and develop their language skills at their own interests, needs, time,
pace, and learning styles. We may summarize CALL with Bahrani
The computer-delivered combination of a large range of communication elements- text, sound, graphics,
pictures, photographs, animation, and moving video. Language Learning is concerned with the development of
communication skills and has traditionally and creatively exploited all these communication elements in its
classroom context. (Bahrani, 2011, p.273)
B. Mobile-assisted Language Learning (MALL)
The technological advancements have brought tremendous changes not only in the information and communications
technology sector but also enabled learners to use SMDs in their day-to-day learning. Every child uses a mobile phone
at early childhood and eventually it becomes a significant part of life. The SMDs include mobile phones, tabs with an
internet capability, language software, electronic encyclopedia, dictionaries, MP3 players, etc. The salient features of
portability, flexibility and ease to operate different applications make it user-friendly and effective. Similarly, learning
through SMDs, in language acquisition and language learning perspective, is a modern technique that facilitates learners
to perform their learning activities and access the course learning materials easily and freely without any constraints at
their own convenience of place, time, and resolve using the SMDs. Holbah and Sharma (2021) revealed that teachers
used technology to conduct activities that allowed students to participate and enhance their cognitive skills. Many
studies found learners achieve better results when they utilize their knowledge, skill, intent to enjoy, self-efficacy, and
easy handling characteristics in language acquisition.
Twarog and Pereszlenyi-Pinter (1988) carried out research on MALL that indicated the 1980s but with the telephone-
assisted language because telephones were the only means to provide distant language learners with assistance and
feedback. MALL came to academia in this century and has grown immensely in the last decade in the language learning
domain. Kloper et al. (2002) on reflecting MALL argued five unique educational attributes of SMDs; portability; social
interactivity; context-sensitivity; connectivity; and individual learning.
Kukulska Hulme and Shield (2008) explained MALL as formal or informal learning mediated via handheld devices
that are potentially available for use anytime, anywhere. Several studies have been undertaken in the century that
focused on the MALL applications, multimedia usages, and developments on incorporating features to develop
communication skills (e.g. Stanford Learning Lab; Chinnery, 2006; Kukulska-Hulme & Shield, 2008; Thornton &
Houser, 2003; Garcia Cabrera, 2002; Belanger, 2005; Kukulska-Hulme, 2005). Therefore, we may call it a younger
sister of CALL but has a bright future to dominate the world of academia with its cutting edge features.
Before we continue the research process further, it is equally important to understand the related studies previously
carried out utilizing the technology-mediated instruction using CALL or MALL and how far they contributed to this
language acquisition and language learning. Besides, it will facilitate easy sail to take up the research questions
effectively to arrive at certain conclusions to serve as a panacea to most language acquisition problems, and
propositions for future reference; therefore, the brief explanation of the previous connected studies follows.

II. PREVIOUS STUDIES

To build a robust platform for the research, it is a prerequisite to understand the development of CALL and MALL
(discussed above) and to know the perspectives of FLA teachers on the implementation in online learning. The current
situations in online learning created abundant opportunities to investigate the pros and cons of CALL or MALL on
-efficacy, pedagogical
affordances and challenges of these devices (Churchill et al., 2012; Handal et al., 2013; Marinakou & Giousmpasoglou,
2014; Mills et al., 2014; Pegrum et al., 2013; Sad &
SMDs to enhance teaching are paramount to the success of implementing mobile
technological innovation in education (Handal et al., 2013; Marinakou & Giousmpasoglou, 2014). More exposure to the
foreign or second language through mobile phone also enhance interest and develop reading, writing, and listening
skills, as Sharma (2018) claims that the students are usually exposed to language through; watching TV, videos, movies,
listening to music, read books, classroom instructions, interaction, and mobile-phone applications.
Since SMDs sharing photos,
writing opinions on specific issues, listening to music, watching videos using social media platforms. On the other hand,
students and teachers communicate through emails, writing blogs, attending videoconferences, planning and sharing
routine activities, searching information and content for subjects, and many more creating a healthy digital learning
environment. The two concepts CALL and MALL contribute to developing language proficiency in reading
comprehension, listening audios, grammar, writing, quizzes, worksheets, assignments, pronunciations, speaking, etc.
The former emphasizes using computer technology for language learning and its related features, the latter trails CALL
by using mobile technologies and related concepts applying it to language learning. Therefore, students use both CALL
and MALL extensively not only to build cognitive ability to improve language proficiency but also to build strong
bonding with teachers, relatives, and friends. Additionally, sustaining the power of SMDS may be used to affect
learning both in the social-cultural and cognitive aspects (Pachler, 2009) whereas it also stimulates interaction among
students outside the classroom (Sharples et al., 2009). Both are complementary and supplementary each; however,
MALL differs from CALL in its use of personal, portable devices that enable new ways of learning, emphasizing
-Hulme & Shields, 2008, p. 273). Both
play a major role in gaugi
revealed that mobile-
collaborations between the learners and the instructor using text and voice-based mediation. These findings state the
efficacy of using mobile technology as a tool and technique in language teaching and learning beyond traditional
classrooms to relaxed learning environments. The use of ICT has been extensively used in the current scenarios; alike,
CALL and MALL have gone ahead among students and researchers and proved their worth with its salient features
mainly individualized learning.
The aforesaid studies have underscored the usages in language acquisition and language learning in different
perspectives; however, ignoring the major stakeholder teachers
students. Similarly, a few studies established evidence proving its positive effects on learners im et al.,
2013), and on the degree of collaboration and interaction both among learners and between the teachers and learners
(Goh et al., 2012).

III. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The following questions guided this study:
1. towards CALL/MALL usage in language acquisition and language learning?
2 language acquisition and language learning?

IV. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The case study was preferred as the qualitative scientific inquiry approach to investigate the effectiveness of CALL
and MALL when implemented in the pandemic to further understand parents
foreign language learning. It followed the triangular method for data collection through personal interactions, online
questionnaire, and participant observations. The questionnaire was prepared in Arabic to get more insights and

opinions to ensure the reliability of the data obtained.

A. Participants
A group of seven (four males and three females) working at the English Language Institute in Jazan University was
randomly selected for conducting personal interactions after obtaining their permission to participate. The participating
faculty members were originally from Sudan, Egypt, Yamen, and Saudi Arabia. Four of them were doctoral and three
obtained their master's degrees, all working in different colleges. All seven participants spoke both English and Arabic
(as their native language) fluently.
TABLE 1
SUMMARIZES DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION FOR THE PARTICIPANTS
Parents' age Teaching Experience in Highest level of Language use at
KSA in KSA education home
PR/TR-1 35-40 More than 10 Ph.D Arabic
PR/TR-2 40-50 More than 10 Ph.D Arabic
PR/TR-3 50-60 More than 10 Ph.D Arabic
PR/TR-4 40-50 More than 10 Ph.D Arabic
PR/TR-5 30-35 Less than 10 Master Arabic
PR/TR-6 35-40 Less than 10 Master Arabic
PR/TR-7 30-35 Less than 10 Master Arabic

B. Data Collection
Informal-interaction
To get reliable and real inputs, the researcher conducted informal interviews telephonically to allow respondents to
g of a topic, situation,
setting, etc. It sets a platform to administer questionnaires to get their genuine opinions responding to the given
questions. During the personal interaction, ten semi-structured questions were asked to engage and respond in narrating
their education, teaching experience, professional careers, personal interests, learning environments, educational
expectations for students, experience using C/MALL in online teaching and learning, opinions about use of mobile
technology and suggestions. The participants answered all questions.

V. T EACHERS PERSPECTIVES
A. Role of the Professor in Motivating or Encouraging Students to Use Technology in Education
The teachers in this study demonstrated their commitment to motivation and encouragement to use mobile

develop their linguistic skills. All were unanimous on incorporating CALL and MALL in language acquisition and
language learning because of distinct features mobile technology has. The students reflect better learning since they can
easily access the sources on mobile to extract information by using MALL as per their convenience of time, place, and
affordances. The teachers believed that these experiences were by and large fruitful for students to develop good
communication skills. Some of the responses to the question are given below.
Use of CALL and MALL guide students on how to use technology tools to learn English (attend lessons, do
homework and class fees, participate and interact during lectures) [TR1]
The role of the professor lies in motivating the student to use technology by providing examples of how to use
these techniques in building vocabulary, grammatical exercises, and different language skills, and how the
student can use various means to develop self-learning skills, and may also encourage him through continuous
reminders and some assignments that require the use of student of that technique. [TR3]
Undoubtedly, the professor plays a pivotal role in motivating his students to use technology in education by
setting a set of tasks and assignments and assigning them to search for answers and additional information
using the technologies available to them. [TR4]
The role of the professor in motivating students to use technology in education lies in: the use of modern and
flexible programs that can be applied with students so that it is easy for the student to use them as well, such as
Blackboard, Zoom, Oxford Dictionary, Canvas, the electronic version of the curriculum and others; assigning
students to perform some tasks and duties and submitting them electronically through some electronic
applications such as Blackboard and others; and diversification and renewal in the use of effective electronic
means such as the whiteboard, illustrator, images, audio and video clips, presentation files such as PowerPoint,
Prezi, and share them with students during the lecture instead of being limited to the electronic book only.
[TR7]
B. Assistance the Professor Provides for Students to Use English using Mobile Technology
Students learn better and faster when they get support from their teacher to use the English language using computer-
mediated mobile technology. The teachers illustrated that providing ample support in content, feedback, allowing them
to use social media, providing them additional language learning applications, etc. help them improve their linguistic
and cognitive skills to overcome their difficulties. For example

during lectures; also provide individual and group instructions and directions to students to help them
overcome their difficulties. [TR1]
 The professor can provide direct assistance to the student by introducing him to the various technical means
and their types and advantages available to the student, and there is no harm in presenting a comparison or
comparison with the student to be aware of the advantages (and defects, if any), and he can help him on how to
use them in his scientific, linguistic and cognitive achievement through direct practical application. [TR3]
By motivating students to read various topics from websites, and encouraging them to practice and solve
additional exercises or standardized tests such as IELTS and TOEFL, as well as by helping them to join
English language courses provided by trusted bodies such as the British Council and Cambridge centers.
[TR4]
By providing websites and applications that help the student learn English. Also activating the technical use in
virtual classes by sharing links to sites such as (white board to teach writing or some games such as Kahoot).
[TR5]
C. Home Environment Motivates and Encourages the Student to Study the Language
to partake and
develop their reading and writing skills. All participants responded positively and agreed that the homely learning

experiences facilitates social interaction, attention and activities to stimulate progressive attitudes to learn, reducing
distractions and enhancing affective skills. Besides, it also motivates and encourages students to develop socio-cultural
communication and build good relations with their peers, family, and community. For example
Yes, when the appropriate tools and resources are available for learning and the appropriate family
environment for study, as well as a continuous follow-up from the parents. [TR1]
The home environment can motivate the student if they see that their son is motivated to learn, and it is
preferable that the student declare this to his family so that he receives moral and material support and
encouragement. The family can also cultivate the spirit of perseverance and competition in their son through
supervision and follow-up to create the desired home environment. [TR3]
Yes, by creating a quiet environment suitable for education. During the e-learning period during the pandemic,
I encountered a large number of students who could not open the microphone and participate in speaking
activities due to the inconvenience around them. It did not create a suitable environment for them to learn.
[TR5]
D. Student Encourages the Teacher to Use Technology and Teach the Scientific Subject (The Course)
on from a classical to a student-centered approach to teaching and
learning because teachers are their role models and contribute immensely to student learning. They not only deliver
academic knowledge but also impart ideal socioemotional, cognitive, and a

teaching and developing linguistic skills. Teachers opined that

Yes, the distinguished student always yearns for everything that is new and useful, especially in the field of
technology, unlike the average and weak student - individual differences. [TR2]
Yes, the student encourages me as a professor to use technology in order to be familiar with the different
teaching methods and so that I can follow the learning methods of my students and share their experiences
with each other through me as a professor. Sometimes I find it an opportunity to present some educational
material through that channel that my students have involved me in to confirm the correctness of their learning
methods. [TR3]
Yes, and strongly, the current generation is enabled and enjoys technology. When technology is used, student
interaction increases. I make sure to use it in accordance with the objectives of the article. [TR5]

of various means that help the students and the professor alike and break the deadly routine in the traditional
classrooms, as in the traditional classrooms the teacher is the source of information, while the virtual
classrooms have diverse sources of information and the professor is just a facilitator and assistant to deliver the
information. [TR6]
E. Things that
Teachers
Several factors motivate teachers to use technology that includes their interaction and experience using ICT, vast
usages of SMDs; new technology and its benefits, and demand to accomplish teaching objectives. Institutions do
facilitate teachers by conducting goals-focused training, communicating and collaborating on new projects that need

factors described by respondents are

Student attendance and interaction with the teacher and the educational material, availability of appropriate
technical equipment, and continuous training of faculty members on the latest teaching methods. [TR1]
 extracurricular duties, but in the same context and course objectives, and what encourages me is my ability as a
professor to be able to transfer my skills and explain them to the student easily. The educational institution
encourages me by introducing the different programs and offering courses in this regard, but there is no guide
or glossary for the different technologies, as far as I know. [TR3]
I mentioned earlier, the different levels of the students and their individual differences encourage me to
diversify in the use of modern electronic means. The English language instructor at Jazan University
encourages faculty members to use technology in lectures, short tests through the Blackboard, speaking skill
tests through the Zoom program, and reinforcement lessons for students who are struggling in the English
language. [TR7]

VI. IMPLICATIONS
The current study illustrated that the teachers have encouraged and motivated students to support the usage of CALL
and MALL in English language learning. The teachers opined that CALL/MALL usage in language acquisition and
lly, the
interactions and deliberations cemented relations between teacher and students, and among learners creating conducive
learning environment. -mediated
language learning using SMDs -availability of glossary or
guide on technology. The findings indicated unanimity for adopting technology in language learning and ensuring
proper delivery of digital resources. adaptability posits some challenges, which needs technical support, training,
interactions on its usage for language acquisition. The aforesaid arguments emphasize the discourses between FLA
teachers, parents, and institutions for creating conducive learning environment and technological affordances for
executing computer and mobile assisted language learning in significant ways. Sharma (2022) stated that the students
made the best use of technology and used social media applications and language apps in smartphones to participate in
group reading activities and solve problems. Besides, it highlights the contradiction between the usage of SMDs for
language acquisition and lack of efficiency and effective use of such devices by teachers, and the formalities of mobile
use for teachers to include students- ome variations were
reflected in socio-economic conditions, educational and professional experiences; therefore, a more in-depth probe of
reasons not discussed in the study might be investigated in future studies with larger sample sizes. Future studies might
also focus on creating technology-mediate-cum-intervention curriculum designs that may contribute to English as
foreign language acquisition and language learning using smart SMDs. Besides, the current study stretches its prospect
of transforming from a classical-to-modern and teacher-to student centered learning approach using SMDs to promote
and scrutinize the pros and cons that may be ineffective and dormant in other learning environments. The relationship

teaching practices may be explored further. Many related studies may be thought upon widening the scope of CALL
and MALL usage and Social Media Platforms
objectives and their smooth transition to new professional culture.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author gratefully acknowledges the support of the Dean, and the worthy participants of English Language
Institute for extending their absolute support to complete this research at Jazan University.

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learning/

Wael A. Holbah
Vice-dean for scientific research and academic development at English Language Institute, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia.
His research interests include second language acquisition, TESOL, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, and CALL. Prof. Wael
Holbah has written many articles in national and international journals of repute.
 Effectiveness of Existing Language Courses and
Classroom Tactics for ELT at the Engineering
Universities in Bangladesh
Mohammad Shahazahan Seraj Bhuiyan
Department of Science and Humanities, Military Institute of Science and Technology (MIST), Dhaka, Bangladesh

Mohammad Ehsanul Islam Khan

Department of English, Manarat International University (MIU), Dhaka, Bangladesh

Abstract This study aimed at investigating the English language teaching (ELT) at eight engineering
universities in Bangladesh with a particular focus on the existing language courses and classroom teaching
techniques used in English language education of those selected universities. During the study, students'
perceptions and their academic, social, and emotional standpoint regarding English language teaching were
also considered. The study sample encompassed 144 present and former students of those selected universities.
A mixed-method approach, both qualitative and quantitative, was administered to collect data on the present
English language courses and the classroom teaching techniques. Under the qualitative approach, the study's
findings revealed that the classroom teaching techniques and instructional methods of the selected engineering
universities require modification based on the identified needs and expectations of the teachers, students, and
the responsible persons of the workplace.

Index Terms ELT, classroom teaching techniques, engineering students, professional development

I. INTRODUCTION
Engineering is the most significant arena of education in the world. But English is an instrument that affects
engineering students in their life. Engineering students face lectures, labs, tutorials, papers, and project reports in
English in academic life. Not only that, they need to deal with the internet now and then, and the internet delivers the
information in English. At the office, English is the operative language of an extensive range. So, English
communication capability plays a significant role in engineering students' academic careers, for competitive
examinations, for securing a scholarship or executing their duties. Still, very often, many engineering students do not
possess sufficient capability in using communicative English. Clement and Murugavel (2015) claimed that many
engineering graduates remain unemployed due to poor communication skills. However, this study dealt with ELT at
engineering universities in Bangladesh, focusing on English language courses and classroom teaching techniques.
Sultana et al. (2019) researched the effectiveness of English courses for diploma engineers admitted into the
undergraduate level at engineering universities in Bangladesh through the depth evaluation of the whole procedure.
They focused that evaluation should consider a significant number of issues, including efficacy of the English language
course, materials used in a teaching-learning way, learning environment, assessment and feedback procedure.
The medium of instruction (EMI) in engineering universities is primarily English. Khan et al. (2020) mentioned that
even after twelve years of academic study, students are weak in using the English language. However, in the case of
engineering students, specific English courses need to be completed irrespective of their discipline or background
knowledge. Gradually, English has continued to be an essential part of the communication matrix. Communicative
Language Teaching (CLT) was a necessary shift for ELT in Bangladesh. At the tertiary level, engineering universities
have adopted different methods and approaches to develop the English proficiency of future engineers to prepare them
for the career struggle in terms of communication skills. This study concentrated on the English language courses and
the classroom teaching techniques of engineering universities to address the loopholes with suggestive measures for
their effectiveness.
The two dominating factors of the current world are globalisation and information technology which demand sound
knowledge of English. Knowledge of English is a prerequisite for computer literacy again, and globalisation will face
hindrances without successful communication, which requires proficiency in the English language. Thus, the need for
proficiency in English is multi-folded as it has a considerable impact on academic, social, and professional fields.
Students of engineering universities often displayed unsatisfactory English language performance despite their twelve
years of compulsory education in English. A majority of them could neither cope with the academic requirements nor
with the challenges of the professional domain. However, the objectives of this paper were (i) to identify the ways of
improving English language teaching from learner perspectives at the engineering universities in Bangladesh; (ii) to
identify the problems of engineering students' language education in Bangladesh; and (iii) to explore the efficacy of
classroom techniques used in English language classrooms at engineering universities in Bangladesh.

II. THEORETICAL ASPECTS

The English language has become prevalent for the commerce, cultural and business sectors and particularly for
internet infrastructures around the globe as it is extensively used by information and technology industries. English
language skill is the foremost of getting a decent job in those countries as their mother tongue is English. So, there is a
high demand for people in foreign countries who can speak better English. Bhuiyan (2021) mentioned that English for
specific purposes (ESP) could focus the learners' attention on the language and communication requirements in a
particular professional field. Generally, engineering students need English language proficiency (ELP) to understand,
coordinate and accomplish their projects, reports, graphs, and lectures and communicate with various people from
different parts of the world. The students need ELP for academic purposes, future jobs, and to communicate with the
outer world (Ibrahim, 2016). Therefore, quality assessments and evaluations need to be enacted to reaffirm engineering
education's advancement and cater to their needs (Olds et al., 2005). A need-based and effective English language and
training course enhance engineering students' communication skills (Riemer, 2002). The theoretical basis is found in the
ideas of Hutchinson and Waters (1987) as they mentioned that ESP focuses on the awareness of the need, rather than
the existence of a need. So, it is clear that learning the English language should be need-based and specific.
When a person is skilled in English, it increases employability, such as facilitating international mobility like tourism,
migration, and studying abroad. Higher levels of English proficiency graduates in Bangladesh generally find jobs
quicker in reputed intuitions than others. Students interested in going abroad for higher study or work purposes need to
know the international language better (Shaheen et al., 2013).
Pardayevna et al. (2021) study emphasised the core concept of ESP that includes the approach and the designing of
the syllabus, course design, materials selection, evaluation systems, etc. Mahmood (2014) postulated that technology-
based and innovative methods could facilitate the teaching-learning process a lot. It is a tremendous challenge for the
instructors to make the classroom activities attractive & enjoyable. This paper also focuses on selecting various
authentic tasks to make the classroom activities live and attractive to improve the English communication skill of the
learners. The report recommends some effective procedures for enhancing communication skills and promoting
students' creative, critical and analytical thinking in ELT programs in a unique way.

III. REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES

English communication skill has become a vital prerequisite for an applicant to be employed in different national and
international establishments. Engineers all around the world would like to use English for some features of their
occupations. Considering this, the existing English courses need to be redesigned for professional ground.
Latha (2014) shows that many rudiments in the engineering field necessitate preparing theoretical information such
as projecting or lab reports etc., that need a decent command over English in the respective area. Hence a good grasp of
the English language is necessary. This study focuses on the importance of English in the job sector.

students of engineering background consider the speaking skill as really imperative, but scopes are less available.
Eshreteh and Siaj (2017) opined that English language learners should not be limited to curriculum-based study; rather
cultural aspects and technological superiority would be an added platform for self-development though Sultana &
Dovchin (2019) consider that the EFL students have some educational allegations for foreign language instruction out
of the classroom as digital language applications. This study injected the feeling that learners should go out of the box
with a positive perception note apart from their discipline.
Rahman et al. (2017) study's findings unfold several challenges faced in the instructional and learning processes,
including the inappropriateness of the courses to reach the goal, time constraints, ineffective teaching techniques, etc. It
is suggested that teachers' training should be provided regularly to make the whole English language teaching procedure
more effective at engineering universities.
study's findings show that though
the ESP approach is applied to teach English, modifications are required. Shamrao (2013) carried out a study that deals
with different significant issues related to the English teaching-learning process of rural engineering students, including
the importance of being skilled in English communication, challenges faced by the students, and overcoming the
challenges. Several of the students in engineering colleges are from rural areas. The study's findings show that a
significant number of rural engineering students cannot perform well in their professional life only because of their poor
English communication skills.
Kainth and Kumar (2014) reveal that teaching English in India has not reached the expected standard, particularly at
engineering institutions. That is a big reason for the unemployment of a significant number of technical graduates. As a
neighbouring and developing country, Bangladesh is facing the same kind of problem. The current paper is an effort to
find out the difficulties confronted by both the learners and the teachers in the educational process for English language
teaching at the undergraduate level in the engineering and technological institutes.
 Ngama et al. (2015) researched 20 entrepreneurs and 70 students from the engineering department as the participants
in the interview method to overview their professional needs of English communication skills. The students took the
Test of English for International Competency (TOEIC) to evaluate their general English ability. The study's findings
show that the performance of both groups is low.
The above discussion clearly shows the importance of learning English for a better career, lifestyle, and education. It
is undeniable that nothing can give you better opportunities in this tech-friendly digital era if you are fluent in English
language skills. It is applicable for every citizen of the world as well as for Bangladeshi as well. Engineering students of
our country can do their best in every sector of their life if they give the utmost attention to learn English properly.

IV. METHODOLOGY
The researchers used a mixed-method approach that integrated both qualitative and quantitative methods of data
collection. The mixed-method approach enables the researchers to draw on all possibilities (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998)
and provides a broader perspective to the study. The qualitative data helps to describe the aspects that quantitative data
cannot address (Creswell & Creswell, 2017).
A. Sampling and Instrumentation
The populations of this study are the present and ex-students of engineering universities in Bangladesh. Eight
engineering universities were randomly selected from different divisions of Bangladesh for the study.
The present students belong to level I/II/III of CE, CSE, EECE and ME departments. The ex-students were the
students of the same departments with a minimum qualification of M.Sc. in engineering. The eight universities were
chosen for the study from different country locations considering the different geographical settings. The purpose of
selecting those universities from different parts of the country was not to compare the universities but to include
respondents from diverse geographical backgrounds. Table 1 illustrates the demographic information of the participants.
The sample has comprised a total of 144 participants from eight engineering universities. From each university, 15
present students (15X8=120), three ex-students (3X8=24) were randomly selected as the participants for the survey.
TABLE 1
D EMOGRAPHIC I NFORMATION
SL Participants N Gender (M / F) Age Discipline Location
1 Present Students 120 65% 35% 18-22 CE, CSE,
Dhaka (02), Cumilla (01), Khulna (01), Gazipur
EECE,
2 Former Students 24 67% 33% 26-32 (01), Rajshahi (01), Natore (01), Saidpur (01)
ME

Krathwohl (2009) mentioned that a large amount of data could be collected quickly and economically from a large
sample with the help of the questionnaire. Therefore, the primary tool for data collection was questionnaires in this
study. The researchers administered six queries for each of the two domains, e.g., English language courses and
classroom teaching techniques, to the existing students. Another set of questionnaires were directed to the ex-students
with five queries for each domain. One open-ended question was asked to all to identify the significant problems in the
related issues. The primary concepts
(2019). However, the responses were received on a five-point Likert scale (1932), mainly in the format of Strongly
Disagree (SD), Disagree (D), Neutral/No Opinion (N), Agree (A) and Strongly Agree (SA). The questionnaires entailed
both open-ended and close-ended questions. The present and former students of selected engineering students were
asked the questions keeping those three variables in mind.
B. Data Collection
The survey was carried out among the students of engineering universities in Bangladesh through questionnaires.
Some of the questions were translated into Bengali for learners' easy comprehension and understanding. The students
took about 50 minutes to answer all the questions. The data were collected from November 20l9 to February 2021. At
the outset of the data collection, a consent form was given to the participants to make them aware of the purpose and
nature of the research. It was ensured that the participants' involvement was completely voluntary. They were assured
that the provided information would remain confidential and not be disclosed without their prior permission. The
participants were also ensured that this study is for academic purposes and there is no risk of participating in the study.
C. Data Analysis
Berns (1990) opined that data analysis means to find "meanings from the data and process by which the investigator
can interpret the data" (p.430). Similarly, as noted by Marshall and Rossman (1999), the goal of the data scrutiny is to
bring sense, construction and order to the information. As the preliminary phase in examining the facts for this study,
the researcher read all the information gathered from the completed questionnaires, interviews and other data sources.
As the researcher has practical experience in the teaching-learning process at the engineering universities, he has
perceived and interprets the data obtained in the questionnaire and other data sources. The data have been coded with
the support of MS Excel and subsequently were analysed with the help software. Moreover, the literature review has
provided guidelines for data analysis.
 V. FINDINGS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA

A. Present Students' Observation of English Courses Taught at the Universities

In the first stage, the data were collected from the existing students. The first query was to know the perception about
the English courses.

Figure 1. Learners' Perception About the English Course of Engineering Universities

20% of present students find English courses beneficial for them. 65% of the participants find the English courses as
useful. Only a handful of 4.16% students have found the English courses not practical to make them competent in
learning the English language to their needs. Therefore, the study implies that most of the engineering students are
positive and intrinsically motivated to learn English (Mean 3.87).
Afterward, the participants responded to five more statements which indicates that the syllabus for the engineering
students needs modifications.
TABLE 2
PRESENT STUDENTS ' OPINION OF ENGLISH COURSES TAUGHT AT THE UNIVERSITIES
Responses in percentages
SL Statements Mean
SD D N A SA
English courses are perfectly focused on my
1 8.33 48.33 2.50 37.50 3.33 2.80
future need of English.
The number of English courses offered at
2 13.33 34.16 2.50 30.83 19.16 3.08
engineering universities is sufficient.
English courses to be conducted in the final
3 0 25.83 0.83 9.16 64 4.11
year along with level one.
Learners' aims and expectations are fulfilled
4 by the English courses offered at 16.66 27.50 10.83 38.33 6.66 2.91
universities.
Which skill would you like to prioritise to Listening Speaking Reading Writing Other Opinions
5 learn in the English courses as per the needs
of English proficiency? 10.83 57.5 3.33 28.33 0

Statement-1 showed whether the existing courses focused on the participants' future needs or not. More than 48%
disagreed that the course outline has less required content for the future career, whereas about 38% thought that the
current courses possess career-related lessons. From this survey, it seemed that the English course outlines need to be
redesigned based on the requirements of the workplaces. In statement-2, the present students were asked about the
number of English courses offered by the universities during their engineering programs. About 34% expressed their
dissatisfaction. However, 30.83% agreed and around 20% strongly agreed that the number of offered courses is
sufficient. This also specified that the existing English courses need to be rearranged.
The students expressed their opinion (64%) in favor of English courses in the final year, while 25% thought that
classes were conducted at the level I only (Statement-3). As the engineering students are from varied backgrounds, the
students with good backgrounds may not feel the necessity of an additional English course in the final term. But, most
of the students felt the necessity of the English courses in the final term, which indicated that more emphasis is required.
When asked about the expectations of the present students regarding the English course, around 38% agreed that they
were benefited and more than 27% disagreed. Therefore, it is clear that there were some rooms to redesign the course,
which might help the students to get maximum from it (Mean 2.91, statement-4).
In statement-5, the participants were asked to prioritise the English language skills, and more than half of the
participants (57%) think speaking as the topmost prioritised skill as they needed it for communication. More than 28%
of participants opined writing as the second important skill, whereas a meagre 10.83% considered listening and 3.33%
reading as their required skills. Most present students thought speaking as the most important skill as they need to
communicate with friends, teachers and to establish an expected social value. However, as expected, 65% of students
voted for speaking skill.
B. Present Students' Viewpoints of Classroom Teaching Techniques

TABLE 3
CLASSROOM TEACHING TECHNIQUES
Responses in percentages
SL Statements Mean
SD D N A SA
My English teachers let me understand the practical
1 25 25.83 9.16 23.33 16.66 2.81
usage of English
I have learned English I would require in my future
2 16.66 23.33 7.5 27.50 25 3.21
workplace from my university English teacher.
In my English classes, I have seen my university
3 faculty applying new teaching techniques which I 30 34.16 9.16 17.50 9.16 2.42
have not seen in my school and college classroom.
Numbers of trained teachers are available to
4 18.33 24.16 6.66 27.50 23.33 3.13
conduct classes.
Teachers use diverse materials in classroom to
5 16.66 22.50 8.33 29.16 23.33 3.20
bring interest among learners.

In the above table, statement-1, more than half of the students consider that their teachers do not let them understand
the practical uses of English majority of the participants disagree that their English teachers let them understand the
practical usage of English (Mean 2.81). However, 23.33% of the respondents agreed with the statement. In statement-2,
the research finds that 27.50% of participants agreed and 25% strongly agreed, but also some participants disagreed
(disagreed 23.33% and 16.66% strongly disagreed, respectively). So, it is clear that many students are not learning
English satisfactorily, which may be required for their future workplace from their university English teachers (Mean
3.21).
In statement-3, another critical view has been depicted. 34.16% of the participants do not consider that their
university teachers use innovative techniques for English teaching. So, they feel their learning process is very traditional
(Mean 2.42). In statement-4, the research shows that around half of the participants feel trained teachers can conduct
their classes (Mean 3.13). Again, 42.49% of the respondents were not at all agreed with this view. However, statement-
5 gives an idea that more than half of the participants feel that their teachers use diverse materials in the classroom to
stimulate students' learning process, while several students disagree with it. So, it is clear that some engineering
universities still do not have updated instructional practices (Mean 3.20).
In Figure 2, an essential aspect of students' point of view has been revealed. The majority of the learners (29.16%)
preferred the blending of grammar-translation method (GTM) and communicative language teaching (CLT) for the
teaching-learning process of the English language. However, 23.33% wanted GTM, and 24.16% voted for the CLT
approach.

Figure 2. Learners' Perception About the English Course of Engineering Universities

C. English Courses Accomplished at the Universities: Former Students' Perspectives

In the second stage of the questionnaire survey, the researcher wanted to know the perception of the former students
about the English courses they have experienced at engineering universities. From Figure 3, it is found that most of the
former students considered their university English course as less valuable (54.16%) or not useful (20.83%). However,
a few participants think those courses are helpful. Most of the students found the courses less useful (Mean 2.04).
 Figure 3. Former Students' Perceptions of the English Courses Taught at the Engineering Institutions

TABLE 4
PERCEPTIONS REGARDING ENGLISH COURSES TAUGHT AT THE ENGINEERING UNIVERSITIES
Responses in percentages
Mean
Sl. Statements SD D N A SA
The English courses are designed for career
1 8 17 4 63 8 3.06
development.
2 The number of offered English courses is sufficient. 4.16 50 4.16 29.16 12.50 2.33
English courses need to be taught at level- IV along
3 83.33 8.33 0 8.33 0 1.33
with level-I
The learnings from the English courses meet the
4 8.33 33.33 4.16 37.50 16.66 2.37
expectations of the corporate officials.

In Table 4, item-1 shows that the majority of the participants disagreed (62.50%) and strongly disagreed (2%) that the
university English courses are designed according to the career requirement and commensurate the professional
necessity. In contrast, very few people agreed with the view. However, the responses to the statement prove that the
English courses should be redesigned as per the learners' needs for career requirements. In item-2 in the above table,
some ex-students also informed that the courses are sufficient (agreed 29.16% and strongly agreed 12.50%). But the
majority of the participants (50%) did not agree with this. Such scenario again necessitates the probe into the facilities
universities provide to their students. Item-3 in Table 3 strongly stated that the English courses must be taught at the
final term. 83.33% of participants believed that English courses should be taught at level-IV, whereas 8.33% disagreed.
Engineering students felt the necessity of this English course after joining the career field. Thus, the syllabus should
also be planned as per the requirements of the learners. The responses for item-4 in the table-3 delineated a critical
survey regarding the usage of English learning in the corporate world. 37.50% of participants claimed that the earned
knowledge from the English courses didn't meet the need of the workplace. Of course, a considerable number of
participants (33.33%) stated agreed. As the majority opined that the existing English courses did not meet the
expectations, there might be some room to develop the contents of those courses.
D. Former Students' Opinions Regarding Classroom Teaching Practices

TABLE 5
REGARDING CLASSROOM TEACHING PRACTICES AT THE ENGINEERING UNIVERSITIES
Responses in percentages
Mean
Sl. Statements SD D N A SA
My English teacher let me understand the
1 8.33 29.16 8.33 45.83 8.33 3.12
practical usage of English.
I have learned English I require in my workplace 20.8
2 16.66 20.83 29.16 12.5 2.99
from my university English teacher. 3
Teachers use diverse materials in the classroom to
3 12.5 16.66 4.16 29.16 37.5 3.62
prepare the learners suitable for the work field.
The teachers were adequately trained to conduct
4 29.16 16.66 4.16 41.66 8.33 2.83
the language classes.
5 I received proper feedback whenever I needed. 12.5 20.83 8.33 37.5 20.83 3.33

In Table 4, statement-1 is the representation of learners' perception of educational context. It is an excellent sign that
more than half of the participants, 45.83% and 8.33%, understood the practical usage of English learning under the
supervision of teachers. Contrastively, 29.16% and 8.33% of learners disagreed with the statement, which is also a
considerable number. In statement-2, it has been noticed that half of the participants (20.83% and 16.66%) disagreed
that they learnt required English from their university teachers for their workplaces while almost half (29.16% and
12.50%) disagreed. It is to be mentioned that 20.83% of participants refrained from an answer. This is alarming because
a good number of students are not aware of their progress. This survey indicated that the English course needs to be
redesigned. In statement-3, collected data claimed that more than 60% of the participants agreed that their teachers used
diverse and suitable materials in the classroom to prepare the learners for the work field. In statement-4, the former
students expressed that the adequately trained teachers were not available satisfactorily (Mean 2.83). However, in
statement-5, most of the students agreed that the English classes were exciting (Mean 3.33). So, it necessitates the
teacher-training and modifications of classroom contents as the classes seems interesting to a good number of students.
However, few students did not find the classes stimulating.
E. Major Problems Identified
The students were also asked about the frequent problems they recognise for ELT in the classrooms. The survey
results helped the researchers identify and summarize twelve decisive barriers of three domains in English language
education for engineering students in Bangladesh that may support the further investigation on the related fields. These
are shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Problems in English Language Education at the Engineering Universities

VI. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Teaching is a ceaseless progression of learning. Successful English language teaching can improve engineering
students' communication capability. Insufficient incentive and lack of opportunities sometimes become a clog for the
ELT, but ensuring the required training and motivation may resolve this problem. Practical and purpose-based English
language teaching can facilitate the students to get a good job and hold a better position at the workplace. Kim (2013)
also emphasised the needs analysis to develop an English for Specific Purpose (ESP) course for engineering students.
Generally, the essential ability in job placement would be major-related abilities, but English is regarded as one of the
most critical abilities for job seekers' major requirements. As the engineering universities offer three to four English
language courses during the undergraduate programme, students get less time to come across the language teachers. The
students want their language classes to be more student-centered, task-based, less lecture-oriented, and process-oriented.
So, the teachers can think about the ideas of Carter and Mcrae (1996) who mentioned that there should be some
arrangement to provide supports to students. The study indicated that the classroom teaching techniques should fill with
innovative ideas and hands-on activities. For that teacher training requires intensively. Different contextual pieces of
training would equip teachers with skills and strategies such as engaging various activities for engaging students,
creating communicating atmosphere, organising audio-visual aids, etc. (Karim & Mohamed, 2019). Thus, the learning
becomes attractive to the students. Applying the latest digital technologies for language teaching will develop an
interest in the young learners for the course.
The study found that many students like existing teaching practices though most of them claimed modifications.
Shamrao (2013) recommends that both the teachers and students participate in many interactional activities that are very
import
make the procedure more effective, including motivating learners to give more focus on English language skills so that
they can easily understand the English technical terms used in their field. Sultana et al. (2019) also suggested that the
syllabus, materials and assessment system should be modified in accordance with the objectives of the course.
This study also indicates the need for modifications in the syllabus contents or teaching tactics (table-2, statement-4,
Mean: 2.91). In another point, the present students (table-2, statement-1) former students (table-4, statement-1 and 4)
both disagreed that the courses are not career or future needs-oriented. Latha (2014) and Kainth and Kumar (2015) also
found similar opinions that though the courses are designed to make the learners skilled in some specific English
communication skills, they still fail to do so. recommends altering the current
curriculum in keeping with the requirements of pupils and the prospects of academics.

VII. RECOMMENDATIONS
The recommendations can be practical only when teachers and students can act together. However, some suggestions
are appended below to address the English language teaching at engineering universities in Bangladesh:
A. Teachers' Training
University English teachers are often not willing to attend the training program as there are no rewards for attending
the course. On the contrary, teachers' training is an essential part of elevating teachers' skills irrespective of the subjects
they teach. Furthermore, it contributes to constructing teachers' perception and teacher individuality which governs
teachers' accomplishments in the classroom. Any teacher training program aims to achieve teaching modification
(Hargreaves & Fullan, 1992). Training for the teachers should be arranged regularly to make them acquainted with the
up-to-date teaching strategy. Teachers' training programs should be compulsory for the teachers to update their teaching
skills and promote the next rank at the organisations. The teacher training program should consider teachers' learning
styles and motivation. The training program should be designed based on teachers' specific needs and expectations to
help them teach effectively in the actual classroom.
B. Motivation
In the case of engineering students, teachers usually motivate the learners to know that these English courses have
impact on their professional life. Moreover, there is not much fun, rather a great deal of stress in engineering education.
Many students fail to turn up to classes because they fail to see the relevance of attendance and, at times, the relevance
of the English topics being taught. Many engineering students are not incredibly motivated to learn the English
language primarily because they have no real idea why they need English courses and whether all of the material is
actually required for their career. So, besides teaching, the teachers need to motivate the learners and at the same time
need to engage the students in a fun way to learn enthusiastically.
C. Evaluation and Testing Apparatus
Assessment and testing Apparatus should be another important aspect which the English teachers should follow
intensively. Assessment of learners' language attainment is a significant part of teaching. Teachers should make
questions according to the learners' acquisition. To engage the students creatively, there should be more open-ended
questions where the learners can comprehend the text better with their imagination. A question that requires only
'information retrieval' and memorisation should be evaded. Besides, self-evaluation and peer evaluation should be
sought along with teachers' evaluation. The selected engineering universities usually conduct written examinations to
evaluate the students' language competency. These written evaluations hardly reflect the communicative competency of
the students as a whole. Instead of these, students should be evaluated based on their day-to-day performance to be
motivated to improve their communication skills rather than just their writing skills. Moreover, a good amount of score
should be reserved for viva-voce, too.
D. Classroom Teaching Techniques
Students experienced a variety of classroom teaching techniques which often became a clog for the learners'
perspective. The syllabuses for the engineering students contain the basic components of listening, speaking, reading
and writing part, but the integration of these four skills is not planned rationally. The study has found that teachers with
general English teaching experiences deal with the students at engineering universities who need ESP based approach in
class. However, the following are recommended for resolving the English classroom teaching techniques:
E. Classroom Size
For effective classroom teaching, the strength of the students is fundamental, especially for language classes. It is
recommended that an English language class contain 20 to 25 students maximum so that the teacher can concentrate on
each student and teach them and correct them individually. Engineering universities usually prefer the CLT approach
for teaching English, where students demand continuous attention from their peers and teachers. A small class can
facilitate this avenue and allow for a qualitative study, not a quantity one.
F. Infrastructure and Resource Bank
A resource bank can be established in each university where teachers and learners can store or issue required
literature, text and other materials. Teachers should have the liberty to select texts for students and explore different
paths of teaching. Our teachers should build up discrete teaching resources so that students can relate themselves to
language teaching according to their understanding. Teachers can use the available resource books relevant to the
engineering students' needs.
G. Workshop
Under the supervision of teachers, students can organise workshops on how to select texts for the engineering
students and make different kinds of worksheets with intensive class activities for the engineering students during
English sessions. This will develop leadership quality and will also instil interest in the course. At the same time, this
will reduce the stage frights of the learners.
H. Multimedia
Engineering students are usually technologically sound. They depend on the internet and multimedia for
entertainment-source. These sources can assist the students in improving their English language skills because the
students do not feel like education. They can connect with the song's lyrics and movie characters and this assists them
understand the language, expressions, comparisons, personifications, etc. The visual-only video teaching strategy
(VOVTS) of Santos (2019) can be a tool for English language teaching effectively.
I. Newspaper, Magazines and Books
These are handy tools for developing English language proficiency in the classroom. Universities may plan for a
compulsory reading hour of newspapers, magazines, books and novels for at least 30 minutes with 10 minutes
discussion. Reading English newspapers and magazines daily helps a student to learn new words and enrich his
vocabulary.
J. Class Activities for Students
Some class activities can be arranged for the students in an innovative way to learn with fun. Teaching through
games can be an exciting way for engineering students as they remain under pressure of core subjects. Game of words
can do an excellent job to increase the collection of vocabulary by teaching them the meaning of the words and
practising them in everyday life. Games like hangman, scrabble, anagrams, word puzzles, etc., have been intended for
this specific purpose of increasing vocabulary. Students can be interested in planning an extensive range of exercises,
such as voting a quote, predictions, pyramid discussion, jigsaw, matching, gap filling, grids, charts, creative writing,
cloze, rewriting, etc.

VIII. CONCLUSION
Presenting an individual's skills and professional capabilities does not depend on their knowledge of core subjects
only, rather proficiency in the English language regarding communication skills matters a lot nowadays. Ensuring
timely English courses and a suitable teaching environment at engineering universities to learn English in a modernised
way can provide engineering students with easy access to the job market. Many Bangladeshi engineering students are
displaying excellent performance in different countries of the world. Nowadays, seeking a good job or applying for
higher education, proficiency in English has become a prerequisite factor for engineers. The lucrative jobs around the
globe will be snatched away by competitors if the course contents fail to be commensurate with the professional
requirements. Thus, this study has investigated the effectiveness of the English language courses and teaching
techniques in English classrooms for developing English proficiency, teaching tactics, and the scopes of a better
employment opportunity. The study faced several limitations also. The selection of the participants for the survey was a
limitation. Had more students participated in the study, the research would have been richer in its findings and
recommendations. Besides, interview of employees from the workplaces would be an essential source to get the actual
need for linguistic competence, which was not considered because of the pandemic and time constraints. However,
more research studies are required to know the students' motivational strategies, teachers' oral and written feedback,
teacher-talk, teacher-research, teacher-training, professional development, and neuro-linguistic issues with greater
concentration and participants' involvement.

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 Mohammad Shahazahan Seraj Bhuiyan is a Major (AEC) of Bangladesh Army; and an Associate Professor of English in the
Department of Science and Humanities at the Military Institute of Science and Technology (MIST), Mirpur Cantonment, Dhaka,
Bangladesh.

Mohammad Ehsanul Islam Khan is an Assistant Professor in the Department of English at Manarat International University
(MIU), Dhaka, Bangladesh. He is also a part-time faculty member in the Department of Science and Humanities of the Military
Institute of Science and Technology (MIST), Mirpur Cantonment, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
 Cognitive Strategies Employed in Tackling
Lexical Problems in Second Language Learning:
A Psycholinguistic Study
Applied University, Jordan

Abstract This study sheds light on the lexical choice difficulty encountered by advanced learners of English
by analyzing the lexical choice errors committed by a group of Jordanian students majoring in English. A task
was set for 40 students to translate from Arabic into English several sentences including lexical items whose
specific senses restrict their use and applications in a particular context and within certain collocational
patterns. The sources of the errors were identified and categorized. In backtracking the sources of the errors
in each category, the study attempts to deduce the possible cognitive strategies employed by the students in
dealing with a lexical choice difficulty. Hence, the study provides psycholinguistic empirical evidence on the
lexical retrieval processes and strategies employed by second language (L2) learners in tackling lexical choice
problems. Results of the study revealed that the students employ a range of first language (L1)-based and L2-
based lexical retrieval strategies such as semantic association, semantic analogy, approximation and
derivations.

Index Terms lexical choice errors, lexical retrieval strategies, error sources, interlingual errors, intralingual
errors

I. INTRODUCTION
Lexical knowledge plays an integral role in second language (L2) acquisition. No doubt, vocabulary (lexes) is an
essential part in L2 acquisition. Harley (1996) maintains that lexical knowledge plays a fundamental role in developing
L2 proficiency (p.150)
vocabulary. Accordingly, lexes are the "building blocks" of a language and one cannot think that language acquisition
whether first, second, or foreign could take place without considering its vocabulary (Naba'h, 2011; Shormani, 2014;
Khuwaileh, 1995). It is a fact that language acquisition begins with words as they are simply the first thing learners
acquire (Llach, 2005, p. 46). In addition, as far as the communication process is concerned, it is the vocabulary
knowledge and the ability to use them successfully that makes a particular learner more proficient than another. Hatch
(1983) emphasizes the crucial role of vocabulary in communication as they are the fundamental linguistic elements that
p.237). Moreover, within academic settings vocabulary knowledge is crucial in
effective writing (Manchon et al., 2007, p.150). However, among the many studies conducted on L2 acquisition, the
vocabulary research has been a neglected area. Many researchers maintained that the main emphasis in L2 acquisition
study has been on grammar and phonology (Richards, 12015; Ellis, 1997; , p. 50).
Moreover, the studies that are particularly concerned with lexical errors are still relatively limited in scope and number.
p. 43).
Despite the great efforts exerted in research on the acquisition of L2 vocabulary and more specifically lexical errors
L2 learners commit, there are some issues and questions to be explored. Only relatively few studies have investigated
L2 lexical errors; however, such studies are not satisfactory as they addressed only "a relatively limited number of
lexical errors categories" (Hemchua & Schmitt, 2006, p. 3). Moreover, there are even fewer studies that have tackled the
sources of such errors. Thus, the present study attempts to probe deeply into the possible sources of lexical errors and
explore the cognitive processes involved in dealing with a lexical choice difficulty.

II. OBJECTIVES
This study aims at investigating the possible sources of lexical errors committed by advanced learners majoring in
English. In other words, the study tries to identify what makes a learner commit a particular error. In fact, the study
more specifically attempts to answer the questions: (1) Is it the first language (L1; Arabic) that causes errors related to
the lexical choice or L2 (English)? and (2) What strategies are employed in retrieving a suitable lexical item? Do
learners adopt L1-based or L2-based lexical retrieval strategies?

III. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

Lexical error
 A lexical error within this study is defined as a deviation committed at the lexical choice level due to a violation of
the lexical rules particular to English (Naba'h, 2011, p. 44).
Interlingual errors (L1 errors)
Interlingual errors are related to the interference in the native language. Such errors occur when the learner's L1
(patterns, systems, or rules) are transferred to L2. In this way, learner's L1 influences the production of L2. The
influence will be on any aspect of language: vocabulary, grammar, culturally appropriate language use and so on
(Grassi & Barker, 2010, p. 257).
Intralingual errors (L2 errors)
Intralingual errors are attributed to L2, independent of the native language. They are errors that take place due to the
misuse of a rule or a faulty generalization of a rule in the target language. The learner in this case tries to generalize a
rule that does not apply to the target language (Richards, 2002, p. 267).
Lexical retrieval strategy
Lexical retrieval is an essential process in both native language (L1) and second language (L2) oral and written
production. Lexical retrieval processes refer to the access and selection of the relevant lexical items needed to express
., 2007, p.150).

IV. METHODOLOGY
A. Participants
The present study intends to analyze the lexical choice errors committed by some Jordanian university students
majoring in English language and literature and probe deeply their possible sources. In the same vein, in tracking back
the sources of such errors, the study intends to deduce the possible cognitive strategies employed in dealing with a
lexical choice difficulty.
In academic settings, it is widely held that a learner can learn a word easily, but it is difficult to use it in an
appropriate context unless he/she has practiced using it recurrently. Consequently, to study lexical errors and lexical
choice difficulty, the participants should be of an advanced level having a high level of proficiency. Thus, a task was set
for 40 university students to translate from Arabic into English several sentences including lexical items whose specific
senses restrict their use and applications in particular context and within certain collocational patterns and hence might
constitute a lexical choice difficulty for learners (see appendix 1). To elicit simultaneous responses from the students,
some simple sentences with simple lexical items were inserted between the target sentences in order not to draw their
attention to the lexical items in question (those confusing items). The age of the participants ranged from 18-24 years.
They were all female. They had studied English for about sixteen years (12 at school and four at university). They had
studied several courses like those of a practical nature (skills) such as reading, writing, and speaking, those of theory
such as syntax, semantics, and sociolinguistics, and literature courses such as novel, drama, and short story.
B. Procedure
The students interpreted the sentences without an aid of a dictionary. All the errors committed by students in this test
were spotted and collected. Errors on the syntactic, spelling, and lexico-grammatical were all excluded. To investigate
the source of lexical choice errors, a classification of the errors was made. The classification was developed on the base
of an amalgam of classifications taken from Shormani (2014), Shormani and

exemplifying each category (errors sources) were analyzed to find out what strategies (lexical retrieval strategies) were
followed in the interpretation of such lexical items, i.e., retrieving the relevant suitable lexical items. In doing so, the
study provides psycholinguistic evidence of the factors and processes involved in tackling lexical choice problems.

V. CLASSIFICATION OF LEXICAL CHOICE ERRORS

An analysis of the collected errors derived five categories in which the identified lexical errors were classified. The
categories are listed below in table 1:
TABLE 1
SUMMARY OF LEXICAL CHOICE ERROR CATEGORIES
1. Assumed Synonym
2. Analogy
3. Lack of Vocabulary Knowledge
4. Paraphrase
5. Literal Translation

As Table 1 above shows, there are five categories in which the lexical errors identified in this study were classified.
Error frequency, category, and so
noted here that every example presented below involves only one single lexical error though in its original form (as
written by the participant), it might have more than one error and of different type(s) (see Appendix 2)
 TABLE 2
LEXICAL ERRORS
Category L1-interference L2-influence Total
F % F % F %
Assumed Synonymy 15 17 24 28 39 45
Analogy 1 1 18 21 19 22
Lack of Vocabulary Knowledge -- 12 14 12 14
Paraphrase 4 5 6 7 10 9
Literal Translation 4 5 3 3 7 8
Total 24 28 63 72 87 100

As presented in Table 2 above, the errors identified in the corpus are analyzed in terms of the abovementioned five
wing categories. It should be noted here that
every example presented below involves only one single lexical error though in its original form (as written by the
participant), it might have more than one error and of different type(s) (see Appendix 2).
A. Assumed Synonymy

synonymous; they both describe the general size of something. However, the former is used with clothing and food
while the later not, e.g., a blouse can be a large size but not a big size or when ordering coffee, it can a large coffee but
not a big one (Wehmeier, 2005). As far as the process of L2 is concerned, the existence of such a phenomenon will be a
source of confusion and difficulty for learners leading to what is called assumed synonymy which is the main concern of
this study. This simply implies that L2 learners assume that two or more words are synonymous and so can be used
interchangeably in an L2. An analysis of the data shows that L1-interference and L2-influence are the cause of the
errors committed due to assumed synonymy. Assumed synonymy scores the highest number of errors with 39 errors
accounting for 45% and was distributed as follows: L1-interference with 15 errors (17%) and L2-influence 24 errors
(28%). These different sources are exemplified below and supported by examples from the corpus of the study.
(1) *Where is the English section? (department)
(2) * The main components of a short story. (elements)
(3) * Toys section. (department)
(4) * The branch of the ICU. (section)
(5) * The department of history book. (section)
,
These errors are ascribed to different sources. For instance, in (1), the error is ascribed to Arabic which is caused by
hypothesizing a one-to-one correspondence between English and Arabic because department and section have the
same equivalence in Arabic, i.e., qism . The error in (2) is ascribed to L2-influence. In English the words
, there are
y used to describe parts of concrete objects

ana ir alqi ah/elements of a story) by opting for

an claim the learner uses meaning approximation as an L2-based lexical retrieval
strategy. One could think that this error can be ascribed to Arabic;
a ana ir is used instead ( ana ir alqi ah
not a ). Thus, an L1-interference seems not to be possible here.
B. Analogy
This category scored the second highest rank in error accounting for 19 errors (22%). Analogy is considered a
learning strategy which indicates that the learner plays an active role in the learning process (not a passive interlocutor
in the learning process) as he/she sometimes indulges in analogical thinking in dealing with a particular difficulty.
However, in most of the cases, it becomes an error. This category included 19 errors (22%) distributed as follows: L1-
interference with 18 errors (21%) and L2-influence with 1 error (1%). Consider examples (6) - (10) exemplifying this
issue.
(6) * The tittles of the army. (divisions)
(7) *The deepest place of the lake. (part)
(8) * The materials of this pie. (ingredients)
(9) * We need a resolution for this typewriter (repair)
In example (7), the l
The participant ami:q) in connection with
almakan
ala maq . Errors in (6), (8), and (9) are ascribed to English. In (6),

the learner than it is with the actual divisions of army. Thus, it seems that in trying to retrieve the appropriate relevant
y
 s
that there is analogy made between the problem involved in the given situation in the sentence (a problem with a

followed by the students, it seems that semantic relatedness/association seems to be at play here. The students in trying
to retrieve the relevant lexical items make a kind of cognitive semantic associations or connections. This kind of
re.
C. Lack of Vocabulary Knowledge
Some of the examined errors indicate a lack of English vocabulary knowledge. This category scores 12 errors (14%).
Examples (10) and (11) illustrate the point in question.
(10) * What are the instructions of this pie. (ingredients)
(11) *We need to demand this typewriter. (repair)
The learners committing such errors might lack the simplest basic knowledge of English vocabulary. The lexical
difficulty encountered when interpreting some of the sentences seems to be dealt with passiveness. No specific active

rrors. For instance, in

(10) and (11),
or in Arabic. Thus, one can claim that this seeming passiveness with
which such lexical difficulty is dealt with can be attributed to a lack of vocabulary knowledge.
D. Paraphrase
Shormani (2012a) defines paraphrase as a restatement of a word, phrase, or sentence in different words. In this study,
paraphrase is confined only to the word and phrase levels. In fact, paraphrase is considered one of the most fundamental
language learning strategies. However, what happens sometimes is that the L2 learners cannot find the exact
word/phrase to be used in a context, so they try to exploit a paraphrasing strategy but the outcome is not as expected,
hence resulting in an error. This category scores the fourth highest number of errors. It scores 10 errors (9%) distributed
as follows L1-interference includes 4 errors (5 %) and L2-influence includes 6 errors (7%). Examples (12) (15)
illustrate this point.
(12) *The obligatory parts of the English sentence in syntax. (constituents)
(13) *I want the big one of the spaghetti. (portion)
(14) *I want the big shot of the spaghetti. (portion)
(15) * I want the lion meal of the spaghetti. (portion)
In (12), . In (13) - (15), ,
) is ascribed to L1-interference where the learner
al ana ir alasasiah liljumlah ). This is not accurate

one lexical item substitute/equivalent for this word in Arabic. The exact meaning which this word designates in English
is captured by a phrasal paraphrase in Arabic rather than one single substitute, and this might have contributed to such a
lexical choice difficulty. Hence, substitution is used here as an L1-based lexical retrieval strategy. The examples (13)
(15) are ascribed to L2-influence simply because the exact equivalent of the Arabic ah (al ah
al akbar min alma karownahunah) does exist in English (portion). However, being unable to retrieve this relevant
,

l2-based lexical retrieval strategy is at work here.

E. Literal Translation
As shown in Table 1 above, this category scores 7 errors (8%). In fact, literal translation is considered a learning
strategy (compensatory strategy) which a learner uses when he/ she fails to express himself/herself (Kroll & Groot,
2005, p.138). This category includes both L1-interference errors and L2-influence errors distributed as 4 errors (5%)
and 3 errors (3%) respectively. The errors in (16) - (19) exemplify such a category.
(16) * Where is the ICU unit? (section)
(17) *I want the biggest lesson of this spaghetti (portion)
(18) * What are the makers of this pie? (ingredients)
(19) * What are the containings of this pie? (ingredients)
The errors in (16) and (17) are ascribed to L1-interference where
, wi
wi al inajah almurakkazah

difficulty of retrieving the adequate lexical item here, the learner has relied on the literal translation of the word
ah -based lexical retrieval strategy here. The errors in
(18) and (19) could be ascribed to L2-influence. It seems that the learner, through the strategy of derivation, has
i

-based retrieval strategy to

deal with such a lexical choice problem.

VI. CONCLUSION
The study highlights the importance of lexical knowledge in the L2 acquisition process. As presented in Table 1
earlier, where the frequency of total errors committed was 87 errors, lexical errors will constitute a barrier for advanced
learners in the learning and communicative process. The collected data showed two main categories of errors:
interlingual and intralingual errors. Interlingual errors accounted for 28% and intralingual errors accounted for 72% of
the total number of errors. This could be related to the fact that most of the participants of the study are advanced
learners and so the possibility of L1-inteference is limited. A thorough analysis of the errors revealed that the students
employ a range of L1-based and L2-based lexical retrieval strategies such as semantic association, semantic analogy,
approximation, and derivations. However, in some instances where there is insufficient knowledge of the lexis in L2,
the learners seem to act passively when dealing with a lexical choice problem. This is revealed in the random arbitrary
lexical choices under the category of lack of vocabulary knowledge where the errors do not indicate any kind of active
retrieval strategy.

APPENDIX 1
Age Year of Study
18-20 22-24 25-30 First Second Third Fourth
Circle your evaluation (overall average) at the university:
Excellent Very Good Good Fair
Please translate the following sentences from Arabic into English
(cake)
ICU

(toys)

(Syntax
 APPENDIX 2
Literal Translation
Responses Frequency
What are the parts of this calculator? (components) 5
Where is the ICU unit? 3
What are the containings of this pie? 1
What are the makers of this pie? 2
We need to reform this typewriter 1
The care was reformed 1
I want the biggest lesson of this spaghetti 1

Analogy
Responses Frequency
I want the biggest share of this spaghetti 1
Tittles of the army 1
This is the deepest fraction of this lake 1
This is the deepest segment of this lake 1
This is the deepest place of this lake 1
The portion of the lake 2
What are the most parts of an English sentence 1
What are the materials of this pie 2
We need a resolution for this typewriter 1
What are the units of this calculator? 1
The segment of the calculator 1
What are the equipments of this calculator? 1
The tools of this calculator 1
What are the main parts of the English sentence in syntax 2
I want the lion meal of this spaghetti 1
I want the lion share of this spaghetti 1
Mention the themes of a short story 3
Mention the parts of a short story 1
Mention the features of a short story 1
We need to maintain this typewriter 1
Separated parts of history books in the library 1
Divid of history books 1
The ICU station 1
The deepest point of a lake 1
The deepest place of a lake 1
We need to improve this typewriter 1
Tittles of the army 1
Ramifications of the bank 1
Subdivisions of the bank 1
Apportionments of the Army 1
Army segments 1

Assumed Synonymy
Responses Frequency
Where is the English section? 5
Mention the main components of a short story 1
We need to fix this typewriter 5
What are the parts of this calculator? 7
The constituent of this calculator? 1
The sections of the army 2
The branches of the army 1
The portions of the army 1
The departments of the army 2
Where is the branch of the ICU 1
ICU department 4
I want the largest segment of this spaghetti 1
The constituent amount of this 1
The biggest piece of spaghetti 3
The biggest part of spaghetti 2
Toys section 15
Toys branch 1
The car was repaired 3
The portions of the bank 4
Department of history book 1
Branch of history books 1
Lack of Vocabulary Knowledge
Responses Frequency
All of the parts of the bank are in Jordan 1
All of the section of the bank are in Jordan 1
 The places of the bank 1
We need to demand this typewriter 1
The car was demanded 1
The part of history books in the library 3
Where is the English part (department) 1
Where is the toys part? 2
This segment of my hand hurts me 1
Mention the parts a short story 1
Mention the factors of a short story 1
Where is the ICU part 2
What are the instructions of this pie? 1
Toys part 2
The car was corrected 1
The Part of the bank 1
This portion of my hand 1

Paraphrase
Responses Frequency
What are the main parts of the English sentence in syntax 4
What are the main categories of the English sentence in syntax 1
The obligatory parts of a sentence 1
The main elements in a sentence 1
The main components of a sentence 1
What are the basic parts of the English sentence in syntax? 5
I want the big one of the spaghetti 1
I want the big shot of the spaghetti 1

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Jordan. She obtained her Ph.D from the University of Jordan, Jordan in 2018. She has published in the areas of Corpus Linguistics
and Critical Discourse Analysis. Her academic research focuses on Cognitive Semantics, Historical Semantics, Translation and
Critical Discourse Analysis. She has presented papers at conferences at the national and international levels.
Saudi Learners' Perceptions of Academic Writing
Challenges and General Attitude Towards
Writing in English
Hanadi Abdulrahman Khadawardi
English Language Institute (ELI), King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Abstract Second language (L2) academic writing is one of the most fundamental, yet sophisticated skills for
university students to master. It requires the ability to not only create ideas using sentences, but also construct
meaningful, logical and comprehensible texts. Thus, understanding s s towards L2 writing and
exploring the challenges that they experience while composing texts are necessary for L2 teachers and
curriculum designers. The overall goal of this study is twofold: (1) t the
difficulty that they experience while writing academic texts in English and (2) to explore s
towards writing assignments in English. The goal here is to explore these issues using data obtained from 109
Saudi university students. Data were first collected using a questionnaire and then quantitatively analysed.
The results show that students tend to perceive academic writing as challenging and adopt a mildly to
moderately positive attitude towards writing in English. These findings offer some implications for teachers
and curriculum designers to improve the L2 academic writing skills of students.

Index Terms L2, positive attitude, negative attitude, academic writing, writing challenges, perception

I. INTRODUCTION
Academic writing is a very important area of research. This is because it has mainly become an increasingly
important part of university and college learning. Overall, the interplay among social, educational, linguistic and
cognitive factors seems to shape the development of the writing ability, resulting in true challenges for second language
(L2) writers (Manchon, 2009). Hence, it is important to find solutions to the numerous writing problems that writers
face. The social context is the factor that allows L2 writers to form their conceptions of writing, including their
motivation and perspective towards writing, which affect their writing performance. Some educational factors, such as
the amount and type of instruction received, also have an effect on the development of the writing ability for writers. It
is also worth mentioning that the cognitive skills, writing competence and writing approaches of writers have a great
impact on their writing abilities. Indeed, several linguistics factors,
and language transfer, play an essential role in shaping their writing performance (Manchon, 2009).
Several researchers have described academic writing as the production and logical organisation of sentences in
paragraphs to express specific ideas (Hyland, 2003; Kroll, 1994; Manchon & Matsuda, 2016). For example, Hyland and
Hyland (2006) stated that writing is context-embedded and can be understood only from the perspective of society
rather than from that of a single individual. Manchon and Matsuda (2016) and Elsherif (2012) indicated that one of the
basics of academic writing is the ability of learners to find and access relevant resources, to evaluate such resources in
order to arrange their ideas and to insert their opinions in order to develop their own voice. Since academic writing is a
product of the mental processes of writers, it is considered a cognitive activity (Manchon, 2009). Given these three
different perspectives, it can be concluded that academic writing involves a variety of aspects that operate together in a
complex process and require a deep understanding from the the language

As most subjects nowadays are delivered in English, students need to compose their ideas and write their
assignments also in English. They need to overcome the challenges of writing and to master the skills of academic
writing to succeed in their courses. This, however, results in great difficulties for L2 students, who learn English as a
second language (ESL) and study other subjects through the medium of English (Hinkel, 2020). This problem causes L2
university students to form specific attitudes towards writing in English and to encounter challenges when composing
texts while simultaneously trying to fulfil the requirements of their academic context. This whole notion stems from the
fact that academic writing generally causes frustration for university students, as they perceive themselves as lacking
the L2 language proficiency required at the academic level (Hyland, 2002). Thus, these challenges and attitudes are two
related factors that may complicate academic writing for L2 students.
Purpose of the Study
According to the above-mentioned literature, and from the r , many
L2 students fail to meet the requirements of the institutes that they study at in terms of producing a well-written form of
academic text that meets the expectations of their instructors. It is also worth highlighting that little research has been
performed
language teachers and curriculum and course designers to understand the root c difficulties that
negatively affect their writing abilities. Since the attitude of students towards academic English writing might impact
their challenges, or vice versa, either negatively or positively, the current study had two goals: (1) to examine Saudi
s writing in English and (2) to investigate the L2 academic writing challenges that students
face.

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Academic Writing
Academic writing is a complex process that is neither easy nor spontaneous for many L2 writers. It is the result of
employing different strategies to manage the composition process, which involves gradually developing a complete text.
Composition process involves activities such as setting goals, generating ideas, organising information, selecting
appropriate language, making drafts, reading, reviewing, revising and editing (Hedge, 2014). Earlier studies have shown
that interest has started to shift from textual features presented in orthography, sentence structure and discourse-level
structure to the process of writing itself, focussing on investigating the processes underlying the production of written
discourse (Kroll, 2008).
Several researchers have identified the characteristics of the writing process. For example, Hedge (2014) asserted that
writing is a recursive and generative process, with students re-reading their work, assessing it, reacting and moving on.
In this vein, two types of writing have been distinguished: knowledge telling and knowledge transformation. On the one
hand, knowledge telling is the easiest form of writing, which is accessible to all language users. On the other hand,
knowledge transformation requires thinking about a topic, obtaining the information needed for analysis and modifying
strategy. This type of writing causes writers to expand their knowledge and develop new ideas by
processing new information (Hinkel, 2020). In another study, Tribble (1996) classified the most important
characteristics of academic writing: organising writing to convey major and supporting ideas; using relevant reasons
and examples to enhance a position; demonstrating a command of standard written English, including grammar,
phrasing, effective sentence structure, spelling and punctuation; manifesting facility with a range of vocabulary
appropriate to the topic; and showing awareness towards the audience and writing for a particular reader. The author
also listed the four frequent writing tasks in colleges and universities: analytical writing, extracting information,
summarising important points and developing factual reports and observations (ibid). In general, the writing process
includes various stages: pre-writing, drafting, revising, editing and finally publishing (Sari et al., 2020). This means that
L2 writers should have various skills to compose well-developed academic texts, such as being able to exploit others
ideas and write them in their own words, creating outlines and summaries, organising ideas and editing drafts (Tribble,
1996).
Writers also need different sorts of knowledge related to content, context, language system and writing processes to
compose a well-written text. Gillett et al. (2009) asserted that academic writing requires writers to have specific abilities
and to apply various strategies, such as understanding the task at hand, making plans, carrying out research, reading,
taking notes, writing descriptively and critically, expressing their own voice and working with feedback.
All of these factors indicate that writing is not a simple cognitive task. It requires complex mental activities that need
specific knowledge, skills and processes. Therefore, writing has always been considered as the most challenging skill of
language learning for all students, especially if it is required in a foreign language Thus, it is important to investigate
the L2 writing weaknesses of students and shed some light on the obstacles that negatively affect their L2 academic
writing.
B. L2 Writing Challenges

academic writing. For example, in a qualitative study by with a small sample size
investigating undergraduate Turki the authors showed that the
educational and contextual factors and writing experiences, exemplified in writing classroom instructions and
examinations, are the main sources for their writing challenges. Similarly, Qasem et al. (2019) investigated the
challenges that final-year undergraduate Saudi students face while writing research projects in English. They found that
students face some difficulties in deciding on and understanding the topic for research and finding references. Heo and
Sim (2015) investigated the causes underlying the difficulties that Korean learners face while writing English academic
texts. They found that students experience challenges with organising their ideas logically and coherently. They also
highlighted that the lack of learning experience and linguistic knowledge and the
lexical choices and expressions in English are the most common causes for such writing challenges.
Anderson and Cuesta-Medina (2019) asserted that students face challenges with the rhetorical aspects of L2, which
stem from a lack of L2 writing training. Shakib Kotamjani and Hussin (2017) investigated the academic writing
challenges postgraduate students face at University Putra Malaysia. They found that students perceive great difficulties
with academic writing skills, such as critiquing existing research and determining research gaps. They also found that
writing the introduction, discussing the findings and tying up the loose ends in the conclusion are a source of difficulties
in academic writing. In this regard, Akhtar et al. (2020) studied a small number of Malaysian students and found that
academic challenges are the main cause for the students apprehensiveness towards L2 writing. In the same vein,
Mahmood (2020) conducted a research exploring the challenges of academic writing that 19 English as foreign
language (EFL) learners face in the higher education section of Pakistan. He concluded that finding references and
including citations, ensuring cohesion and coherence, choosing a worthwhile topic and focussing on language usage are
the greatest sources of the challenges that students experience in academic writing. Likewise,
highlighted that the most problematic areas in academic writing for students are the use of proper grammar, connections
and transitions, presenting ideas clearly, knowing about different vocabulary and expressions and choosing correct
words related to the field.
In another study, Hammad (2016) examined the essay writing skills and obstacles that face Palestinian university
students. The results showed that students lack linguistic knowledge, cohesion and academic style and adopt word-for-
word translation. Similarly, within the Indonesian context, the researcher found that students dislike writing because of
the linguistic problems and cognitive issues related to paragraph organisation and text structure (Rahmatunisa, 2014). In
another study, Schneider (2009) found that formulaic writing is one of the reasons why students are not interested in
writing, which consequently affects their writing performance.
guage (L1) and applying the theories of L1 writing may also
have negative effects on the L2 performance of writers (Hinkel, 2020). In this vein, several researchers have asserted
that the rhetorical features of certain languages tend to L2 writing, resulting in challenges and
obstacles in L2 writing performance (Cai, 2013; Graham, 2019; Michel et al., 2020).
Together, these studies indicate that most L2 students in different contexts fail to meet the requirements of the
institutes that they study at and the expectations of their instructors because of the writing challenges that they
experience. However, l in
the university context. Therefore, it is important to investigate what other students in different contexts believe hinders
their academic writing performance, especially in the
attitudes towards academic writing, as it is believed that their attitudes can result in various writing challenges and
influence the quality of their academic writing and English assignments (Shakib Kotamjani & Hussin, 2017).
C. s
Attitudes are envisaged and viewed differently by scholars (Chambers, 1999) and are defined in different ways by
experts. They are related to preferences, likes and dislikes (Agesty et al., 2021), tendencies towards things (Garrett,
2010) and ideas that influence someone to behave or think in a particular way (ibid). Bartram (2010) viewed attitude as
a behavioural intention and part of the human identity (ibid). Attitude helps educators understand human behaviour in
terms of one s beliefs and feelings (Garrett, 2010). It also informs educators of their
way they think, act and behave (ibid). It is a set of values that students bring to the language learning experience
(Chambers, 1999). Attitude includes three important categories: cognitive, affective and conative (Mishra & Pani, 2021).
The first component refers to pinions of something, the
feelings and emotions towards something and the behavioural component refers to one s actions towards an object. For
the purposes of this study, attitude is considered to mean the negative or positive ideas or beliefs that evaluate and affect
behaviour.

Many factors affect students L2 writing performance, such as the time to write, writing with a purpose and for an
audience and sharing and choosing writing topics (Mishra & Pani, 2021). Over the past few decades, emphasis has
shifted s, motivations and perceptions. According to L2 writing researchers, there is a positive
s and their writing behaviour (Hashemian & Heidari, 2013). In other words,
students should have a positive attitude towards writing, as this can help them achieve better writing results and save
some effort in writing tasks. Agesty et al. (2021) s and
their writing performance. All of these studies indicate that the writing attitude influences the writing achievement.
However, earlier studies have shown that L2 student writers who have a negative attitude towards writing often
perceive essay composition as a difficult task and dislike the activity altogether. Many researchers have drawn
connections between writing attitude and challenges. For example, Erkan and Saban (2011) stated that being successful
in L2 writing is related to the attitude and self-perception towards writing. These negative perceptions may be a result
of many factors, such as the lack of time to practice writing or an ineffective writing course guide and curriculum.
Similarly, Zhu (2001) found that the lack of rhetorical and linguistic knowledge for student writers is the major cause
for their negative attitudes towards writing. Jabali (2018) also found that writers who have a positive attitude towards
writing perform well in writing tasks. He also f
causes for their negative attitudes, which hinder their performance. In other words, most of the students who tend to
show a negative attitude towards writing make writing mistakes and feel unconfident in expressing their thoughts.
According to the literature, the attitudes of L2 learners have been the topic of many studies on language learning. Most
of the findings suggest that adopting a positive attitude towards learning has positive effects on the writing performance,
and vice versa (Wang, 2010). Thus, it is clear from the thorough literature review that there is a need to study and
 s towards academic English writing and to explore the factors that affect their
writing performance. According to Garrett (2010), there is a relationship between attitude and behaviour, and changing
s attitude towards something can accordingly change their behaviour.
The L2 writing field is an area of inquiry with a rich and very interesting history. However, there is still a need to
in and attitudes towards L2 writing. There has also been considerable interplay
over the years between research into writing and learning and instruction in writing. So far, there has been relatively
little research focus s towards academic writing.
Most of the earlier studies have had direct repercussions on classroom practices, and much research has been dedicated
(Elsherif, 2012; Hyland & Hyland,
2006; Mazgutova & Hanks, 2021; Tsao et al., 2021). Therefore, more research is required to understand how Saudi
students view English writing and to identify the challenges that they experience while writing academic assignments.
D. Research Questions
The aim of this study is to answer the following questions:
RQ1: What are the s academic writing in general?
RQ2: What are the most and least common challenges perceived by students while writing assignments in English?
RQ3: s and writing challenges?
RQ4: Are there differences in s following three English-
taught tracks: general (ELIA), science (ELIS) and humanities (ELCA)?

III. METHODOLOGY
A. Participants of the Study
The population chosen for this study were undergraduate Saudi female university students studying at King
Abdulaziz University in Saudi Arabia. This study was performed on 109 students aged between 18 and 24 with different
proficiency levels (pre-intermediate, intermediate and upper intermediate) and studying three different English-taught
tracks: general (ELIA), science (ELIS) and humanities (ELCA). Sampling method was also used to recruit the
participants, which involved
colleagues teaching in the same field to participate and distribute the survey link to other students.
B. Study Design
This is a descriptive quantitative study that is deemed significant as it sets out to describe and interpret specific
phenomena in a specific context. It seeks to address two crucial aspects related to L2 academic writing:
challenges and attitudes. Finding sound answers can help writing instructors and curriculum designers adopt suitable
teaching methodologies to enhance the L2 academic writing skills of university students.
C. Instruments
A questionnaire consisting of three sections (Sections 1, 2 and 3) was used to gather the data. Section 1 includes
questions pertaining to the , including their age, level of English proficiency, taught
language track, major and year of study. Section 2 consists of 14 questions that aim to identify the challenges that
students face while writing in English. Finally, Section 3 contains 15 questions that aim to identify learners general
attitudes towards writing in English. The rating scale used in the current study is the generally used Likert scale with
five responses: 1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (neither agree nor disagree), 4 (agree) and 5 (strongly agree).
Two open-ended questions were also formulated to allow the participants to freely express their opinions regarding
whether they find writing assignments in English difficult, the reasons for the difficulties they face and their weaknesses
in writing English composition assignments.
To gather data from the participants, two major questionnaires were adopted and modified: the Writing Apprehension
Test (WAT), also called the Daly Miller Test, developed by Daly and Miller (1975), and a questionnaire prepared by
Podsen (1997) (cited in Islam, 2017; Setyowati, 2017; Setyowati & Sukmawan, 2018). Several modifications were
made to the surveys to suit the purposes, context and students of the current study (see Appendix A).
The questionnaire was designed and distributed online via the SurveyMonkey platform. The typical time spent to fill
in the questionnaire was calculated as 12 minutes. To ensure the validity and reliability of the questionnaire, it was
reviewed and referenced by several university instructors. It was then piloted with three students and three English

the survey was reviewed on the basis of the -Cronbach coefficient method of correlation and reliability coefficient.
-Cronbach formula, the reliability of the questionnaire was found to be 0.92. Next, a bilingual (Arabic and
English) questionnaire was prepared to allow the participants to better understand the instructions, questions and items
and to proceed at ease while filling in the questionnaire.
Ethical approval for this research was obtained from King Abdulaziz University and the chair of the English
Language Institution (ELI). This questionnaire was conducted according to established ethical guidelines, and informed
consent was obtained from the participants at the beginning of the online questionnaire.
D. Data Analysis
IBM SPSS Statistics (version 27; IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA) was used to analyse the data. Descriptive statistics
were used to present categorical variables, whereas continuous variables were presented as the mean ± standard
deviation (SD). The difficulties faced by L2 learners were explored using a 12-item five-point Likert scale ranging from
1 to 5 (items 1 and 2 were reverse-scored as they were negatively worded). The total possible score for this scale was 60,
with a higher score meaning more difficulties faced by L2 learners. A total of 15 items from another five-point Likert
scale, which ranged from 1 to 5 (items 1, 2 and 3 were reverse-scored as they were negatively worded), were used to
explore the s towards writing in English. The total possible score for this scale was 75, with
a higher score meaning more positive attitudes towards writing in English. ation coefficient was used to
assess the correlation between the difficulties faced by L2 learners (difficulty score) and the
attitudes towards writing in English (attitude score). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to explore the difference
in the mean score between different demographic groups. A confidence interval of 95% (p < 0.05) was applied to
represent the statistical significance of the results, and the level of significance was assigned as 5%.

IV. RESULTS
A. Demographic Characteristics of the Study Participants
A total of 109 students were recruited in this study, most of whom were aged between 18 and 24. In total, 73.0% of
the study participants had an English level of 103, and 39.4% of them were in the ELIA study track. Most of the study
participants were in their preparatory year of study. For further details on the demographic characteristics of the study
participants, refer to Table 1.
TABLE 1
DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STUDY PARTICIPANTS
Demographic variable Frequency Percentage
Age category
Below 18 years 6 5.5%
18 24 years 94 86.2%
25 34 years 6 5.5%
35 44 years 2 1.8%
45 years and above 1 0.9%
Level of English
101 13 11.9%
102 8 7.3%
103 79 72.5%
104 5 4.6%
Pre-intermediate 2 1.8%
Upper intermediate 1 0.9%
Advanced 1 0.9%
Study track
ELIS 40 36.7%
ELIC 1 0.9%
ELIE 1 0.9%
ELCA 23 21.1%
ELIA 43 39.4%
ELIG 1 0.9%
Year of study
Preparatory year 98 89.9%
Second year 6 5.5%
Third year 1 0.9%
Fourth year 3 2.8%

B. Difficulties Encountered by ESL Learners

The mean difficulty score for the study participants was found to be 38.6 (SD: 6.8) out of 60, representing 64.3% of
the total maximum obtainable score, which reflects a mild to moderate level of difficulty encountered by L2 learners. A
total of 12 items were utilised to explore the difficulties encountered by L2 learners. When the participants were asked
about the difficulties that they encounter, the most commonly agreed upon difficulties were frequently making common
spelling mistakes (56.5%), taking too much time to understand and familiarise themselves with the topic at hand before
they start writing (56.5%) and frequently making common grammar mistakes (56.4%) (see Figure 1).
 Figure 1 Percentage of Agreement Regarding the Difficulties Encountered by ESL Learners

C. Weaknesses or/and Difficulties Faced While Writing Assignments

In general, 64.8% of the participants reported that they find English assignments easy to some degree. When the
participants were asked about their weaknesses or/and the difficulties they face while writing assignments, the most
three commonly reported weaknesses or difficulties were coherence and cohesion, language use and finding relevant
references, with 46.3%, 38.9% and 37.0%, respectively. For further details on the weaknesses or/and difficulties faced
while writing assignments, refer to Table 2.
TABLE 2
WEAKNESSES OR/AND D IFFICULTIES FACED WHILE WRITING ASSIGNMENTS
Weaknesses/Difficulties Frequency Percentage
Coherence and cohesion 50 46.3%
Language use 42 38.9%
Finding relevant references 40 37.0%
Organising and connecting ideas 38 35.2%
Expressing own voice 33 30.6%
Writing supporting details 31 28.7%
Choosing a significant topic 27 25.0%
Writing a topic sentence 27 25.0%
Referencing and citation 23 21.3%
Writing electronically 13 12.0%

D. General Attitudes towards English Writing

The mean attitude score for the study participants was found to be 55.9 (SD: 7.6) out of 75, representing 74.5% of the
total maximum obtainable score, which reflects a mildly to moderately positive attitude towards writing in English. A
total of 15 items were used to explore the s towards writing in English. According to the
participants, the three most commonly agreed upon attitude statements were that the
always helpful for them (94.5%), that writing in English is important for their success in their careers (89.9%) and that
the teacher behaviour and personality affect their writing (83.4%) (for more details, see Figure 2).
 Figure 2 Percentage of Agreement Regarding the General Attitude Towards Writing in English

E. Difficulties Encountered by L2 Learners and the General Attitude towards Writing in English
Pearson correlation coefficient was used to explore the correlation between the difficulties encountered by L2
learners and the general attitude towards writing in English. The coefficient measure was 0.376 (p
0.001), which reflects a medium negative correlation between the positive attitude score and the difficulty score. In
other words, the more the difficulties encountered by an L2 learner, the less likely they are to have a positive attitude
towards writing in English.
F. , the Difficulties Encountered by L2 Learners and the General Attitude towards Writing
in English
The difficulties encountered by L2 learners, represented by the difficulty score, were found to significantly differ
depending on the level of English proficiency of the study participants and their study tracks (p 0.01). However, no
statistically significant difference was found in the attitude towards writing in English (represented by the attitude score)
between participants from different demographic groups (for more details, see Table 3).
TABLE 3
PARTICIPANTS CHARACTERISTICS, THE DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED BY ESL LEARNERS AND THE GENERAL ATTITUDE TOWARDS WRITING IN
ENGLISH
Demographic Variable Difficulty Score p-value Attitude Score p-value
Age category
Below 18 years 42.0 (7.9) 57.3 (6.2)
18 24 years 38.4 (6.3) 55.7 (7.6)
0.085 0.656
25 34 years 37.2 (11.2) 59.8 (10.9)
35 44 years 49.5 (2.1) 51.5 (3.5)
Level of English proficiency
101 43.4 (5.8) 54.8 (9.7)
102 40.1 (7.4) 59.0 (6.2)
103 38.0 (6.3) 0.004 ** 55.2 (7.2) 0.324
104 35.2 (7.3) 62.4 (10.1)
Pre-intermediate 27.5 (6.4) 58.0 (4.2)
Study track
ELIS 36.1 (5.4) 56.6 (6.8)
ELCA 41.7 (7.5) 0.004 ** 58.4 (6.4) 0.214
ELIA 39.6 (6.6) 53.7 (8.7)
Year of study
Preparatory year 38.4 (6.8) 55.8 (7.7)
Second year 39.5 (5.6) 0.539 56.5 (9.4) 0.988
Fourth year 42.7 (11.1) 56.3 (6.5)

V. DISCUSSION
 Writing has always been perceived as the most troublesome and challenging skill for most L2 students. Over the last
decade, t ting in universities and colleges. This
increase was prompted by the belief that L2 learners have poor academic writing skills. This quantitative study was
designed to investigate the L2 academic writing challenges those Saudi students face and their attitudes towards English
writing assignments in general. A showed that students face many challenges while
composing academic texts in English. The study also focussed on s towards writing assignments in
English.
s L2 academic writing
assignments in general. The findings revealed mildly to moderately positive attitudes towards writing in English
(74.5%). One of the three most commonly agreed upon attitude statements was that the motivational and encouraging
words of English language instructors are always supporting and helpful for L2 students. The participants also indicated
that writing in English is important for their success in their careers. This proves that they are aware of the importance
of mastering English, particularly with regard to their writing skills. They further indicated that the teacher behaviour
and personality in the classroom affect their writing performance. This proves that they need to be encouraged,
motivated and interested to improve their writing abilities. Only a very few of the participants reported that they enjoy
writing academic assignments in English and that their teachers s of their writing are often different from
their own evaluation. Many of the participants also indicated that they only study English writing for their exams and to
achieve high grades. A possible explanation for these results may be the attitudes towards English
academic writing resulting from their poor writing abilities and the difficulties that they experience while writing their
assignments.
Regarding the second research question, a mild-to-moderate level of difficulty was found to be encountered by ESL
learners (64.3%). According to the participants, the most commonly agreed upon difficulty was frequently making
common spelling mistakes that affect their writing skills. Similar to the results obtained by Setyowati and Sukmawan
(2018), the participants in the current study reported that spending too much time to understand and familiarise
themselves with the topic at hand before they start writing and frequently making common grammar mistakes
negatively affect their writing skills. They also stated that using English terms, for example, to form correct sentences,
and finding the appropriate vocabulary are sources of difficulty in their academic writing. These findings are in line
with the results obtained by Ahmed (2019), Alharbi (2019), (2017), Heo and Sim (2015) and Sari et al.
(2020), showing that low English proficiency is the most significant obstacle that negatively affects
academic writing. The results obtained in this study also show that one of the three most commonly reported
weaknesses or difficulties in academic writing is forming a whole unit of text and making information in text flow
smoothly. This finding was also reported by Al-Badi (2015), Mahmood (2020) and RahmtAllah (2020), who found that
coherence and cohesion are considered difficult by L2 learners to be applied in academic writing. The participants also
reported that searching for information and selecting relevant references are challenging strategies of academic writing.
In contrast, they stated that writing electronically is overall the easiest strategy. They also referred to citing information
and writing topic sentences as not problematic in academic writing. These results are, however, contrary to previous
studies (Alharbi, 2019; Miller & Pessoa, 2016), who found that writing topic sentences is challenging for L2 writers. A
possible explanation for such a disparity in the results may be the different student contexts and previous L2 language
education and experiences.
The third question in this study was whether there is s and
writing challenges. The results revealed a medium negative correlation between the positive attitude score and the
difficulty score, which means that the more the difficulties encountered by an ESL learner, the less likely they are to
have a positive attitude towards writing in English s
towards writing in English and their actual academic writing performance. This finding was also reported by other
researchers (Akhtar et al., 2020; Ansarimoghaddam & Tan, 2014; Mishra & Pani, 2021; Mulyono et al., 2020;
Setyowati, 2017),
The fourth research question was whether
among students from three English-taught tracks: general (ELIA), science (ELIS) and humanities (ELCA). The results
showed that the difficulties encountered by L2 learners, represented by the difficulty score, significantly differ
depending on their level of English proficiency and their study tracks. In other words, the ELCA group was found to
comprise the largest number of students who experience challenges while writing in English, whereas the ELIS group
comprised the smallest number. Moreover, the results indicated that with the students reaching higher levels of
language proficiency, their L2 academic writing challenges decrease. Alternatively, students from different
demographic groups were found to exhibit no differences in their attitudes towards writing in English. In other words,
participants from the ELIS, ELCA and ELIS groups and participants from all language levels (101, 102, 103 and 104)
were found to share similar attitudes towards writing assignments in English. A possible explanation for these results
may be related to the s in learning L2 academic writing. According to Kroll (1994) and
Hedge (2014), s of receiving writing instructions in the classroom as well as
interacting with teachers are factors that affect their attitudes and performance.
 VI. IMPLICATIONS
Given the above findings, this study provides useful recommendations for L2 students and teachers. First, the results
obtained in this study can help English instructors focussing on academic writing skills in Saudi universities become
in terms of their L2 academic writing skills. The results also shed light
on how Saudi learners perceive English academic writing. These results can guide curriculum and course designers to
select appropriate materials and teaching methods that can help learners overcome their writing challenges. They can
also encourage teachers to prepare a curriculum based on their s and interests to motivate them to write
in English. Teachers can also use visual materials to engage their students in interesting topics and encourage them to
write about such topics. By doing this, teachers can enhance their
knowledge, which can overall improve their attitudes towards writing in English. Furthermore, teachers should design
teaching materials with more activities and tasks that focus on writing strategies, such as coherence, cohesion, unity,
searching for information, paraphrasing and summarising. For English students, this research can also make them aware
of their writing challenges and consequently help them overcome such challenges. Thus, this research can motivate
students to improve their writing skills, as it informs and makes them aware of their weaknesses and strengths in
academic writing.

VII. LIMITATIONS
This research has some limitations. First, the study mostly resulted in descriptive data, in which generalisations about
the findings cannot be made. The current research also did not provide information regarding the relationship between
s towards writing and their actual writing performance and achievements. Thus, qualitative methods,
such as interviews, focus groups, think-aloud protocols and student-written texts, are required to collect more in-depth
data about the L2 writing challenges that students face. This can help provide deep insights into the different external
and internal factors causing difficulties in L2 academic writing. Moreover, the current study focussed only on a specific
group of students and did not investigate the L2 academic writing attitudes and challenges of students of different
genders, ages and disciplines and from different language institutions.

VIII. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

Given the findings obtained in the current study, there are many recommendations and suggestions for further
research. First, there is a need for action research to investigate the writing skills among Saudi L2 learners. In this
regard, teachers and/or researchers may cooperate s
L2 writing and their actual L2 writing performance. By doing so, they can design a curriculum and modify it according
to research results. It is also recommended to perform research on different students from different disciplines, ages and
genders as well as from various language institutions and universities. This may result in fruitful and plausible findings.
Finally, it is recommended to further study the
(Arabic) on their L2 academic writing assignments, as this can help reveal some of the reasons underlying the L2
writing challenges.

APPENDIX A. QUESTIONNAIRE
Q1 - Your Email Address

Q2 - Age

Under 18
18-24
25-34
35-44
45-54
55-64
65+
Q3 - Describe your level of English language?

101
102
103
 104
Pre-intermediate
Upper-intermediate
Advanced

Other (please specify)

What is your Track?
General English Track (ELIA)
Academic English Track (ELIS)
English Majors Track (ELIE)
Geo-Sciences Track (ELIG)
Faculty of Arts and Humanities Track (ELCA)
Health Sciences Track (ELIH)
Communication and Media Track (ELIC)
Q4 - What is your major?

Q5 - Year of Study

Preparatory year
Second year
Third year
Fourth year

Other (please specify)

Difficulties Encountered by ESL learners

Q1 - I understand how to write sentences using correct tenses

Q2 - I think sentence structure is challenge for me in writing.

Q3 - Most of my sentences are grammatically correct in my essays.

Q4 - During the writing and drafting stage, I usually do not know how to start writing.

Q5 - Writing introduction is difficult for me.

Q6 - Writing conclusion is difficult for me.

Q7 - My frequent common mistakes in grammar make my writing skills weak.

Q8 - My frequent common mistakes in spelling affect my writing skill.

Q9 - Before I start writing, I have difficulty to understand the topic of the essay.

Q10 - Before I start writing, I have spent a lot of time to understand and familiarize myself with the topic.

Q11 - I have difficulty organizing my ideas in writing.

Q12 - I have never maintained coherent in writing.

Q13 - Put a tick next to the weaknesses or/and difficulties you have faced when writing your assignments.

paraphrasing
 language use
expressing own voice
finding a relevant references
referencing & citation
coherence & cohesion
choosing a significant topic
writing a topic sentence
writing supporting details
writing electronically
organize and connect my ideas
others (specify)
Q14 - In general, you find writing assignment in English

Very easy
easy
Neither easy nor difficult
Difficult
Very difficult
Q15 - Do you find writing assignments in English difficult? Why or why not?

Q16 - What are the main weaknesses you have faced when writing your assignments?

General Attitude Towards English Writing

Q1 - English writing is not an important skill for me.

Q2 - I do not pay much attention in writing class.

Q3 - I study English writing test only for exam/assessment test.

Q4 - I always study English writing even when I do not have a test/exam.

Q5 - I enjoy writing academic essays.

Q6 - I like to search online material before writing.

Q7 - Each time that I write, and I know clearly what I want to accomplish.

Q8 - I watch some videos on related topic before writing.

Q9 - I like to get feedback from my friends on my compositions.

Q10 - I search online for materials on related topic before writing.

Q11 - English writing is important for success in my career.

Q12 - Discussing my writing with others is an enjoyable experience.

Q13 - Teacher's assessment of my writing often similar to my own evaluation.

Q14 - Teachers motivational words are always helpful for me.

 Q15 - Teacher behavior and personality affect my writing.

This is the end of the questionnaire.

Thank you for filling out this survey.

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WCF Model of L2 Writing Performance. SAGE Open, 11(2). Retrieved February 9, 2022, from
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Hanadi Abdulrahman Khadawardi received her BA in English Language and Literature from UQU Department of English
Literature and Translation, Saudi Arabia in 2005. She obtained her MA with distinction in Applied Linguistics and Research
Methodology from University of Southampton, UK, in 2011. Then, she has awarded a PhD in Modern Languages/Applied
Linguistics from University of Southampton, UK in 2016. She also has got a CELTA (Cambridge Certificate in English Language
Teaching for Adults) from Teaching House at OHC, London, UK.
She is currently an Assistant Professor of Applied Linguistics at KAU, ELI, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. She taught Academic English
language for international students and trained Postgraduate students on using Nvivo and Mendeley software at University of

language school project in UK. Her research interests include second language acquisition, learning and teaching, digital literacies,
academic reading and writing strategies, language learning skills, the use of modern technologies for language learning, peda gogical
issues, instructional and curriculum design and scientific research skills.
Dr -Troke) from English to Arabic
language. She also published several academic papers.
[1] Book Translated (2021)- Troike, Muriel Saville, Introducing Second Language Acquisition. (2006) Cambridge University
Press. Cambridge, UK.
[2] Khadawardi. H. (2020) Transfer of print-based academic reading strategies to on-screen reading. International Journal of
English Language Education. Vol.9, No.1 (pp.60-105). Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.5296/ijele.v9i1.18091
 [3] Khadawardi. H. (2021). The Effect of Implicit Corrective Feedback on English Writing of International Second Language
Learners. English Language Teaching; Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education Vol. 14, No. 1 (pp.123-139).
Retrieved from http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/elt/article/view/0/44477
 A Correlative Study on English Listening Beliefs
and Strategies of Chinese High School
Students A Case in Fujian Province
Yajing Wu
Overseas Education College, Minnan Normal University, Zhangzhou, China

Mei Peng
School for Continuing Education, Shanghai International Studies University, Shanghai, China

Abstract This study investigates the correlation between language learning beliefs and strategies in terms of
listening comprehension. Data were collected from 94 tenth graders in a Chinese high school in Fujian
Province through questionnaires and in-depth interviews. The findings show a significant and positive
correlation between English listening beliefs and strategies, which influence each other to varying degrees.
Specifically, the participants were reported to hold various beliefs on English listening while employing a range
of strategies for listening comprehension, though the frequency of their overall strategy use was at the medium
level. Furthermore, cognitive strategies were found to be the most frequently used ones, followed by
socio-affective strategies and metacognitive strategies. Based on the research findings, this article suggests that
high school English teachers should help learners foster positive beliefs which normally lead to effective use of
learning strategies; meanwhile, learners are advised to keep aware of what beliefs they hold, what strategies
they use most or least, and what alternative strategies they can select so as to enhance their metacognition level
and improve their listening comprehension.

Index Terms learning beliefs, learning strategies, listening comprehension, high school students

I. INTRODUCTION

participants and play important parts in the process of language learning. Consequently, lots of studies in the field of
EFL/ ESL learning investigate issues relevant to learners and individual differences (ID), including age, motivation,
language aptitude, anxiety, personality, intelligence, learning style, etc.
As two important ID factors in L2/FL learning, learner beliefs and learning strategies have gained much attention of
researchers from home and abroad. By investigating the relationship between the two variables, it is recognized that
learners preconceived beliefs about conscious and unconscious language learning affect the way they choose strategies,
988; Wen & Wang, 1996a;
Yang, 1999; Mokhtaria, 2007, as cited in Hassan, 2015).
However, given the importance of L2 listening comprehension (LC), particularly in EFL contexts, it is surprising to
find little research has investigated the relationship between learning beliefs and strategies in terms of L2 listening.
According to Vandergrift (1999), listening comprehension plays a key role in facilitating language learning, so it is
necessary to address how students listen and what beliefs they hold towards listening comprehension, as learners are
likely to have certain beliefs about listening, which may influence the way in which they approach and modulate the
efficacy of strategy utilization (Graham, 2006; Cross, great pressure of Gaokao (the
National College Entrance Examination), high school students are working under huge stress and are facing incredibly
tough competition. Particularly, after a listening section has been added in the English test for Gaokao, most high school
students find it a greater challenge to excel in the listening part. Generally speaking, after at least six years of English
learning at school, Chinese high school students have formed some sort of beliefs towards and preference of strategy
use about
corresponding strategies they employ in the process of listening, and the correlation between these two variables.
Hopefully, these research findings will

It is also expected that, by receiving correct and effective guidance and tuition from teachers, students will do better in
enhancing their English listening competence and improving their performance in English exams as well.

Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

 II. LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Learner Beliefs about Language Learning
Learner beliefs about language learning are preconceived notions or misconceptions about learning a second/ foreign
language (Horwitz, 1988). According to the Dictionary of Applied Linguistics (2002, as cited in Kamberi, 2013), learner
t different aspects of language, language learning and language teaching, which may
have an effect on their learning strategies and learning outcomes. In this study, we define learner beliefs about EFL
ut EFL listening and the learning strategies for listening

In order to assess student beliefs, Horwitz (1988) developed an instrument known as Beliefs about Language
Learning Inventory (BALLI), which encompasses five major dimensions: beliefs about difficulty of language learning,
foreign language aptitude, the nature of language learning, learning and communication strategies, and learner
L Listening
Abilities (BELLA) to investigate listening beliefs, which consists of strategy-related listening beliefs,
native-speaker-related listening beliefs, and assessment-related listening beliefs. Hence, in our study, learner beliefs
about English listening include three dimensions: general beliefs about listening, strategy-related listening beliefs, and
individual-difference-related listening beliefs.
So far, studies into beliefs about listening have been conducted in different ways. For example, Chiou (2004)
compared the English listening beliefs and strategy use of teachers and students from the same university in Taipei,
Taiwan; Graham (2006) investigated the perceptions held by English learners regarding listening comprehension in
French; Shabani a
perceptions about listening, and Li (2016) explored beliefs about EFL listening held by high school students.
B. Language Learning Strategies
According to Chamot (1987), learning strategies are techniques, approaches or deliberate actions that students take so
as to facilitate the learning, recall of both linguistic and content area information (cited in Macaro, 2008). Cohen (2014)
argues that the element of consciousness is what distinguishes strategies from those processes that are not strategic.

to facilitate listening comprehension and l

proposed a classification scheme grounded in cognitive theory (see Table 1). They argue metacognitive strategies as
essential to the development of effective target language skills, orienting their research towards the use of strategies in
speaking, listening, and writing. Building on their work, Vandergrift (1997) identified a range of metacognitive and
cognitive listening strategies reported by L2 learners thinking aloud while listening to texts in French, offering
supporting evidence of the strategies outlined by O

strategies.
TABLE 1
ALLEY AND C HAMOT (1990) CLASSIFICATION FRAMEWORK
Primary strategies Metacognitive strategies Cognitive strategies Socio-affective strategies
Higher order executive Operate directly on Represent a broad
skills that may entail incoming information, grouping that involves
Definitions planning for, monitoring or manipulating it in either interaction with
evaluating the success of a ways that enhance another person or identical
learning activity learning control over affect
Planning, directed
Note taking, repetition,
attention, selective Questioning for
grouping, elaboration,
Representative attention, classification, cooperation,
inferencing,
secondary strategies self-management, self-talk and
summarization,
self-monitoring, self-reinforcement
transfer
self-evaluation

Regarding studies of leaning strategies concerning listening, several studies have focused on the effect of strategy
instruction et al., 2013; Ngo, 2016). Some studies focused on
p with listening comprehension, the result of which
confirmed the positive association between them (Kassem, 2015; Vahdany et al., 2016).
C. Studies on Correlation between Beliefs and Strategy Use
A large number of studies (Wenden 1987; Yang 1999; Park, 1995, as cited in Ellis, 2013) have investigated the
relationship between learning beliefs and learning strategies, adding more evidence that learner beliefs are related to
strategy choice. However, the results are somewhat mixed as to whether they are positively or negatively related.
Sioson (2011) investigated 300 first year college students in Philippine and found out that language learning
strategies in general were negatively correlated with language learning beliefs, while in the studies of Abedini, Rahimi
and Zare-

have found a positive or negative correlation between these two variables (Wen & Wang, 1996a; Zhang, 2008; Liu,
2010).
Different from the above-mentioned studies that explored the relationship between general language learning beliefs
and strategy use, Liu (2011) attempted to examine the correlation between language learning beliefs and strategies in
terms of listening comprehension. Findings manifested that all dimensions of beliefs about EFL listening were
associated with those of learning strategies except for motivati -related beliefs
were strongly related to the use of strategies.

strategies about English learning in general, with few studies exploring their relationship from a particular aspect, such
as listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Besides, the participants were mainly university students, with only a few
efs and strategy use. In addition, much of the research has relied heavily on
quantitative methods of data collection and analysis. Undoubtedly, a research which adopts a combination of
quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection and analysis is much more scientific, rational and desirable.

III. RESEARCH DESIGN

A. Participants
The participants were 100 tenth graders from a provincial key high school in Fujian. They come from two different
classes but are taught by the same English teacher.
B. Research Questions

comprehension and the relationship between listening beliefs and strategies. To fulfill this purpose, the following
questions were explored in this study:
1. What beliefs do high school students hold about EFL listening?
2. What learning strategies do high school students use for listening comprehension?
beliefs and learning strategies in terms of listening
comprehension?
C. Instruments
A combination of quantitative and qualitative method was employed in the current study. To be specific, a
questionnaire was firstly used to investigate 100 tenth graders in Fujian Province, and then 6 students were randomly
selected for a semi-structured interview based on their listening scores from the Mid-term English exam, which had just
been held when the study was conducted.
The questionnaire that was adopted by the researchers is called
Use for Listening Comprehension (QLBSULC). It is composed of three sections (see Table 2) and was mainly adapted
e (2004), Vandergrift (1999) and Wen and Wang
(1996a).

In the second section, twenty items and an open-ended question are constructed t
EFL listening across three dimensions. The five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly
prehension, which is

three categories with a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Never or almost never true of me) to 5 (always or almost
always true of me) being used.
By analyzing the data from 44 valid questionnaires in a pilot study, the reliability coefficients of the belief scale and
the strategy scale are 0.809 and 0.914 respectively (see Table 3), which indicate that the two scales are reliable.
 TABLE 2
QUESTIONNAIRE : QLBSULC
Dimension N of Items Example Items
1. Good pronunciation is important for listening comprehension.
General understanding
6 5. Understanding the culture of English-speaking countries is
of listening
important for listening comprehension.
11. Listening to English materials which interest me (e.g. English
Strategy-related songs, English radios) will improve my listening.
6
listening beliefs 12. While listening, guessing the meaning of new words actively
Belief Scale
will help improve listening comprehension.
Individual 17. Good listening comprehension is important for improving my
differences-related 7 English test scores.
beliefs 18. I believe that I will ultimately develop good listening skills.
21. Do you have other opinions or suggestions concerning the
Open-ended question 1
listening skills that have not been included above?
1. Before doing listening exercises, I will figure out my listening
tasks by obtaining relevant information from titles or
Metacognitive strategies 13 requirements of the items.
2. Before listening, I am able to get prepared to concentrate on
what I am going to hear.
Strategy
Scale
18. While listening, I try to understand each sentence.
Cognitive strategies 14 22. I can guess the meaning of words or sentences based on the
context.
30.
Socio-affective
7 31. I always encourage myself to be confident so as to strive for
strategies
progress in English listening.

TABLE 3
RELIABILITY STATISTICS OF QUESTIONNAIRE
Belief Scale Strategy Scale
N of Items N of Items
0.809 20 0.914 34

Apart from the questionnaire survey, a semi-structured interview was conducted to gain a deeper understanding of the
relationship b

Wen (1996, cited by Cheng & Zheng, 2002). Some questions were improvised simultaneously during the process of
interview if necessary.
D. Data Collection and Analysis
Data were collected through two stages: in the first stage, 100 copies of questionnaires were distributed to the
participants, with 94 copies being considered valid. SPSS 19.0 software was used to analyze the data collected from
questionnaire survey. The statistical analysis procedures include 1) descriptive statistics (e.g. frequencies, percentages,
means, and standard d
listening comprehension; 2) Pearson correlation, which was conducted to analyze the correlation between learning
beliefs and learning strategies in terms of listening comprehension.
In the second stage, the 94 participants were divided into three groups (the high-score group, the medium-score group
and the low-score group) according to their listening scores in the mid-term English examination, and two interviewees
were chosen respectively from each group (see Table 4). On average, every interviewee was interviewed for 15 minutes
and all interviews were audio-taped, transcribed verbatim, and subjected to inductive qualitative data analysis by the
researchers.
TABLE 4
BASIC INFORMATION OF I NTERVIEWEES
Interviewees Age Gender Listening scores Group
Student 1 15 Female 24
High-score
Student 2 16 Male 24
Student 3 16 Female 18
Medium-score
Student 4 15 Female 15
Student 5 17 Male 10.5
Low-score
Student 6 16 Male 10.5

IV. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

A.
After studying English for six years, most first-year high school students have formed certain beliefs about English
listening. In order to discover their beliefs about EFL listening, the descriptive statistics (percentages and means) of the
data covered in questionnaires were computed, offering a detailed explanation of those items in this part.
1. General Understanding of Listening
Beliefs in this dimension include 6 items and focus on the fundamental nature and the defining characteristics of EFL
listening and listening ability. The results (see Table 5) show that the overall mean value is 3.94, indicating most
participants hold positive beliefs. The highest mean value of 4.61 is noted for Belief 1 (Good pronunciation is important
for listening comprehension.) while Belief 3 (Understanding the culture of English-speaking countries is important for
listening comprehension.) scores the lowest mean value of 3.49. Combinin

ognized the importance of

good pronunciation in comprehending listening texts, but only about half of the students believed it was necessary to
know the English-speaking culture. As we know, if students are not familiar with the pronunciation of words or do not
master the right pronunciation, they cannot associate the words they hear with the words they have learned correctly,
which hinders their process of listening comprehension directly. Meanwhile, if students underestimate the importance of
cultural knowledge, they will be inclined to neglect their development of intercultural awareness and competence, thus
experience more difficulties when it comes to assimilating listening materials that are embedded with cultural
background or knowledge, which may lead to more frustration and discouragement in listening comprehension.
2. Strategy-related Listening Beliefs
Beliefs 7-13 are mainly about learning strategies that students normally use in listening practice. It was discovered
that beliefs in this dimension have the lowest mean value of 3.85 (see Table 5), indicating that some students may hold
negative beliefs about certain strategies. While Belief 11 (Listening to English materials which interest me will improve
my listening.) enjoys the highest mean value of 4.26, Belief 7 (The best way to take down what I hear is to write it
down in Chinese.) shows the lowest mean score of 2.98, which implies that respondents are not sure whether this is a
good strategy or not. Although there is no consensus on the function of mother tongue-reliance in second language
acquisition, it is generally believed that its negative effects outweigh the positive ones (Ji & He, 2004; Wen & Wang,
1996a). As for Belief 11, most participants hold positive belief about it, and this is verified in the interview of this study.

possible. Doing listening exercises is not enough, he should also listen to materials that interest him. Interest is the best

to various kinds of listening materials, such as the latest English songs, foreign broadcasts, English talk shows, and
these audio sources are more interesting than traditional ways of listening practice, so it is more popular with students.
TABLE 5
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF BELIEF SCALE
Dimensions of Listening Beliefs Mean
General understanding of listening 3.94
Strategy-related listening beliefs 3.85
Individual differences-related beliefs 4.20

3. Individual Differences-related Beliefs

Individual Differences-related Beliefs which are mainly about motivation and aptitude, include 7 items in the
questionnaire. The mean value in this dimension being 4.20 (see Table 5) indicates that the participants generally hold
positive beliefs about motivation and aptitude. We noticed that Belief 18 (I believe that I will ultimately develop good
listening skills.) gets the lowest mean value of 3.75, and this clearly suggests that some students lack confidence in their
listening study. In particular, only 61.7% of the participants believe that they will develop good listening skills in future,

open-

beliefs about their language aptitude are probably due to their inability to select appropriate strategies and put them into
listening practice. Therefore, they are likely to attribute the difficulties to their self-assumed low aptitude.
B.

obtained from the questionnaire data were computed. In calculating the frequency of strategy use, the researchers
 TABLE 6
OXFORD S FREQUENCY SCALE
Averages Frequency of strategy use Frequency level
4.5-5.0 Always or almost always used
High use
3.5-4.4 Usually used
2.5-3.4 Sometimes used Medium use
1.5-2.4 Generally not used
Low use
1.0-1.4 Never or almost never used

1. Overall Strategy Use

From the mean score of 3.27 and a relatively low standard deviation of 0.48 in Table 7, it can be inferred that these
strategies are employed only in medium frequency by a majority of participants. The result also displays that no
participant reports extremely high or low frequency of strategy use in the study.
TABLE 7
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF THE OVERALL STRATEGY USE
Always or Never or
Usually Sometimes Generally not Std.
almost always almost never Mean
used used used Deviation
used used
Mean level 4.5-5.0 3.5-4.4 2.5-3.4 1.5-2.4 1.0-1.4
Frequency 0 33 58 3 0 3.27 .47826
Percent 0% 35.1% 61.7% 3.2% 0%

Table 8 demonstrates the results of each category. Clearly, the mean value of cognitive strategies is the highest (3.36)
followed by that of the socio-affective strategies (3.25), with metacognitive strategies showing the lowest mean score of
3.18. This indicates that cognitive strategies are most frequently used by the participants while metacognitive strategies
the least frequently.
TABLE 8
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF STRATEGY CATEGORIES
Always or Never or
Usually Sometimes Generally Std.
Categories almost always almost never Mean
used used not used Deviation
used used
Mean level
4.5-5.0 3.5-4.4 2.5-3.4 1.5-2.4 1.0-1.4
Percent
Metacognitive 2.1% 39.4% 45.7% 12.8% 0% 3.18 .61632
Cognitive 0% 39.4% 58.5% 2.1% 0% 3.36 .46887
Socio-affective 1.1% 34.0% 52.1% 11.7% 1.1% 3.25 .63414

cognitive strategies are usually concrete strategies and techniques (e.g. note taking, elaboration, inference, etc.) that can
be directly employed by students in the actual process of listening, it is understandable that the participants tend to have
more and easier access to them, even if they may not receive any targeted strategy training. On the contrary,
metacognitive and socio-
learning process. Technically speaking, metacognitive strategies are used to supervise, manage and regulate behaviors
in the process of learning, and socio-affective strategies are expected to assist learners in taking advantage of the
learning opportunities, asking for help or manipulating their affect in order to complete a language learning task. These
two types of strategies ca
so they are very likely to be ignored or underestimated by students, which lead to their low frequency use.
2. Cognitive Strategies
There are a total of 14 items in this dimension, covering note taking, elaboration, inferencing, summarization, transfer,
resourcing. The result indicates that Item 21 (While listening, I pay conscious attention to some key words.) scores the
highest mean value (4.22) and the lowest standard deviation (0.78). It shows that this strategy is used at a high level by

teachers would highlight and recommend the strategy of listening for key words and emphasize its importance and
usefulness to their students repeatedly, who therefore become familiar with it. Taking this into consideration, it is not
hard to understand why the participants use it in many cases. In the interview, all students mentioned that they would
often use this strategy in listening, and Student 2 thought it was particularly effective. It is worth noting that Item 15 (I
try to remember the pronunciation of new words and look them up in the dictionary after listening.) shows the lowest

the interview, when asked about the reason, students said it was hard for them to distinguish the pronunciation of
unfamiliar words. Besides, some students said it was troublesome to look up new words in the dictionary, and some said
they forgot the pronunciation of new words easily after listening to all the texts. As a result, this strategy is used at a low
frequency.
3. Socio-affective Strategies
This dimension consists of 7 items, involving questioning for classification, cooperation, reducing anxiety and
self-reinforcement. The results reveal that Item 28 (While listening, I can keep calm and I am not nervous.) scores the
highest mean value of 3.71 (SD=1.01). Besides, Item 29 (When I feel nervous in the listening process, I will relax
myself by breathing deeply or other methods. M=3.48), Item 31 (I always encourage myself to be confident so as to
striv
listening to. M=3.39) all manifest a higher average mean value than the general mean value of socio-affective strategies
(M=3.25). In view of that,

listening content, they can basically keep clam, try to reduce anxieties by using different methods like self-talk, and
build up confidence through self-encouragement and self-comfort. The lowest mean value (2.79) goes to Item 34 (I will
exchange my experience of listening with my classmates and teachers and discuss the effective ways to improve my
listening with them.), indicating that some students are not willing to communicate with classmates and teachers about
their listening problems. In the interview, Student 4 said she usually felt embarrassed or too shy to discuss her problems
in English listening with others, and Student 6 expressed that it was unnecessary to ask questions because if something
was important, teachers would certainly explain it to them.
4. Metacognitive Strategies
Altogether 1
planning, directed attention, selective attention, self-management, self-monitoring and self-evaluation. Item 1 (Before
doing listening exercises, I will figure out my listening tasks by obtaining relevant information from titles or
requirements of the items.) scores the highest mean (4.28) with the standard deviation of 0.95). It is therefore inferred
that most students are apt to use the strategy of advance organization, i.e., they have developed the awareness of
clarifying what to be done to accomplish a listening task. However, Item 4 (I have an overall scheme for extracurricular
listening practice, during which there are specific, detailed arrangements for daily and weekly exercises, and the
performance has been documented.) scores the lowest mean (2.18) with the standard deviation of 1.08, revealing
that the majority of
the participants lack a systematic and detailed plan for practicing their listening. In addition, students mentioned in the
interview that they needed to learn so many subjects and finish so much homework that it was hardly possible for them
to spend much time in learning English, let alone setting aside a regular time to practice English listening.
C. Correlation Analysis between Beliefs and Strategy Use
In this study, Pearson correlation coefficients were computed to explore the re
-1 to +1.
1. Correlation between Overall Beliefs and Strategy Use
Table 9 below shows that the correlation coefficient reaches 0.519 and the correlation is significant at the 0.01 level.
The results indicate a strong positive correlation between overall beliefs and strategy use (r= 0.519, p< 0.01), which
eir strategy use. Students with comparatively positive and
stronger beliefs about EFL listening tend to use strategies more often.
TABLE 9
CORRELATIONS BETWEEN OVERALL BELIEFS AND STRATEGY USE
Beliefs Strategies
Beliefs Pearson Correlation 1 .519**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 94 94
Strategies Pearson Correlation .519 ** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 94 94
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

2. Correlation between Categories of Beliefs and Strategies

Pearson correlation coeffic
strategy categories. The significance level of 0.000 suggests that the probability of no correlation between each category
of beliefs and strategies is almost zero, i.e., each category of beliefs has correlation with each category of strategies.
 TABLE 10
CORRELATIONS BETWEEN BELIEF CATEGORIES AND STRATEGY CATEGORIES
Metacognitive Cognitive Socio-affective
Beliefs Strategies
strategies strategies strategies
Pearson Correlation .362 ** .253* .222*
General understanding of listening Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .014 .031
N 94 94 94
Pearson Correlation .367 ** .295** .411**
Strategy-related listening beliefs Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .004 .000
N 94 94 94
Pearson Correlation .490 ** .436** .401**
Individual differences-related Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000
beliefs N 94 94 94
N 94 94 94
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2 -tailed).

understanding of listening and all categories of strategies. The correlation coefficient between general understanding of
listening and metacognitive strategies reaches .362 and significant at the 0.01 level, while the coefficients between
general understanding of listening and cognitive strategies and Socio-affective strategies are respectively .253, .222,
with a significant level of 0.05.
on their use of metacognitive strategies. The results are further echoed by the interview results. When asked about the
status and function of listening in English learning, Student 1 from the high-score group stressed the important role of
listening played in facilitating the acquisition of other skills in English learning. Besides, she was found to use different
types of metacognitive strategies, such as planning, reflection, advance organization, comprehension monitoring, and
performance evaluation. In contrast, Student 6 from the low-score group believed that listening is mainly useful for
communication purpose, so she assumed it was only related to speaking. It was no wonder that he mainly used the
strategy of comprehension monitoring, without an overall plan for extracurricular listening practice. In addition, he also
expressed his constant confusion about what strategies he can employ to solve problems in his listening practice.

frequency of their use of metacognitive strategies. Students who hold more positive and stronger beliefs about general
understanding of listening will know more about the fundamental nature and the defining characteristics of EFL
listening as well as the interrelation of listening and other English skills. Therefore, they find it easier to develop
metacognitive awareness of listening, and by employing metacognitive strategies frequently, not only are they more
likely to plan, organize, monitor and evaluate the listening comprehension process, but also tend to orchestrate the
deployment of specific cognitive strategies.
As for strategy-related listening beliefs, it was found to be associated with metacognitive strategies, cognitive
strategies and socio-affective strategies (r = .367, r = .295, r = .411), with correlations being significant at the 0.01 level.
This means that stude

use it actively and frequently (Wen & Wang, 1996b). For instance, in the interview with Student 2, he repeatedly
stressed the usefulness of finding key words in listening. Drawing on his answers in the questionnaire and the interview,
we found this strategy was most frequently used by him. Student 3 reckoned that making predictions about the texts was
an effective strategy that helped with her listening comprehension, so she used this kind of strategies more often than
other ones. In contrast, Student 1, Student 4 and Student 5 believed that guessing the meaning of new words actively
helped improve listening comprehension, so in the interviews, they all mentioned that they often guessed the meaning
of unfamiliar words based on the context while doing listening exercises.
In terms of the individual differences-related beliefs, results show that they also have positive and significant
correlations with the three types of strategies. As shown in table 10, the correlation coefficients reach .490, .436,
and .401 respectively and are all significant at the 0.01 level. What has been found suggests that individual
differences-
use of metacognitive strategies, cognitive strategies and socio-
believe that he can ultimately develop good listening skill and has no confidence in his aptitude, Student 3 has stronger
motivation to improve her listening proficiency and strongly agrees that she will develop good listening skill in the end.
Hence, when comparing the strategy use of Student 3 and Student 5, it appears that Student 3 uses the three types of
strategies more frequently, whereas Student 5 seldom does so.
The finding indicates that students who have strong beliefs about instrumental or integrative motivations, and who
have confidence in their own potential in listening skills, tend to use these three strategies more often than students who
do not. Once students are highly motivated and have confidence in their aptitude for listening study, they will probably
make more efforts and persist in listening practice. It is highly possible that they encourage themselves frequently and
seek possible ways from teachers and classmates to improve English listening.
 V. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
It is recognized that listening comprehension is at the heart of L2 learning and the development of L2 listening skills
plays an important role in developing other language skills (Feyten, 1991; Vandergrift, 2007). Research into the aspect
of listening will contribute to the whole process of English learning.
Based on an adapted questionnaire and in-depth interviews, this study investigated the English listening beliefs and
learning strategies and the correlation between the two variables of 94 tenth-grade high school students in Fujian. The
participants were reported to hold various beliefs on EFL listening. In general, most students hold positive beliefs, but
some hold negative or improper beliefs, such as ignoring the necessity of learning English cultures and underestimating
the important role that listening plays in developing other language skills. In addition, the participants reported a wide
range of strategy use, yet the frequency of the overall strategy use was only at the medium level. Detailed analysis of
the data shows that cognitive strategies are most frequently used by the participants, followed by socio-affective
strategies and metacognitive strategies. Finally, a correlation analysis shows that there exists a significant and positive
correlation between English listening beliefs and strategies, which mutually influence each other to varying degrees.
learning strategies, with the
strongest connection found between listening beliefs and metacognitive strategies.
The teaching implications obtained from this study are as follows:
First and foremost, it is necessary for teachers to identify and evaluate st
their negative and incorrect beliefs that hinder listening study. For instance, teachers can find out what beliefs their
onducting questionnaire

generally formed from their limited experience or knowledge, teachers had better provide some knowledge concerning
t
example, teachers can introduce more cultural content of English-speaking countries and non-English-speaking
countries in the teaching process to

-assessment has a significant impact on their listening study and strategy use.
Hence, it is essential for teachers to start with lower level of listening comprehension practice in order to encourage and
help them build up positive concept of self-efficacy and therefore facilitate their listening study (Li, 2016; Liu, 2011).
Third, as all the three types of beliefs are found to have significant and positive correlations with metacognitive
strategies, it is highly recommended that metacognitive listening strategy instruction should be conducted in teaching of

probable simplistic beliefs into more realistic beliefs, which are about listening effectively (Shabani & Heidarian, 2015).
Once learners adjust their beliefs, they are liable to employ more appropriate and effective learning strategies.
Last but not least, the questionnaire in this study can be used for self-assessment purposes. By using it, students will
be able to know what beliefs they hold, what strategies they use most or least and what alternative strategies they can
select to improve listening comprehension. Hopefully, with the guidance of teachers, students are able to identify and
solve their problems more efficiently.
Despite the teaching implications based on the findings, this study has limitations as well. Firstly, the research used a
convenience sampling, with only 100 high school students from one school in Fujian. Secondly, the relationships

strategies and listening scores can be further investigated. Finally, a longitudinal study can be conducted to gain insights

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Yajing Wu was born in

Shanghai International Studies University, China in 2018. She is currently working in the Overseas Education College, Minnan
Normal University, Zhangzhou, China. Her research interests include English learning and teaching.

Mei Peng was born in Anyang, China in 1975. She received her Ph.D. degree in English Language and Literature from Shanghai
International Studies University, China in 2014. She is currently an associate professor in the School for Continuing Educati on in
Shanghai International Studies University. Her research interests include EFL textbook development, teaching English to young
learners and adults, and English teacher development.
 Speaking Challenges in a Life Skill Program for
Islamic Boarding School Students: A Case Study
Muhamad Holandyah
Universitas Islam Negeri Raden Fatah Palembang, Indonesia

Lenny Marzulina
Universitas Islam Negeri Raden Fatah Palembang, Indonesia

Dian Erlina
Universitas Islam Negeri Raden Fatah Palembang, Indonesia

Kasinyo Harto
Universitas Islam Negeri Raden Fatah Palembang, Indonesia

Fitri Amalia
Universitas Islam Negeri Raden Fatah Palembang, Indonesia

Fridiyanto Fridiyanto
UIN Sulthan Thaha Saifuddin Jambi, Indonesia

Amirul Mukminin
Universitas Jambi, Indonesia

Abstract- The aim of this study was to explore hallenges in a life skill program at an
Islamic boarding school - Al-Fahd, South Sumatra, Indonesia. Through using a qualitative case study, we
collected data by using in-depth interviews with participants at the research site. Our qualitative data were
analyzed through thematic analyses by identifying, describing, organizing, and reporting them within a set of
data in the form of themes. We structured our discussion around their viewpoints and the settings in which
challenges they met appear. An exploration of the manuscripts or data revealed that major themes related to
facing language boundaries, enjoying using mother tongue, coping with psychological issues, looking for
interesting topics of conversation. The results of the study indicated that students were challenged by a variety
of issues that had prevented them from having a good speaking skill in English although they were involving in
a life skill program. Teachers and school leaders should provide them with a well-designed program in order
to prepare them to face real life situations after finishing their program.

Index Terms English speaking skills, Life skill program, speaking challenges

I. INTRODUCTION
Mastering good communication skills refer to speaking performance and to communicate with foreigners, speaking is
considered one of the most essential skills to be accommodated. The ability to communicate and deliver a speech is
strongly recommended in many life aspects, particularly in education context. Rao (2019) supported that mastering
speaking skill through speech allows students to give impressive and outstanding speeches on various occasions, to give
public speaking openly, to give presentations for all purposes, to motivate and give impacts to people and to boost up
self-confidence. It is in line with what Nunan (1995) states that the most crucial process in learning a second or foreign
language is learning to speak in a target language, and the ability to perform a conversation in the target language is the
measurement of the success of it. Moreover, Ur (1999) mention that speaking has been considered as the most
significant skill among the four. Furthermore, Mukminin et al., (2015, as cited in Marzulina et al., 2021) state that
speaking is one of the most challenging skills. Therefore, for foreign language learners, learning speaking has become
the greatest interest. Besides, people learn a language in order to develop their proficiency in speaking the target
language (Barnard et al., 2002).
Spoken language is different from written language for many reasons. One important reason is that it usually has to
be understood immediately. For that reason, spoken language has many different features. Halliday (1989) mentioned
that spoken language has several characteristics consisting of variation in speed, loudness or quietness, gestures,
intonation, stress, rhythm, pitch range, pausing and phrasing. Moreover, a speech is successful when it has
characteristics of effective speakers. Furthermore, King et al. (2009) found five characteristics of effective speakers in
their study; they are invention, arrangement, style, delivery, and memory that are important in spoken language.
Although the above characteristics seem usual, but for junior high school students they are difficult as the students are
not familiar in English and not get used to speaking English.
Consequently, many institutions have added an extra lesson an
skills. Weaver (2010) defines programs as a group of related projects managed in a coordinated way to obtain benefits
and control not available from managing them individually. Thus, speaking program is indeed an example of a group
related project. According to Harmer (1998), with intensive teacher guidance, speaking activities can give students
enormous satisfaction and confidence. Furthermore, Khaljoo (2013) and Marzulina et al. (2021) argued that there are
several challenges in teaching and learning English. First are limited hours of English language teaching. Some experts
complain about the amount of time devoted to the course and believe that in many cases teachers cannot teach all
subjects in this limited time. Second, lack of interest and motivation for learning English. Most students are not
interested in learning the language and just think about passing the course. Thus, because they are not interested, they
do not listen to their teacher. They do not learn anything. Even if they learn something, they will forget it quickly
because they are tired of its repetition. Third is the lack of concentration. When students do not have concentrations,
they cannot learn the materials. The fourth is students who are ahead of others. Another difficulty in English teaching
relates to those students who attend English classes outside of school. Next, most teachers are lack of proficiency in
English language. Unfortunately, most high school teachers are not fluent in English and cannot teach the English
language orally. The last is lack of repetition and frequent practices of students. Since students are not interested in
learning English, so they will be tired of repeating and practicing the language. Therefore, Anggraini (2018) suggested
in her study that English club and other additional English learning activities are needed to support the needs of students
in learning English such as young learners. Thus, a
speaking ability.
Islamic boarding school Al-Fahd is as one of the integrated Islamic boarding schools in Palembang, Indonesia that
implements a life-skill program as an obligatory program including speech and daily conversation for the English
subject. As a foreign language, teaching English has challenges, such as a lack of proficiency in speaking skills.
Mukminin et al. (2015, as cited in Marzulina et al., 2021) mention that speaking is one of the most challenging skills
since there has been a lack of li
context of Indonesia. The main purpose of a life-skill
l presentation performance. The preliminary study was conducted to find
some issues managed by students regarding their speaking performance during the program. The difficulties in
expressing the ideas in speaking English become the main problems faced by the students since they prefer to use
Arabic to communicate. It is in line with what Songbatumis (2017, as cited in Marzulina et al., 2021) found that
students are challenged in learning English by their lack of vocabulary mastery, low concentration, lack of discipline,
boredom, and speaking problems. Looking at the issues discussed above, there was a need to conduct a study to explore
English speaking challenges in a life-skill program faced by the students at Islamic boarding school Al-Fahd Palembang,
Indonesia.

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

A. The Nature of Speaking
Speaking is the verbal use of language to express ideas, opinion, and feelings. Thus, it is an essential element in
delivering the information, communicating concepts, ideas, and knowledge to others. Furthermore, non-linguistic
elements such as expressions, body language, and gestures are needed in directly conveying messages. Brown (2001)
argues that the important key in interactive language function is social contact, in which the way you convey with body
language, eye contact, gestures, physical distance and other nonverbal messages are playing a part. It can be assumed
that speaking is a productive skill produced through both oral and body language. There are some types in speaking
performance. Brown (2001) mentioned seven types of speaking performance; they are (1) imitative, the ability to
imitate a word, phrase, or sentence; (2) intensive, the production of short stretches of oral language as stress, juncture,
intonation, and rhythm; (3) responsive, including interaction and comprehension test but sometime in the form of a very
short conversation such as standard greeting, small talk, simple request and comments; (4) interactive, the length and
complexity of the interaction as a longer way which sometimes includes multiple participants or multiple exchanges. (5)
Extensive, monologue including story-telling, presentations, or speeches. (6) Transactional, exchanging or conveying
specific information in the form of extended responsive language. (7) Interpersonal, maintaining social relationship for
the transmission of information and facts.
Speaking is a complex skill which needs simultaneous use of different abilities, and often develops at different rates.
As Harris (as cited in Kurniati et al., 2015) classified the components of speaking into five categories; they are (1)
comprehension, the ability to understand by a reasonable comprehension of the subject or as the knowledge of what a
e get the information they deserve. (2) Grammar, knowing
a certain amount of grammar and vocabulary is important in order to produce the correct sentences in conversation, (3)
vocabulary, the basic elements in language. Folse (2016) comments that vocabulary is a set of phrases, variable phrases,
single words, idioms, and phrasal verbs. A barrier that hampers the students from learning a language is included into
limited vocabularies, (4) pronunciation, the ways to pronounce the words in the correct way using the appropriate
intonation and stress, as well as speaking in connected speech. In order to make the process of communication easy to
understand, pronunciation plays a vital role, (5) fluency, the ability to read, speak, or write easily, smoothly and
expressively.
B. The Important of Learning Speaking
English is served as the idea of connecting people who live in various regions, countries and continents. Besides,
speaking also plays a necessary role in our lives. Barnard et al. (2002) declare that for many foreign and second
language learners, the speaking skill mastery in English is a priority. Then, Ur (1996) mentions that speaking skill as the
most vital skill as compared to other three English skills (reading, writing, and listening). It is because people who
actually know language are indicated as speakers of a particular language. Thus, using a language is more meaningful
than just knowing its implementation. In this globalization era, everything is connected through speaking skill. Brown
and Yuke (as cited in Rao, 2019) said that the skill that the learners judge most in real condition or situation is speaking
skill. Moreover, the ability to speak is necessary for learners who intend to build up career, raise up confidence level, do
international business, interact with people around the globe, deliver speeches and presentation, conduct interviews,
conduct debate, and participate in discussions or various conferences. The one who has a good ability in speaking can
face the world. The job seekers must have a better oral communication. This is in order to obtain better job
opportunities. Presenters should present the presentation properly to get the attention from the audience. It is in line
with what Westrub (2003) states that a student who can speak well may have a greater chance for further education, find
employment, and gaining promotion.
C. Challenges in Speaking Activities
There are multiple factors that cause difficulties in speaking. Abrar et al. (2018) found that language barriers are
usually found such as vocabulary, pronunciation, fluency, and grammar as the challenges in speaking English. In
addition, Ur (1996) classified some problems in speaking into four areas: 1) inhibition: learners are fearful of critic,
worried about making mistakes, or simply shy. Furthermore, Littlewood (2007) added that apprehension and inhibition
can also appear in language classroom and cause difficulties for the students. 2) mother-tongue use: learners tend to use
their mother-tongue in speaking class due to its effectiveness. Then, Lynch (2008), Fajaryani et al. (2018), and
Marzulina et al. (2021) mention three most crucial challenges in teaching and learning English in classroom. First is
lack of motivation in which learners may not have inspired and interested towards the learning of English language.
They fear failure in exams and even in classroom interaction, so they cannot get involved easily in classroom interaction
and learn the language comfortably. They must be motivated by teachers to learn English in classroom interaction.
Second, insufficient time allocation, resources, and materials, English is a foreign language, and hence it cannot be
learned and taught as easily as a mother tongue or first language. And when it is learned or taught as a second language,
it requires a long time and simultaneously adequate resources and materials to create an English classroom climate that
facilitates teaching-learning process. Third, over-crowded classes, the number of students in a classroom can range from
one, for those who teach individual private students, to fifteen or twenty students in a typical classroom up to multitudes
of thirty-five or forty or even fifty or more students packed into a language leaning situation. The large classes create
several problems such as discomfort, less attention, evaluation, difficulty in managing class, maintaining learning
effectiveness, etc.
Furthermore, Manrique (2013) argues that mispronunciation and grammatical mistakes are the most usual varieties of
interference between the mother tongue and target language. Then, it is supported by Harmer (2015) that there are some
reasons why learners keep using their mother-tongue during speaking class. First, they have not enough knowledge
about the topic that the teachers ask to talk about. Second, if the teachers do not urge their students to talk in English,
they will naturally use it. In addition, if the teacher regularly use -tongue language, they will feel
comfortable to do so. 3) Low or uneven participation: in a class with a large number of students, each of them has very
limited time to talk since some of them probably dominate the whole class while the others talk very often or not at all.
4) Nothing to say: learners have no motivation to express themselves. Rivers (as cited in Pratolo et al., 2019) mentions
that students do not have something in mind because the teachers give them a topic that is not suitable for them. Also,
Westrup (2003) adds that when the teacher ask students to tell things in a foreign language, it is difficult for students to
answer when they have little opinions about the topic, or when they do not know what vocabulary to apply and how to
use grammar correctly. in her study found many factors that cause difficulties in speaking
English among EFL learners such as the speaking environment, the curriculum, teachers themselves, and the teaching
strategies. Furthermore, Xiao and Wong (2014) found other factors that language anxiety as a negative feeling and
psychological tension experienced by students in learning language. Then, Pratolo et al. (2019) also found that external
factors such as classroom environment, negative comments from friends or uneven participation can also prevent
students from being active in speaking.
D. English Speaking Program
Speaking program is a group created to stimulate students to be active in speaking activities among others. It is in
line with what Weaver (2010) states that speaking program is a collection of strategies designed to strengthen the
process of teaching and learning activities to achieve the target. The programs are designed to support the students to
have good academic achievement, particularly speaking mastery. Students are able to speak in English by joining the
speaking program happenings (Moulida, 2019). In our study, boarding school is the institution providing English
speaking program for students. The program has an important role in teaching. The implementation of English speaking
program in boarding schools should be based on the program supporting students in learning speaking through speaking
activities. Harmer (1998) mentioned that speaking activities can give students enormous confidence and satisfaction,
and with intensive teacher guidance can encourage them in their further study. Therefore, good speaking activity should
Shi and Nunan (2000) that mastering speaking is the most
important aspect of learning a second or foreign language, and the success is measured in terms of the ability to carry
out a conversation in the target language. Additionally, this statement is also supported by the Indonesian Ministry of
Education (2002) that suggests a life skill program as the one intended to provide knowledge, skills, attitudes and
practical and functional abilities to work independently, open employment and business fields and take advantage of
opportunities so that they can improve the quality of their welfare. In order words, life skill programs in Islamic
boarding school, Al-Fahd is defines as a program that provides multiple kinds of subject skills to support the needs of
students to face the demand of life in English speaking activities. The main purpose of life skill programs in Islamic
boarding school, Al-Fahd
performances. The program is meant to train the students in delivering speech and to practice their languages as well.
Thus, life skill program can give positive impacts on the students in speaking performance as well as their English
competence.

III. METHODOLOGY
A. Participants
The participants of this current study were eight EFL learners in an Islamic boarding school - Al-Fahd Palembang,
Indonesia. Participants were selected by using a purposeful sampling method. There were some characteristics in
selecting eighth students as the participants of the study. First, since the study was conducted at an Islamic boarding
school, only female students were allowed to be selected as the participants of the study. Second, only the students who
had already joined at least one year the life skill program were accessible for the participants.
B. Data Collection and Analysis
In this study, interviews were
skills program. Gilham (2005) defines interview as a conversation between two people where a response of a particular
purpose is needed. In this study, interviews were used by asking respondents orally in order to obtain the information
for research (Muazza et al., 2018; Muazza et al., 2019). One-on-one interview was used in this study (Mukminin &
McMahon, 2013). Creswell (2012) defined one-on-one interview as a process of data collection in which questions are
asked to one participant only, and the answers were recorded at the time. Furthermore, open-ended questions were used
to gain a lot of the life skill program. In this process,
the interviews were taken verbally and recorded for 5-15 minutes to collect the data. To analyze the data on
speaking challenges in life skills program, several steps in thematic analysis were accomplished. There are six steps in
thematic analysis, they are: analyzing, identifying, describing or organizing and for reporting a theme within a set of
data (Braun & Clarke, 2006).

IV. FINDINGS
The results of the present study were categorized based on emerging topics from the results of the interviews. The
results showed some challenges faced by the students when speaking English in life skill program. The following
results of interviews showed speaking English in life skill programs. The challenges faced by
students in speaking English in life skill program were divided into four categories, including facing language
boundaries, enjoying using mother tongue, coping with psychological issues, looking for interesting topics of
conversation.
TABLE 1
THEMES AND CODES FOR CHALLENGES FACED BY STUDENTS I N SPEAKING ENGLISH IN LIFE SKILLS PROGRAM
No Themes Codes
1. facing language boundaries No fluency in speaking and hard to produce a good sentence during the life skill
program.
Limited vocabulary and poor pronunciation
Complicated to use different forms of verbs properly in speaking
2. enjoying using mother tongue Often use their mother tongue to speak
Often mix the words with their mother tongue in speaking
3. coping with psychological issues Feel anxious in speaking to others
4. looking for interesting topics of Find some interesting topics that challenge them to speak
conversation
A. Facing Language Boundaries
Based on the data from the interview, it was found that some challenges related to language boundaries such as
fluency, vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar were faced by the students. First, all of the participants shared their
experiences with the researchers related to the program they preferred to learn in English and to have interest in learning
the language. However, they sometimes faced some difficulties. Vocabulary was mentioned as an obstacle in speaking
When it comes to English speaking I always think about the vocabulary first, sometimes I

participants stated the similar obstacle. Pronunciation is revealed as a problem like vocabulary and has challenged
students in speaking English. They said that pronunciation was one of the factors that were complicated for them in
speaking English. Some of them stated that some words were difficult to be pronounced. Student 1 mentioned I
difficult because of my pronunciation, I feel like I still often made a lot of mistakes when I speak 9,
2021) while the other 5 had the same opinion about pronunciation.
The data from interview showed that students encountered some problems in using correct English grammar. Some
students said that grammar was difficult for them due to the terms of sentence structure. They worried that others might
misunderstand I feel that it is quite complicated because the verb of English has many
forms and it makes me confused when I want to speak English, I am afraid that I would make a mistakes and cause a
misunderstanding Fluency was
also revealed by the students as a challenge in speaking English. Based on the interview, the students said that it was

languages (interview, January 19, 2021). Student 2 and 8 also said the similar things about fluency.
B. Enjoying Using Mother Tongue
The data from interview showed that students had difficulties in speaking English because of the influence of their
mother tongue. Student 4 stated that, at my speech is still influenced by my mother tongue. I used to speak
Indonesian (interview, January 19, 2021). Students 5 and 6 also said
the same thing on the influence of their mother tongue. They also used their mother tongue because lack of vocabulary
in English. Students often mixed an English sentence with their mother tongue. Based on the interview, student 3 said,
view, January 19, 2021). Student 1,
6, and 7 also said the same opinion about their mother tongue.
C. Copying with Psychological Issues
Beside language boundaries, we found that psychological issue
Based on the data obtained from interviews, the researchers found that most of the students felt anxious when they were
I feel nervous when I speak
in front of my teac that my friends will make fun of me when I made a
I feel shy and kind of nervous when I have to speak in
front of the teachers awkward when I speak English to my friends
January 19, 2021). Meanwhile, the other 4 participants mentioned the same opinion.
D. Looking for Interesting Topics of Conversation
It was found that most of the students were influenced by the topic of conversation shared by their teacher. A certain
(Interview,
January 19, 2021). Student 1 also said that,
(Interview, January 19, 2021) and student 4 shared a similar opinion there
are some topics that make me want to speak English. I like the (Interview, January
19, 2021). The data indicated that topics of conversation should be considered as it can get more attention from students.

V. DISCUSSIONS
The results of analyzing data using thematic analysis found some challenges faced by students in speaking English in
life skill program. They are facing language boundaries, enjoying using mother tongue, coping with psychological
issues, looking for interesting topics of conversation. The first is language boundaries. It was found that some
challenges related to language boundaries such as fluency, vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar were faced by the
students. This finding is in agreement with a previous study conducted by Abrar et al. (2018) who found that the
challenges that was usually faced by students in speaking English was the language barrier such as vocabulary,
pronunciation, grammar, and fluency. The students agreed that having a limited number of vocabulary is one of their
weaknesses in speaking English. This is supported by Pratolo et al. (2019) who found that vocabulary was mentioned as
the main obstacle in speaking English and it made students passive to speak. Pronunciation was revealed as another
problem beside vocabulary, students agreed that pronunciation was one of the factors that complicate them in speaking
English. This finding is supported by Abubakar et al. (2017) who found that some students had difficulties related to
pronunciation as they did not know how to pronounce the words correctly. The other language barrier such as
grammatical issues is related to the finding of a study conducted by Rahayu (2015) who found that lack of
understanding of grammatical patterns is one of problems that students faced and lack of knowledge in grammar may
influence students to speak in English.
The second issue is mother tongue. It was used by students when they forgot some words in English or when they
encountered difficulties to pronounce a certain word in English. The finding indicated that most of the students had
difficulties in speaking English due to the influence of their mother tongue. Marcela and Manrique (2013) say that
mispronunciation and grammatical mistakes are the most usual varieties of interference between the mother tongue and
target language. This finding is in agreement with the study of Al-Hosni (2014) who found that one of the main
speaking difficulties encountered by students is the use of mother tongue. They are unable to speak in English because
they are lacking in vocabulary items, grammar structures and sentence formation skills which result in the use of mother
tongue. It is supported by the study of Leong and Ahmadi (2017) who found why learners use their mother tongue in
speaking classes are because they are asked to talk about the topics they do not know. When the teachers do not urge
them to speak in English, it is normal for them to use their mother tongue.
We also found that psychological issues influenced t most
of the students feel anxious when they speak English in the front of their teachers, classmates, and other people. This
finding is in agreement with the study of Pratolo et al. (2019) who found that anxiety reveals as one of the challenges
that are mostly faced by students. They believe that anxiety makes them hesitate to speak. Woodrow (2006) adds that
anxiety has a negative effect on the oral performance of English speakers. This finding is supported by Park and Lee
(2014) who found vel had a negative relationship to their oral performance.
Another interesting finding is the topic of conversation. Our finding indicated that most of the students revealed that
the topic of conversation influenced their speaking skill in the classroom. Some students said that the topics were
sometimes difficult for them and not interesting. Rivers (as cited in Pratolo et al., 2019) said that students often have
nothing to say probably because an appropriate topic is selected for them. They also have not enough information about
the topic. The above idea is supported by Baker and Westrup (2003) who state that students have difficulties to answer
when the teacher asks them to tell things in a foreign language when they do not understand or even are not familiar
with the topics.

VI. CONCLUSION
Based on the results of data analysis, the findings of this study indicated that challenges faced by students during the
life skills program were facing language boundaries, enjoying using mother tongue, coping with psychological issues,
looking for interesting topics of conversation. This research only focused on analyzing the challenges that the students
and
access to get the data. By knowing the factors that challenged the students during the program, we expect the students to
improve their English competence such as grammar, pronounce and vocabulary. We hope that the students try to be
more confident to speak English, so they can reduce their anxious feeling. Subsequently, for the teachers, it would be
better if they could make a syllabus of what the teachers are going to teach. It also would be better if the teacher could
facilitate the needs of students by providing various methods, approaches, strategies, and techniques to improve their
vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, and fluency as the effect of mother tongue in speaking English is no exception.
Last, we hope the next researchers who are interested in conducting similar research could explain on the effective
strategies in order to cope with the speaking challenges which are not clearly explained in this study.

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Muhamad Holandyah is an assistant professor, Universitas Islam Negeri Raden Fatah Palembang, Indonesia. His research
focuses on language teaching, TEFL, and English education and applied linguistics.

Lenny Marzulina is an associate professor, Universitas Islam Negeri Raden Fatah Palembang, Indonesia. Her research focuses on
language teaching, TEFL, and English education and applied linguistics.

Dian Erlina is an associate professor, Universitas Islam Negeri Raden Fatah Palembang, Indonesia. Her research focuses on
language teaching, TEFL, and English education and applied linguistics.
 Kasinyo Harto is a full professor, Universitas Islam Negeri Raden Fatah, Palembang, Indonesia. His research interests are
teaching and learning in higher education, multicultural education, educational management, and education in Muslim countries.

Fitri Amalia has a BA in English education from Universitas Islam Negeri Raden Fatah Palembang, Indonesia. Her research
focuses on language teaching, TEFL, and English education and applied linguistics.

Fridiyanto is an assistant professor, UIN Sulthan Thaha Saifuddin Jambi, Indonesia. His research interests include education,
language education, multicultural education, educational policy and management.

Amirul Mukminin is a full professor, Universitas Jambi, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Indonesia. His research
interests include education, language education, international education, educational policy and language policy.
 Perceptions of How Reliable Computer-Based,
Teacher-Based, and Peer Feedback Is: A Case
Study
Suliman M. N. Alnasser
Department of English Language & Literature, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Abstract The literature emphasises the role of feedback (FB) in writing development, leading to explorations
of different types of FB to provide, such as teacher-based FB (TBF), peer feedback (PF) and computer-based
feedback (CBF). This quasi-experimental study aimed
reliability of TBF, PF and CBF. The participants (n = 40) were Saudi male EFL students in a BA English
programme at a Saudi university. The study employed an experimental group (n = 21) and a control group (n
= 19). For data collection, pre- and post-intervention questionnaires were administered. The intervention
exposed the participants to giving and receiving PF and introduced them to CBF. Following training in
providing PF and using the automated system, the participants went through four cycles of writing during
which they developed four essays; with each essay, PF and CBF were employed to produce multiple drafts.
The main findings indicated that TBF was perceived to be the most reliable type of FB, and that CBF was
considered more reliable than PF. Additionally, our findings suggest that the more students are exposed to
CBF, the more likely they are to accept it. Pedagogical implications arising from these findings are also
discussed.

Index Terms feedback, automated systems, reliability, academic writing, perceptions

I. INTRODUCTION
In most EFL countries, English dominates to such an extent that many institutions shift much of their attention to
teaching English. In fact, English has become the language of instruction in several undergraduate and graduate
programmes. This has created an increased demand for higher education (HE) institutions in EFL countries to provide
high-quality English language teaching. In academia, the focus of English teaching is on the four language skills, with
writing skills being given the most attention. Writing is the main form of communication between students and their
ents,
projects and reports). According to the literature on L2 teaching and learning, how to develop writing skills is clearly of
significant concern to researchers and practitioners. Therefore, it appears that writing plays a prominent role in teaching
and learning in general (Bitchener & Ferris, 2012; Cho & Schunn, 2007; Gibbs & Simpson, 2004).
An aspect of language learning that is regarded as an essential component for learning development is the provision
of feedback (FB) to learners (Gibbs & Simpson, 2004; Haigh, 2007; Lee, 2007; Miller, 2009). Hyland and Hyland

languages. For these reasons, the nature of FB and how best to provide it in L2 contexts has been explored. In English
writing teaching, several FB types have been identified, such as teacher feedback (TBF), peer feedback (PF) and
computer-based feedback (CBF). The literature shows that TBF and PF have been thoroughly investigated from
different perspectives (Bitchener & Ferris, 2012; Ferris & Roberts, 2001; Reid, 1997; Rollinson, 2005), but CBF has yet
to be similarly examined. FB generated by computers is a relatively new topic that has gained much attention in recent
years, in part because of the rapid development in technology and educational needs (Burkhart et al., 2020; Chang et al.,
2017; El Ebyary & Windeatt, 2017; Lachner & Neuburg, 2019; Zaini & Mazdayasna, 2015), and in part because of the
COVID-19 pandemic that the world has experienced since early in 2020. Investigations into CBF have branched out
beyond the domain of language learning to include other learning domains such as accountancy (Helfaya, 2019) and
medicine (Chang et al., 2017).
Previous research has focused on in
(Chien et al., 2020; Chou, 2020; Fu et al., 2019; Sletten, 2017; Wei & Chou, 2020). More specifically, a common
erceptions of the FB provided to them regarding their
written texts (Cohen & Cavalcanti, 1990; Lizzio & Wilson, 2008; Peterson & Irving, 2008). Several studies have
concluded that integrating technology into teaching and learning languages can positively influence the learning process
(Cheung & Slavin, 2012; Li, 2006; Li, 2021; Zaini & Mazdayasna, 2015). In fact, technology can change learning
experiences and quality by introducing innovative methods and sources for language learning and teaching that can
create a student-centred situation, engage learners deeply in their own learning and allow them to become active rather
than passive learners (Chang & Windeatt, 2021; Walker & Patel, 2018). A number of studies have asserted that more
learning outcomes will be achieved if learners have already formed positive perceptions of the integration of technology
into their own learning processes ; as a result, it can facilitate deeper
learning (Mohamed, 2008). Although the literature reflects an increasing interest in CBF in L2 writing, it provides very
limited evidence that this area has been explored in the context of higher education in Saudi Arabia, especially in terms
of perceptions of CBF. English is taught in Saudi Arabia as a foreign language (i.e. in an EFL context), and CBF is a
new concept in higher education which may or may not be accepted by learners. To my knowledge, only one study has
explored CBF and PF in Saudi higher education (Alnasser, 2018). However, the scope of that study was whether PF and
CBF can jointly replace teacher FB, which is completely different from the scope of the current study. This study aims
to investigate how Saudi EFL learners perceive the reliability of TBF, PF and CBF, and which of these three sources are
perceived as more reliable. This study holds that this investigation can provide insights into the nature of the three types
of FB and that critical pedagogical implications can accordingly be drawn.

II. BACKGROUND

A. The Nature of Writing Skills and Their Development

(Cho & Schunn, 2007), a concern that justifies the predominant interest in examining the nature of this skill and how it
can be improved. In fact, it has been proposed that writing skills correlate with other language skills in that the better
the writing skills, the better the other language skills become, and vice versa (McCutchen, 2011; Gomez et al., 1996).
Cho and Schunn (2007) argue that students with well-developed writing skills are expected to overcome difficulties in
most disciplines because their success is demonstrated mainly by measuring their knowledge in written form. Many HE
institutions worldwide admit international students on condition that they meet the language requirements of an English
standardised test (e.g. TOFEL, IELTS) and normally require that they meet a specific level in the writing component.
Such conditions suggest that mastery of the English language is important, and that mastery of writing skills is
particularly important for success in international higher studies.
Since the early 1970s, FB has been at the heart of writing education, with a focus on how to employ it effectively to
achieve significant learning outcomes. This trend emerged to cope with the shift from teacher-centred to learner-centred
teaching approaches in an attempt to allow FB to promote the learning of writing (Hyland & Hyland, 2006). Phuwichit
(2016) argu
them) and strengths (to further support them). Here, the manner of FB delivery was crucial and influenced the
motivation and perceptions of learners toward the learning situation (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996). Van Steendam et al.
(2010) hold that for FB to be effective, it should be provided in an adequate and timely manner. Adequate FB in writing
ns in a text, uses metalanguage to diagnose textual
, p. 319) and can significantly impact learning (Tang & Thitecott, 1999;
Van Steendam et al., 2010). Timely FB refers to FB that students receive shortly after completing a task (Brown et al.,
2006; OECD, 2005). Other studies have gone this area of inquiry to provide even more effective FB and have examined
areas such as whether the focus should be on global or local writing issues (Hyland, 2003; Min, 2008; Truscott & Hsu,
2008) and whether the FB should be focused or selective (Ferris, 1995; Gibbs & Simpson, 2002).
Nonetheless, practitioners who teach writing skills in higher education may encounter difficulties in providing timely
and adequate FB to their students for several reasons. For instance, the number of students participating in higher
education is increasing every year, and part of the requirements is to master writing skills in preparation for their
academic studies. The nature of writing is not only complex it is seen as more complex than other language skills, and
the proper way to learn writing skills is by producing multiple drafts (Min, 2008). These factors may put practitioners in
a difficult situation by preventing them from offering every student the attention they need (Grimes & Warschauer,
2010). It has been argued that some L2 students worldwide expressed dissatisfaction with the FB they received because
they perceived it as insufficient and inadequate (Huxham, 2007). El Ebyary and Windeatt (2010, p. 122) proposed a
-assisted
to
, p. 122).
B. Teacher and Peer Feedback
Hyland and Hyland (2006) argued that effective FB has several modes that enable two parties to interact with one
another when giving and receiving FB. Of course, teachers are the most traditional providers of FB to learners. Learners
in EFL contexts attach a great deal of importance to the written responses they receive from their instructors and value
them even more than verbal responses (Hyland & Hyland, 2006). Writing conferences between instructors and students
(i.e. one-to-one mediation) are commonly employed to provide feedback and discussion, and to highlight concerns
observed in written texts. Williams (2002) noted that the Vygotskian concept of scaffolding is thought to be closely
related to these conferences, as they can significantly develop writing skills. However, providing TBF proved to be
exhausting and time-consuming and led to a search for more supportive learning tools. One such tool involved students
providing informative FB to their peers (Latifi et al., 2021; Rollinson, 2005; Yu, 2021). Rollinson (2005) argued that
students tended to accept FB offered to them by their peers and revised their texts accordingly. PF can stimulate

their instructors. Such merits have encouraged instructors to integrate this technique into writing classes. On the other
hand, learners might not value PF as much as is hoped for and, therefore, might not accept the PF offered to them
(Hyland, 2003). As a result, they may be uncomfortable using this technique (Rollinson, 2005). Another major concern
regarding this technique is its reliability (Leki, 1990; Hyland, 2003). Researchers have attempted to overcome this
concern by offering professional training in how to provide PF (Min, 2008). This technique has been extensively
examined in the literature. It offers instructors a supportive means for writing development that covers a larger number
of students, allowing them to provide FB to learners more frequently and in a timely manner. More recently, innovative
technologies have presented higher education with automated FB on written texts that are seen as supportive in writing
classrooms. Because technology-based FB tools are relatively new, I discuss their relevant theoretical underpinnings in
a separate section.
C. Automated FB (CBF)
The continuous development of emerging technologies and their integration into education has become an area of
interest in almost every field (Burkhart et al., 2020; Chang & Windeatt, 2021; Walker & Patel, 2018). This interest
increased during the recent COVID- ing in all sectors worldwide caused
by the pandemic has resulted in greater reliance on what technology can offer the educational system, for example, to
activate distant learning (Morgan, 2020). The pandemic has led to heavy reliance on computers to access online
platforms such as Webex and Microsoft Teams, for students to make online submissions, for online examinations, and
for using online materials and accessing databases (Hoq, 2020; Tanveer et al., 2020), all of which are related to the
learning process, including language learning.
Some practitioners and researchers have resisted introducing technology into writing instruction. They claim that
technology might have a negative influence on student writers as they could become reliant on auto-corrective software,
and it may not allow for sufficient manual practice with pen and paper (Chen et al., 2011; Jarom et al., 1991).
Nonetheless, most researchers have argued for employing technology in higher education, particularly in writing
classrooms (Alnasser, 2018; Burkhart et al., 2020; El Ebyary & Windeatt, 2017; Lachner & Neuburg, 2019). The areas

of e-rating systems into their teaching (Le, 2021), comparing the correlation between TBF and CBF scores (Wang &
Brown, 2007), analysing the quality of FB generated by computers (Powers et al., 2001), appraising the reliability and
validity of electronic FB systems (Diki, 2006), formatively employing e-rating systems to measure their effectiveness in
improving written texts produced by students (Coniam, 2009; Deane et al., 2011), and how technology can be used to

Vygotsky (1978)
numerous educationalists worldwide, leading them to encourage practices that stimulate such development. El Ebyary
and Windeatt (2017) suggested that offering student writers CBF might enable them to move to the next learning zone,
as described by Vygotsky (1978). Hyland and Hyland (2006) argued that FB can scaffold the learning process by
offering more frequent learning opportunities and better experiences while generating multiple drafts of written texts.
Therefore, it can be argued that FB generated by computers promotes the development of writing skills. As discussed
earlier, studies on CBF have tackled different aspects, including the nature and quality of CBF and how writing

perceptions of the reliability of TBF and PF remains under-investigated. In particular, this has not been investigated in
the Saudi EFL context. The current study therefore investigated and compared how Saudi EFL learners perceived the
reliability of the three types of FB in their written texts after being exposed to them.

III. METHOD
The current study was a quasi-experiment i
reliability of TBF, PF and CBF and compared them to one another. We administered a pre-intervention questionnaire to
both a control group and an experimental group. After the intervention, we administered a post-intervention
questionnaire to the experimental group only. The research questions addressed in this study were as follows:
RQ 1: How do Saudi EFL learners perceive the reliability of TBF, PF and CBF?
RQ2: Which of the three FB types do Saudi EFL learners find the most and least reliable?
A. Study Sample
The study was conducted in a higher education English department in Saudi Arabia that offers BA, MA, and PhD
programmes in English language-related fields. The participants were male Saudi BA learners. Their study programme
offered five compulsory writing courses. The researcher took over the teaching of a level 3 writing course (year 2 of the
programme) that comprised the experimental group. A different group of students from the same course that was taught
by a different instructor was used for data collection (the control group). Prior to this course, the participants had
attended two writing courses in the same programme. The experimental group (taught by the researcher) consisted of 21
students, and the control group consisted of 19 students (a total of 40 students).
B. Instrument and Procedures
As mentioned earlier, a pre- and post-intervention questionnaire was administered. The questionnaire included an
introductory section that explained the purpose of the study and provided key definitions. The first section enquired
about their background regarding the three types of FB (TBF, PF and CBF). The second section provided 15 statements
the three types of FB (five statements each). A five-point Likert scale was
adopted for these statements (strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree, strongly disagree). The questionnaire concluded
with an open-ended section that allowed the participants to share further thoughts.
The data collection procedure started with an explanation of the purpose of the study and the expected procedures,
and consent to participate in the study was obtained. Immediately after that, the pre-intervention questionnaires were
administered to the two groups of students. Following the teaching curriculum, students in the experimental group were
taught essay writing for two weeks, three hours per week. They were given exemplar essays to examine and had to
develop two of their own essays. The researcher provided FB on these essays and required them to produce a final
improved draft (one at a time). Students were then trained to provide PF, practice feedback provision and conduct FB
conferences between themselves. Then, an automated system was introduced (Criterion, an ETS international
educational service); participants were shown how to work with the system, how to submit essays and receive CBF and
how to incorporate the generated FB. In the following weeks, the participants went through four cycles of essay writing,
in which they developed multiple drafts of four essays. Each cycle started with the development of a first draft which
was provided with PF. A second draft was then developed and submitted to the automated system. A final draft based
on the FB generated by the automated system was then developed. After exposure to this treatment, a post-intervention

IV. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

This section presents the results obtained from the pre- and post-intervention questionnaires.
A. Survey Items
The introductory section of the pre-
experience with TBF, PF and CBF (Table 1). With regard to TBF, the majority reported receiving it from their
ling 80%).
This finding establishes that the majority of the participants were already familiar with TBF. With regard to PF, only
40% of the participants had received it; the larger proportion (60%) had not received it. This suggests that PF as a
learning tool has been employed in the Saudi context, but not to a great extent, and that participants have partial
awareness of the nature of the technique. Finally, the majority (85%) reported not receiving CBF in the past, suggesting
unfamiliarity with the nature of CBF. In brief, the majority of participants in the study were very familiar with the
nature of TBF, less familiar with PF, and unfamiliar with CBF.
TABLE 1
PARTICIPANTS EXPERIENCE OF TBF AND CBF
TBF: How often did you receive TBF on your writing?
Scale Frequency Percentage
Never 2 5.0
Rarely 6 15.0
Sometimes 18 45.0
Often 14 35.0
Total 40 100.0
PF: Have you received PF in the past?
Scale Frequency Percentage
Yes 16 40.0
No 24 60.0
Total 40 100.0
CBF: Have you received automated FB in the past?
Scale Frequency Percentage
Yes 6 15.0
No 34 85.0
Total 40 100.0

The second section of the pre-intervention questionnaire included 15 items divided into three themes, namely the
reliability of the three types of feedback (TBF, PF and CBF). Under each theme, five identical items addressed aspects
relevant to perceptions of how reliable each FB type was (Table 2). The five items were:
1- The reliability of the FB type (an overall statement).
2- Desire to avoid the type of FB.
 3- Recommending the type of FB for writing classes.
4- The acceptance of the received FB.
5- The fai
TABLE 2
PERCEPTIONS ON THE RELIABILITY OF TBF, PF AND CBF (PRE -Q UESTIONNAIRE : RESPONSES OF THE TWO GROUPS)
Items Mean (M) Std. Deviation (SD) N
TBF: 1 The FB provided by the instructor is reliable 4.3750 .58562 40
TBF: 2 I wish for my instructor to avoid providing FB on my texts 2.2250 .35061 40
TBF: 3 I recommend using TBF in writing classes 4.4750 .59861 40
TBF: 4 I will always use the FB I receive from my instructor 4.5000 .55470 40
TBF: 5 TBF is a fair way to evaluate my written texts 4.3000 .82275 40
PF: 1 The FB provided by my peers is reliable 2.2750 .96044 40
PF: 2 I wish for my peers to refrain from providing FB on my texts 3.2750 1.26060 40
PF: 3 I recommend using PF in writing classes 2.9750 1.20868 40
PF: 4 I will always use the feedback I receive from my peers 2.9000 1.15025 40
PF: 5 PF is a fair way to evaluate my written texts 3.0000 .96077 40
CBF: 1 The FB provided by the computer is reliable 3.6250 1.19158 40
CBF: 2 I wish for my instructor to avoid enabling computers to provide FB on my texts 2.5500 1.03651 40
CBF: 3 I recommend using CBF in writing classes 3.8250 1.08338 40
CBF: 4 I will always use the FB I receive from my computer 2.9250 1.04728 40
CBF: 5 CBF is a fair way to evaluate my written texts 3.6250 1.05460 40

The Reliability of the FB.

P of the reliability of the three types of FB varied (Table 2). TBF was perceived to be the
most reliable type of FB (M = 4.37 out of 5), which is an expected finding since the instructor has knowledge and
experience in writing instruction and expertise in providing FB. PF was reported to be the least reliable type of FB (M =
2.27), possibly because of similar weaknesses to those reported in the literature regarding this technique. Interestingly,
CBF was reported to be more reliable than PF (M = 3.62) even though participants had no previous experience with it.
in and acceptance of the integration of this type of FB into writing classes.
1. Desire to Avoid FB Type
With regard to which of the three types of FB the participants wished to avoid, the majority did not want to avoid
TBF (M = 2.22; SD = 0.35), to a lesser extent the participants did not want to avoid CBF (M = 2.55; SD = 1.03), but
were unsure about whether to avoid PF (M = 3.27; SD = 1.26). Further analysis showed that the standard deviations
concerning PF and CBF were quite large, suggesting that there was a proportion of students who were not in agreement
regarding the types of FB they wished to receive. The literature has suggested advantages for each type and has also
raised concerns regarding each type, including concerns related to the reliability of, for example, PF. It is possible that
the advantages and con
2. Recommending FB Types for Writing Classes
In terms of recommending each type of FB for future classes, TBF was recommended most often (M = 4.47), PF was
recommended least often (M = 2.97), and CBF was recommended more than PF but less than TBF (M = 3.82). That
participants perceive CBF to be more acceptable than PF is an interesting finding that possibly suggests that interaction
with computers is easier and faster than with peers. The findings also suggest that TBF is perceived to be integral to
writing classes owing to its reliable nature.
3. Acceptance of FB
If students use the FB they receive, it indicates that they find it valid and, therefore, reliable. The majority of the
participants reported that they would use TBF that they receive (M = 4.5). They were hesitant to use PF (M = 2.90; SD =
1.15) and CBF (M = 2.92; SD = 1.04). Statistical analysis indicated that the standard deviations were large, suggesting
disagreement regarding this notion. It may also suggest that there are different proportions of participants: those who
wish to use it, those who do not wish to use it, and those who are unsure and wanting more practice before making a
decision. In general, these findings indicate that when TBF is offered, learners will accept it as the primary type of FB
for text improvement and other sources will possibly be marginalised.
4. The Fairness of the FB Type
Regarding the fairness of the three FB types, the majority reported TBF as the fairest (M = 4.3), PF as the least fair
(M = 3.00), and CBF as relatively fair (M = 3.62), but not to the extent of comparing CBF with TBF. It can be argued
that fair FB is more likely to be accepted and incorporated into written text. In this regard, TBF was viewed as fairer
than the other two types; therefore, it was more likely to be accepted by the participants (see earlier analysis).
Additionally, these results in general concur with the results of previous studies, and a pattern emerges in which TBF is
always ranked at the top, followed by CBF, and PF is always rated as the least valued.
Statistical analysis yielded few concerns, especially in relation to the large standard deviations relevant to some items.
This called for a post hoc analysis, in which an in-depth analysis was conducted on individual responses, and a number
of patterns were observed. First, several participants highly recommended integrating CBF into writing classes while
simultaneously expressing hesitance to use computer-generated FB. This may indicate their desire for innovative
approaches in writing classes but not to the extent that they were willing to rely fully on this type of FB. A second
pattern that was observed concerned participants who did not recommend PF; they reported that it was not fair and that
they would not use it if it were offered to them. Concerns regarding the reliability of PF were commonly recorded
throughout the data, which is in line with this pattern.
The post-intervention questionnaire included 10 items concerning only PF and CBF. TBF-related items were
excluded because the participants were already familiar with their nature owing to their previous experiences (this is
evident in their responses reflected in Table 1). For the analysis, the means of the pre- and post-intervention responses
were compared using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test to investigate whether there were statistically significant
differences in the responses after exposure to the intervention (Table 3). Among the ten items, the test yielded two
statistically significant differences. First, concerning the use of CBF, the perception average value (item 4) was M =
2.93; after the intervention, it increased to M = 4, with a difference between the two means of 1.07. The Wilcoxon test
revealed that this difference was statistically significant, = 0.002. Second, the participants started off being relatively
unsure about whether they wished to avoid CBF in writing classes (M = 2.55); after the treatment (M = 1.71), there was
a statistically significant difference ( = 0.04; with a mean difference of -0.84). The mean differences concerning the
other items were not found to be significant; therefore, there was no need to elaborate on them (see Appendix). In
general, these findings suggest that perceptions regarding the nature and reliability of CBF and its reliability can be
enhanced with further exposure, a finding that may not apply to PF. In other words, learners may have more preference
for automated rather than peer FB in writing classes, although TBF remains their first choice.
TABLE 3
COMPARISON OF MEANS BETWEEN THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP S PRE - AND POST-I NTERVENTION RESPONSES REGARDING PF AND CBF
Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test
Pre & Post: PF is reliable

Pre & Post: Peers refrain from providing FB

Pre & Post: Recommending PF in writing classes

Pre & Post: Using received PF

Pre & Post: fairness of PF

Pre & Post: CBF is reliable

Pre & Post: Avoid offering CBF

Pre & Post: Recommending CBF in writing classes

Pre & Post: Using received CBF

Pre & Post: Fairness of CBF

Z -.072b -.826b -1.531 c -.525 c -1.032 c -.660 b -1.979c -1.734b -3.153b -1.330b
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .942 .409 .126 .599 .302 .509 .048 .083 .002 .183
b. Based on negative ranks.
c. Based on positive ranks.

B. Open-ended Section
As mentioned earlier, the questionnaires included an open-ended section to allow participants to express their
thoughts on the phenomena under investigation This section was optional. The pre-intervention responses showed that
none of the 40 participants raised any concerns about the reliability of TBF; in fact, they found no weaknesses in it
(reported by 18 participants). With regard to PF, 14 participants, 4 of whom were in the experimental group, viewed it

on. Seven participants, two of whom were from the experimental group, also reported CBF to be unreliable but to a
much lesser degree. Although several advantages of this type of FB have been described (such as easy access, instantly
received FB, and an interesting FB tool), seven participants raised concerns regarding its reliability and clarity. Overall,
these findings suggest that participants had full confidence in the reliability of TBF, a lesser degree of confidence in the
reliability of CBF, and partial confidence in the reliability of PF. Finally, after exposure to PF and CBF, only six
participants raised concerns about the reliability of FB provided by their peers and no concerns were raised regarding
CBF. The change in their views
about PF and reduce their interest in CBF.
 V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
In EFL contexts, practitioners commonly seek best practices in offering educational services concerning English
teaching and learning. In these contexts, writing particular emphasis is placed on writing skills, leading many
researchers to explore different aspects of developing writing skills (Latifi et al., 2021; Yu, 2021). A common practice
for EFL writing instructors is to provide FB to their students on a regular basis, preferably on each draft that they

frequency with which FB

by utilising different types of FB, such as PF and CBF (Burkhart et al., 2020; Chang et al., 2017; El Ebyary & Windeatt,
2017; Lachner & Neuburg, 2019; Rollinson, 2005). Since neither PF nor CBF can match the quality of FB provided by
the instructor, learners may question the reliability of these two sources. The literature advocates that reliable FB can
lead to optimal learning (Ernst & Steinhauser, 2018), and thus it can be argued that positive perceptions regarding
reliability may positively impact learning. However, negative perceptions may lead to refraining from deep involvement
ceptions of the reliability of the three
FB types, and the findings are clearly indicative of their perceptions. It was found that the participants viewed FB
provided by the teacher as the most reliable. In addition, the findings suggest that learners cannot do without it, even in
the presence of other alternatives such as PF and CBF. This finding concurs with that of Alnasser (2013), who explored
ctors

they receive from their instructors and, therefore, they tend to value and accept it. In this study, the majority of
participants reported their willingness to accept and use TBF (M = 4.50), reflecting their confidence in their instructors.
In contrast, the differences in the overall means in responses between TBF and PF, and TBF and CBF were not nearly
comparable, as the differences ranged from 0.81 to 1.6 (with the higher values pertaining to TBF; see Table 2 and
Appendix). Nonetheless, CBF scored higher than PF in terms of reliability, fairness and employment in future classes.
Not only is CBF perceived as better than PF, but a
after exposure to CBF in that they were willing to use more CBF in their writing and desired more practice with the
automated system. No statistically significant changes were found with regard to PF after participants were exposed to
it (see Appendix). These findings are supported by the open-ended sections, where concerns were raised more
frequently before practice with CBF and PF, and significantly reduced after exposure to these two types of FB. This

These findings have pedagogical implications for Saudi Arabia and other EFL contexts. The primary implication is
that teacher involvement in providing FB is integral because EFL learners find it to be the most reliable type of
information they will ever have. TBF will always provide confidence and comfort to learners in the learning process;
therefore, teachers should not limit their FB in writing classes. Of course, such a degree of reliance on this type of FB
may dissuade learners from utilising other sources; therefore, teachers need to integrate other types of FB without
creating a sense that they may replace TBF. Additionally, if a teacher has the choice of integrating either CBF or PF
into a writing class, CBF is recommended as it was seen as more reliable and learners raised fewer concerns about it.
Automated systems can be attractive and accurate, and generate instant FB which can be quite supportive to the teacher
(Deane et al., 2011; Le, 2021). Teachers are encouraged to have their students submit their texts to automated systems
to produce an improved version on which TBF can then be provided. This process can alleviate -related
burdens and hence enable them to provide more TBF. Finally, the literature suggests that CBF can positively impact
learning; the current study found that the more learners are exposed to this type of FB, the more positive their
perceptions of it will become. Therefore, considering the rapid development in technology, it is advisable to emphasise
CBF in writing classes and to enable learners by providing unlimited access to such systems as an encouragement for
learning autonomy and writing skills development.
A limitation of this study is that an analysis of the reliability of the written FB generated by computers and students
was beyond its scope. Thus, researchers are encouraged to explore this area and study the nature of FB generated by
these two techniques, especially the automated one, because it is a relatively new tool in writing classes. Additionally,
further and thorough investigations are needed to answer the question of why EFL learners were hesitant to deem CBF
as reliable and yet wanted to work with it in writing classes. Insights in this regard improve the utility of this tool and,
therefore, improve the learning experience.
 APPENDIX

TABLE 4
MEANS OF PRE- & POST RESPONSES OF THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP (PF & CBF)
Descriptive Statistics (PF & CBF)
Pre & Post Items N Mean Std. Minimum Maximum
Deviation
Pre: 1 The FB provided by my peers is reliable 40 2.28 .960 1 5
Pre: 2 I wish for my peers to refrain from providing FB on my texts 40 3.28 1.261 1 5
Pre: 3 I recommend using PF in writing classes 40 2.98 1.209 1 5
Pre: 4 I always use the feedback I receive from my peers 40 2.90 1.150 1 5
Pre: 5 PF is a fair way to evaluate my written texts 40 3.0000 .96077 1 5
Pre: 1 The FB provided by the computer is reliable 40 3.63 1.192 1 5
Pre: 2 I wish for my instructor to avoid enabling computers to provide FB 40 2.55 1.037 1 5
on my texts
Pre: 3 I recommend using CBF in writing classes 40 3.83 1.083 1 5
Pre: 4 I will always use the FB I receive from my computer 40 2.93 1.047 1 5
Pre: 5 CBF is a fair way to evaluate my written texts 40 3.62 1.055 1 5
Post: 1 The FB provided by my peers is reliable 21 2.38 1.244 1 4
Post: 2 I wish for my peers to refrain from providing FB on my texts 21 3.1905 1.53685 1 5
Post: 3 I recommend using PF in writing classes 21 2.38 1.465 1 5
Post: 4 I always use the feedback I receive from my peers 21 3.19 .814 2 5
Post: 5 PF is a fair way to evaluate my written texts 21 2.62 1.203 1 5
Post: 1 The FB provided by the computer is reliable 21 3.76 .768 2 5
Post: 2 I wish for my instructor to avoid enabling computers to provide 21 1.7143 .64365 1 3
FB on my texts
Post: 3 I recommend using CBF in writing classes 21 3.90 .831 2 5
Post: 4 I will always use the FB I receive from my computer 21 4.00 .894 2 5
Post: 5 CBF is a fair way to evaluate my written texts 21 3.5714 1.02817 2 5

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Suliman M. N. Alnasser is an associate professor in the department of English Language & Literature at King Saud University,
majoring in Educational & Applied Linguistics. He got his BA in English Language from King Saud University (KSA), MA in
Applied Linguistics & TESOL, and PhD in Educational & Applied Linguistics from Newcastle University (UK). His Research
interests include Language policy and planning, second language teaching & learning, language assessment & evaluation, writing in
&
Quality at KSU, and has been running this post for over four years. During that time, he has supervised and head several committees
and projects, and made several accomplishments. Some of these include achieving the national accreditation of 5 academic programs,
and international accreditation for 5 academic programs. His current none-academic interests include strategic planning, project
management (PM), and quality assurance practices.
ISSN 1798-4769
Journal of Language Teaching and Research, Vol. 13, No. 3, pp. 638-644, May 2022 DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17507/jltr.1303.2.1

Media language as a Reflection of Changes in the

World
Ataeva Gulchekhra 1, Rakhmanova Yulduz 2, Mamajanova Guncha 3, Shakirova Saida 4

Tashkent State transport University,Uzbekistan

Abstract— Mass communication affects both society and culture. Different social orders have different
media frameworks, and how they are established by law affects how society works. Diverse forms of
communication, including messages in the mass media, provide the form and structure of society. Language
is an aspect of our culture that is no exception due to the influence of the media. This article is about how
television, radio, the Internet and other media can shape our culture and reflect our cultural behavior. The
media can control, influence and put pressure on society, along with the fact that they really control the
world at times both in a positive and negative sense. In addition, the media can control people in the spotlight
to lead their lives in a certain way or rebel against how they "should" be. These possibilities are only growing
as devices such as cell phones and tablet computers allow us to access various forms of media from virtually
anywhere.

Index Terms—communication technologies, language of the media, television channels, radio, Internet

I. INTRODUCTION
Formation and development of media linguistics as an independent direction in modern linguistics is due to a
number of factors, both related to linguistics and to the information-technological and socio-cultural spheres of
public life. Among the most significant prerequisites for the emergence of media linguistics are the following:
⎯ the rapid growth of information and communication technologies (ICT), expressed, in particular,
in the creation of a global network of media communication;
⎯ formation and development of a single information space as a new virtual environment for text
communication;
⎯ the formation and scientific understanding of the concept of "language of the media", the
definition of its functional and stylistic features and internal structure; (Alekseeva,1994, p.63)
⎯ awareness of the need to apply an integrated approach to the study of media speech, based on
combining the efforts of representatives of different humanitarian disciplines;
⎯ consideration of studies of the language of the media in the framework of media studies (media
studies)
⎯ a new independent discipline, the subject of which is a comprehensive analysis of the historical
development, current state and features of the functioning of the entire complex of mass media.
Let's dwell on each of the above factors in more detail. (Alekseeva,1994, p. 65-66)

II. THE ROLE OF THE MEDIA IN THE DYNAMICS OF LANGUAGE PROCESSES.

The second half of the XX - beginning of the XXI century is characterized by the rapid growth of mass
communication and new information technologies. The dynamic development of traditional media - print, radio,
television, the emergence and spread of the World Wide Web - the Internet have led to the creation of a single
information space, a special virtual environment formed by the aggregate of many media streams. All these affected
the processes of production and distribution of the word, on the features of speech use and the nature of linguistic
changes. The main volume of speech use today falls on the sphere of mass communication. Mass media texts, or
media texts, are one of the most common forms of modern language existence, and their total length exceeds the
total volume of speech in other spheres of human activity (Allan Bell, 1995, p.23). At the same time, the corpus of
texts produced and transmitted on a daily basis through media channels continues to grow steadily. This, in
particular, can be judged by quantitative indicators: the number of television channels is growing (in the USA it

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reaches more than hundred, including cable television), their further specialization is taking place - there are mainly
news channels (for example, CNN - Cable News Network), entertainment (MTV), sports (Eurosport), educational
(Discovery Channel), music, etc. New radio stations appear, new newspapers and magazines appear, designed both
for a wide audience and for satisfying the interests of a wide variety of age, professional and social groups.
(Lapteva, 2000)
Communication on the World Wide Web makes a huge contribution to the constant growth of the mass
of media speech. The proliferation of online versions of printed publications, the emergence of online publications
- all this contributes to an increase in the total number of texts functioning in the world information space, which
is considered by researchers as a special sphere of speech use with its own characteristics. The concept of a single
information space is a key importance for understanding the dynamics of linguistic changes, since it allows us to
represent the multifaceted activities of the world and national mass media in the form of a single, holistic system,
the functioning of which has a significant impact on the course of linguocultural processes. In modern science, to
designate this new virtual territory without state borders and tangible barriers, a whole set of terms and concepts
are used that relate to a semantic series, but emphasize one or another side of mass communication processes, such
as: information space, information environment, information field, media environment, media landscape,
infosphere. The concept of a single information space allows you to better understand the laws of movement of
information flows, as well as to present a holistic information picture of the world in dynamics. The most important
component of the world information space is its linguocultural component, the importance of which is difficult to
overestimate, since any verbally expressed information is the embodiment of a certain language and culture.
Understood as the area of distribution of a particular language and culture in the global media landscape, the
concept of a linguocultural space allows us to demonstrate the actual discrepancy between the boundaries of
territorial, state and the boundaries of information spheres of influence (Berkowitz, 1984, p.414-416). Thus, the
real contours of the Anglo-American linguocultural space go far beyond the territories of the respective states due
to the huge coverage of English-language media broadcasting and the spread of the Internet.
The role of the media in the dynamics of linguistic processes, it must be emphasized that we mean not
only and not so much changes caused by the introduction of new information technologies, but qualitative
transformations in the general linguocultural situation. In turn, assessing the impact of modern mass media on the
course of linguistic processes, it is possible to distinguish between the following three levels of analysis (Lapteva,
2003):
o geolinguistic
o interlinguistic
o intralinguistic.
The geolinguistic level, as the name implies, involves an analysis of how the media influence the state and
development of the general linguocultural situation in the world and in the regions. Here, attention is focused on
such important quantitative and areal indicators as a change in the number of speakers in a particular language, a
redistribution of linguistic spheres of influence, an increase in the role of some and a decrease in the role of other
languages in the world information space.
At the interlinguistic or interlanguage level, researchers are interested in the issues of interaction and mutual
influence of languages, the mechanisms and methods of borrowing, as well as functional styles and spheres of
speech, are most susceptible to foreign language influence.
Intralinguistic level, or intralingual, allows you to focus on media-conditioned linguistic processes within
one linguistic-cultural area. These include: the tendency to blur clear style boundaries, the spread of colloquial style
norms in the basic corpus of media speech (news, information analytics, commentary), the replication of erroneous
speech use (for example, incorrect stress, grammatical errors and incorrect collocation), a decrease in the speech
norm due to the use of in the media with reduced and profanity, etc. Let's dwell on each of the listed levels in more
detail. One of the main features of the modern geolinguistic picture of the world is the indisputable dominance of
the English language, which manifests itself, among other things, in the field of mass communication. The total
volume of English-language media texts, due to a number of economic, political and socio-cultural reasons,
significantly exceeds the volume of mass media texts in other languages of the world. Thus, the instant reaction to
events anywhere in the world, their objective coverage helped the American world news channel (CNN) gain
popularity among viewers around the world. This channel broadcasts in English. BBC World enjoys a reputation
as one of the most objective news channels, which is why it is watched in Western Europe, the United States and
other countries around the world. Since the beginning of the 90s. in connection with significant socio-economic

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changes, English-language media are becoming more widespread in many developed countries and developing
countries. (Higgins, J.A., Brand Miller, J.C. and Denyer,1996, p.96)

A. The lingua franca

In the mid-90s. where English already began to spread foreign journalists working in Moscow created the
Independent Media company, which publishes the popular publications The Moscow Times, The Moscow Tribune,
The St. Petersburg Times, Capital, and also oversees the release of Russian-language analogues of well-known
magazines: "Cosmopolitan", "Good Housekeeping" and at the beginning of 2000s English language began to
spread in Uzbekistan after which was published magazines in English as Magazine "Visit Uzbekistan" – (is the
magazine, which truly demonstrates in each issue all the reasons to visit Uzbekistan and even more. To find a
reason to visit our unique country more often and perhaps to stay for long. Find your travel or business opportunities
or a chance for culture exchange in ethnic festivals or maybe spend a gastronomic journey through the Visit
Uzbekistan's pages.) or the magazine "International relations: politics, economics, law" is an interdisciplinary
scientific and theoretical publication of the University of World Economy and Diplomacy of the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Uzbekistan.
All these testify to the further integration and globalization of international information systems and is
reflected in the course of language processes, the qualitative aspect of speech use, the movement of language norms,
as well as the interaction of languages and cultures. The globalization of the world information space has
contributed not only to a significant expansion of the sphere of influence of the English language, but also to its
transformation into a generally recognized language of international communication - the lingua franca. Currently,
English has become the language of international business and trade, politics and diplomacy, science and
information technology, media, popular music, show business, sports and education (Gendina, 2006, p.512). Today
it is hardly possible to find a field of human activity in which the English language would not have a dominant
meaning. The global role of the English language in the modern world is perfectly described by the famous English
linguist David Crystal in his book "English as a Global Language", noting the role of the media in promoting and
spreading the English language and mass culture in national media landscapes. Indeed, the total number of media
texts in English, distributed daily through media channels, significantly exceeds the number of texts in other
languages, and in the national mass media of almost all countries of the world, there is an expansion of samples of
English-language mass culture. The Beatles, Madonna, Backstreet Boys, Spice Girls, etc. - a constantly updated
list of popular songs in English is well known to a mass audience both in the West and East. In this regard, the
concept of linguistic imperialism, which arose within the framework of the Western European academic tradition
in the early 90s of the XX century as a reaction to a completely positive assessment of the global role of English in
the modern world, is of certain interest. Formulated 8 by the English researcher Robert Phillipson in his book
“Linguistic Imperialism” (Rose, Conama, 2018, p.385) the concept of linguistic imperialism considers the
dominant role of the English language in the modern world as an expansion in relation to other languages and
cultures. It is noted that the rapid increase in the share of the English language in the world linguocultural space is
influenced by a number of political and economic factors: from the colonial rule of the British Empire and the
transformation of the United States into a world superpower to the information technology revolution and the rapid
development of transport networks. Explaining the "world domination" of the English language mainly for socio-
economic and political reasons, as well as the promotion of the national interests of the most powerful English-
speaking countries - the United States and Great Britain, Robert Phillipson emphasizes that the expansion of the
English language causes irreparable damage to other national languages and cultures. The concept of linguistic
imperialism is formulated by analogy with the concept of cultural imperialism, already well-established in Western
humanities, with the help of which the content of the socio-economic concept of "imperialism" is extended to the
sphere of culture. The term "cultural imperialism» (Weckert, Al‐Saggaf, 2003, p. 21) is used to denote the dominant
influence of a particular culture, primarily the English-speaking, American culture in the modern world. The modes
of cultural influence are many and varied: these are the media, film and video production, advertising, youth culture
and popular music, as well as targeted influence in the field of education. Along with linguistic imperialism,
researchers also distinguish media or information imperialism. The term media imperialism is used in modern
foreign research on the media to denote the redistribution of the world information space in favor of the most
powerful and influential countries politically, economically and technologically. For example, renowned American
media expert Oliver Boyd-Barrett (2018) defines media imperialism as a state in which the property rights,
structure, distribution and content of mass communication are significantly influenced by foreign media
JOURNAL OF LANGUAGE TEACHING AND RESEARCH 691

organizations. At the same time, in the author's opinion, the unevenness in the implementation of media interaction,
the absence of an equivalent exchange of information flows, is of particular importance.
Professor Boyd-Barrett (2018) notes that in such conditions the most powerful leading countries have a
dominant influence on the world media space. Thus, the description of linguocultural and informational processes
using the socio-economic term imperialism, which has certain negative connotations, allows us to emphasize their
aggressive, offensive nature. Indeed, the expansion of the sphere of influence of the English language in the world
information space noticeably enhances its impact on other languages, which, in particular, is manifested in a large
number of English-language borrowings. In turn, the expansion of the English-speaking mass culture is inevitably
accompanied by a reduction in the share of the national media product in the domestic market. And if some
countries, for example, France, try to somehow control the English-speaking influence by introducing legislative
restrictions, then the cultural and information space of some countries continues to remain completely open. In
order to prevent dominant of other culture French schools have special subject “French people behave”. Naturally,
this affects both the general language situation and the state of the internal media landscape. The study of the role
of the media in the dynamics of linguistic processes at the interlinguistic level involves the analysis of media-
conditioned mechanisms of interaction of languages, in particular, such as methods of borrowing lexical units,
functional-style stratification of borrowings, and the mutual influence of communicative and broadcasting styles.
Since in the information society, cultural and linguistic influence is most actively carried out through the channels
of mass communication, the dominant influence of the English-language media speech on the world information
space, including its national segment, is clearly seen in the analysis of the corresponding media discourses.

III. THE IMPACT OF THE ANGLO-AMERICAN MASS MEDIA ON THE RUSSIAN AND UZBEK
MEDIA
A. Tv programs

The influence of the Anglo-American mass media on the Russian and Uzbek media is noticeable both at
the level of format and content, and at the level of language.
The widespread distribution of English-language samples of television and radio products, copying (both licensed
and unlicensed, pirated) of format and content, a powerful wave of English-language borrowing, imitation of
communicative and broadcasting styles - all these are characteristic features of modern media texts. One of the
most striking examples of the influence of English-language media on the format and content of mass media texts
in Russia are programs modeled on well-known Western programs. Thus, many popular projects of Russian and
Uzbek television are analogs of well-known Western television shows. For example, the 10th TV game “Поле
чудес(pole chudes)” in Russia and “Mo’jizalar maydoni” in Uzbekistan” is a licensed version of the popular
American program “The Wheel of Fortune”, which is successfully broadcast in many countries of the world;
“Самое слабое звено(Samoye slaboye zveno)” is the Russian version of the famous English TV game “The
Weakest Link”, and the rating programs “Guess the Melody”, “Navo” Uzbek variant, “Угадай мелодию(ugaday
melodiyu)” Russian variant and “The Last Hero” are also based on American originals. Popular TV and radio
formats that emerged on the Anglo-American soil are successfully adapting in last years in many countries: the
number of programs using such basic media formats for the English-speaking mass media as talk-show, quiz game,
phone-in program, candid camera, confession television, reality show, etc. growing steadily. Not only formats are
borrowed, but also content. It is no secret that many Russian publications, which cover the latest in world cinema,
popular music, as well as events in the world of show business, make their materials about the life of foreign stars,
mainly "downloading" articles from the Internet sites of popular English-language magazines such as "Hello”.
Moreover, the previously practiced reference "based on the materials of the foreign press" is currently most often
absent.

B. Borrowings

The impact of the Anglo-American mass media at the language level is manifested in a powerful wave of
borrowing from English vocabulary. [8] From a conceptual point of view, borrowings, as a rule, reflect the most
developed spheres of activity within the framework of a particular national culture. So, on the pages of the British
press, you can often find words in the French language that are used to denote objects of stylish life, high fashion
and gastronomic delights, for example: haute couture, soiree, clientele, vin de table, etc. In turn, borrowings from
English are conceptually related to areas such as business, politics, sports, computer technology, popular music,

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and youth culture. Here are some of the most striking examples: management, show business, summit, promotion,
halfback, file, drive, shoes, bottle (youth slang).
Of course, some English-language borrowings have already become so firmly established in modern
speech that replacing them with words of Russian origin seems rather difficult. This especially applies to those
cases when an English word denotes a concept that is relatively new for Russian reality, the description of which
by means of the Russian language requires certain lexical efforts. Thus, even with official support, the Russian
name for the Anglo-American concept of “public relations” is unlikely to completely replace the English term
“public relations” (PR) from everyday life. Moreover, a number of derivative words have been formed in the
Russian language - PR, etc. In a significant number of media texts, the use of English borrowings is motivated by
the desire to preserve a more economical language form, for example, the use of the English word “primaries”
instead of the phrase “primary elections”. The word of Scandinavian origin “ombudsman” is widely used in modern
English to refer to people who represent the interests and defend the rights of citizens in various organizations,
including the media. Moreover, in accordance with the requirements of political correctness, the “ombudsman”
often turns into “ombudsperson”. Analysis of linguistic processes at the interlinguistic level also allows us to make
an assumption that there is a certain fashion for certain words and expressions spread through the media, and it is
the media that contribute to the spread of a new, “fashionable” version of the use of the lexeme to other
linguocultural areas (Tafani Vilma, 2009). Let's take, for example, the word “transparent”, which is used in almost
every speech of a modern Russian politician - a transparent budget, a transparent government, a transparent
mechanism for the distribution of benefits, and so on. Traditionally combined with nouns denoting a physical entity
- transparent air, transparent water, transparent glass, this adjective since the late 90s of the twentieth century has
been actively used to denote such abstract concepts as budget, politics, financing, situation, political structures,
organs authorities, etc. Moreover, this process was initiated precisely in the English-speaking region - first,
“transparent policies”, “transparent government”, “transparent budget” appeared, and then, with the help of mass
media, these options for compatibility migrated to other languages, including Russian. It is interesting to note that
some politicians even demonstrate the use of the English version of the word by saying “транспарентный
(transparetniy)” instead of “прозрачный (prozrachniy)”. Thus, the Russian Minister of Defense, answering the
questions of TV journalists, said that the mechanism of conscription into the Russian army should be absolutely
"transparent (транспарентным(transparentnim)". (Alekseeva,1994)

C. Media texts

The role of the media as channels of active linguistic interaction is also manifested in the use and
dissemination of certain information and broadcasting styles. The concept of "information and broadcasting style"
is directly related to mass communication and is used to denote that special tone of conversation with readers,
listeners, viewers, which is characteristic of each particular mass media - newspaper, magazine, radio program or
TV program. It is known that each media subject "speaks" with his audience in a certain tone, using stable media-
stylistic and rhetorical means for addressing and text communication. So, for high-quality newspaper press one
style of communication is characteristic, for popular - another, the style of British news broadcasting differs from
the style of national TV news, etc. Like the musical mode, the tonality of a particular subject of the mass media
can vary depending on a number of extralinguistic factors that can relate to political, historical, cultural, ideological,
social spheres. Broadcast styles can be elevated formally, such as in national television news, utterly impersonal,
such as the BBC's famous news broadcast style for objectivity, or deliberately familiar, such as most entertainment
radio and television presenters. A comparative study of media texts shows that globalization, or rather the Anglo-
Americanization of the modern media space, largely contributes to the partial borrowing and sometimes complete
copying of certain information and broadcasting styles (Sherkovin, 2002). Thus, the changes in the period of
restructure affected primarily the tone of communication between the post- media and their audience, which, in
particular, resulted in a radical change in information and broadcasting styles. Much in the post- media discourse
arose precisely due to the influence of the Anglo-American media speech. For example, the very common phrase
today by TV news anchors “Оставайтесь с нами (ostovaytes s nami)” is nothing more than a translation of the
famous English news cliché “Stay with us”. Exploring the role of the media in the interaction of English and
Russian media discourses, one cannot fail to mention the influence of the Russian language on English or Uzbek,
which, of course, is not so noticeable, but still takes place in certain contexts. The most typical context is the so-
called expat media, in other words, the press intended for Britons living and working abroad. Examples of such
press are the newspapers “The Moscow Times” and “The Russian Journal”, published in Moscow and intended
JOURNAL OF LANGUAGE TEACHING AND RESEARCH 693

both for foreigners living in Russia and for Russian citizens who speak English or “Visit Uzbekistan” which is
intended for foreigners, “Tashkent Times”, “Uzbekistan Today” can be an example to this category. Analysis of
these publications shows that the texts of the mass media immediately respond to the dominant linguocultural
environment, integrating the most frequent and culturally significant vocabulary. Functioning in the Russian
linguocultural area, English-language newspapers cover both international events and Russian reality, so it is
natural that, talking about their “Russian experience”, foreign correspondents try to “decorate” their material with
original vocabulary conveying the specifics of national culture. Grandma, comrade, gentlemen, tusovka, girl - these
and similar lexical units are introduced into the English text without translation to describe the realities of Russian
or Uzbek life, to convey the national flavor. Thus, the use of Russian or Uzbek words, realia in English-language
newspaper texts is always strictly motivated. Moreover, it should be noted that in some cases, despite the presence
of the appropriate word necessary to designate a particular phenomenon of Russian reality, in English foreign
journalists prefer to use the word of the Russian or Uzbek language, thus emphasizing intercultural differences, the
discrepancy between the semantic boundaries of the concept in Foreign and English cultural traditions.
For example, the Russian word "бабушка(grandmother)" in the English spelling "babushka" is quite often
found in the English-language texts of the mass media about Russia; linguistic and cultural connotations that cannot
be conveyed using the English word of the corresponding meaning - grandmother, granny. Analysis of the role of
the mass media at the intra-linguistic involves the study of the influence of the media on the functioning of the
language within the framework of one linguistic-cultural area. Speaking about linguistic processes, which are
triggered by the mass media, first of all, the following can be distinguished:
1) a tendency to blur clear stylistic boundaries
2) the spread of colloquial style norms in the basic corpus of media speech (news, information analytics,
commentary)
3) replication of erroneous speech use (incorrect stress, grammatical errors, incorrect combination)
4) a decrease in the speech norm due to the use of jargon, profanity, etc.
The tendency to erase clear stylistic distinctions within the media speech corpus is noted by many
researchers, both Russian and foreign. Perhaps this tendency is due to the extraordinary mobility and dynamism of
the genre-typological paradigm of media discourse itself. The main types of media texts are news, information
analytics (comment and analysis), journalism (features) and advertising, being in constant interaction and
immediate temporal and spatial proximity (journalism and information and analytical programs are interrupted by
advertising, news side by side with comments, etc.) naturally influence each other. Sometimes this leads to the
emergence of new genre-stylistic hybrids such as "infotainment" (Dobrosklonskaya, 2018) or "infomercial". The
inclusion of entertainment or advertising components in news materials is dictated by the same key desire of mass
communication - to attract the largest possible audience. Experts also note the convergence of the norms of oral
and written speech in the media, which, apparently, is due to the functional and technological features of the
discursive practices of mass communication themselves. So, the production and distribution of media texts includes
such special techniques as reading from a crawl line, translating the primary oral text (for example, an interview)
into a written publication form, integrating spontaneous speech and prepared speech, mixing conversational and
literary styles. For example, the author of the well-known book “Live Russian Speech from the TV Screen” Lapteva
(2003) writes:
“The influence of the sounding media on linguistic processes can hardly be overestimated. Now the
language of the press and sounding media is becoming less and less close to the book-written type of literary
language. Informational and official television speech experience a tremendous impact of the oral-speech element,
there is an uncontrolled mixing of literary and oral-spoken speech features, which contributes to a general decline
in speech culture.”
Indeed, modern speech culture, the state and movement of the language norm are largely determined such
basic properties of mass communication as multiple repetition and huge audience coverage. Unfortunately, we can
say that the well-known proverb “what is written with a pen, cannot be cut down with an ax” is applicable today to
the electronic media, in particular, to television. Speech sounding from the TV screen is perceived as the norm, and
only a sensitive ear of a specialist is able to detect and pay attention to such linguistic “errors” (Lapteva, 2003, p.3).

IV. CONCLUSION

An active study of the properties of media speech began in the second half of the twentieth century, when
the attention of scientists began to attract the most diverse aspects of the use of language in the media: from

© 2022 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

 JOURNAL OF LANGUAGE TEACHING AND RESEARCH
694

linguistic and pragmatic to functional and semiotic. The structure and content of media speech were studied within
the framework of a variety of schools and areas: from the point of view of sociolinguistics, pragmatics, semiotics,
psycholinguistics, functional stylistics, discourse analysis, content analysis, cognitive linguistics, as well as within
the framework of such relatively new areas as “critical linguistics” and cultural linguistics.
The language of the media is the entire corpus of texts produced and distributed by the media; secondly, it is a
stable intralingual system characterized by a certain set of linguistic-stylistic properties and features; and, finally,
thirdly, it is a special sign system of a mixed type with a certain ratio of verbal and audiovisual components specific
to each of the media: print, radio, television, and the Internet. Let us illustrate these definitions with appropriate
contexts. “Possessing high prestige and the most modern means of dissemination, the language of the media plays
the role of a kind of model of the national language in the information society. It largely shapes literary norms,
linguistic tastes and preferences, influences the perception of politics, ideology, art and literature”. “Mass
information is a global text that unites different linguistic communities with their social linguistic structures.
Despite the difference in linguistic systems understood linguistically, mass information has a fundamental unity of
meaning and direction of content”. “Television speech is a very complexly organized set of varieties that are
embodied in various genres. At the same time, the tendency to an increase and expansion of "free" genres is directly
related to an increase in the effectiveness of the impact of television speech, with the most complete manifestation
of the function of influence, which, along with the function of communication, is the leading one in the language
of the mass media”.
So, the key importance for the development of the general concept of the language of the media are the approaches
when the language of the media is understood as
a) as a stable intralingual system, characterized by a certain set of linguistic-stylistic properties and features,
b) as a special sign system of a mixed type with a certain ratio of verbal and audiovisual components, specific for
each of the media.
It was within the framework of these definitions that the content and internal structure of the modern
concept of "language of the media" were formed. The theoretical basis of the concept of the language of the media
is a systematic study of a stable range of issues related to the use of language in the field of mass communication,
such as:
- what is the impact of mass communication on the ratio of oral and written forms of speech,
- how the mass nature of the message affects the movement of the language norm,
- what is the language of mass information from the point of view of functionalistic differentiation,
- what are the criteria for the typological classification of media texts,
- what is the specificity of the languages of specific media
- newspapers, magazine press, radio, television, the Internet, as well as the languages of so-called media-
conditioned systems
- advertising and connections with the public.
And influence of the media on the course of language processes by researchers and in relation to other
European languages - English, French, German, Spanish, Italian. Thus, we can conclude that the role played by the
mass media in the dynamics of language development is enormous. Having become one of the main spheres of
speech use, the mass media today largely determine the nature and properties of the modern state of the language.
The reflection of these processes in academic science was expressed, in particular, in the formation and
consolidation of the concept of "language of the media".

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 Call for Papers and Special Issue Proposals
Aims and Scope
Journal of Language Teaching and Research (JLTR) is a scholarly peer-reviewed international scientific journal published bimonthly, focusing on
theories, methods, and materials in language teaching, study and research. It provides a high profile, leading edge forum for academics, professionals,
consultants, educators, practitioners and students in the field to contribute and disseminate innovative new work on language teaching and research.
JLTR invites original, previously unpublished, research and survey articles, plus research-in-progress reports and short research notes, on both
practical and theoretical aspects of language teaching, learning, and research. These areas include, but are not limited to, the following topics:

• Language teaching methodologies • Language teaching for specific purposes

• Pedagogical techniques • New technologies in language teaching
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readers of the Journal. A Special Issue is typically made of 15 to 30 papers, with each paper 8 to 12 pages of length.
A special issue can also be proposed for selected top papers of a conference/workshop. In this case, the sp ecial issue is usually released in
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The following information should be included as part of the proposal:

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More information is available on the web site at http://www.academypublication.com/jltr/

(Contents Continued from Back Cover)

Integration of Perceptual Similarity With Faithful Mapping of Phonological Contrast in Loanword 541
Adaptation: Mandarin Chinese Adaptation of English Stops
Mosi He and Jianing He

Challenges in Translating Scientific Texts: Problems and Reasons 550

Hadeel M. Al-Smadi

A Change in Saudi Attitudes From Use of Euphemism to Taboo: A Sociolinguistic Study 561
Salma M. Alqahtani, Najat A. Busabaa, and Hala M. O. Salih

A Didactic Strategy to Favor the Development of Oral Expression in Students at UEES and ECOTEC 572
Universities
Fabricio Ayala-Pazmino, Yeimer Prieto-Lopez, and Beatriz Loor-Avila

Proposed 21st Century Learning Themes in English Classrooms 583

Tuti Alawiah, Abdul Hakim Yassi, Nasmilah, and Abidin Pammu

Comparing L2 Incidental Vocabulary Learning Through Viewing, Listening, and Reading 590
Dukhayel M Aldukhayel

The Role of Study Habits in the Relationships Among Self-Esteem, Self-Control, and Academic 600
Performance: The Case of Online English Classes
Jie Hua

Metacognitive Knowledge in Performing a Speaking Task: A Report From High and Low Proficient 609
Thai University Students
Thiwaporn Thawarom, Jeffrey D. Wilang, and Wareesiri Singhasiri

Teachers’ Perspectives on Foreign Language Acquisition and Mobile or Computer Assisted Language 620
Learning: A Qualitative Study
Wael A. Holbah

Effectiveness of Existing Language Courses and Classroom Tactics for ELT at the Engineering 627
Universities in Bangladesh
Mohammad Shahazahan Seraj Bhuiyan and Mohammad Ehsanul Islam Khan

Cognitive Strategies Employed in Tackling Lexical Problems in Second Language Learning: A 638
Psycholinguistic Study
Alaa’ Ghazi Rababah

Saudi Learners' Perceptions of Academic Writing Challenges and General Attitude Towards Writing 645
in English
Hanadi Abdulrahman Khadawardi

A Correlative Study on English Listening Beliefs and Strategies of Chinese High School Students—A 659
Case in Fujian Province
Yajing Wu and Mei Peng

Speaking Challenges in a Life Skill Program for Islamic Boarding School Students: A Case Study 670
Muhamad Holandyah, Lenny Marzulina, Dian Erlina, Kasinyo Harto, Fitri Amalia, Fridiyanto
Fridiyanto, and Amirul Mukminin

Comparing English Language Learners’ Perceptions of How Reliable Computer-Based, Teacher- 678
Based, and Peer Feedback Is: A Case Study
Suliman M. N. Alnasser

edia Language as a Reflections Change in the World 688

Ataeva Gulchekhra, Rakhmonova Yulduz, Mamajanova Gulguncha, Shakirova Saida