Elasticity

Elasticity
A body regains its original configuration (length, shape or volume) after you remove the
deforming forces. A perfectly elastic body regains its original configuration immediately and
completely after the removal of deforming force from it. Quartz and phosphor bronze are the
examples of nearly perfectly elastic bodies.
Plasticity
A plastic body is unable to return to its original size and shape even on removal of the
deforming force.
Every component in a linear motion system experiences some form of loading due to applied forces
or motion. The component’s reactions to these loads are described by its mechanical properties.
For components subjected to tension or compression — such as load-carrying balls and rollers,
shafts mounted vertically, or fastening and joining hardware — the mechanical properties of stress
and strain play an important role in determining whether the component can withstand the
application’s loading conditions.
Stress is the force applied to a material, divided by the material’s cross-sectional area. The SI Unit
of stress is newton per square meter (Nm-2).In CGS units, stress is measured in dyne-cm-2.
Dimensional formula of stress is ML-1T-2.
Types of Stress
 Normal stress: It is the restoring force per unit area perpendicular to the surface of the body.
It is of two types: tensile and compressive stress.
 Tangential stress: When the elastic restoring force or deforming force acts parallel to the
surface area, the stress is called tangential stress.

Strain is the deformation or displacement of material that results from an applied stress.
Types of Strain
 Longitudinal strain: If the deforming force produces a change in length alone, the strain
produced in the body is called longitudinal strain or tensile strain.
 Volumetric strain: If the deforming force produces a change in volume alone, the strain
produced in the body is called volumetric strain. It is given as:

The most common way to analyze the relationship between stress and strain for a particular
material is with a stress-strain diagram.
The stress-strain diagram provides valuable information about how much force a material can
withstand before permanent deformation or failure occurs.
Many materials exhibit a proportional relationship between stress and strain up to certain point,
referred to as the proportional limit, shown here as point “A.” This stress-strain relationship is
known as Hooke’s Law, and in this region, the slope of the stress-strain curve is referred to as the
modulus of elasticity (aka Young’s modulus), denoted E.

The modulus of elasticity is essentially a measure of stiffness and is one of the factors used to
calculate a material’s deflection under load.
Just beyond the proportional limit is the elastic limit, at which point the material transitions from
elastic behavior, where any deformation due to applied stress is reversed when the force is
removed, to plastic behavior, where deformations caused by stress remain even after the stress is
removed. For many materials, the proportional limit and the elastic limit are the same or nearly
equal. (In the stress-strain curve shown here, the proportional limit and the elastic limit are
assumed to be the same.)
Note: As long as the applied stresses are below the proportional limit, stress-strain relationships
are the same whether the material is under tension or compression.
The yield point, shown here as point “C,” is the point where strain increases faster than stress
(referred to as “strain hardening”), and the material experiences some amount of permanent
deformation.
For materials that do not have a well-defined yield point, or whose yield point is difficult to
determine, an offset yield strength — shown here as point “B” — is used. Offset yield strength is
the stress that will cause a specified amount of permanent strain (typically 0.2 percent). It is found
by drawing a line that crosses the X (strain) axis at 0.002 and runs parallel to the stress-strain line
(slope = E). The point where this line intersects the stress-strain curve is the offset yield point.
Finally, at point “D,” where the curve begins to fall, the material’s ultimate tensile strength has
been reached. This point denotes the maximum stress that can be applied to a material in tension
before failure occurs.
Note: The term “strength” can be used with various material properties (tensile strength, yield
strength, shear strength, etc.). But regardless of the property being described, “strength” typically
refers to a material’s resistance to failure, either through fracture or excessive deformation.
Note that in the discussion above, the original cross-sectional area and length (before any
deformation had taken place) were used to calculate stress and strain, respectively. Thus, the
diagram is referred to as an “engineering stress-strain diagram.” But as a material deforms, its
cross-sectional area and length change. A stress-strain diagram that takes the instantaneous values
of cross-sectional area and length to determine stress and strain is referred to as a “true stress-strain
diagram.”

A change in length ΔL is produced when a force is applied to a wire or rod parallel to its length
L0 , either stretching it (a tension) or compressing it.
Experiments have shown that the change in length (ΔL) depends on
only a few variables. As already noted, ΔL is proportional to the force
F and depends on the substance from which the object is made.
Additionally, the change in length is proportional to the original length
L0 and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the wire
or rod. For example, a long guitar string will stretch more than a short
one, and a thick string will stretch less than a thin one. We can
combine all these factors into one equation for ΔL :

where ΔL is the change in length, F the applied force, Y is a factor, called the elastic modulus
or Young’s modulus, that depends on the substance, A is the cross-sectional area, and L0 is the
original length. Table lists values of Y for several materials—those with a large Y are said to
have a large tensile stiffness because they deform less for a given tension or compression.
Example:
Suspension cables are used to carry gondolas at ski resorts. Consider a suspension cable that
includes an unsupported span of 3020 m. Calculate the amount of stretch in the steel cable. Assume
that the cable has a diameter of 5.6 cm and the maximum tension it can withstand is 3×106N.
Sideways Stress: Shear Modulus
Figure illustrates what is meant by a sideways stress or a shearing force. Here the deformation is
called Δx and it is perpendicular to L0 , rather than parallel as with tension and compression.
Shear deformation behaves similarly to tension and compression and can be described with similar
equations. The expression for shear deformation is

where S is the shear modulus/modulus of rigidity (see Table) and F is the force applied
perpendicular to L0 and parallel to the cross-sectional area A . Again, to keep the object from
accelerating, there are actually two equal and opposite forces F applied across opposite faces.

Example:
Find the mass of the picture hanging from a steel nail as shown in Figure, given that the nail
bends only 1.80μm.
Changes in Volume: Bulk Modulus
An object will be compressed in all directions if inward forces are applied evenly on all its surfaces
as in Figure. It is relatively easy to compress gases and extremely difficult to compress liquids and
solids. For example, air in a wine bottle is compressed when it is corked. But if you try corking a
brim-full bottle, you cannot compress the wine—some must be removed if the cork is to be
inserted. The reason for these different compressibilities is that atoms and molecules are separated
by large empty spaces in gases but packed close together in liquids and solids. To compress a gas,
you must force its atoms and molecules closer together. To compress liquids and solids, you must
actually compress their atoms and molecules, and very strong electromagnetic forces in them
oppose this compression.

The relationship of the change in volume to other physical quantities is given by:
where B is the bulk modulus (see Table), V0 is the original volume, and F/A is the force per unit
area applied uniformly inward on all surfaces. Note that no bulk moduli are given for gases.
Example:
Calculate the fractional decrease in volume (ΔV/V0) for seawater at 5.00 km depth, where the
force per unit area is 5.00×107 N/m2.

Although measurable, this is not a significant decrease in volume considering that the force per
unit area is about 500 atmospheres (1 million pounds per square foot). Liquids and solids are
extraordinarily difficult to compress.
Examples:
5. A sculpture weighing 10,000 N rests on a horizontal surface at the top of a 6.0-m-tall vertical
pillar. The pillar’s cross-sectional area is 0.20 m2 and it is made of granite with a mass density of
2700 kg/m3. Find the compressive stress at the cross-section located 3.0 m below the top of the
pillar and the value of the compressive strain of the top 3.0-m segment of the pillar.
6. The area of the upper face of a rectangular block is 0.5 m x 0.5 and the lower faced is fixed.
The height of the block is 1 cm. A shearing force applied to the top face produces a displacement
of 0.0015 mm. Find the stress, strain and shearing force. Shear modulus (modulus of rigidity) is
equal to η = 4.5 x 1010 N/m2.
NOTES: