BLOG102 – BUSINESS LOGIC

FINAL TERM

LESSON 1: EQUIVALENT PROPOSITIONS

Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
• Identify applicable eductions for each categorical proposition A, E, I, and O.
• Construct the applicable converse, obverse, contraposit, and inverse of a given
proposition.
• Prove that in an argument, there are several ways of saying the same thing and is
very valuable in the search for truth.

EQUIVALENT PROPOSITIONS
In the immediate equivalent inference, also known as eduction, the two propositions
speak of the same truth, and either one is directly inferred from the other. There are two
kinds of eduction - the formal and the material. Formal eduction based its validity on
the quality of the propositions and the quantity of their terms. Material eduction based
its validity on the meanings of terms or the special character of their matter or thought
content. In this lesson, we will discuss only Formal Eduction.

Formal Eduction
There are four kinds of formal eduction, namely: conversion, obversion, contraposition,
and inversion.

Conversion. In conversion, the subject-term and predicate-term of the original

proposition, called convertend, are interchanged in the new proposition called
converse. The quality and meaning of the convertend are retained in the converse.
There are two types of conversion - the simple and the partial.

In simple conversion, the quantity of the converse and the convertend are the same.
Thus, if the convertend is universal, the converse is also universal; if the convertend is
particular, the converse is particular, and if the convertend is singular, the converse is
singular.

The process of converting propositions by simple conversion involves the following steps:
1. Interchange the subject-term and the predicate-term.
2. Retain the quality of the original proposition.
3. Retain the quantity of the original proposition.

Only propositions E and I can be subjected to simple conversion. Proposition E is

convertible to proposition E, and proposition I to proposition I.
Examples:
E Men are not angels. I Some athletes are achievers.
to to
E Angels are not men. I Some achievers are athletes.

As an exception to the rule, singular propositions whose predicate-terms are singular

can also be converted by simple conversion. Thus, "The love awardee is my only son," is
converted to "My only son is the lone awardee." "Mr. Lopez is not the President of the
Philippines," to "The President of the Philippines is not Mr. Lopez."

In partial conversion, the quantity of the convertend is reduced from universal to

particular in the converse. The process of converting involves three steps. The first two
steps are similar to the first two steps of simple conversion. The third step is to reduce
the quantity of the original proposition from universal to particular. Only propositions A
and E can be converted partially. Proposition A can be converted to proposition I, and
proposition E to proposition O.
Examples:
A Every cat is an animal. E Stones are not living substances.
to to
I Some animal is a cat. O Some living substances are not stones.

O propositions cannot be converted by any type of conversion. This is so because the

quantity of the original subject-term switched to the predicate-term of a negative
proposition would be changed from particular to universal. Thus, "Some dogs are not
hounds" is not equivalent to "Some hounds are not dogs."

Obversion. In obversion, the subject-term and the quantity of the original proposition,
called obvertend, are retained in the new proposition called obverse. The quality of
the obvertend is changed, and its predicate-term is changed to its contradictory in the
obverse. All propositions can be subjected to obversion. Proposition A can be
obverted to proposition E, proposition E to proposition A, proposition I to proposition O,
and proposition O to proposition I.
Examples:
A All men are mortal. E No political candidate is
an introvert.
to to
E No man is immortal. A Political candidates are
extrovert.

I Some students are quite talented. O Some men are not honest.
to to
O Some students are not quite untalented. I Some men are dishonest.
Note on contradictory and contrary terms. In subjecting propositions to formal
eduction, there are cases where there is a need to use the contradictory of the original
subject- or predicate-terms. While there are terms with contradictory opposites like
"mortal" and "immortal," "introvert" and "extrovert," there are terms which require the use
of prefix or suffix to be added to the terms to effect contradictory meanings, such as
"talented" and "untalented," "honest" and "dishonest," "white" and "non-white," "plants"
and "non-plants," "full of life" and "lifeless," and "full of love" and "loveless."

Contraposition. In contraposition, the subject-term of the new proposition, called

contraposit, is the contradictory of the predicate-term of the original proposition, called
contraponend. There are two types of contraposition - the partial and the complete.

In partial contraposition, the indirect process involves two steps:

1. obvert the original proposition, and
2. convert the obverse.
These two steps and their order can be easily remembered when the first letters of the
two steps are used as acronym: OC.
The direct process of subjecting the proposition to partial contraposition requires
remembering the following features of the partial contraposit: its subject-term is the
contradictory of the original predicate-term, its quality is changed, and its predicate-
term is the original subject-term. The quantities of the contraponends A and O are
retained in their contraposits but that of contraponend E is reduced from universal to
particular.

In complete contraposition, the two steps in subjecting a proposition to partial

contraposition are followed, to which is added the third step - obvert the converse of
the obverse. The acronym for these steps is OCO.
To arrive at the contraposit, either partial or complete, requires a good understanding
of the processes of conversion and obversion.
To arrive at the complete contraposit using the direct approach, its following features
should be remembered: its subject-term is also the contradictory of the original
predicate-term, its quality remains the same, and its predicate-term is the contradictory
of the original subject-term. The quantities of the contraponends A and O are retained
in their contraposits but the quantity of the contraponend E is changed or reduced
from universal to particular.
Propositions A, E, and O can be subjected to contraposition, either partial or complete.
In partial contraposition, proposition A can be transformed to proposition E, proposition
E to proposition I, and proposition O to proposition I. In complete contraposition,
proposition A is changed to proposition A, proposition E to proposition O, and
proposition O to proposition O.
It should be noted that the complete contraposit is the obverse of the partial
contraposit.
Proposition I cannot be subjected to contraposition of any type.
Examples:
Partial Contraposition

A Roses are plants. O Some actors are not politicians.

to to
E No non-plants are roses. I Some non-politicians are actors.

E No dogs are cats.

to
I Some non-cats are dogs.

Complete Contraposition

A Roses are plants. O Some actors are not politicians.

to to
A Non-plants are non-roses. O Some non-politicians are not non-
actors.

E No dogs are cats.

to
O Some non-cats are not non-dogs.

The contraposits, in examples above, were arrived at directly, a process which requires
the learner to remember the features of each type of contraposit. The indirect
approach of going through the series of obversions and conversions is the ideal
procedure though.

Inversion. In inversion, the subject-term of the new proposition, called inverse, is the
contradictory of the subject-term of the original proposition called invertend. There are
two types of inversion - the partial and the complete. Both types of inversion involve
the series of obversions and conversions. Partial inverse has these features: its subject-
term is the contradictory of the original subject-term, its quality is changed, its
predicate-term is the same with the original predicate-term, and its quantity is changed
or reduced from universal to particular. Complete inverse has these features: its
subject-term is also the contradictory of the original subject-term, its quality remains the
same, its predicate-term is the contradictory of the original predicate-term, and its
quantity is changed or reduced from universal to particular. Only propositions A and E
can be inverted. In partial inversion, proposition A is transformed to proposition O, and
proposition E to proposition I. In complete inversion, proposition A is changed to
proposition I, and proposition E to proposition O.
Examples:
Partial inversion

A All flowers are beautiful.

to
O Some non-flowers are not beautiful.

E Aliens are not citizens.

to
I Some non-aliens are citizens.

Complete inversion

A All flowers are beautiful.

to
I Some non-flowers are non-beautiful.

E Aliens are not citizens.

to
O Some non-aliens are not non-citizens.

The inverses above were arrived at using the direct approach, that is, without going
through the series of obversions and conversions which is the ideal procedure in arriving
at an inverse of any type. The direct process requires committing to memory the
features of each type of inverse. If the indirect method will be used in inverting
propositions, proposition A should be inverted starting with obversion, proposition E
should be inverted beginning with conversion. The process of converting and obverting
should be done until one arrives at the partial and the complete inverses.

Examples using the indirect approach:

1. Invertend : A Every Filipino is an Asian.
Obvert to : E No Filipino is a non-Asian.
Convert to : E No non-Asian is a Filipino.
Obvert to : A Every non-Asian is a non-Filipino.
Convert to : I Some non-Filipino is a non-Asian. (Complete Inverse)
Obvert to : O Some non-Filipino is not an Asian. (Partial Inverse)

Acronym for Complete Inversion process of Proposition A: OCOC; for Partial Inversion:
OCOCO.

2. Invertend : E No Filipino is an American.

Convert to : E No American is a Filipino.
Obvert to : A Every American is a non-Filipino.
Convert to : I Some non-Filipino is an American. (Partial Inverse)
 Obvert to : O Some non-Filipino is not a non-American. (Complete
Inverse)

Acronym for Partial Inversion process of Proposition E: COC; for Complete Inversion:
COCO.

The matrix that follows will be useful in remembering the features of the new
propositions of any formal eduction:

Formal ST, PT Subject-term Predicate- Quality Quantity

Eduction Placement (ST) term
(PT)
Simple Interchanged Original PT Original ST Retained Retained
Conversion
E→E
I→I
Partial Interchanged Original PT Original ST Retained Changed/
Conversion Reduced
A→I
E→O
Obversion Retained Retained Contradictory Changed Retained
A→E of original PT
E→A
I→O
O→I
Partial Interchanged Contradictory Original ST Changed A, O:
Contrapositi of original PT Retained;
on E:
A→E Changed/
Reduced
O→I
E→I
Complete Interchanged Contradictory Contradictory Retained A, O:
Contrapositi of original PT of original ST Retained
on E:
A→A Changed/
Reduced
E→O
O→O
Partial Retained Contradictory Retained Changed Changed/
Inversion of original ST Reduced
A→O
E→I
Complete Retained Contradictory Contradictory Retained Changed/
Inversion of original ST of original PT Reduced
A→I
E→O
Application:

Applying what we have discussed regarding eduction, let us see the following
propositions:

A. Give the converse (simple and partial) of the following convertend:

1. No saint is a sinner.
Simple: No sinner is a saint.
Partial: Some saints are not sinners.
2. Every student is diligent.
Partial: Some diligent beings are students.
3. Some students are scholars.
Simple: Some scholars are students.

B. Give the obverse of the following obvertend:

1. Some insects are not pests.
Obverse: Some insects are non-pests.
2. Some TV programs are funny.
Obverse: Some TV programs are not unfunny.
3. None of the boys is absent.
Obverse: All of the boys are present.
4. Every product is priced.
Obverse: No product is unpriced.

C. Give the contraposit (partial and complete) of the following contraponend:

1. No robot is an animal.
Partial: Some non-animals are robots.
Complete: Some non-animals are not non-robots.
2. Every crime is punishable.
Partial: No unpunishable thing is a crime.
Complete: Unpunishable things are non-crimes.
3. Some athletes are not women.
Partial: Some non-women are athletes. or Some men are athletes.
Complete: Some non-women are not non-athletes. or Some men are not non-
athletes.

D. Give the inverse (partial and complete) of the following invertend:

1. All students are learners.
Partial: Some non-students are not learners.
Complete: Some non-students are non-learners.
2. No tree is a machine.
Partial: Some non-tree is a machine.
Complete: Some non-tree is not non-machine.