Jerome Jay S, Sumalpong

BSN I-A

Make a summary (through bullet form) of the different steps involved in each of the
metabolic pathways.

1. Glycolysis

Glycolysis is the metabolic process that supports both aerobic and anaerobic cellular
respiration. Glucose is transformed into pyruvate during glycolysis. Glucose is a six-
membered ring molecule found in the blood that is usually produced as a byproduct of the
breakdown of carbohydrates into sugars. It enters cells via particular transporter proteins that
transfer it from the exterior of the cell into the cytoplasm. The cytosol contains all of the
glycolytic enzymes.

Step 1: Hexokinase

 The first step in glycolysis is the conversion of D-glucose into glucose-6-phosphate.

The enzyme that catalyzes this reaction is hexokinase.

Step 2: Phosphoglucose Isomerase

 The second reaction of glycolysis is the rearrangement of glucose 6-phosphate (G6P)

into fructose 6-phosphate (F6P) by glucose phosphate isomerase (Phosphoglucose
Isomerase).

Step 3: Phosphofructokinase

 Phosphofructokinase, with magnesium as a cofactor, changes fructose 6-phosphate

into fructose 1,6-bisphosphate.

Step 4: Aldolase

 The enzyme Aldolase splits fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate into two sugars that are
isomers of each other. These two sugars are dihydroxyacetone phosphate  (DHAP)
and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GAP).
Step 5: Triosephosphate isomerase

 The enzyme triosephosphate isomerase rapidly inter- converts the molecules

dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GAP).
Glyceraldehyde phosphate is removed / used in next step of Glycolysis.

Step 6: Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate Dehydrogenase

 Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) dehydrogenates and adds an

inorganic phosphate to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, producing 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate.

Step 7: Phosphoglycerate Kinase

 Phosphoglycerate kinase transfers a phosphate group from 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to

ADP to form ATP and 3-phosphoglycerate.

Step 8: Phosphoglycerate Mutase

 The enzyme phosphoglycero mutase relocates the P from 3- phosphoglycerate from

the 3rd carbon to the 2nd carbon to form 2-phosphoglycerate

Step 9: Enolase

 The enzyme enolase removes a molecule of water from 2-phosphoglycerate to form

phosphoenolpyruvic acid (PEP).

Step 10: Pyruvate Kinase

 The enzyme pyruvate kinase transfers a P from phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to ADP

to form pyruvic acid and ATP Result in step 10.

The overall reaction of glycolysis which occurs in the cytoplasm is represented

simply as:
C6H12O6 + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 P —–> 2 pyruvic acid, (CH 3(C=O)COOH + 2 ATP + 2
NADH + 2 H+

2. Kreb Cycle

The citric acid cycle, like the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA, occurs in the
mitochondrial matrix. With the exception of the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase, which is
embedded in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion, almost all of the citric acid cycle
enzymes are soluble. The citric acid cycle, unlike glycolysis, is a closed loop in which the latter
section of the route regenerates the chemical utilized in the first step. The cycle's eight steps
involve a series of redox, dehydration, hydration, and decarboxylation reactions that result in two
carbon dioxide molecules, one GTP/ATP, and reduced forms of NADH and FADH2.

Step 1: Condensation of acetyl CoA with oxaloacetate

 The citric acid cycle begins with the combining of the four-carbon complex oxaloacetate
(OAA) and the two-carbon compound acetyl CoA.
 Oxaloacetate interacts with the acetyl group of the acetyl CoA and water to create citric
acid, CoA, a six-carbon molecule.
 The enzyme citrate synthase catalyzes the reaction by condensing the methyl group of
acetyl CoA and the carbonyl group of oxaloacetate to generate citryl-CoA, which is then
cleaved to release coenzyme A and form citrate.

Step 2: Isomerization of citrate into isocitrate

 Citrate is now transformed into isocitrate for further metabolism via the production of
intermediate cis-aconitase.
 This is a reversible process that is catalyzed by the enzyme (aconitase).
 This reaction occurs in two steps, with the first involving the dehydration of citrate to cis-
aconitase and the second involving the rehydration of cis-aconitase into isocitrate.

Step 3: Oxidative decarboxylations of isocitrate

 The third step of the citric acid cycle is the first of the cycle's four oxidation-reduction
processes.
  Isocitrate is decarboxylated oxidatively to generate a five-carbon molecule, -
ketoglutarate, which is catalyzed by the enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase.
 Like the second reaction, this is a two-step reaction.
 Isocitrate is dehydrogenated to oxalosuccinate in the first stage, and oxalosuccinate is
decarboxylated to -ketoglutarate in the second.
 The enzyme catalyzes both processes, which are irreversible.
 However, the first stage leads in the synthesis of NADH, whereas the second step entails
the emission of CO2.

Step 4: Oxidative decarboxylation of α-ketoglutarate

 Another oxidation-reduction reaction in which -ketoglutarate is oxidatively
decarboxylated to create a four-carbon molecule, succinyl-CoA, and CO2.
 The reaction is irreversible and is conducted by the mitochondrial enzyme complex -
ketoglutarate dehydrogenase.
 This reaction is comparable to the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate, in which
NAD+ is reduced to NADH.

Step 5: Conversion of succinyl-CoA into succinate

 In the following step, succinyl-CoA undergoes an energy-saving process in which it is
cleaved to create succinate.
 This event is accompanied by guanosine diphosphate (GDP) phosphorylation to
guanosine triphosphate (GTP).
 The GTP thus generated rapidly transfers its terminal phosphate group to ADP, resulting
in the formation of an ATP molecule.
 The enzyme succinyl-CoA synthase catalyzes the reaction.

Step 6: Dehydration of succinate to fumarate

 The succinate generated from succinyl-CoA is dehydrogenated to fumarate in this step,
which is performed by the intramitochondrial enzyme complex succinate dehydrogenase.
  This is the sole dehydrogenation phase in the citric acid cycle that does not involve
NAD+.
 Instead, another high-energy electron carrier, flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), serves
as the hydrogen acceptor, resulting in FADH2.
 FADH2 then joins the electron transport chain via complex II, delivering electrons to
ubiquinone and eventually producing 2ATPs.

Step 7: Hydration of fumarate to malate

 In the presence of the enzyme fumarate hydratase, fumarate is reversibly hydrated to
create L-malate.
 Because it is a reversible reaction, L-malate formation involves hydration, whereas
fumarate formation involves dehydration.

Step 8: Dehydrogenation of L-malate to oxaloacetate

 The citric acid cycle concludes with an oxidation-reduction reaction in which L-malate is
dehydrogenated to oxaloacetate in the presence of L-malate dehydrogenase, which is
found in the mitochondrial matrix.
 This is a reversible reaction in which L-malate is oxidized and NAD+ is reduced to
NADH.
 The formation of oxaloacetate permits the cycle to be repeated, and the NADH generated
contributes in oxidative phosphorylation.
 This reaction brings the cycle to a close.

The overall reaction/ equation of the citric acid cycle is:

Acetyl CoA + 3 NAD+ + 1 FAD + 1 ADP + 1 P i    →   2 CO2 + 3 NADH + 3 H+ + 1 FADH2 + 1
ATP

3. Electron Transport Chain

During glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, NADH and FADH2 are produced. These
compounds contribute electrons to proteins in the electron transport chain. Electrons interact
with proteins, assisting them in pushing protons into the intermembranous region. This proton
buildup is what drives ATP generation via oxidative phosphorylation. When an electron reaches
the last protein in the electron transport chain, it interacts with oxygen to form water.

Step 1:  Generating a Proton Motive Force

 The hydrogen carriers (NADH and FADH2) are oxidized, resulting in the release of high-
energy electrons and protons.
 The electrons are transmitted to the electron transport chain, which is made up of a
number of transmembrane carrier proteins.
 As electrons flow through the chain, they lose energy, which the chain uses to pump
protons (H+ ions) out of the matrix.
 The accumulation of H+ ions within the intermembranous region results in the formation
of an electrochemical gradient (or a proton motive force)

Step 2:  ATP Synthesis via Chemiosmosis

 Because of the proton motive force, H+ ions will travel down their electrochemical
gradient and diffuse back into the matrix.
 This proton diffusion is known as chemiosmosis, and it is aided by the transmembrane
enzyme ATP synthase.
 As the H+ ions pass through ATP synthase, they cause the enzyme's molecular rotation,
resulting in the creation of ATP.

Step 3:  Reduction of Oxygen

 To keep the electron transport chain running, the de-energised electrons must be
eliminated.
 The ultimate electron acceptor is oxygen, which removes the de-energised electrons to
keep the chain from getting blocked.
 Oxygen also bonds with free protons in the matrix to generate water, therefore
eliminating matrix protons keeps the hydrogen gradient intact.
  Without oxygen, hydrogen carriers are unable to donate energised electrons to the chain,
and ATP generation is halted.

Tabulate the water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins and their functions

1. Water-Soluble Vitamins

Vitamins that dissolve in water are known as water-soluble vitamins. These are nutrients

that the body requires in little amounts in order to stay healthy and function properly. Water-

soluble vitamins are transported to the tissues of the body but are not stored there. They can be

found in a variety of plant and animal foods, as well as dietary supplements, and must be

consumed on a daily basis. Water-soluble vitamins include vitamin C and members of the

vitamin B complex. These vitamins are less prone than fat-soluble vitamins to reach hazardous

quantities. Niacin, vitamin B6, folate, choline, and vitamin C, on the other hand, have greater

consumption restrictions. When ingested in large dosages over a lengthy period of time, vitamin

B6 has been shown to cause irreversible nerve damage.

Nutrient Function

Thiamine (vitamin B1) A component of an enzyme required for energy

metabolism; essential for neuronal activity

Riboflavin (vitamin B2) A component of an enzyme required for energy

metabolism; essential for normal vision and

skin health.

Niacin (vitamin B3) Part of an enzyme required for energy

metabolism; beneficial to the neurological

 system, digestive system, and skin.

Pantothenic acid A component of an enzyme that is required for

energy metabolism.

Biotin A component of an enzyme required for energy

metabolism

Pyridoxine (vitamin B6) Part of an enzyme required for protein

metabolism; participates in the formation of

red blood cells

Folic acid Part of an enzyme required for the formation of

DNA and new cells, particularly red blood

cells

Cobalamin (vitamin B12) A component of an enzyme required for the

formation of new cells; essential for nerve

function

Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) Antioxidant; a component of an enzyme

required for protein metabolism; beneficial to

immune system health; assists in iron

absorption

2. Fat-Soluble Vitamins

- This vitamin dissolves in fats and oils. Vitamins are nutrients that the body requires in little

amounts in order to stay healthy and function properly. Vitamins that are fat-soluble are

absorbed along with lipids in the food and stored in fatty tissue in the liver. Many plant and
animal foods, as well as dietary supplements, contain them. Fat-soluble vitamins include A, D, E,

and K. They don't have to be taken as often as water-soluble vitamins, but they do have to be

taken in appropriate amounts. If you take too much of a fat-soluble vitamin, you could become

toxic. Too much vitamin A (retinol) from animal sources and too much vitamin D might make

your body extremely sensitive. In a well-balanced diet, fat-soluble vitamins are typically

abundant.

Nutrients Function

Vitamin A (and its precursor*, beta-carotene) Needed for vision, healthy skin and mucous

*A precursor is converted by the body to the membranes, bone and tooth growth, immune

vitamin. system health

Vitamin D Calcium absorption requires this nutrient,

which is stored in bones.

Vitamin E Antioxidant; helps to protect cell membranes

Vitamin K It is required for proper blood clotting.

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