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Vision IAS Environment Part 1
Vision IAS Environment Part 1
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https://www.pdfnotes.co/
Student Notes:
UNIT - 1
CHAPTER - 1 - UNDERSTANDING ECOLOGY
1. Understanding Ecology
1.1. Concept of Ecology and Environment
Ecology can be defined as a scientific study of the interactions of organism with their physical
environment and with each other.
The term ecology is derived from the Greek word ‘oikos’ meaning ‘house’, combined with the
word ‘logy’ meaning the ‘science of’ or ‘the study of ’. Literally, ecology is the study of the earth as a
‘household’, of plants, human beings, animals and micro-organisms. They all live together as
interdependent components. The term ecology was first used by German zoologist Ernst
Haeckel in 1869.
An ecosystem is defined as a community of life forms in concurrence with non-living
components, interacting with each other. The term ecosystem was coined by Arthur Tansley in
1935.
Environment is the sum total of all conditions and influences that affect the development and
life of all organisms on earth. Thus it can be said as one’s surrounding.
Autecology: The study of relationship of individual species with the environment.
Synecology: The study of plant communities in relation to their habitats of a given
ecosystem.
Gaia hypothesis: This refers to a scientific hypothesis which states that the earth is a complex
living entity, with the sustenance of life dependent on the self-regulating interactions among
organisms and their inorganic surroundings.
• For instance, climatic conditions depend on the interactions among living organisms like
human beings and their non-living atmosphere, all of which regulate each other
constantly.
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• The Gaia hypothesis is named after the mythical Greek goddess Gaia who personifies the
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earth.
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• It was first proposed by British scientist James Lovelock in his 1972 paper “Gaia as seen
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Ecosystems can be recognised as self- regulating and self-sustaining units of landscape, e.g., Student Notes:
a pond or a forest.
• Landscape- A landscape is a unit of land with a natural boundary having a mosaic of patches,
which generally represent different ecosystems.
• Biome- This is a large regional
Biotic Potential
unit characterized by a major
• The maximum rate at which a population can increase
vegetation type and associated when resources are unlimited and environmental
fauna found in a specific conditions are ideal is termed the population's biotic
climate zone. The biome potential.
includes all associated • Each species will have a different biotic potential due to
developing and modified variations in:
communities occurring within o the species' reproductive span (how long an
the same climatic region, e.g., individual is capable of reproducing)
forest biomes, grassland and o the frequency of reproduction (how often an
savanna biomes, desert biome, individual can reproduce)
o "litter size" (how many offspring are born each
etc.
time)
On a global scale, all the earth’s o survival rate (how many offspring survive to
terrestrial biomes and aquatic reproductive age)
systems constitute the Carrying Capacity
biosphere. • For a given region, carrying capacity is the maximum
number of individuals of a given species that an area's
(You will read in detail about resources can sustain indefinitely without significantly
biomes in Chapter-2, Types of depleting or degrading those resources.
Ecosystem)
• Biosphere- Biosphere is a part of earth where life can exist. It represents a highly integrated
and interacting zone comprising of atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water) and lithosphere
(land).
Biome and ecosystem are two different ecological concepts. Although they are closely related to each
other, they are different from each other.
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Biome Ecosystem
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It is a large area of land with distinct climate It is the interaction of abiotic and biotic
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and plant and animal species. components between each other in a given area.
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It is greatly influenced by climatic factors such It is not much influenced by the climatic factors
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as snow, ice, rainfall, temperature etc. like ice, snowfall, temperature etc.
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It is a larger category of ecological units. It It is a part of biome made of biotic and abiotic
contains multiple ecosystems within it. factors.
As a biome is a collection of species it has a An ecosystem has a less diversity of plants and
great diversity of plant and animal species. animals species than that of a biome as it is
smaller in size.
Some common examples of biomes include Some common examples include coral reefs,
desert, tundra, grasslands, and tropical rain ponds, Gulf of Mexico etc.
forests.
Latitude has a great influence on a biome. An ecosystem is not affected by latitude.
All the animals of a biome may not interact with All the animals and organisms of an ecosystem
each other. interact with each other.
Student Notes:
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Student Notes:
IMPORTANT TERMS
Ecotone: An ecotone is a zone of junction or a transition area between two biomes (diverse
ecosystems).
• Ecotone is the zone where two communities meet and integrate.
• For e.g. the mangrove forests represent an ecotone between marine and terrestrial ecosystem.
• Other examples are grassland (between forest and desert), estuary (between fresh water and salt
water) and riverbank or marshland (between dry and wet).
Ecocline: Ecocline is a zone of gradual but continuous change from one ecosystem to another when
there is no sharp boundary between the two in terms of species composition.
• Ecocline occurs across the environmental gradient (gradual change in abiotic factors such as
altitude, temperature (thermocline), salinity (halocline), depth, etc.).
Edge Effect – Edge Species
• Edge effect refers to the changes in population or community structures that occur at the
boundary of two habitats (ecotone).
• Sometimes the number of species and the population density of some of the species in the ecotone
is much greater than either community. This is called edge effect.
• The organisms which occur primarily or most abundantly in this zone are known as edge species.
• In the terrestrial ecosystems edge effect is especially applicable to birds.
• For example, the density of birds is greater in the ecotone between the forest and the desert.
Ecological Niche
• Niche refers to the unique functional role and position of a species in its habitat or ecosystem.
• The functional characteristic of a species in its habitat is referred to as “niche” in that common
habitat.
• In nature, many species occupy the same habitat, but they perform different functions:
• Habitat niche – where it lives, food niche – what is eats or decomposes & what species it competes
with,
• Reproductive niche – how and when it reproduces,
• Physical & chemical niche – temperature, land shape, land slope, humidity & another requirement.
• Niche plays an important role in the conservation of organisms. If we have to conserve species in
its native habitat, we should have knowledge about the niche requirements of the species.
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Plants capture only 2-10 per cent of the PAR and this small amount of energy sustains the entire Student Notes:
living world. The energy of sunlight fixed in food production by green plants is passed through
the ecosystem by food chains and webs from one trophic level to the next. In this way, energy
flows through the ecosystem.
TROPHIC LEVEL
The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain. The trophic level is the
number of steps an organism is from start of the chain.
A given organism may occupy more than one trophic level simultaneously. One must remember that
the trophic level represents a functional level, not a species as such.
A given species may occupy more than one trophic level in the same ecosystem at the same time; for
example, a sparrow is a primary consumer when it eats seeds, fruits, peas, and a secondary consumer
when it eats insects and worms.
• At the first trophic level, primary producers use solar energy to produce organic material
through photosynthesis.
• The herbivores at the second trophic level use the plants as food which gives them energy.
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A large part of this energy is used up for the metabolic functions of these animals such as
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breathing, digesting food, supporting growth of tissues, maintaining blood circulation and
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body temperature.
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• The carnivores at the next trophic level feed on the herbivores and derive energy for their
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sustenance and growth. If large predators are present, they represent still higher trophic
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1.5.1. Definition
The order of living organisms in a community in which one organism consumes other and is itself
consumed by another organism to transfer energy is called a food chain.
Food chain is also defined as “a chain of organisms, existing in any natural community, through
which energy is transferred”.
Every living being irrespective of their size and habitat, from the tiniest algae to giant blue
whales, need food to survive.
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Food chain is structured differently for different species in different ecosystems. Each food chain
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is the vital pathway for energy and nutrients to follow through the ecosystem.
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10% rule
The important point to note is that the amount of energy decreases at successive trophic
levels. The number of trophic levels in the grazing food chain is restricted as the transfer of
energy follows 10 per cent law – only 10 per cent of the energy is transferred to each trophic
level from the lower trophic level.
organisms in an ecosystem.
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Each of the bars that make up the pyramid represents a different trophic level, and their order,
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• Pyramid of Biomass As the name suggests, the Biomass Pyramids show the amount of
biomass (living or organic matter present in an organism) present per unit area at each
trophic level. It is drawn with the producers at the base and the top carnivores at the top.
Pyramid of biomass is generally ascertained by gathering all organisms occupying each
trophic level separately and measuring their dry weight.
Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time called standing
crop, which is measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or the number in a unit
area.
Upright Pyramid of Biomass
Ecosystems found on land mostly have pyramids of biomass with large base of primary
producers with smaller trophic level perched on top, hence the upright pyramid of biomass.
Student Notes:
The biomass of autotrophs or producers is at the maximum. The biomass of next trophic
level, i.e. primary consumers is less than the producers. Similarly, the other consumers such
as secondary and tertiary consumers are comparatively less than its lower level respectively.
The top of the pyramid has very less amount of biomass.
Inverted Pyramid of Biomass
On the other hand, a reverse pyramidal structure is found in most aquatic ecosystems. Here,
the pyramid of biomass may assume an inverted pattern.
This is because in a water body, the producers are tiny phytoplankton that grow and
reproduce rapidly. In this condition, the pyramid of biomass has a small base, with the
producer biomass at the base providing support to consumer biomass of large weight.
Hence, it assumes an inverted shape.
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• Pyramid of Numbers
It is the graphic representation of number of individuals per unit area of various trophic
levels. Large number of producers tends to form the base whereas lower number of top
predators or carnivores occupies the top. The shape of the pyramid of numbers varies from
ecosystem to ecosystem.
For example, in an aquatic ecosystem or grassland areas, autotrophs or producers are
present in large number per unit area. The producers support a lesser number of herbivores,
which in turn supports fewer carnivores.
Upright Pyramid of Numbers
In upright pyramid of numbers, the number of individuals decreases from the lower level to
the higher level. This type of pyramid is usually found in the grassland ecosystem and the
pond ecosystem. The grass in a grassland ecosystem occupies the lowest trophic level Student Notes:
because of its abundance.
quantifying the energy transfer from one organism to another along the food chain.
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Energy decreases as one move through the trophic levels from the bottom to the top of the
pyramid. Thus, the energy pyramid is always upward.
1.8.1. Definition
Ecological productivity refers to the primary fixation of solar energy by plants and the
subsequent use of that fixed energy by plant-eating herbivores, animal-eating carnivores, and
the detritivores that feed upon dead biomass.
Ecologists refer to the productivity of green plants as primary productivity.
Gross primary productivity is the total amount of energy that is fixed by plants, while net primary
productivity is smaller because it is adjusted for energy losses required to support plant
respiration. If the net primary productivity of green plants in an ecosystem is positive, then the
biomass of vegetation is increasing over time.
Gross Primary productivity= Net Primary Productivity + Energy loss due to respiration
Gross and net secondary productivities refer to herbivorous animals, while tertiary productivities
refer to carnivores.
Type of Species
Effect Comments
interaction 1 2
Negative Interactions
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Positive Associations
Neutral Interactions
In ecological terminology, the developmental stages of a community are known seral stages and the
final stage as the climax community.
The entire series of communities that is characteristic of a given site is called a sere.
Student Notes:
All elements in the earth are recycled time and again. The major elements such as oxygen,
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carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulphur are essential ingredients that make up organisms.
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Biogeochemical cycles refer to the flow of such chemical elements and compounds between
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organisms and the physical environment. Chemicals taken in by organisms are passed through
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the food chain and come back to the soil, air, and water through mechanisms such as respiration,
excretion, and decomposition.
Biogeochemical cycles can be either gaseous (which the reservoir pool is the atmosphere) or
sedimentary (reservoir pool is the Earth's crust)
• Gaseous Biogeochemical Cycles
o Carbon Cycle
o Nitrogen Cycle
o Water Cycle
o Oxygen Cycle
• Sedimentary Biogeochemical Cycle
o Phosphorus Cycle
o Sulphur Cycle
Nitrogen fixing Bacteria- Some bacteria can turn Nitrogen in to ammonia by the process known as
NITROGEN FIXATION. Examples-Azotobacter, Achaea etc.
Denitrifying Bacteria-These bacteria metabolize nitrogenous compounds using various enzymes turning
nitrogen oxides back to nitrogen gas or nitrous oxide.
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• Nitrogen is being continuously expelled into the air by the action of microorganisms such as
denitrifying bacteria and finally returned to the cycle through the action of lightening and
electrification.
Student Notes:
• Water Cycle
o The evaporation of water from ocean, rivers, lakes, and transpiring plants takes water in
the form of vapors to the atmosphere.
o This vaporized water subsequently cools and condenses to form cloud and water. This
cooled water vapor ultimately returns to the earth as rain and snow, completing the
cycle.
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• OXYGEN CYCLE
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o The oxygen cycle is the cycle that helps move oxygen through the three main regions of
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the Earth, the Atmosphere, the Biosphere, and the Lithosphere. The Atmosphere is of
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course the region of gases that lies above the Earth’s surface and it is one of the largest
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o The Biosphere is the sum of all the Earth’s ecosystems. This also has some free oxygen
produced from photosynthesis and other life processes.
o The largest reservoir of oxygen is the lithosphere. Most of this oxygen is not on its own
or free moving but part of chemical compounds such as silicates and oxides
• PHOSPORUS CYCLE
o It is in these rocks where the phosphorus cycle begins. When it rains, phosphates are
removed from the rocks (via weathering) and are distributed throughout both soils and
water.
o Plants take up the phosphate ions from the soil. The phosphates then moves from plants
to animals when herbivores eat plants and carnivores eat plants or herbivores.
o The phosphates absorbed by animal tissue through consumption eventually returns to
the soil through the excretion of urine and faeces, as well as from the final decomposition
of plants and animals after death.
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o IN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM-
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ü The same process occurs within the aquatic ecosystem. Phosphorus is not highly
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soluble in water, thus binds tightly to molecules in soil; therefore it mostly reaches
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ü Phosphates also enter waterways through fertilizer runoff, sewage seepage, natural
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ü These phosphates tend to settle on ocean floors and lake bottoms. As sediments are
stirred up, phosphates may re-enter the phosphorus cycle. Water plants take up the
waterborne phosphate which then travels up through successive stages of the
aquatic food chain.
Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems. These include provisioning,
regulating, and cultural services that directly affect people and supporting services needed to
maintain the other services.
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) was initiated in 2001 by United Nations. The
objective of the MA was to assess the consequences of ecosystem change for human well-being,
the scientific basis for action needed to enhance the conservation and sustainable use of those
systems and their contribution to human well-being.
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Natural Capital
• It includes those elements of the nature that provide valuable goods and services to humans, such
as the stock of forests, food, clean air, water, land, minerals, etc.
• It incorporates a broad perspective on the set of services provided by ecosystems assets.
• It is essential for economic growth, employment, and, ultimately, prosperity.
the existence of sacred groves in some cultures has helped to protect natural areas and the
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o Demonstrating value in economic terms is often useful for policy makers and others such as
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business in reaching decisions that consider the full costs and benefits of an ecosystem. E.g. By
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including the costs and benefits of conserving the ecosystem services provided by wetlands in
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o Capturing value involves the introduction of mechanisms that incorporate the values of
ecosystems into decisionmaking through incentives and price signals. This can include
payments for ecosystem services, reforming environmentally harmful subsidies or introducing
tax breaks for conservation.
IPBES Global Assessment Report
• The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) is an
independent intergovernmental body established in 2012 with now over 130 member states
around the world.
• The report by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Services (IPBES) is the most comprehensive scientific evaluation ever made of the state of our
nature, and gives a detailed account of health of the species that inhabit this earth, and the
condition of habitats that they live in and depend upon. It is the first intergovernmental Report of
its kind and builds on the landmark Millennium Ecosystem Assessment of 2005, introducing
innovative ways of evaluating evidence.
• The Report concluded that the second-fastest mass extinction event in planetary history is
underway; the current rate of extinction is 100 to 1000 times greater than historical background
rates. Over one million species are at risk of extinction within the next few decades.
• The Report highlighted the importance of indigenous community in conservation. It notes, Student Notes:
“Nature managed by Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities is under increasing pressure but
is generally declining less rapidly than in other lands.” This is significant since “at least” a quarter
of the world’s land area is “traditionally owned, managed, used or occupied by indigenous
peoples”.
Answer: (b)
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3. With reference to the food chains in ecosystems, which of the following kinds of organism
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1. Virus
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2. Fungi
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3. Bacteria
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (b)
4. Which of the following adds/add carbon dioxide to the carbon cycle on the planet
Earth? (2014)
1. Volcanic action
2. Respiration
3. Photosynthesis
4. Decay of organic matter
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: (c)
5. Which one of the following is the correct sequence of a food chain? (2014) Student Notes:
(a) Diatoms-Crustaceans-Herrings (b) Crustaceans-Diatoms-Herrings
(c) Diatoms-Herrings-Crustaceans (d) Crustaceans-Herrings-Diatoms
Answer: (a)
• Supporting services are the ecosystem services that are necessary for the production
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each other thus providing the basis for locally well-adapted cultivars and a gene
pool for further developing commercial crops and livestock.
• Provisioning services are the ecosystem services that describe the material or
energy outputs from ecosystems. Water, food, wood and other goods are some of
the material benefits people obtain from ecosystems called ´provisioning services´.
Many provisioning services are traded in markets. However, in many regions, rural
households also directly depend on provisioning services for their livelihoods. They
include:
o Food: Ecosystem provides conditions for growing foods.
o Raw materials: It provides materials for construction and fuel including wood,
biofuels and plant oils.
o Fresh water: Ecosystem regulates the flow and purification of water.
o Medicinal resources: It provides many plants for traditional medicines and
provides raw materials for the pharmaceutical industry.
• Regulating services are defined as the benefits obtained from the regulation of
ecosystem processes. Maintaining the quality of air and soil, providing flood and
disease control, or pollinating crops are some of the ‘regulating services' provided by Student Notes:
ecosystems. These services include:
o Climate regulation: Trees provide shade whilst forests influence rainfall and
water availability both locally and regionally.
o Carbon sequestration: As trees and plants grow, they remove carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere and effectively lock it away in their tissues.
o Natural hazard regulation: Ecosystems and living organisms create buffers
against natural disasters, thereby preventing possible damage.
o Water purification and waste management: Ecosystems such as wetlands filter
both human and animal waste and act as a natural buffer to the surrounding
environment.
o Other important services include pollination and pest control.
• Cultural services include non-material benefits that people obtain from ecosystems.
Cultural services are deeply interconnected with each other and often connected to
provisioning and regulating services: Small scale fishing is not only about food and
income, but also about fishers’ way of life. These are:
o Spiritual enrichment: In many parts of the world, natural features such as
specific forests, caves, mountains etc. are considered sacred or have a religious
meaning.
o Intellectual development: Language, knowledge and the natural environment
have been intimately related throughout human history. Biodiversity,
ecosystems and natural landscapes have been the source of inspiration for much
of our art, culture and increasingly for science.
o Various kinds of tourism services: These provide considerable economic
benefits and are a vital source of income for many countries.
In spite of the ecological, cultural and economic importance of these services,
ecosystems are still being degraded at an unprecedented scale. It is primarily because
the value of ecosystems to human welfare is still being underestimated and not fully
recognized. In this context, Natural Capital Accounting is a key concept that recognizes
the economic cost of natural capital.
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2. Explain the concept of biogeochemical cycles and their significance in the functioning
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of ecosystems. What are the challenges that they face because of anthropogenic
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factors?
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Approach:
• Introduce the answer by explaining the concept of biogeochemical cycles.
• Explain its significance in the functioning of the ecosystem.
• Conclude the answer by enlisting challenges faced by these cycles due to human
interventions.
Answer:
A biogeochemical cycle is one of several natural cycles, in which conserved matter moves
through the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem. The main chemical
elements that are cycled are: carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O),
phosphorous (P) and sulfur (S).
Important biogeochemical cycles are :
• Water Cycle: All of the water that falls on the land does not immediately flow back
into the sea. Some of it seeps into the soil and becomes part of the underground
reservoir of fresh-water. Some of this underground water finds its way to the surface
through springs. The groundwater is taken in by the roots of plants and is used Student Notes:
for photosynthesis. The water is then released into the atmospheric
through evapotranspiration or is consumed when the plants are eaten.
• Nitrogen Cycle: “Nitrogen fixers” are organisms that can turn nitrogen gas from the
atmosphere into nitrogen compounds that other organisms can use to produce
nucleic acids, amino acids etc. These nitrogen fixers are such a vital part of the
ecosystem that agriculture cannot occur without them.
• Oxygen Cycle: The Oxygen from the atmosphere is used up in three processes,
namely combustion, respiration and in the formation of oxides of nitrogen. Oxygen
is returned to the atmosphere in only one major process, that is, photosynthesis.
• Carbon Cycle: Carbon is present in all living organisms and non-living things such as
minerals, the atmosphere, the oceans and the interior of the earth. There are two
fundamental processes in Carbon Cycles.
o Rapid Carbon Biogeochemical Cycle: Here inorganic carbon, which is present in
the atmosphere as CO2, is captured by autotrophs. These are usually
photosynthesizing organisms such as plants, bacteria and algae.
o Long Term Carbon Biogeochemical Cycle: When an organism dies, the carbon
stored within their body is broken down into CO2 and other organic substances
by decomposers. While some of this carbon is released into the atmosphere, a
large portion of it remains sequestered within the soil. Through this process, soils
become major reservoirs for carbon storage.
Anthropogenic activities have disturbed natural cycling of these elements. For example:
• Fossils fuels, which have stored carbon for years are burnt at the rate much faster
than the ability of the atmosphere to sink it. It results in greenhouse effect and
subsequent global warming.
• Deforestation is releasing carbon stored within plant matter and is reducing the
number of plants available to capture it.
• Artificial nitrate fertilizer, when washed away in water sources lead to blooms of “red
tides,” “brown tides,” and Pfiesteria bacteria – all of which produce toxins that can
sicken or kill humans and other animals.
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Student Notes:
CHAPTER - 2 - TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
2. Types of Ecosystem
2.1. Introduction
The ecosystems are classified into many types and are classified based on a number of factors.
We will discuss major types of ecosystems and will try and understand on what basis these
classifications are done. It is also essential to know the different factors which differentiate the
ecosystems from one another and from biome.
2.2. Types of Ecosystem
Ecosystems can generally be classified into two classes such as natural and artificial.
Artificial ecosystems are natural regions affected by man’s interferences. They are artificial
lakes, reservoirs, townships, and cities.
water and the consequent importance of water as a limiting factor. These are characterized by
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greater temperature fluctuations on both diurnal and seasonal basis, than in aquatic ecosystems
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in similar climates.
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Availability of light is greater in terrestrial ecosystems than in aquatic ecosystems because the
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atmosphere is more transparent on land than in water. Differences in temperature and light in
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Student Notes:
Tundra Biome
• There are two types of tundra – arctic and alpine.
• Alpine tundra occurs at high mountains above the tree line. E.g. High ranges of the Himalayas,
Andes, Alps etc.
• There are no trees in the tundra (due to permafrost).
• The lowest form of vegetation like mosses, lichens are sparsely found on bare rocks.
• Coastal lowlands reindeer moss which provides the only pasturage for reindeers.
• In the summer, birds migrate north to prey on the numerous insects which emerge when the
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snow thaws.
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• Insects have short life cycles which are completed during the favourable period of the year.
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• Animals like the reindeer, arctic fox, wolves, musk-ox, polar bear, lemming, arctic hare, arctic
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• Most of the animals have long life, e.g. arctic willow has a life span of 150 to 300 years.
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• They are protected from chillness by the presence of thick cuticle and epidermal hair or fur.
• Mammals have a large body size and small tail and ear to avoid the loss of heat from the
surface.
Podzols
Taiga or Boreal Biome • Podzols are the typical soils of a coniferous or
• It is considered as world's largest boreal biome.
• The top layer of the soil is very thin and is overlain
land biome.
over sandy or loamy subsurface which has no
• It extends across North America organic matter (lost due to leaching of nutrients to
and Eurasia on the southern the bottom layers).
margins of the tundra zone. • Hence, most Podzols are poor soils for agriculture.
• The predominant vegetation is an They are mostly used for grazing.
evergreen coniferous forest with
species such as spruce, fir and pine.
• The litter derived from conifer needle (leaf) is decomposed very slowly and is not rich in
nutrients (humus content is low).
• Hence, boreal forest soils are characterized by thin podzols and are nutrient poor.
• The productivity of boreal forest is lower than those of any other forest ecosystem. Student Notes:
• Animals found in this region include Siberian tiger, wolverine, lynx, wolf, bear, red fox,
squirrel, and amphibians like Hyla, Rana, etc.
Temperate Deciduous Biome (North western Europe-British Type Climate)
• Soils of these temperate forests are podzolic and fairly deep.
• The natural vegetation of this climatic type is deciduous and trees shed their leaves in cold
season.
• This is an adaptation for protecting themselves against the winter snow and frost (unlike
tropical deciduous forest trees which shed their leaves for moisture conservation)
• Thus shedding in this biome begins in autumn, the ‘fall’ season and growth begins in spring.
• Some of the common species include Oak, Elm, Ash, Birch, Beech, and Poplar.
Temperate Rainforest Biome
• This is a small biome in terms of area covered. The main stretch of this habitat is along the
north western coast of North America from northern California through southern Alaska.
• There are also small areas in southern Chile, New Zealand, Australia and a few other places
around the world.
• Big coniferous trees dominate this habitat, including Douglas fir, Western red cedar,
Mountain hemlock, Western hemlock, Sitka spruce and Lodgepole pine.
• In addition to the trees, mosses and lichens are very common, often growing as epiphytes.
• Grizzly bears are the common mammals found in Alaska.
Temperate Deciduous Biome (Mediterranean Climate)
• Trees with small broad leaves are
widely spaced and never very tall. An epiphyte is a plant growing on other plants.
Epiphytes are known as “air plants” because they are
• Regions with adequate rainfall are
not anchored in the soil. Epiphytes derive nutrients
inhabited by low, broad-leafed from rainwater, air and from other sources.
evergreen trees (mostly evergreen
oaks).
• Fire is an important hazardous factor in this ecosystem, and the adaptation of the plants
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• Plants are in a continuous struggle against heat, dry air, excessive evaporation and prolonged
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• This biome supports luxuriant vegetation, found in Eastern China, South Eastern USA
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• The lowlands carry both evergreen broad-leaved forests and deciduous trees (hardwood).
• On the highlands, various species of conifers such as pines and cypresses are important.
• Perennial plant growth is not checked by either a dry season or a cold season.
Steppe or Temperate Grassland Biome
• They are practically treeless, and the grasses are much shorter.
• Grasses are fresh and nutritious.
• Pole ward, an increase in precipitation gives rise to a transitional zone of wooded steppes
where some conifers gradually appear.
• Do not have much animal diversity.
Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate)
• Tropical Monsoon Forests are also known as a drought-deciduous forest; dry forest; dry-
deciduous forest; tropical deciduous forest.
• Teak, neem, bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair, mulberry are some of the
important species.
Student Notes:
Savannah or Tropical Wet and Dry Biome
• The savannah landscape is typified by tall grass and short trees.
• The trees are deciduous, shedding their leaves in the cool, dry season to prevent excessive
loss of water through transpiration, e.g. acacias.
• Trees usually have broad trunks, with water-storing devices to survive through the prolonged
drought.
• Many trees are umbrella shaped, exposing only a narrow edge to the strong winds.
• Savannah biome is rich in mammal, bird and reptile diversity.
Tropical Rain Forest Biome
• High temperature and
abundant rainfall
support a
luxuriant tropical rain
forest.
• The equatorial
vegetation comprises a
multitude of evergreen
trees, e.g. mahogany,
ebony, dyewoods etc.
• In the coastal areas and brackish swamps, mangrove forests thrive.
• All plants struggle upwards (most epiphytes) for sunlight resulting in a peculiar layer
arrangement (canopy).
• Beneath the tree canopy, which may itself consist of two layers, there is usually a well-
developed layering of understorey vegetation which is so dense that hardly any light
reaches ground level.
Desert Biome
• The predominant vegetation of both hot and mid-latitude deserts is xerophytic or drought-
resistant.
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acacias.
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• They are found mostly near the equator. Region is warm and wet throughout the year. Student Notes:
• Trees reach great heights up to 60 metres or even above.
• It has a luxuriant vegetation of all kinds – trees, shrubs, and creepers giving it a multi layered
structure.
• In India, evergreen forests are found in the western slopes of the Western Ghats in States
such as Kerala and Karnataka. They are also found in hills of Jaintia and Khasi. Some of the
trees found in Indian Tropical Forests are rosewood, mahogany and ebony. Bamboos and
reeds are also common.
• Common animals found in these forests are elephants, monkey, lemur and deer. The one
horned rhinoceros are found in the jungles of Assam and West Bengal.
2.4.2. Tropical Deciduous Forests
• They are the most widespread forests of India.
• Also called the monsoon forests and spread over the region receiving rainfall between 200
cm and 70 cm.
• Trees of this forest type shed their leaves for about six to eight weeks in dry summer.
• On the basis of the availability of water, these forests are further divided into moist and dry
deciduous.
2.4.3. Moist Deciduous Forests
• It found in areas receiving rainfall between 200 and 100 cm.
• Exist mostly in the eastern part of the country – north-eastern states, along the foothills of
the Himalayas, Jharkhand, West Orissa and Chhattisgarh, and on the eastern slopes of the
Western Ghats.
• Teak is the most dominant species of this forest.
• Bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair , kusum, arjun, mulberry are other commercially
important species.
2.4.4. Dry Deciduous Forests
• The dry deciduous forests are found in areas having rainfall between 100 cm and 70cm.
• These forests are found in the rainier parts of the peninsular plateau and the plains of Bihar
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There are open stretches in which Teak, Sal, Peepal, and Neem grow.
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•
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• A large part of this region has been cleared for cultivation and some parts are used for
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grazing.
27
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• Common animals found are lion, tiger, pig, deer and elephant. Variety of birds, lizards, snakes,
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• As such, there is a succession of natural vegetation belts in the same order as we see from Student Notes:
the tropical to the tundra region.
• The wet temperate type of forests are
found between a height of 1000 and
2000 metres.
• Evergreen broadleaf trees such as oaks
and chestnuts predominate.
• Between 1500 and 3000 metres,
temperate forests containing
coniferous trees like pine, deodar, silver
fir, spruce and cedar, are found. and
they cover mostly the southern slopes
of the Himalayas, places having high
altitude in southern and northeast
India.
• At higher elevations,
temperate grasslands are
common.
• At high altitudes, generally
more than 3,600 metres above
sea level, temperate forests and grasslands give way to the Alpine vegetation.
• Silver fir, junipers, pines and birches are the common trees of these forests.
• They get progressively stunted as they approach the snowline and are used extensively for
grazing by nomadic tribes like the Gujjars and the Bakarwals.
• At higher altitudes, mosses and lichens form part of tundra vegetation.
• Common animals found in these forests are Kashmir stag, spotted dear , wild sheep, jack
rabbit, Tibetan antelope, yak, snow leopard, squirrels, Shaggy horn wild ibex, bear and rare
red panda, sheep and goats with thick hair.
2.4.7. Mangrove Forests
• Found in the areas of coasts influenced by tides.
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• Dense mangroves are the common varieties with roots of the plants submerged under water.
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• The deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Krishana, the Godavari and the Kaveri are covered
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by such vegetation.
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• In the Ganga Brahmaputra delta, sundari trees are found, which provide durable hard timber.
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Palm, coconut, keora, agar, also grow in some parts of the delta.
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•
• Royal Bengal Tiger is the famous animal in these forests.
• Turtles, crocodiles, gharials and snakes are also found in these forests.
The India State of Forest Report (ISFR) is a biennial report published by the Forest Survey of India
(FSI). Forest Survey of India
• FSI has been mandated to • It is a premier national organization under the union
assess the forest and tree Ministry of Environment and Forests, responsible for
resources of the country assessment and monitoring of the forest resources of the
country regularly.
including wall-to-wall
• Established on June 1,1981, the Forest Survey of India
forest cover mapping in a
succeeded the "Preinvestment Survey of Forest Resources"
biennial cycle. (PISFR), a project initiated in 1965 by Government of India
• Starting 1987, 16 with the sponsorship of FAO and UNDP.
assessments have been • Objectives:
completed so far. ISFR o To prepare State of Forest Report biennially.
2019 is the 16th report in o To conduct inventory in forest and non-forest areas and
the series. develop database on forest tree resources.
o To prepare thematic maps using aerial photographs.
Highlights of the report o To function as a nodal agency for collection, compilation,
• In the present assessment, storage and dissemination of spatial database on forest
the total forest and tree resources.
o To conduct training of forestry personnel in application of
cover of the country is
technologies related to resources survey, remote sensing,
80.73 million hectare
GIS, etc.
which is 24.56 percent of o To strengthen research & development infrastructure in
the geographical area of FSI and to conduct research on applied forest survey
the country. techniques.
• The Total Forest cover is o To support State/UT Forest Departments (SFD) in forest
7,12,249 sq km which is resources survey, mapping and inventory.
21.67% of the o To undertake forestry related special studies/
geographical area of the consultancies and custom made training courses for SFD's
country. The target is to and other organisations on project basis.
achieve 33% of area under forest cover.
o The Tree cover is 2.89% of the geographical area of the country.
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• As compared to the assessment of 2017, there is an increase of 5,188 sq. km in the total
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• Out of this, the increase in the forest cover has been observed as 3,976 sq km and that in
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• Range increase in forest cover has been observed in open forest followed by very dense forest
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o Conserving the natural heritage of the country by preserving the remaining natural Student Notes:
forests with the vast variety of flora and fauna, which represent the remarkable
biological diversity and genetic resources of the country.
o Checking soil erosion and denudation in the catchments areas of rivers, lakes, reservoirs
in the “interest of soil and water conservation, for mitigating floods and droughts and
for the retardation of siltation of reservoirs.
o Checking the extension of sand-dunes in the desert areas of Rajasthan and along the
coastal tracts.
o Increasing substantially the forest/tree cover in the country through
massive afforestation and social forestry programmes, especially on all denuded,
degraded and unproductive lands.
o Meeting the requirements of fuel-wood, fodder, minor forest produce and small timber
of the rural and tribal populations.
o Increasing the productivity of forests to meet essential national needs.
o Encouraging efficient utilisation of forest produce and maximising substitution of wood.
o Creating a massive people’s movement with the involvement of women, for achieving
these objectives and to minimise pressure on existing forests.
Joint Forest Management
The Forest Policy of 1988 (NFP) represented a major paradigm shift from the earlier policies and this
shift began to take some shape through the introduction of Joint Forest Management in India in 1990.
Unlike, the use oriented policy of 1952, the Forest Policy of 1988 (NFP) gives major emphasis on the
ecological roles of forests, and envisages that the rights and concessions from forests are to be primarily
for bona-fide use of communities living within and around the forest areas, especially tribals. Such
communities are required to be motivated to protect and develop such forests from which they derive
their benefits
• Started in 1971 in Arabari Village in Midnapore district ,West Bengal, JFM today is considered as
model for conservation and management of forests with the help of local community.
• The Ministry of Environment and Forest issued a circular in June 1990 to various State Departments
of Forest (encouraging the involvement of village communities and voluntary agencies for
regeneration of forest land and this circular officially launched JFM in India.
o It is a decentralised forest management operation where usually a small forest block is
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o JFM should be implemented under an “arrangement” between the village community (i. e. the
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o Beneficiaries should essentially be village communities and not commercial or other interests.
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o A committee called Forest Protection Committee (FPC or with different names in different
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states) is constituted of one or two members (one male and one female) from each family of
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the village. This committee with the local Forest Department jointly manages the forest block.
o A small executive committee constitutes of members of the village and some local official and
a Panchayat member. The local forester generally acts as the secretary of the committee. The
committee runs the routine management of the forest and discusses with the FPC when any
important decision is required.
o A micro plan is prepared jointly. The plan incorporates the measures and works that would be
undertaken to manage the forest for a spe-cific period of time after which it would come for
revision.
o In lieu of the responsibility taken over by the village people, the FPC would be entitled to some
benefits of the forest products (generally all of non-timber forest products) and a significant
share of the income from final felling of the forest.
o Neither the beneficiaries nor any NGO may acquire ownership or lease rights over the land in
question. No grazing or agriculture is allowed on the selected area.
o The selected site should be free from any existing claims or rights, privileges, or concessions.
Student Notes:
Draft National Forest Policy, 2018
• There is a need to revise the existing National Forest Policy, 1988 through integrating:
o Sustainable forest management.
o Climate change mitigation strategies.
o An evaluation mechanism to oversee participation of multiple stakeholders in forests
Salient feature of Draft Policy
• Objective: To safeguard the ecological and livelihood security of present and future generations.
• Eco-security: The country should aim to have a minimum of one-third of the total land area under
forest and tree cover and in hilly and mountainous regions, the aim will be to maintain two-third of
the area under forest and tree cover.
• Institutions: Setting up National Board of Forestry (NBF) at central level (headed by the
Environment Minister) and State Boards of Forestry at state level (headed by state ministers in
charge of forests) for ensuring inter-sectoral convergence, simplification of procedures, conflict
resolution, etc. They will also periodically review implementation of this policy.
• Strengthening community participation in forestry: To ensure synergy between gram sabhas and
joint forest management committees for successful community participation in forestry, National
Community Forest Management Mission will be launched under Forest Rights Act (FRA).
• Promote agro-forestry, farm forestry and Urban Green to increase the tree cover outside forests.
• Stabilizing ecologically sensitive catchment areas with suitable soil and water conservation
measures.
• Biodiversity Conservation through surveying of forest areas and promoting modern techniques of
ex-situ conservation for Relic, Endangered and Threatened (RET) species.
• Identifying and maintaining wildlife rich areas and corridors outside protected areas for ensuring
ecological and genetic continuity.
• Develop a national forest ecosystems management information system for scientific planning and
management.
• Research and Education in Forest management for increasing forest productivity, enhancing the
capacity of the forest ecosystems for carbon sequestration, reclamation of degraded and mined
areas for ecological security, addressing the contemporary priorities and for increasing livelihood
support and economic growth.
• Enhance Quality and Productivity of natural forests by promoting natural regeneration through
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important species like teak, sal, sisham, poplar, eucalyptus, bamboo etc.
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• Public private participation models: will be developed for undertaking afforestation and
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reforestation activities in degraded forest areas and forest areas available with Forest Development
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• Forest Based Industry will be incentivized as it being labour intensive can help in increasing green
jobs and meeting the demand of raw materials as well.
• Management of Non-Timber Forest Produce through Value Chain approach would be made
compulsory and part of the business plans related to NTFP.
• Management of North-Eastern Forests which have a vital impact on climate, agriculture
production, and mitigation of floods in the plain areas of North-East.
• Forest Certification to enhance value of forest product harvested sustainably.
• Forest Skill Development Centres, for skilling forest dependent population in forestry sector jobs,
will be instituted for training of frontline staff who are at the cutting edge of the forest department.
• Addressing forest fires by mapping vulnerable areas and develop early warning systems and
methods to control fire through remote-sensing technology and community participation.
• Human-wildlife conflicts: It proposes dedicated and well-equipped quick response teams with
health and veterinary services for speedy assessment of damage and quick payment of relief to the
human victims, to minimise conflicts with the wildlife.
Concern
Although, it recognizes the role of forests in climate change mitigation unlike previous policies, there
are various concerns as well:
• Environmentalists object in involving PPP model for afforestation and reforestation activities, Student Notes:
pointing out that this would mean privatisation of India’s natural resources and creating private
forests.
• National Community Forest Management mission is based on the joint forest management model
(involving both the state forest departments & local communities) that has no legal standing after
enactment of Forest Rights Act, which vests management authority with gram sabhas.
• Policy orients itself more on the conservation and preservation of forest wealth rather than
regenerating them through people’s participation.
• Concern over the achievement of policy, as most of the objectives mentioned in earlier National
Forest Policy 1988 have not been met so far.
• It fails to mention or address the degradation of growing stock in the natural forests
• It persists with the methodological weakness of the Indian Forest Survey Reports of the past 30
years that conflate plantations with forest cover.
in the city.
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local bodies.
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variety of forests and its ecosystems namely, grassland, dense forest, wetland etc.
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• Increase the quality of degrading moderately dense forests – 1.5 million hectares (ha).
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• Ecologically restore open forests which are being degraded – 3 million hectares (ha)
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• Ecological restoration of shifting cultivation areas, mangroves, scrub, ravines, cold deserts, &
abandoned mining areas – 1.8 million hectares with different sub-targets.
• Increase in forest cover in urban areas and its outskirts – 0.20 million hectares.
• Increase in forest and tree cover on marginal agricultural lands/fallows and other non-forest
lands which comes under agroforestry – 3 million hectares.
• Increase forest-based livelihood income for about 3 million households in and around these
forest areas.
• Increase Carbon Dioxide sequestration to a range of 50 to 60 million tonnes by 2020.
Implementation:
• At the national level implementation is done by the Ministry of Environment and Forests.
• The State Forest Development Agency will guide the mission at the state level.
• At the district level, the implementation will be done by the Forest Development Agency.
• The gram sabha and various committees are the key institutions for planning and
implementation at the village level.
• In urban areas, the ward level committees like Residents Welfare Association (RWA) linked to Student Notes:
the municipality/municipal corporations facilitate planning and implementation under the
mission.
2.6.5. Compensatory Afforestation
It refers to the afforestation and regeneration activities carried out as a way of compensating for
forest land which is diverted to non-forest purposes.
The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 provides that whenever a forest land is to be diverted for
nonforestry purposes, the equivalent non forest land has to be identified for compensatory
afforestation and funds for raising compensatory afforestation are to be imposed.
The act further requires that: E-Green Watch
• Launched by Forest Survey of India is an
• the non-forest land for CA are to be identified integrated & online Geographic
contiguous to or in the proximity of Reserved Information System (GIS) that will
Forest or Protected Forest, as far as possible. monitor the regeneration of vegetation
• In case, non-forest land for CA is not available cover and promoting afforestation as a
in the same district, non-forest land for CA is to way of compensating for forest land
be identified anywhere else in the State/Union which is diverted to non-forest uses
Territory. under CAMPA.
• If non forest land is unavailable in the entire State/ UT, funds for raising CA in double the area
in extent of the forest land diverted need to be provided by the user agency on the basis of
the rates fixed by the State Forest Department.
The Supreme Court of India in 2002 (TN Godhavarman Vs Union of India case) had ordered for
the creation of Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority fund.
Government enacted Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act 2016 to provide a proper
institutional mechanism for compensatory afforestation matters.It is applicable to States, Union
Territories, and the Centre as well.
Salient features of the Act
• The Act established National Compensatory Afforestation Fund (NCAF) under the Public
account of India and State Compensatory Afforestation Funds under public accounts of
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states.
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• The National Fund will receive 10% of these funds, and the State Funds will receive the
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remaining 90%.
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treatment plan or any money for compliance of conditions stipulated by the Central
Government while according approval under the provisions of the Forest (Conservation) Act,
1980.
• Act provides statutory status for two ad-hoc institutions, namely
o National Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority
(NCAFMPA) for management and utilisation of NCAF.
o State Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority for
utilisation of State Compensatory Afforestation Fund
• The act also seeks to provide for constitution of a multidisciplinary monitoring group to
monitor activities undertaken from these funds.
• The act also provides for annual audit of the accounts by the Comptroller and Auditor
General.
Issues with the Act
• Forest as commodity: The principle of CA reduces a “forest” to a “commodity which acquires
certain area on the ground”. Its loss are deemed to be compensated financially. Its ecology,
biodiversity and ecosystem services were completely ignored.
• Compromising community forest rights: The land identified for compensatory afforestation Student Notes:
would be under forest department’s jurisdiction thus, having adverse consequences for the
hard-won rights of tribals and forest dwellers.
• Lack of monitoring mechanism for expenditure from funds despite findings of Comptroller
and Auditor General in 2013 about massive misutilization of funds by the forest department.
• Scarcity of land as land is a limited resource, and is required for multiple purposes, such as
agriculture, industry, etc. The problem is compounded by unclear land titles.
• Inadequate Capacity of state forest departments for planning and implementation. Still
utilisation of 90% of funds
Guidelines for suitability and identification of land bank for
depend on it. compensatory afforestation.
• Low quality forest cover: • It mandates that states and UTs shall create land bank for
Compensatory afforestation CA for speedy disposal of the forest clearance proposals
cannot make up for the under FC Act 1980.
ecological value lost by cutting • The states shall also set up committee with principal chief
the existing forests. Also, conservator of forests, chief wildlife warden and
computing the appropriate representatives of revenue department for expediting
Net Present Value of a forest is creation of land banks in a systematic manner.
a challenge. • The state governments shall formulate CA scheme
including activities like soil and moisture conservation,
• Poor survival rate of
regeneration cleaning, silvicultural activities and shall
plantations raised under ensure maintenance of these plantations for a period of
compensatory afforestation seven to 10 years as per requirement.
also raises serious questions • It stipulates that for CA the number of plants to be
about their effectiveness. planted over CA land shall be at least 1,000 plants per
• Diversion as land banks: The hectare of forest land diverted. However, if 1,000 plants
creation of land banks for CA cannot be planted on the non-forest land identified for
from revenue forests and CA, then the balance will be planted in degraded forest
degraded forests (on which land.
communities have got traditional rights) further allows for takeover of community land.
Way forward
• Primacy of Gram sabha: The CAF Act needs to be integrated with the FRA and PESA by
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centring the role of gram sabhas and incorporating land and forest rights guarantees.
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l.
•
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Management of CA: Emphasis should not only be on plantation but also on the maintenance
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of CA.
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forestry crop. Bamboo plantation will optimize the farm productivity and income thereby
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enhancing livelihood opportunities of small and marginal farmers including landless and the
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women.
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o Modern technologies allow use of bamboo as a durable and high-quality wood substitute.
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o Apart from the high above ground biomass production, bamboo also stores substantial carbon
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in below ground parts, i.e. rhizomes and roots and would contribute to enriching carbon pool
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at lower depths, even up to one metre and beyond. Hence scientific bamboo plantations would
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• Aquatic ecosystems refer to plant and animal communities occurring in water bodies.
• Freshwater ecosystems: water on land which is continuously cycling and has low salt content
(always less than 5 ppt) is known as fresh water.
• There are two types of freshwater ecosystem- lentic and lotic ecosystems.
Static/Lentic • Pond,Lakes
Ecosytem • Bogs,Swamps
• Nekton: This group contains powerful swimmers that can overcome the water currents.
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• Benthos: The benthic organisms are those found living at the bottom of the water mass.
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Sunlight
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Student Notes:
Photic zone
• Photic (or “euphotic”) zone is the portion that extends from the lake surface down to where
the light level is 1% of that at the surface. The depth of this zone depends on the transparency
of water.
• Photosynthetic activity is confined to the photic zone.
• Both photosynthesis and respiration activity takes place.
Aphotic zone
• The lower layers of the aquatic ecosystems, where light penetration and plant growth are
restricted forms the aphotic zone (profundal zone). Only respiration activity takes place in
this zone.
• The aphotic zone extends from the end of the photic zones to bottom of the lake.
Dissolved oxygen
• In freshwater the average concentration of dissolved oxygen is 10 parts per million by weight.
• This is 150 times lower than the concentration of oxygen in an equivalent volume of air.
• Oxygen enters the aquatic ecosystem through the air-water interface and by the
photosynthetic activities of aquatic plants.
• Dissolved oxygen escapes the water body through the air-water interface and respiration of
organisms (fish, decomposers, zooplankton, etc.).
• The amount of dissolved oxygen retained in water is also influenced by temperature.
• Oxygen is less soluble in warm water. Warm water also enhances decomposer activity.
Therefore, increasing the temperature of a water body increases the rate at which oxygen is
depleted from the water.
• When the dissolved oxygen level falls below 3-5 ppm, many aquatic organisms are likely to
die.
Winterkill
• An ice layer on the top of a water body can effectively cut off light. Photosynthesis stops but
respiration continues in such water body.
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• If the water body is shallow, the oxygen gets depleted, and the fish die. This condition is known as
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winterkill.
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Temperature
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• Since water temperatures are less subject to change, the aquatic organisms have narrow
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• As a result, even small changes in water temperature are a great threat to the survival of
aquatic organisms when compared to the changes in air temperatures in the terrestrial
organisms.
• All the plants and animals in the estuaries are subjected to variations in salinity to which they Student Notes:
are adapted (osmoregulation).
• Estuaries are greatly influenced by tidal action. They are periodically washed by sea water
once or twice a day based on the number of tides.
• In some narrow estuaries, tidal bores are significant. Tidal bores cause great damage to the
estuarine ecology.
2.8.1. Importance of Estuaries
• They are the most productive (more productive than wetlands) water bodies in the world
because of the mixing of freshwater and saline water zone where marine organisms of both
the ecosystems meet.
• Ecotone regions (transitional zones) like mangroves, wetlands, estuaries, grasslands etc.
have far greater productivity compared to natural ecosystems like a forest ecosystem, ocean
ecosystem, pond ecosystem, riverine ecosystem, desert ecosystem etc. This is because of the
wide-ranging species from the adjacent ecosystems being present in the Eco tone.
• Also, an estuary has very little wave action, so it provides a calm refuge from the open sea
and hence becomes ideal for the survival of numerous aquatic species.
• Estuaries are most heavily populated areas throughout the world, with about 60% of the
world’s population living along estuaries and the coast.
• The vast mangrove forests on the seaward side of an estuary act as a barrier for the coastal
habitat to check the wind speed during cyclones and high velocity landward winds.
• Mangroves act as a filter trapping suspended mud and sand carried by rivers which leads to
delta formations around estuaries.
• Precipitation of clay and alluvium particles in the estuarine region is high because of the
exposure to saline water (saline water precipitates fine alluvium).
• Estuaries store and recycle nutrients, traps sediment and form a buffer between coastal
catchments and the marine environment.
• They also absorb, trap and detoxify pollutants, acting as a natural water filter.
• Estuaries with their wetlands, creeks, lagoons, mangroves and sea-grass beds are rich in
natural resources including fisheries.
• They are deep and well protected from marine transgressions, and hence they are ideal
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• The banks of estuarine channels form a favoured location for human settlements, which use
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the estuaries for fishing and commerce but nowadays also for dumping civic and industrial
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waste.
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• A lagoon is a stretch of salt water separated from the sea by a low sandbank or coral reef.
• Backwaters in Kerala are mostly lagoons where seawater flows inwards through a small inlet that
is open towards the sea.
• In estuaries, the water flows fast and strong, while in lagoons the water is shallower and flows
sluggishly.
• Estuaries are usually deeper than lagoons. Also, lagoons mostly don’t have any fresh water
source while the estuaries have at least one. Lagoons are more saline than estuaries.
• Lagoons are formed due to falling in sea levels (coastline of emergence. E.g. Kerala Coast)
whereas estuaries are mostly formed due to rise in sea levels (coastline of submergence. E.g.
Konkan coast)
• Estuaries support diverse habitats, such as mangroves, salt marshes, sea-grass, mudflats etc. Student Notes:
• Estuaries are very dynamic and productive ecosystems since the river flow, tidal range and
sediment distribution is continuously changing in them.
• In general, the phytoplanktons of estuaries are diatoms, dinoflagellates, green algae, blue-
green algae.
• Towards the sea coast of the estuaries, there are large algae and seagrasses. Near the mouth
of the rivers and deltas, there are mangrove forests.
• Estuaries are homes to all king of terrestrial or land-based plants and animals, such as wood
storks, pelicans, coniferous and deciduous trees and butterflies.
• Estuaries are also home to unique aquatic plants and animals, such as sea turtles, sea lions,
sea catfish, saltworts, eelgrass, salt grasses, cordgrasses, seagrass, sedge, bulrush etc.
2.8.3. India Estuarine Ecosystem
• The Country has 14 major, 44 medium and 162 minor rivers drains into the sea through
various estuaries.
• Major estuaries occur in the Bay of Bengal. Many estuaries are locations of some of
the major seaports.
• Most of India’s major estuaries occur on the east coast. In contrast, the estuaries on the west
coast are smaller (in environmental studies, deltas are considered as subsections of
estuaries).
• Two typical examples of estuaries on the west coast are the Mandovi and Zuari estuaries.
2.8.4. Issues of Indian Estuarine Ecosystem
• Modifications of the estuarine catchments result in changes in water flow in various
estuaries, either far in excess or much lower than required (E.g. Hooghly, Godavari, Pulicat
etc.)
• Pollution through industries and combined city sewage discharge.
• Recreational boating and fishing.
• Navigation, dredging and shipping (e.g. Hooghly).
• Expansion of urban and rural settlements, mining & industries, agriculture and dumping of
solid wastes.
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• Obstructing the migratory routes of fish and prawn recruitment (e.g., Chilka, Pulicat).
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• Polluting the environment through feeding of stocked fish and prawn in pens (Chilka).
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Forest fires destroy many acres of natural vegetation and cause significant damage to Student Notes:
human habitations. It forces the animals to migrate or get extinct within a short span of
time. It also leads to soil erosion & landslides, ash flows if accompanied by heavy rains
occur in the aftermath of a forest fire.
However, natural forest fires are intrinsic to forest ecosystem and serve many purposes:
• Support new generations: Some species of trees and plants are actually fire
dependent. Some trees have fire resistant bark and cones that require heat to open
and release seeds for regeneration. For e.g. Chaparral and grassland plants.
• Cleaning the forest floor: Fire removes low-growing underbrush, cleans forest floor
of debris, reduces resource competition by opening it up to sunlight, and nourishing
soil.
• Prevents large fires: Clearing underbrush from forest floor with low intensity flames
can help prevent large damaging wildfires that spread out of control and completely
destroy forests.
• Provide habitat and increase biodiversity: Fire clears forests of heavy underbrush,
leaving room for new grasses, herbs and regenerated shrubs that provide food and
habitat for many wildlife species. When fire removes a thick stand of shrubs, water
supply is increased, benefiting other types of plants and animals.
• Killing Disease: Fire kills diseases and insects that prey on trees and releases
valuable nutrients, thus enriching the soil.
• Soil regeneration: After hill forest fires, fertilising ash from fire washes down to fields
with monsoon rains which increases soil fertility.
Currently, India follows a no-fire forest policy. Forest department has historically
prevented forest fires in order to protect timber stocks. However, this one size fits all
approach is not suited to Indian conditions because:
• Early dry season fires burn less hot, and are less detrimental to vegetation than peak
dry season fires which burn much hotter. It also destroys invasive plants like lantana
that act as a fuel for spread of fires in the Western Ghats region.
• By classifying forest fires as penal offence, forest department gradually legitimised
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forests as timber and wildlife production systems and ignored the cultural and
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Thus, there is a need to relook at no fire policy and reorient it in the light of ecological
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and local knowledge systems. Instead of viewing forest fires as being purely destructive
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in nature, policymakers should view fires as being both rejuvenating and revitalizing.
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2. What are the causes of forest fires and their effects on the ecosystem? How can forest
fires be prevented? Also mention the steps that have been taken by the government in
this regard.
Approach:
• Introduce by mentioning the state of forest fires in India.
• Discuss the reasons for forest fires and its impact on the ecosystem.
• Mention the measures to prevent forest fires.
• Then enumerate steps taken by government in this regard.
Answer:
In the last two years, India has witnessed 125% spike in the incidents of forest fires.
According to India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2015, as much as 64.29 per cent of the
Recorded Forest Area (RFA) is prone to fires.
• Use of technology: The committee preferred use of drones instead of CCTVs and fire
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watchers.
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• Fire lines have been created to avoid any dry plants from catching fire which could
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For successful fire management and administration, a National Fire Danger Rating System Student Notes:
(NFDRS) and Fire Forecasting System are to be developed in the country, also
participation of the forest community is inevitable for the forest fire management.
3. What is Eutrophication? Also list the various problems associated with it.
Approach:
• Straight forward question. Eutrophication and its problems.
Answer:
• One of the main problems affecting coastal waters is the high levels of nitrogen and
phosphorous based pollutants entering the water. These pollutants come mainly
from human activities. Overloading coastal waters with nutrients results in excessive
phytoplankton growth. Eutrophication is enhanced plankton growth due to excess
supply of nutrients.
• Problems associated with eutrophication are:
1. These blooms occur throughout the water and prevent light reaching the waters
below. This stops the growth of plants deeper in the water and reduces biological
diversity.
2. When the blooms are really large, this bacterial decomposition can use up so
much oxygen in the deep waters that there isn't enough left for fish to breathe
and they have to swim away or else they die. Animals living on the sea floor can't
easily move away and they also die.
3. Excess nutrients can sometimes encourage the growth of phytoplankton species
which produce harmful toxins. These toxins may cause the death of other species
including fish in fish farms.
4. Large phytoplankton blooms can cause huge ugly foams on beaches. These
blooms are not toxic but temporarily ruin the beach, reducing its recreational
value.
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Approach:
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Cultural eutrophication means any eutrophication that occurs due to human Student Notes:
activities eg industrial waste, sewage dumping, and increased runoff in areas with
poor erosion control due to human development etc.
2. Natural eutrophication is a slow process whereas process of cultural eutrophication
depends on the degree to which excess nutrients are dumped into the water supply.
3. Very large natural bodies of water do not experience eutrophication on a measurable
level due to their exceptionally low bio-load compared to the volume of water. These
natural redistributions over time help keep the maximum amount of land mass
healthy and productive as possible whereas cultural eutrophication can be
catastrophic. High levels of nutrients may cause a massive algae bloom, which places
a huge bio-load on the area in a relatively short amount of time. The algae block a
large percentage of the sunlight that naturally filters down through the water, which
may in turn kill many plants and animal life in the water body.
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• Use of Calcium hydroxide to neutralize low pH values in streams and lakes in areas Student Notes:
where acidic rain has a significant impact
• Use of biological controls such as the process of denitrification uses specialized
bacteria that convert nitrates to harmless molecular nitrogen
• Enforceable standards for major point-source discharges and high-risk non-point
sources
• Invasion by new species: Eutrophication leads to changes in the availability of light Student Notes:
and certain nutrients to an ecosystem. This causes shifts in the species composition.
For instance, an increase in nitrogen might allow new competitive species such as
water hyacinth to invade and out-compete original inhabitant species.
• Deterioration of water quality: Eutrophication leads to increased turbidity of water
thereby declining the availability of clean water.
Measures to tackle eutrophication:
• Water quality of existing water bodies should be assessed at regular intervals.
• Industrial and domestic waste water must be treated before it is discharged into
water bodies.
• Implement regulations to mitigate nutrient losses through run-off, such as standards,
technology requirements, or pollution caps for various sectors.
• Incentivizing nutrient reducing actions through taxes and fees, subsidies and
environmental markets. For instance, rationalization of fertilizer use in agriculture.
• Preservation and restoration of the natural ecosystems that capture and cycle
nutrients.
• Establishment of strong, engaged, and coordinated institutions to implement and
enforce policies to address the problem of eutrophication.
• Educational outreach programs to raise awareness of eutrophication.
Effective implementation of the above steps can help in tackling the problem of
eutrophication. In this regard, the National Green Tribunal has also highlighted the need
of mapping water bodies on GPS platforms and suggested unique ID for all water bodies
in Delhi which can be implemented at national level.
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Student Notes:
CHAPTER - 3 - UNDERSTANDING ECOLOGY
3. Wetlands
3.1. Introduction
Wetland Ecosystem
• Wetlands are areas of marsh or peat land with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish
or saline, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed 6
m.
• Wetlands are transition zones (Eco tone) between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
• E.g. Mangroves, lake littorals (marginal areas between highest and lowest water level of the
lakes), floodplains (areas lying adjacent to the river channels beyond the natural levees and
periodically flooded during high discharge in the river) and other marshy or swampy areas.
• These habitats experience periodic flooding from adjacent deep-water habitats and
therefore support plants and animals specifically adapted to such shallow flooding or
waterlogging.
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• Waterlogged soil adapted plant life (hydrophytes), and hydric soils (not enough O2) are the
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• India has over 27,000 wetlands, of which 23,000+ are inland wetlands, and around 4000 are
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coastal wetlands.
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• Wetlands occupy 18.4% of the country’s area of which 70% are under paddy cultivation.
• Natural wetlands in India range from high altitude wetlands in the Himalayas; flood plains of
the major river systems; saline and temporary wetlands of the arid and semi-arid regions;
coastal wetlands such as lagoons, backwaters, estuaries, mangroves, swamps and coral reefs,
and so on.
• Wetlands are indispensable for the countless benefits or “ecosystem services” that they
provide humanity, ranging from
freshwater supply, food and building
materials, and biodiversity, to flood
control, groundwater recharge, and
climate change mitigation.
• Wetlands are an important resource for
sustainable tourism.
• Play an important role in flood mitigation
by controlling the rate of runoff.
• Buffer (act as a riparian buffer) shorelines against erosion and pollutants.
• They act as a genetic reservoir for various species of plants (especially rice).
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• Demarcation of wetlands using the latest technology, proper enforcement of laws and
stringent punishments for violators.
• Preventing unsustainable aquaculture and cultivation of shellfish.
• Treating industrial effluents and water from farmlands before discharging into wetlands.
• Utilizing wetlands on a sustainable basis by giving enough time for natural regeneration.
• Artificial regeneration for a quick recovery.
• Afforestation, weed control, preventing invasive species is the key to wetland conservation.
• Preventive measures to stop the introduction of exotic invasive species like water hyacinth.
• Soil conservation measures & afforestation.
• Preventing grazing in peripherals of wetlands.
• Wildlife conservation, sustainable tourism, eco-tourism and sensitizing local populace.
• Eutrophication abatement by processing nutrient rich discharge into the water body.
• Involving the local population in the conservation of wetlands.
• There are 41 Ramsar sites in India with a surface area of 1,071,861 hectares (as of November
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2020).
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• Chilika Lake is the largest Ramsar Site of India with a surface area of 1,16,500 hectares.
• Chilika Lake (Orissa) and Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) were recognized as the first
Ramsar Sites of India.
• Uttar Pradesh has the largest number of Ramsar Sites in India with 8 Indian Wetlands.
• Renuka Wetland in Himachal Pradesh is the smallest wetland of India a surface area of 20
hectares.
Ramsar Sites of India Location
Asan Conservation Reserve Uttarakhand (October 2020)
Ashtamudi Wetland Kerala
Beas Conservation Reserve Punjab
Bhitarkanika Mangroves Odisha
Bhoj Wetlands Madhya Pradesh
Chandra Taal Himachal Pradesh
Chilika Lake Odisha
Deepor Beel Assam
East Kolkata Wetlands West Bengal
• Montreux Record
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Importance where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring, or are
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interference.
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o Wetlands of India that are in Montreux Record: Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) and
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ü Dumping solid waste or discharge of untreated wastes and effluents from industries Student Notes:
and any human settlements, and
ü Encroachment or conversion for non-wetlands uses.
o Integrated Management Plan: The guidelines recommend that the state/UT
administration prepare a plan for the management of each notified wetland by the
respective governments.
o Penalties: Undertaking any prohibited or regulated activities beyond the thresholds
(defined by the state/UT administration) in the wetlands or its zone of influence, will be
deemed violations under the Wetlands Rules. Violation of the Rules will attract penalties
as per the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017
Provisions under the rules:
• Definition of Wetland: They are defined as “an area of marsh, fen peatland or water;
whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing,
fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does
not exceed six meters, but does not include river channels, paddy fields, human-made water
bodies/tanks specifically
ISSUES WITH THE RULE
constructed for drinking • Diluted definition: The 2010 rules and even the 2016 draft
water purposes and rules covered all wetlands, including man-made wetlands
structures specifically other than river channels and paddy fields. The new rules,
constructed for however, exclude human-made water bodies and tanks
aquaculture, salt specifically built for drinking water purposes and structures
production, recreation and constructed for aquaculture, salt production, recreation
irrigation purposes”. and irrigation. Thus, the rules fail to cover 9.7 million
• Decentralisation of Power: hectares or 65% of the total area identified as wetlands.
Under the new rules, the • Abuse of rule: Provisions like “central government may
consider proposals from the state government or union
central government has
territory administration for omitting any of the (prohibited)
empowered the states and
activities on the recommendation of the authority” in the
union territories to identify new rules can be misused.
and manage their • Process of appeal against the decisions of wetland
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• Constitute State Wetlands with the CWRA’s decisions could have filed an appeal with
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Authority in each State and the National Green Tribunal, but the new 2017 rules are
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be headed by the State’s • Subjective definition of “wise use” (Wise use is defined as
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• Applicability of rules: These rules shall apply to the following wetlands or wetlands Student Notes:
complexes, namely: Wetlands categorised as 'wetlands of international importance' under
the Ramsar Convention
• Wetlands as notified by the Central Government, State Government and Union Territory
Administration.
3.8. UPSC Previous Years Questions
Mains
1. Discuss the wetlands and their role in ecological conservation in India. (10 MARKS)(2009)
2. List any eight ‘Ramsar’ wetland sites located in India. What is the ‘Montreux Record’ and
what Indian sites are included in this Record? (2011)(12 marks)
3. What is wetland? Explain the Ramsar concept of ‘wise use’ in the context of wetland
conservation. Cite two examples of Ramsar sites from India.(2018)(10 marks)
Prelims
1. If a wetland of international importance is brought under the ‘Montreux Record’, what does it
imply? (2014)
(a) Changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring or are likely to occur in the
wetland as a result of human interference.
(b) The country in which the wetland is located should enact a law to prohibit any human activity
within five kilo metres from the edge of the wetland
(c) The survival of the wetland depends on the cultural practices and traditions of certain
communities living in its vicinity and therefore the cultural diversity therein should not be
destroyed
(d) It is given the status of ‘World Heritage Site’
Solutions: (A)
2. In which one among the following categories of protected areas in India are local people not
allowed to collect and use the biomass?(2012)
(a) Biosphere Reserves (b) National Parks
(c) Wetlands declared under Ramsar Convention (d) Wildlife Sanctuaries
Solution: (B)
3. With reference to the wetlands of India, consider the following statements :(2012)
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1. The country’s total geographical area under the category of wetlands is recorded more in
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Solution: (A)
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4. Wetland locations
Wetlands Confluence of rivers
1. Harike wetland Beas and Satluj
2. Keolado Ganga National Park Banas and Chambal
3. Kolleru Lake Musi and Krishna
Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched? (2014)
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Solution: (A)
5. With reference to a conservation organization called Wetlands International’, which of the
following statements is/are correct?(2015)
1. It is an intergovernmental organization formed by the countries which are signatories to
Ramsar Convention.
2. It works at the field level to develop and mobilize knowledge, and use the practical experience
to advocate for better policies.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Solution (B)
3.9. Vision IAS Previous Year Test Series Questions Student Notes:
1. What are Wetland Ecosystems? What are the functions performed by them in
maintaining the ecosystem of an area? What are the reasons responsible for decrease
in their size?
Approach:
Define wetlands and then mention about types of wetlands in brief. Thereafter, write role
played by them in protecting environment and then reasons for their destruction. Also
mention some measures to protect them in conclusion.
Answer:
Wetland: A land area whose soil get saturated with the moisture either permanently or
temporarily is called wet land. They can also be defined as eco-tone that transit between
water bodies and dry land. Wet lands are the land with hydric soil. They include lake
littorals, floodplains, bogs and mangroves.
Functions:
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• nutrient recycling
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• water purification
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• flood mitigation
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2. Wetlands provide ecosystem services essential to people and the environment, valued Student Notes:
at billions of dollars. Explain briefly. Enumerate the causes for wetland losses across
India. Further, elaborate on some international and national measures taken to protect
them.
Approach:
Students should follow linear approach while answering this question. Answer should be
divided into three parts. In first, give example of Wetland’s role in ecosystem services. In
2nd part enlist the causes for loss of wetland in India. In 3rd part explain initiatives like
Ramsar Convention at international level and national legislations along with
conservation initiatives. Conclude with futuristic note about success of conservation
efforts.
Answer:
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) study estimated that wetlands cover 7%
of the earth’s surface and deliver 45% of its natural productivity and ecosystem services.
Globally, 1.5-3 billion people depend on wetlands as a source of drinking water as well
as food and livelihood security. Wetlands perform numerous functions beneficial for man
and environment as follows.
Functions to Environment and Man –:
• Disaster mitigation-The most significant social and economic benefit that wetlands
provide is flood control. Peatlands and wet grasslands alongside river basins can act
like sponges, absorbing rainfall and controlling its flow into streams and rivers.
Coastal wetlands – such as reefs, mangroves and saltmarshes – act as frontline
defences against potential devastation during disasters.
• Wetlands act as the Earth's filters, cleaning up water in a number of ways. For
example Wetlands remove pollutants such as phosphorous, heavy metals and toxins
which are trapped in the sediments of the wetlands.
• Cultural value Throughout history humans have gathered around wetlands and these
areas have played an important part in human development and are of significant
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Vital habitat- It has been estimated that freshwater wetlands hold more than 40%
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of all the world’s species and 12% of all animal species. Individual wetlands can be
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• Natural Causes- Sedimentation, floods, storms, sea level rise and biotic effects e.g.
excessive sediment inflow into Chilka has become greatest concern for the lake. It
has potential to destroy the peculiar ecosystem
• Human causes- Agricultural Activities and related discharge. Hydrological alteration
by construction of dams, channelization for navigation and ground water abstraction.
Pollution -waste disposal, mining for minerals, dumping and pesticides. Settlement
and infrastructure development e.g. Pulicat Lake, India’s second largest lagoon
bordering Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, is threatened by the Dugarajapatnam
port project. Kolleru Lake, the largest freshwater lake in India is under serious
anthropogenic pressure. Drains from surrounding area are threatening its existence.
Measures for protection-
• International – The Convention on Wetlands, called the Ramsar Convention, is an
intergovernmental treaty. Wetlands international global non-profit organization for
sustaining and restoring wetlands. World wetlands Day, Montreux Record etc.
• National – National Wetlands Conservation Program (NWCP). Government of India Student Notes:
in closed collaboration with concerned State Government. Under the programme
115 wetlands have been identified till now by the Ministry, which requires urgent
conservation and management initiatives. National lake conservation plan was
carved out to focus on lakes particularly in urban areas
• Formulation of Management Action Plan by states to define objectives taking into
consideration factors responsible for degradation of the wetland
• National Environment Policy (2006), which identifies 6 fold action to conserve
wetlands.
The role of the wetlands is critical in socio-economic and aesthetic well being of man.
They are critical factor in environment resilience to sudden distress. We must preserve
these ecosystems to secure future of the biosphere.
3. What are wetlands and how are they different from lakes? Why are wetlands
considered ecologically important? Critically examine the Draft Wetland Rules 2016.
Approach:
• Define wetlands and bring out their difference with lakes.
• Then bring out ecological importance of the wetlands.
• Examine the pros and cons of the draft Wetland Rules 2016.
Answer:
A wetland is a land area that is saturated with water, either permanently or seasonally,
such that it takes on the characteristics of a distinct ecosystem. A lake is a body of
relatively still liquid of considerable size, localized in a basin, that is s urrounded by land
apart from a river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake. Lake has more
depth of water than wetland.
Ecological Importance of wetlands:
1. Water Purification
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Wetlands protect water quality by trapping sediments and retaining excess nutrients
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2. Flood Protection
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Wetlands hold excess runoff after a storm, and then release it slowly. Wetland soil
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acts as a sponge, holding much more water than other soil types.
3. Shoreline Stabilization
Wetlands that occur along the shoreline of lakes or along banks of rivers and streams
help protect shoreline soils from erosive forces of waves and currents.
4. Groundwater Recharge and Streamflow Maintenance
Aquifers and groundwater are recharged or replenished with water by precipitation
that seeps into ground and by surface waters. Those wetlands connected to
groundwater systems or aquifers are important areas for groundwater exchange.
5. Fish and Wildlife Habitat
Many species of birds, fish, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians rely on wetland
habitat for breeding, foraging, and cover. Wetland conditions provide unique habitat
for species..
Student Notes:
The Draft Wetland (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2016, seek to replace the
Rules of 2010.
Critical examination of Draft Wetland Rules 2016
Why new Rules: Because of ineffective implementation of 2010 rules.
Positives:
• Seeks to decentralize wetlands management to states, with Centre intervening only
in “exceptional cases”.
• It restricts activities like reclamation of wetlands, and conversion for non-wetland
uses, any diversion or impediment to natural water inflows and outflows of the
wetland and any activity having or likely to have an adverse impact on ecological
character of the wetland.
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• Entirely Dismantles Central Wetland Authority. There is no role for Centre to play in
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• It is not clear which department will be coordinating these activities. Earlier it was Student Notes:
Forest Department.
• The provision of Appeal against Decision of Authority in NGTas in 2010 rules is
missing.
• Chief Minister, is also head of SWA, which can cause conflict of interest.
• 2010 Rules had timelines from notification to other stages; no timeline now.
Thus, the new draft rules significantly weaken the wetlands conservation and protection.
It needs a relook and the precious ecosystem should not be sacrificed at altar of
development at any cost.
4. Highlight the significance of wetland ecosystems, particularly in the urban areas. Also
mention the steps that are being taken by the government for integrated management
of wetland ecosystems.
Approach:
• Briefly provide an introduction about wetlands.
• Discuss their significance for urban areas.
• Steps taken by government for their management holistically.
Answer:
Wetlands are unique, productive ecosystems where terrestrial and aquatic habitats
meet. Wetlands play a critical role in maintaining many natural cycles and supporting a
wide range of biodiversity.
Significance of wetlands ecosystem
• Water services - Wetlands are particularly important providers of all water-related
ecosystem services. They regulate water quantity, groundwater recharge, regulating
floods and the impacts of storms which has become immensely important due to
increasing concretization in urban areas.
• Ecological services – With respect to climate change adaptation and mitigation,
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Carbon Sequestration: Wetlands act as carbon sinks for CO2 and other greenhouse
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• Reducing pressure on land - Wetlands also help in erosion control and sediment
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• Reservoir of Biodiversity - Wetlands are productive areas for plant life, animals and
wetland agriculture. Compared to many other ecosystems, wetlands are one of the
most productive habitats in the world. They provide spawning grounds for fish and
ideal conditions for species group such as amphibians.
• Food security - Wetlands are an important source of food such as rice paddy systems,
fish etc. The entire production of inland capture fisheries and most coastal fisheries
is derived from wetlands.
• Recreational and cultural - Wetlands have high recreational, historical, scientific, and
cultural values. Wetlands play an important part in human development. They are
also useful for recreational activities such as hiking, fishing, bird watching,
photography and hunting.
Apart from the above factors, wetlands provide multiple benefits to cities and urban
areas in the following way:
• Wetlands act as filters and help reduce the urban waste water and help prevent
eutrophication in lakes and streams.
• The capacity of a functional urban wetland in flood control is also be very important. Student Notes:
Government has taken following steps for integrated management of wetland
ecosystems:
• Scheme of National Wetlands Conservation Programme (NWCP) –It aims at holistic
conservation of lakes and wetlands. It is operational on cost sharing basis between
the Central and State Governments.
• Financial assistance has been provided to the State Governments/Union Territories
for undertaking wetland conservation activities like survey & demarcation,
catchment area treatment, desilting & dredging, bio-fencing, fisheries development,
weed control, biodiversity conservation, pollution abatement, education &
awareness and community participation etc.
• Advising state governments for giving high priority for constitution of State wetland/
lake authorities, identification and notification of priority wetlands including
delineation of their boundaries, development of integrated management plans,
securing resources for implementation of management plans, monitoring and
evaluation, strengthening research-management interface, etc.
• India is a signatory of Ramasar convention on wetlands of international importance
for the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands. There are 26 ramasar sites in
India and government takes special care for these sites.
5. Wetlands are being lost rapidly due to encroachment and rapid urbanization. In this
context, critically analyse the provisions of the new Wetland (Conservation and
Management) Rules 2017 notified by the Government in dealing with the situation.
Approach:
• Start with the basic definition of Wetlands.
• Then giving a brief picture of wetlands in India, bring out some reasons for their loss.
• Finally, analyse the provisions of the New Wetland Rules, 2017 in dealing with the
situation.
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ecosystems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered
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by shallow water. They support rich biodiversity and provide wide range of ecosystem
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Of late, wetlands are threatened due to encroachment, rapid urbanization and activities
like pollution, hydrological alteration, over-exploitation etc. In this context, the
Government has come out with new Wetland (Conservation and Management) Rules,
2017.
Features of the new rules
• Setting up of National Wetlands Committee (NWC), headed by MoEFCC secretary, to
monitor implementation of these rules and oversee works carried out by states and
to advise Central Government.
• Setting up of State Wetland Authorities in each state/ UTs headed by State’s
Environment Minister which will develop comprehensive list of activities to be
regulated and permitted within notified wetland and their zone of influence. It will
also define strategies for ‘wise-use’ of wetlands and its conservation
• Prohibition of activities like conversion of wetland for non-wetland uses including
encroachment of any kind, setting up and expansion of industries, waste dumping
and discharge of untreated wastes and effluents from industries, cities, towns, village Student Notes:
etc.
Mandatory preparation of a list of all wetlands and list of wetlands to be notified within
six months by state authorities. Based on it, a comprehensive digital inventory of all
wetlands will be created and updated every ten years. However, there are some
shortcomings sighted by environmentalist and therefore, they are apprehensive about
the effectiveness of the new rules-
• They are silent on the process of appeal against the decision of wetlands authorities.
• The term “wise use” to be determined by the state wetland authority is open to wider
interpretation and may be misused.
• 2010 and 2016 rules covered all wetlands including man-made wetlands other than
river channels and paddy fields. The new rules exclude human-made water bodies
and structures constructed for aquaculture, salt production etc.
• Passing of identification and notification of wetlands to the states have been
criticised on the grounds that they have a poor record of their conservation in the
past.
Nevertheless, the new rules have tried to decentralize the responsibilities by setting up
of state wetland authority. It will also increase expertise in this area as this authority will
involve one expert each in the field of wetland ecology, hydrology, fisheries etc. It may
also enhance the conservation work at local level.
6. What are wetlands? Accounting for the reasons behind the disappearance of wetlands,
suggest some measures which can be taken for their effective conservation.
Approach:
• Introduce by giving the definition of wetlands.
• Enumerate the causes behind the disappearance of wetlands.
• Suggest measures that can be taken for their conservation.
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with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water
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the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters.”
Wetlands are highly productive and support large biological diversity. They also provide
services such as water purification, flood mitigation, erosion control, ground water
recharge, microclimate regulation etc. However, they are one of the most threatened
habitats of the country and are disappearing at the rate of 2-3 percent per year.
Following are the reasons behind the disappearance of wetlands:
• Encroachment of wetlands: Due to unplanned urbanization, expansion of industries,
road construction, construction of reservoirs and canal, sand mining etc., wetlands
have been drained and transformed. This results in substantial economic and
ecological losses in the long term.
• Deforestation: Removal of trees in the catchment leads to soil erosion and siltation,
thereby altering the wetland ecosystem.
• Pollution: Unrestricted dumping of pollutants such as sewage and toxic chemicals
from industries has polluted many freshwater wetlands.
• Salinization: Over withdrawal of groundwater leads to salinization, which further Student Notes:
leads to degradation of wetlands and endangers wetland species.
• Aquaculture: Demand for shrimps and fishes have provided economic incentives for
converting wetlands and mangrove forests into aquaculture ponds.
• Introduction of new species: Wetlands are threatened by the introduction of exotic
plant species such as water hyacinth and salvinia, which clog waterways and compete
with native vegetation.
• Climate change: Increased temperature, shifts in precipitation, increased frequency
of floods, sea level rise etc. also affect wetlands.
Following measures can be taken for effective conservation of wetlands:
• Identification of wetlands: There is a need for scientific criteria for identifying
wetlands. Establishment of an independent authority can help in this regard.
• Creation of data bank on wetlands: Various methods apart from identified Ramsar
sites can be used to create a data bank on wetlands. For example, the Maharashtra
Environment Department created a mobile application to create a database on all
the wetlands in the state. This can be expanded on an all-India basis. Similarly,
National Wetlands Atlas prepared by ISRO identified a total of 201,503 wetlands
covering 14.7 million hectares across the country.
• Collaboration with institutions: The government can collaborate with organizations
like the Wetlands International, which works to sustain and restore wetlands and
their resources.
• Use of technology: Application of technologies such as satellite-based remote
sensors, GIS tools etc. can aid in effective management and monitoring of wetlands.
• Multi-stakeholder participation: This can be done by the involvement of local
community members, trained academicians, ecologists, hydrologists etc. for the
overall management of wetlands. Also, management of wetlands has to be an
integrated approach in terms of planning, execution and monitoring.
• Spreading awareness: It can be done by initiating educational programmes about
the importance of wetlands in schools and colleges, among the general public in the
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The jurisdiction over wetlands is diffused and falls under various departments like
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agriculture, revenue, tourism etc. The need of the hour is to formulate a comprehensive
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and integrated wetland policy with a defined jurisdiction to safeguard the wetlands from
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Programme, Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010 etc. that help in
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Student Notes:
CHAPTER - 4 - MANGROVES
4. Mangroves
4.1. Introduction
• Mangroves are shrubs or small trees that grow in coastal saline or brackish water.
• Mangroves represent a characteristic littoral (near the seashore) forest ecosystem.
• These are mostly evergreen forests that grow in sheltered low lying coasts, estuaries,
mudflats, tidal creeks backwaters (coastal waters held back on land), marshes and lagoons of
tropical and subtropical regions.
• Mangroves grow below the high water level of spring tides.
• The best locations are where abundant silt is brought down by rivers or on the backshore of
accreting sandy beaches.
• Mangroves are highly productive ecosystems, and the trees may vary in height from 8 to 20
m. They protect the shoreline from the effect of cyclones and tsunamis.
• They are breeding and spawning ground for many commercially important fishes.
• Since mangroves are located between the land and sea, they represent the best example
of Ecotone.
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While other (e.g. Avicenna) stands vertical “Pneumatophores” or air roots up from the mud.
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• In size, mangroves range from bushy stands of dwarf mangroves found in Gulf of Kutch, to
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• On the Andaman & Nicobar Islands, the small tidal estuaries and the lagoons support a dense
and diverse undisturbed mangrove flora.
• Adventitious roots which emerged from the main trunk of a tree above ground level are
called stilt roots.
Student Notes:
• Mangroves exhibit Viviparity
mode of reproduction.
i.e. seeds germinate in the tree
itself (before falling to the
ground).
• This is an adaptive
mechanism to overcome the
problem of germination in
saline water.
mudflats on both side of the creeks in the Godavari-Krishna deltaic regions of Andhra
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Pradesh.
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• Mangroves of Pichavaram and Vedaranyam (Tamil Nadu) are degraded mainly due to the
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• On the west coast of India, mangroves, mostly scrubby and degraded occur along the
intertidal region of estuaries and creeks in Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka.
• The mangrove vegetation in the coastal zone of Kerala is very sparse and thin.
• In Gujarat (north-west coast) mangroves Avicennia marine, Avicennia officinalis and
Rhizophora mucronata are found mainly in Gulf of Kutch and the Kori creek.
• The condition of the mangroves is improving especially in the Kori creek region, which is a
paleodelta of the Indus river (once upon a time it was part of Indus delta).
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Climate change may reduce global mangrove area by 10-15%, but it is a long term, less
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significance threat to the current 1-2% annual loss from human activities.
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• Natural threats:
o Cyclones, typhoons and strong wave actions.
o Trampling and over grazing by wildlife and livestock close to mangrove regions.
o Damage by crabs, oysters and pests to the young seedlings of mangroves.
• Anthropological threats:
o Agriculture: Many thousands of acres of mangrove forest have been destroyed to make
way for rice paddies, rubber trees, palm oil plantations, and other forms of agriculture.
o Coastal Development: Coastal development takes many forms but as streams and
wetlands are filled by roads and concrete, they can no longer process natural chemicals.
Worse still, pollutants that accompany development can damage individual trees or
whole tracts of mangroves.
o Shrimp Farming: By far the greatest threat to the world’s mangrove forests is the rapidly
expanding shrimp aquaculture industry. Hundreds of thousands of acres of lush wetlands
have been cleared to make room for artificial ponds that are densely stocked with
shrimp.
o Charcoal and Lumber Industries: Chopping down mangroves for charcoal and timber is Student Notes:
an important cottage industry for many coastal communities. Mangrove wood is used for
building material, fencing, and fuel. It also yields valuable, high-quality charcoal. In places
where fishing has declined below subsistence levels, many people have turned to
charcoal production for their livelihood, which furthers the cycle of habitat loss and
fishery decline.
4.6. Conservation of Mangroves
• Coastal Regulation Zone Rules also stresses about regulating construction and haphazard
infrastructure development in and around coastal areas, thus protecting mangroves.
• SMART(Special Monitoring and reporting Tool) monitoring in the Sundarbans empowers
local administration contributing to a more effective management of natural resources.
• The state of Gujarat uses direct seed sowing, raised bed plantations, and fishbone channel
plantations to restore degraded mangroves.
• State of Andhra Pradesh has established Eco-Development Committees and Van Samrakshan
Samithi to implement conservation projects in mangrove areas.
• The state of Maharashtra has been implementing restoration, protection, regeneration, and
maintenance techniques to conserve mangroves.
• Mangrove for Future Initiative: Mangroves for the Future (MFF) is a unique partner-led
initiative to promote investment in coastal ecosystem conservation for sustainable
development.
o The goal is to promote an integrated ocean-wide approach to coastal management and
to building the resilience of ecosystem-dependent coastal communities.
o Mangroves are the flagship of the initiative, but MFF is inclusive of all types of coastal
ecosystem, such as coral reefs, estuaries, lagoons, sandy beaches, seagrass and wetlands.
4.7. UPSC Previous Years Questions
Mains
1. Discuss the causes of depletion of mangroves and explain their importance in maintaining
coastal ecology. (2019)
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2. What are mangroves and in what way are they useful to us? (2001)
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Student Notes:
CHAPTER - 5 - CORALS
5. Corals
5.1. Coral Reef
• Coral reefs are built by and made up of thousands of tiny animals—coral “polyps”—that are
related to anemones and jellyfish.
• Polyps are shallow water organisms which have a soft body covered by a calcareous
skeleton. The polyps extract calcium salts from sea water to form these hard skeletons.
• The polyps live in colonies fastened to the rocky sea floor.
• The tubular skeletons grow upwards and outwards as a cemented calcareous rocky mass,
collectively called corals.
• When the coral polyps die, they shed their skeleton [coral] on which new polyps grow.
• The cycle is repeated for over millions of years leading to accumulation of layers of corals
[shallow rock created by these depositions is called reef].
• These layers at different stages give rise to various marine landforms. One such important
landform is called coral reef.
• Coral reefs over a period of time transform or evolve into coral islands (e.g. Lakshadweep).
• The corals occur in different forms and colours, depending upon the nature of salts or
constituents they are made of.
• Small marine plants (algae) also deposit calcium carbonate contributing to coral growth.
5.2. Coral Reef Relief Features
• Fringing reef, barrier reef and atoll (coral islands are formed on atolls) are the most
important relief features.
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• The lagoon has a depth 80-150 meters and may be joined with sea water through a number
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• Atolls are located at great distances from deep see platforms, where the submarine features
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may help in formation of atolls, such as a submerged island or a volcanic cone which may
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• If zooxanthellae loss is prolonged, i.e. if the stress continues and depleted zooxanthellae Student Notes:
populations do not recover, the coral host eventually dies.
• Disturbances affecting coral reefs include anthropogenic and natural events.
• Recent accelerated coral reef decline is related mostly to anthropogenic impacts
(overexploitation, overfishing, increased sedimentation and nutrient overloading).
• Natural disturbances which cause damage to coral reefs include violent storms, flooding,
high and low temperature extremes, El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, sub aerial
exposures, predatory outbreaks and epizootics.
• Coral reef bleaching is a common stress response of corals to many of the various
disturbances mentioned above.
5.5.1. Natural Causes of Coral Bleaching
• Temperature
o Coral species live within a relatively narrow temperature margin (20-29oC),
and anomalously low and high sea temperatures [corals are absent on the west coast
of tropical temperate continents because of the cold currents] can induce coral
bleaching.
o Bleaching events occur during sudden temperature drops accompanying intense
upwelling episodes [El-Nino], seasonal cold-air outbreaks.
o Most reefs recovered, with low levels of coral deaths, but damage has been severe at
places.
o This is an instance of coral reefs’ susceptibility to increased water temperatures
combined with ocean acidification.
o While the rising temperatures have increased the frequency and intensity of bleaching,
acidification has reduced corals calcifying ability.
o Small temperature increase over many weeks or large increase (3-4 °C) over a few days
will result in coral dysfunction.
o Coral bleaching has occurred mostly during the summer seasons or near the end of a
protracted warming period.
o They are reported to have taken place during times of low wind velocity, clear skies,
calm seas and low turbidity. The conditions favour localised heating and high ultraviolet
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(UV) radiation.
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o UV radiation readily penetrates clear sea waters. The corals actually contain UV-
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absorbing compounds which can block potentially damaging UV radiation. But rising
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corals.
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• Other reasons: Over-fishing, pollution from agricultural and industrial runoff, coral mining,
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development of industrial areas near coral ecosystems also adversely impact corals.
o Capacity Building
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o Raise awareness at all levels on the plight of coral reefs around the world.
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• The ICRI declared 2018 as the third International Year of the Reef (IYOR).
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It is a network under ICRI which works to provide scientific information and communication
on the status of coral reef ecosystems to increase conservation and management for coral
reefs
5.7.3. International Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN)
• ICRAN is a strategic alliance of private and public organizations that acts worldwide to
address the management of coral reef ecosystems and the needs of the communities that
depend upon them.
• It operates by sharing and promoting traditional knowledge, current research, and best
practices in order to strengthen reef management.
5.7.4. Coral Triangle Initiative
• The six governments of the Coral Triangle – Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the
Philippines, Solomon Islands, and Timor Leste have established partnership to conserve coral
reefs and the multitude of species and fisheries they support.
• The protection of coral reef has been stressed under Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 and
Environmental Protection Act, 1986 and Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ). Corals are included
in Schedule I of the Wild Life Protection Act, 1972.
• Coastal Zone Regulation
o In India, the CRZ Rules govern human and industrial activity close to the coastline, in
order to protect the fragile ecosystems near the sea.
o They restrict certain kinds of activities — like large constructions, setting up of new
industries, storage or disposal of hazardous material, mining, reclamation and bunding
— within a certain distance from the coastline.
o After the passing of the Environment Protection Act in 1986, CRZ Rules were first
framed in 1991.
o After these were found to be restrictive, the Centre notified new Rules in 2011, which
also included exemptions for the construction of the Navi Mumbai airport and for
projects of the Department of Atomic Energy.
o In 2018, fresh Rules were issued, which aimed to remove certain restrictions on building,
streamlined the clearance process, and aimed to encourage tourism in coastal areas.
o While the CRZ Rules are made by the Union environment ministry, implementation is
to be ensured by state governments through their Coastal Zone Management
Authorities.
• Application of Rules.
o In all Rules, the regulation zone has been defined as the area up to 500 m from the high-
tide line.
o The restrictions depend on criteria such as the population of the area, the ecological
sensitivity, the distance from the shore, and whether the area had been designated as
a natural park or wildlife zone.
o The latest Rules have a no-development zone of 20 m for all islands close to the mainland
coast, and for all backwater islands in the mainland.
• Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management (ICMAM) also takes up the issue of coral
reef habitat destruction
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following coral reef areas in the country have been identified for intensive conservation and
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o Lakshadweep Islands
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• It is important to undertake immediate actions to address climate change under the Paris
Agreement’s goal of limiting global average temperature increase to 1.5℃ above pre-
industrial temperatures.
• Measures to combat local stressors causing coral bleaching:
o Regulate tourism
o Check water pollution by treating industrial effluents before discharging them into the
sea, reduction is use of chemical fertilizers in farms
o Ban fishing and harvesting of protected species.
o Regularly service and maintain fishing vessels so that they cause minimum pollution
o Regulate construction along the coast
o Banning of the quarrying of massive corals.
• Coral restoration programs can play an important role in conserving coral reefs. For example,
the innovative Force Blue project is training retired Special Forces soldiers to transplant
endangered coral species
• A recent paper published in Nature argues that there should be focus on strengthening the Student Notes:
reefs, to make them immune to pollution (for example through genetic engineering and of
restoring reefs by targeting more resilient corals)
• Improved scientific knowledge is required to inform an effective response to threats to coral
reefs
• Community awareness and education programmes are required to educate and inform the
public, policymakers and other stakeholders of the ecological and socio-economic values of
coral reef ecosystems.
• Recommendations of Task Force on Islands, Coral Reefs, Mangroves and Wetlands (11th Five
Year Plan 2007-2012) on empowerment of coastal community and sustainable solutions to
be implemented.
• Bio Rock Technology- This technology works by passing a small amount of electrical current
through electrodes in the water.
o Bio rock is the name given to the substance formed by electro accumulation of minerals
dissolved in seawater on steel structures that are lowered onto the sea bed and are
connected to a power source, (solar panels that float on the surface of water)
o When a positively charged anode and negatively charged cathode are placed on the sea
floor, with an electric current flowing between them, calcium ions combine with
carbonate ions and adhere to the structure (cathode).
o This results in calcium carbonate formation. Coral larvae adhere to the CaCO3 and grow
quickly.
o In 2015, a group of ZSI scientists had successfully restored branching coral species
(staghorn corals) belonging to the family Acroporidae (Acropora formosa, Acropora
humilis, Montipora digitata) that had gone extinct about 10,000 years ago to the Gulf of
Kachchh.
2. Gulf of Kutch
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3. Gulf of Mannar
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4. Sunderbans
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2. The scientific view is that the increase in global temperature should not exceed 2 °C
above pre-industrial level. If the global temperature increases beyond 3°C above the pre-
industrial level, what can be its possible impact/impacts on the world? (2015)
1. Terrestrial biosphere tends toward a net carbon source
2. Widespread coral mortality will occur.
3. All the global wetlands will permanently disappear.
4. Cultivation of cereals will not be possible anywhere in the world.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Solution: (B)
5.11. Vision IAS Previous Years Test Series Questions Student Notes:
1. Define corals and reefs. Describe the ideal conditions for coral reef formation? Also give
an account of distribution of coral reefs in India.
Approach:
Questions are very basic and specific in nature. So, specific answers should be provided
for each part.
Answer:
A reef is a strip or ridge of rocks, sand, or coral that rises to or near the surface of a body
of water. The best-known reefs are the coral reefs developed through biotic processes
dominated by corals and calcareous algae.
Corals are animals, even though they may exhibit some of the characteristics of plants
and are often mistaken for rocks. Corals can exist as individual polyps (a small sea animal
that has a body shaped like a tube), or in colonies and communities that contain
hundreds to hundreds of thousands of polyps. Corals are found throughout the oceans,
from deep, cold waters to shallow, tropical waters.
Conditions needed for growth of Coral Reefs:
• Shallow coral reefs grow best in warm water.
• Reef-building corals prefer clear and shallow water with lots of sunlight.
• Corals also need salt water to survive.
• Other factors influencing coral distribution are availability of hard-bottom substrate
and the availability of food such as plankton.
Coral Reefs in India
The coral reef ecosystems are found in four regions of India which are:
Region Type of Reef
Andaman & Nicobar Islands Fringing Reefs
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2. Lakshadweep has been facing a drastic decline in coral cover in recent years. Discuss
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various environmental and anthropogenic factors behind this phenomenon. How can
El Nino be disastrous for the world’s coral reefs? Illustrate.
Approach:
Answer can be framed simply in three parts. First, brief introduction of the phenomenon.
Second, explanation of underlying factors of coral bleaching. Third, description of effects
of El Nino on corals, with examples.
Answer:
Lakshadweep is the major area of coral formation in India. Unfortunately it is facing
decline in coral reefs as reported that till 2010, the live coral reef cover in the island was
recorded at 27 per cent, which dropped to 11 per cent in the subsequent year because
of the May 2010 bleaching. This decline is presenting the serious threat to marine
ecosystem and livelihood prospects of local community.
The various environmental and anthropogenic factors that are contributing to coral
degradation are:
Student Notes:
(i) Environmental
• Climate change: the rise in sea surface temperature due to El-Nino phenomenon
during 1998 caused extensive coral reef bleaching impacting over 40 to 90% of live
coral cover.
• Coastal erosion: It is a serious problem faced by the islands every year resulting in
loss of land.
• Increasing sedimentation and pollution of water is disturbing the delicate balance
of coral and their survival need.
(ii) Anthropogenic
• Population pressure: Changing demographic pattern and lifestyle, coupled with
resource harvest from the reefs have brought many reefs in the Lakshadweep to
various degrees of stress.
• Developmental activities: Overexploitation and mindless mining of coral reef
colonies led to degrading of coral reef.
• Coral tourism: Lakshadweep increasingly being promoted as major tourist
destination for sea sports like scuba diving. This results in environmental pollution
particularly of sea water.
El Nino as an anomaly is not well understood phenomenon but it is cites as major threat
to coral by scientists. It raises the sea temperature and sea level disturbing the delicate
ecosystem of corals. Further, it is well established that the last big El Niño in 1997/98
caused the worst coral bleaching in recorded history. In total, 16% of the world’s coral
was lost and some countries like the Maldives lost up to 90% of their reef coverage
3. Explain the importance of coral reefs as an ecosystem. Why are corals rare along the
western coast of the continents?
Approach:
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• Then explain the importance of Coral reefs as an ecosystem. The key word is
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• Then come to the reason behind absence of Coral reefs on the western coast of the
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continents.
Answer:
Coral reefs are diverse underwater ecosystems formed due to the accumulation and
solidification of lime secreting organisms known as Coral Polyps. They are also known as
the "tropical rainforests of the sea" for their astounding richness of life.
Importance of Coral reefs as an ecosystem:
• Coral reefs support more species per unit area than any other marine environment,
including about 4,000 species of fish, 800 species of hard corals and hundreds of
other species.
• Coral reefs are the source of nitrogen and other essential nutrients for marine food
chains. They also assist in carbon and nitrogen fixing. They help with nutrient
recycling.
• As a healthy and diverse ecosystem, Coral reefs helps in recycling and purification of
water and air, the creation of soil, and the break-down of pollutants.
• Coral are very important in controlling the amount of carbon dioxide in the ocean Student Notes:
water. Coral polyp turns carbon dioxide in the water into a limestone shell. Without
coral, the amount of carbon dioxide in the water would rise.
• Coral reefs protect coastlines from the damaging effects of wave action and tropical
storms.
• Coral reefs with diverse range of species provide a larger gene pool, giving natural
communities survival options when environmental conditions and climates change.
The greater the number of species and hence genetic diversity in an ecosystem, the
lesser will be the impact of removing individual species.
Corals are rare along the western coast of the continents primarily due to upwelling and
strong cold coastal currents that reduce water temperatures in these areas. Coral reefs
are very sensitive organisms and grow only in particular conditions. They are usually
found in the Tropical seas upto a depth of 200-300 ft where Sun rays reach. The ideal
temperature for their growth is 20-25 0 C. Both high Salinity and fresh water are harmful
for their growth. These ideal conditions required for the growth of Corals are usually
absent along the western coast of the continents due to upwelling of cold Currents.
4. Coral reefs are the most biologically diverse and economically valuable ecosystems on
earth. Elaborate. Discuss the factors responsible for the decline of coral reefs across the
world. Also, list some measures that have been taken for their preservation.
Approach:
• Introduce the answer by bringing out facts to show that coral reefs are the most
biologically diverse and economically valuable.
• Enumerate and analyse the factors responsible for the decline of coral reefs, such as
rising temperature, sedimentation etc.
• Enumerate the measures taken to save coral reefs, you should bring measures taken
both in India and worldwide. The questions demands measures taken, avoid giving
suggestions.
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Coral reefs are some of the most diverse and valuable ecosystems on Earth. Coral reefs
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support more species per unit area than any other marine environment, including about
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4,000 species of fish, 800 species of hard corals and hundreds of other species. They have
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high productivity and are referred to as ‘the Tropical Rainforests of the oceans’.
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• Reef building corals lay down the foundation of calcium carbonate which act as home
to a wide array of plants and animals.
• Coral ecosystems are a source of food for millions.
• Coral reefs buffer adjacent shorelines from wave action and prevent erosion,
property damage and loss of life.
• Healthy reefs contribute to local economies through tourism.
• They provide habitat, spawning and nursery grounds for economically important fish
species.
• The coral biodiversity is considered key to finding new medicines for the 21st century.
Factors responsible for decline:
• Coral species live within a relatively narrow temperature margin hence low and high
sea temperatures can induce coral bleaching.
• When corals are exposed to high concentrations of chemical contaminants or
pathogens, coral bleaching happens.
• Increasing demand of fish for food and tourism has resulted in over fishing of not Student Notes:
only deep-water commercial fish, but key reef species as well.
• The growth of coastal cities and towns generates a range of threats to nearby coral
reefs.
• With increased pollution, Carbon Dioxide is absorbed by Ocean leading to rise in
Carbonic acid in water. As Coral has Calcium carbonate as main component, it reacts
with Carbonic acid and slowly dissolves down.
Measures taken for preservation of coral reefs:
• Chapter 17 of “Agenda 21” specifically addresses the protection and sustainable
development of the marine and coastal environment within the context of the United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
• In 2003, UN-Oceans was created as an inter-agency coordination mechanism on
ocean and coastal issues, including coral reefs.
• India has taken steps to protect its coral reefs under Coastal Ocean Monitoring and
Prediction system (COMAPS), Land Ocean Interactions in Coastal zones (LOICZ) and
Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management (ICMAM).
• It has notified Coastal Regulation Zones (CRZ) and has setup National Coastal Zone
Management Authority and State Coastal Zone Management Authority to protect
coral reefs.
5. State the conditions that are conducive for the formation of coral reefs. Mention the
anthropogenic factors that have resulted in their decline. Also highlight its
consequences.
Approach:
• Mention the conditions that are conducive for formation of coral reefs.
• State the anthropogenic factors that have resulted in the decline of coral reefs.
• Additionally, list the consequences of decline of coral reefs.
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Coral reefs are diverse underwater ecosystems held together by calcium carbonate
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structures secreted by corals. They are built by colonies of coral polyps found in marine
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water and are generally classified into Warm and Cold water coral reefs.
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• Water temperature in the range of 22-29 degrees Celsius. Thus, areal distribution of
corals is limited to tropical and sub-tropical zones. They will not flourish in areas of
cold currents but thrive in warm current regions. Therefore, they are generally absent
on western coasts of continents. E.g. Due to the Gulf Stream, corals are found far to
the north of West Indies in Atlantic Ocean.
• Depth of water should not exceed 180 feet as the sunlight is too faint for
photosynthesis which is essential for survival of microscopic algae on which coral
polyps depend. However, there should be plenty of water as polyps cannot survive
for too long out of water.
• Water should be salty and free of sediments. Corals are best developed on seaward
side of reef, where constantly moving waves, tides and currents maintain an
abundant supply of clear, oxygenated water.
Conditions conducive to Cold Water Corals:
• They are commonly found where current flow is fast.
• They are found on continental shelf, and also in deep-sea areas with topographic Student Notes:
highs, such as seamounts, mounds, ridges, and pinnacles.
• They don't have symbiotic algae living in their polyps so don’t need sunlight to
survive, hence can occur at greater depth.
• Their polyps are bigger hence they can capture food particles from lesser nutrient
holding water.
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coral reefs
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tissue damage.
• Coastal construction and shoreline development: Results in heavy sedimentation,
which can lead to coral reef destruction.
• Introduction of invasive species in ocean by humans too lead to change in the coral
ecosystem.
• Coral mining: Live coral is removed from reefs for use as bricks etc.
About 60% of the world's reefs may be at risk due to destructive, human-related activities
and climate change. Further, by 2030s, 90% of reefs are expected to be at risk; and by
2050, it is predicted that all coral reefs will be in danger.
Its consequences include:
• It will impact marine ecosystem, as coral reefs are some of the most bio diverse and
productive ecosystems.
• Reefs act as natural barriers to shorelines, protecting them from the effects of
moving water. As coral reefs die, coastlines become more susceptible to damage and
flooding from storms, hurricanes, and cyclones.
• Without coral reefs, ocean will not be able to absorb as much CO2, leaving more CO2 Student Notes:
in atmosphere.
• Loss of the coral reefs will have a devastating impact on tropical countries’
economies, food supplies, and safety of their coastal communities.
Hence, it is important that efforts be taken to conserve them else thousands of years of
natural change, will not survive.
6. Highlight the significance of corals in marine ecosystem. Also, throw a light on the
phenomena of coral bleaching.
Approach:
• Briefly explain the corals and coral reefs.
• Discuss the significance of coral reefs in marine ecosystem.
• Explain coral bleaching and factors responsible for it.
Answer:
Coral reefs are large underwater structures composed of the skeletons of colonial marine
invertebrates called coral. The coral species extract calcium carbonate from seawater to
create a hard, durable exoskeleton that protects their soft, sac-like bodies.
They are known as the tropical rainforests of the seas. A quarter of all marine life depends
on coral reefs and over 500 million people worldwide rely on coral reefs for food security,
economic well-being, and cultural identity. In India, majority of coral reefs are
situated in Andaman & Nicobar, Lakshadweep, Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Mannar
and Malvan.
Significance of coral reefs in marine ecosystem:
• Coastal protection: Coral reefs break the power of the waves during storms,
hurricanes, typhoons, and even tsumanis. By preventing coastal erosion, flooding,
and loss of property on the shore, the reefs help save economic and human cost
related to destruction and displacement.
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• Habitats: Reefs provide habitats and shelter for many marine organisms. They are
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vital to the world’s fisheries and form the nurseries for about a quarter of the ocean's
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fish.
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• Nutrient recycling: Reefs assist in carbon and nitrogen fixing and help with nutrient
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recycling. Corals are also the source of nitrogen and other essential nutrients for
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Student Notes:
• Extreme low tides: They can also cause bleaching in shallow corals due to exposure
to the air during these tides.
Recognizing these threats, there are many global initiatives focused on protecting Coral
reefs around the globe such as - Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN), Global
Coral Reef Alliance (GCRA), and International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI). They play an
important role in monitoring the reef zones and raising awareness in the public.
Additionally, prohibiting establishment of industries causing harm to corals reefs and
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https://www.pdfnotes.co/
Student Notes:
UNIT - 2
CHAPTER - 6 - BIODIVERSITY
6. Biodiversity
6.1. Introduction
Biodiversity is the diversity of and in living
nature. Diversity, at its heart, implies the
number of different kind of objects, such as
species. However, defining biodiversity or
measures of biodiversity is not so simple. The
living beings range from very small size
microbes to large size mammals. In the most
widely used system of classification these have
been divided into 5 main kingdoms: Monera,
Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia based
on certain common features and are further
subdivided into many categories.
The 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro
defined biodiversity as: “The variability
among living organisms from all sources,
including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and
other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes
diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.”
community—i.e., species
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relative abundance of
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individuals in that
community. Species
abundance is the number of
individuals per species, and
relative abundance refers to
the evenness of distribution
of individuals among species
in a community. Two
communities may be equally rich in species but differ in relative abundance
b) Ecosystem diversity- describes the aggregation of and interaction of species with one
another and deals with the variations in ecosystems within a geographical location and its
overall impact on human existence and the environment especially during stress conditions.
c) Genetic diversity- is the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a
species and is distinguished from genetic variability, which describes the tendency of genetic
characteristics to vary. The magnitude of variation increases along with size and
environmental parameters.
Species diversity and Ecosystem Stability: A stable community should not show too much variation in
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productivity from year to year; it must be either resistant or resilient to occasional disturbances (natural
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• David Tilman’s Long-term Ecosystem experiments using outdoor plots found that plots with more
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species diversity showed less year-to-year variation in total biomass. He also showed that
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Rivet Popper Hypothesis: It was given by ecologist Paul Elrich to explain the importance of species
richness in maintaining the health of an ecosystem.
• In an airplane (ecosystem) all parts are joined together using thousands of rivets (species). If every
passenger travelling in it starts popping a rivet to take home (causing a species to become extinct),
it may not affect flight safety (proper functioning of the ecosystem) initially, but as more and more
rivets are removed, the plane becomes dangerously weak over a period of time.
• Loss of rivets on the wings (key species that drive major ecosystem functions) is obviously a more
serious threat to flight safety than loss of a few rivets on the seats or windows inside the plane.
Simpson’s Index: The Simpson’s reciprocal index can be used to measure the relative biodiversity of a
given community. It takes into account both the number of species present (richness) and the number
of individuals per species (evenness). A higher index value is indicative of a greater degree of
biodiversity within the community
Shanon-Wiener Index: is used to describe the disorder and uncertainty of individual species. The
higher the uncertainty, the higher the diversity.
• There are two factors in Shannon-Weiner diversity index:
o number of species, i.e. richness;
o the average or evenness of individual distribution in the species.
ecological pattern where biodiversity changes with elevation. The EDG states that species
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bulge" at middle elevations. There have been multiple hypotheses proposed for explaining
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o Area Hypothesis: It states that larger areas are able to support more species. As elevation
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increases, total area decreases; thus, there are more species present at middle elevations
than high elevations.
o Rainfall Hypothesis: This hypothesis states that diversity increases with increasing
rainfall, however the correlation between rainfall and plant diversity varies from region
to region. Rainfall and soil richness affect productivity trends which are also believed to
affect diversity. A mid elevation peak is usually seen in mean annual rainfall.
o Resource Diversity Hypothesis: The resource diversity hypothesis states an increase in
diversity can be seen when an increase in the diversity of available resources such as soil
and food is present. In this hypothesis diversity increases in an area of higher resource
diversity even when resource abundance is constant.
o Productivity Hypothesis: It is generally thought that productivity decreases with an
increase in elevation, however there is some research that shows a peak in productivity
at mid elevation which may be related to a peak in rainfall within the same area.
o Temperature Hypothesis: The temperature hypothesis correlates increasing
temperature with an increase in species diversity, mainly because of temperature's effect
on productivity.
o Competition: There are conflicting views on the effect of competition on species Student Notes:
diversity. Some hold the view that an increase in interspecies competition leads to local
extinctions and a decrease in diversity. Others view competition as a means of species
specialization and niche
partitioning, resulting in increase
diversity.
• Species Area Relationship: During his
explorations in South American jungles,
German naturalist and geographer
Alexander von Humboldt observed that
within a region species richness
increased with increasing explored
area, but only up to a limit.
o The relation between species
richness and area for a wide variety
of taxa (angiosperm plants, birds, bats, freshwater fishes) turns out to be a rectangular
hyperbola.
6.4. The Biogeographic Zones of
India and their Biodiversity
Biogeographic zones represent the major
species groupings. In addition, each of these ten
zones indicates a distinctive set of physical,
climatic and historical conditions. The Himalayas
and Gangetic Plains are examples of two
adjacent but obviously extremely different
zones.
India has been divided into ten biogeographic
zones (refer infographic).
6.4.1. Trans Himalayan Zone
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ecosystem, because of its harsh climatic conditions and the inhospitable terrain.
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Flora Fauna
Ø The vegetation of Ladakh Ø The flatter plateaux have a distinct grazing community
and Lahul-Spiti is largely a comprising of Wild Yak, Tibetan Ass, Tibetan Gazelle, Ibex and
sparse alpine steppe. In Tibetan Antelope.
addition, several endemic Ø The region has an equally distinctive set of carnivores including
species also occur here. Snow Leopard, Indian Wolf, Pallas’s Cat, Fox and smaller
animals like Marbled Pole Cat, Pika and Marmot.
Ø The lakes and marshes too, have a distinctive avifauna including
the spectacular Black-necked Crane, which is a migratory bird.
This zone with an area of 508,000 sq. km occupies 15% of the total area in our country. The
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presence of several grass species and palatable shrubs in these areas has made them a favourite
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of a vast number of wildlife species. This zone has strong biological links with western Asia,
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Flora Fauna
Ø The natural vegetation consists of tropical thorn forests and Ø The fauna consists of larger
tropical dry deciduous forests, moisture forests (extreme Herbiveres-Blackbuck,
north) and mangroves. Chowsingha, Gazelle and
Ø The plant species found here show African affinity. The sandy Nilgai (largest Asian
plains have a few scattered trees of Acacia and Prosopis. The antelope).
gravelly plains have Calotropis, Gymnosporia, etc. Ø The lion of Gir is the
Ø The rocky habitats are covered by bushes of Euphorbia while endemic species in this
species of Salvadora and Tamarix occur mainly near saline zone.
depressions.
In recent years, a large chunk of the forest cover has been lost and this zone is now of great Student Notes:
conservation concern, more so because of its exceptional biological richness. About two-thirds
of India’s endemic plants are confined to this region. However, the potential of many of these
species is yet to be tapped. Besides harbouring diverse biological communities, the forests in this
zone also play an important role in maintaining the hydrological cycle. The well known species
found exclusively in Western Ghats include the following:
Flora Fauna
Ø The various major Ø Primates – Nilgiri Langur and Lion-tailed Macaque.
vegetation types are Ø Rodents – Plataconthomys, the Spiny Dormouse.
tropical evergreen forests, Ø Squirrels – Several subspecies of Ratufa indica with separate forms
moist deciduous forests, in Maharashtra, Mysore, Malabar and Tamil Nadu Ghats. The
dry deciduous forests, Grizzled Squirrel is restricted to two localities in the drier Tamil
scrub jungles, sholas, Nadu forest.
savannas including high Ø Carnivores – Malabar Civet in southern evergreen forests, Rusty
rainfall savannas, peat spotted Cat in northern deciduous forests.
bogs and Myristica Ø Ungulates – Nilgiri Tahr in Nilgiris to Agastyamalai montane
swamps. Four thousand grassland.
species of flowering plants Ø Hornbills – Malabar Grey Hornbill.
are known from the Ø In addition to the above endemic species, the other species found
Western Ghats are: Tiger, Leopard, Dhole ,Sloth Bear, Indian Elephant and Gaur.
of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. at the junction of Odisha, M.P. and Maharashtra).
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This zone has one of the most fertile areas in the world, and it supports a dense and growing
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human population. It covers an area of about 359,400 sq km. The original vegetation found in
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most of the area is no longer there, as a major portion of this area has been brought under
cultivation.
Flora Fauna
The Lower Gangetic plains moist deciduous Ø Small relict populations of Nilgai, Blackbuck and
forests extends across the alluvial plain of the Chinkara interspersed with dense cultivation
lower Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, which presently exist in the western areas.
form the world's largest river delta. The Ø The wetlands and rivers also contain Crocodile –
ecoregion is currently one of the most densely Mugger and Gharial - populations, reflict
populated regions on earth, and the forests populations of Gangetic Dolphin and a rich, fresh-
have largely been replaced with intensive water turtle community having over 20 species.
agriculture.
absence of evergreen forests, while such forests commonly seen vertebrates are cattle
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form the dominant vegetation in the central and and poultry. Oceanic birds generally
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Ø Grasslands occur only in the Nicobars, and while and Karifetu. They are generally found in
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deciduous forests are common in the Andamans, one of the uninhabited islands known as
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they are almost absent in the Nicobars. PITTI. This island has been declared as a
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Myers (1988) identified 18 like a vascular plant does. Instead, a nonvascular plant has
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around the world. • Nonvascular plants are most commonly found in moist
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Interestingly these areas environments, which ensures they get enough water without
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endemic plant species, or • Nonvascular plants have much more simple methods of
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20% of the world’s plant reproduction than vascular plants. Most nonvascular plants
species, in just 746,000 reproduce by producing single-celled spores or through the
km2, or 0.5% of the Earth’s asexual process of vegetative propagation, where a new plant
grows from a portion of the parent plant.
total land surface.
• Vascular Plant Examples: Clubmosses, horsetails, ferns,
To qualify as a biodiversity gymnosperms and angiosperms (flowering plants) are some
hotspot, a region must examples of vascular plants.
meet two strict criteria: • Non Vascular Plant Examples: Three non vascular plants
examples are mosses, liverworts and hornworts, which all have
• It must have at least flattened, green plant bodies.
1,500 vascular plants
as endemics — which is to say, it must have a high percentage of plant life found nowhere
else on the planet. A hotspot, in other words, is irreplaceable.
• It must have 30% or less of its original natural vegetation. In other words, it must be
threatened.
Student Notes:
The map shows 34 biodiversity hotspots which cover 2.3% of the Earth's land surface, yet more
than 50% of the world’s plant species and 42% of all terrestrial vertebrate species are endemic
to these areas (Conservation International). These are the areas which are suffering biodiversity
loss and where attention is needed.
6.5.1. Biodiversity Hotspots in India
As per Conservation International, India has 4 Biodiversity Hotspots. They are:
1. Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian Himalayan region (and that falling in Pakistan, Tibet,
Nepal, Bhutan, China and Myanmar)
• The Himalayas house more than 10,000 plant species, 300 mammals, 970 birds, 105
amphibians, 170 reptiles and 270 freshwater fishes.
• Large areas of remaining habitat in the hotspot are highly degraded. Overgrazing by
domestic livestock, including cattle and domesticated yak, is widespread in the lowlands
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• In addition to habitat loss and degradation – which has led to perhaps no more than
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25% of the original vegetation in this hotspot still intact – poaching is a serious problem
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in the Himalayan Mountains, with tigers and rhinoceros hunted for their body parts for
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traditional Chinese medicine, while snow leopards and red pandas are sought for their
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beautiful pelts.
• Other threats to biodiversity and forest integrity include mining, the construction of
roads and large dams, and pollution due to the use of agrochemicals.
2. Indo-Burma: Includes entire North-eastern India, except Assam and Andaman group of
Islands (and Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and southern China).
• This hotspot also holds remarkable endemism in freshwater turtle species, most of
which are threatened with extinction, due to over-harvesting and extensive habitat loss.
• Bird life in IndoBurma is also incredibly diverse, holding almost 1,300 different bird
species, including the threatened white-eared night-heron, the grey-crowned crocias,
and the orange-necked partridge.
• Indo-Burma is one of the most threatened biodiversity hotspots, due to the rate of
resource exploitation and habitat loss. Only about 5% of natural habitats remain in
relatively pristine condition, with another 10 to 25% of the land in damaged, but
ecologically functional, condition.
• Indo-Burma was one of the first places where humans developed agriculture, and has a
long history of using fire to clear land for agriculture and other needs. The need for
• Populations of the orangutan, found only in this hotspot, are in dramatic decline. Some
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of the last refuges of two Southeast Asia rhino species are also found on the islands of
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• Like many tropical areas, the forests are being cleared for commercial uses. Rubber, oil
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palm, and pulp production are three of the most detrimental forces facing biodiversity in
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2. Biodiversity forms the basis for human existence in the following ways : (2011)
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1. Soil formation
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3. Recycling of waste
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4. Pollination of crops
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3. Three of the following criteria have contributed to the recognition of Western Ghats-Sri
Lanka and Indo-Burma regions as hotspots of biodiversity: (2011)
1. Species richness
2. Vegetation density
3. Endemism
4. Ethno-botanical importance
5. Threat perception
6. Adaptation of flora and fauna to warm and humid conditions
Which three of the above are correct criteria in this context?
(a) 1, 2 and 6 (b) 2, 4 and 6
(c) 1, 3 and 5 (d) 3, 4 and 6
Answer: (c)
4. The Himalayan Range is Very rich in species diversity. Which one among the following is Student Notes:
the most appropriate reason for this phenomenon? (2011)
(a) It has a high rainfall that supports luxuriant vegetative growth
(b) It is a confluence of different bio-geographical zones
(c) Exotic and invasive species have not been introduced in this region
(d) It has less human interference
Answer: (b)
7. Recently, our scientists have discovered a new and distinct species of banana plant which
attains a height of about 11 metres and has orange-coloured fruit pulp. In which part of
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Answer: (a)
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8. Recently, there was a growing awareness in our country about the importance of
Himalayan nettle (Girardinia diversifolia) because it is found to be a sustainable source of
(2019)
(a) anti-malarial drug (b) biodiesel
(c) pulp for paper industry (d) textile fibre
Answer: (d)
1. How has the vegetation of tropical rainforests adapted to its environment? Illustrate.
Approach:
• Introduce your answer by explaining climatic conditions of tropical rainforests.
• Discuss the features and characteristics of such vegetation.
• Discuss how climate of these regions influence the vegetation of these regions.
Answer:
High temperature and abundant rainfall in the tropical regions support a luxuriant type
of vegetation referred as the tropical rain forest. They have a rich floristic composition.
These forests are best developed in tropical America, particularly the Amazon basin, in
the East Indies and surrounding areas, Malaysia and the Congo.
Plants there have adapted to the rainforest environment which is dark and wet all year
round through various mechanisms. Some such adaptations are:
1. Buttress Roots - Buttress roots are roots above ground which support the tree and
encourage growth. The taller the tree becomes the more sunlight it can get from
above. Ground root system to ensure stability for the tallest trees and to increase the
surface area over which the plant can draw its nutrients.
2. Drip Tips - The leaves are shaped to shed the heavy rainfall. The trees have leaves
that have a drip tip so water is collected and dripped down to the roots.
3. Branchless Trees - These plants forget about roots in the soil - they perch high up on
branches. The trees put their energy into climbing upwards towards the canopy
rather than growing branches at intervals along their trunks.
4. Ferns grow very well on the forest floor as they have adapted to the shady conditions.
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Student Notes:
CHAPTER - 7 - CONSERVATION OF
BIODIVERSITY
7. Conservation of Biodiversity
7.1. Causes of Biodiversity loss
Loss of species is a serious cause of concern for human survival. It has been observed that 79
species of mammals, 44 of birds, 15 of reptiles and 3 of amphibians are threatened. Nearly 1500
species of plants are endangered in India.
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There are four major causes that have lead to this rapid extinction of biological diversity,
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draining and filling of wetlands, countless direct economic benefits from nature.
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building of roads etc. These change With increasing resources put into search for plant
either kill or force out may species and animal species from which medicinal drugs
and other commercially valuable compounds can
from the area causing disruption of
be obtained (bioprospecting), nations endowed
interactions among the species. with rich biodiversity can expect to reap enormous
o Fragmentation of large forest benefits.
tracts (eg. the corridors) affects • Broadly utilitarian argument: biodiversity plays a
the species occupying the major role in many ecosystem services and
deeper part of the forest and are aesthetic pleasures that nature provides. It is not
first to disappear. The Amazon possible to put a monetary value on such services.
rain forest (it is so huge that it is • Ethical argument: every species has an intrinsic
called the ‘lungs of the planet’) value. Humans have a moral duty to care for their
harbouring probably millions of well-being and pass on the biological legacy in
species is being cut and cleared good order to future generations.
for cultivating soya beans or for conversion to grasslands for raising beef cattle.
o Apart from the direct loss of species during the development activities, the new
environment is unsuitable for the species to survive.
• Over-Exploitation: due to exponential increase in human dependence for natural resources Student Notes:
to meet the rising demand for development has lead to over-exploitation.
o Over exploitation reduces the size of the population of a species and may push it towards
extinction. Many species extinctions in the last 500 years (Steller’s sea cow, passenger
pigeon) were due to overexploitation by humans.
o Co-Extinction: When a species becomes extinct, the plant and animal species associated
with it in an obligatory way also become extinct. When a host fish species becomes
extinct, its unique assemblage of parasites also meets the same fate. Another example is
the case of a coevolved plant-pollinator mutualism where extinction of one invariably
leads to the extinction of the other.
• Alien Invasive Species: An invasive alien species is any species that is established outside of
its natural past or present distribution, whose introduction and/or spread threaten
biological diversity. For example, The Nile perch introduced into Lake Victoria in east Africa
led eventually to the extinction of an ecologically unique assemblage of more than 200
species of cichlid fish in the lake.
o It can be any kind of living organism—an amphibian (like the cane toad), plant, insect,
fish, fungus, bacteria, or even an organism’s seeds or eggs.
o The most common characteristics of invasive species are rapid reproduction and growth,
high dispersal ability, ability to survive on various food types and in a wide range of
environmental conditions and the ability to adapt physiologically to new conditions,
called Phenotypic plasticity.
o They may be transported
Apart from biodiversity loss, invasive alien species also
to a new location, either threaten in different ways such as:
intentionally ( for food or • Change in the ecosystem: Invasive alien species can also
economic purposes) or lead to changes in the structure and composition of
unintentionally (by natural ecosystems leading to significant detrimental impacts to
means like ecosystem services, affecting economies and human
birds/winds/ocean wellbeing. For example, the water hyacinth is spreading
currents etc.) The recent across Africa, Asia, Oceania, and North America. It is a
rapid growth of world fast-growing floating aquatic plant forming dense mats
trade, travel and has on the water surface, limiting oxygen and preventing
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of unintentional
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that once acted as natural Asian carp introduced into the United States outcompete
barriers to the movement native fish for both food and space, leading to large
of species, have now been declines in native fish populations.
breached, ending millions • Impact on Human health: Invasive species can also
of years of biological impact human health when these species may
isolation. accumulate toxins in their tissues when other organisms
prey on these species, the toxins are passed up the food
o An analysis of the IUCN Red
chain and can also enter animals consumed by humans.
List shows that they are the Infectious disease agents may themselves be invasive
second most common species or may be introduced by invasive vectors (e.g.
threat associated with introduced mosquitoes carrying malaria). West Nile Virus
species that have gone is an example of this.
completely extinct, and are
the most common threat associated with extinctions of amphibians, reptiles, and
mammals.
Student Notes:
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• IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, also called IUCN Red List, is one of the most well-known
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objective assessment systems for classifying the status of plants, animals, and other
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• After a given species has been thoroughly evaluated, it is placed into one of several Student Notes:
categories. (The details of each have been condensed to highlight two or three of the
category’s most salient points below.) In addition, three of the categories (CR, EN, and VU)
are contained within the broader notion of “threatened.” The IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species recognizes several categories of species status:
a) Extinct (EX), a designation applied to species in which the last individual has died or
where systematic and time-appropriate surveys have been unable to log even a single
individual.
b) Extinct in the Wild (EW), a category containing those species whose members survive
only in captivity or as artificially supported populations far outside their historical
geographic range.
c) Critically Endangered (CR), a category containing those species that possess an
extremely high risk of extinction as a result of rapid population declines of 80 to more
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than 90 percent over the previous 10 years (or three generations), a current population
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d) Endangered (EN), a designation applied to species that possess a very high risk of
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the previous 10 years (or three generations), a current population size of fewer than
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e) Vulnerable (VU), a category containing those species that possess a very high risk of
extinction as a result of rapid population declines of 30 to more than 50 percent over
the previous 10 years (or three generations), a current population size of fewer than
1,000 individuals, or other factors.
f) Near Threatened (NT), a designation applied to species that are close to becoming
threatened or may meet the criteria for threatened status in the near future.
g) Least Concern (LC), a category containing species that are pervasive and abundant after
careful assessment.
h) Data Deficient (DD), a condition applied to species in which the amount of available
data related to its risk of extinction is lacking in some way. Consequently, a complete
assessment cannot be performed. Thus, unlike the other categories in this list, this
category does not describe the conservation status of a species.
i) Not Evaluated (NE), a category used to include any of the nearly 1.9 million species
described by science but not assessed by the IUCN.
• All else being equal, a species experiencing an 90 percent decline over 10 years (or three
generations), for example, would be classified as critically endangered. Likewise, another
species undergoing a 50 percent decline over the same period would be classified as Student Notes:
endangered, and one experiencing a 30 percent reduction over the same time frame would
be considered vulnerable. It is important to understand, however, that a species cannot be
classified by using one criterion alone; it is essential for the scientist doing the assessment to
consider all five criteria when determining the status of the species.
7.3. Illegal Wildlife Trade
As per Worldwide Fund for nature, "illegal wildlife trade is estimated to reach $20 billion per year,
which makes wildlife trafficking the world's fourth largest illicit trade, after narcotics, human
trafficking and trade in counterfeit goods. Illegal wildlife trade not only is a threat to conservation
of species but also poses risks to human health and negatively impacts a country’s natural
resources and local communities.
State of India’s Environment 2017 highlights a 52 % spike in poaching and wildlife crimes
between 2014 and 2016. In 2018,
There are three main types of hunting:
TRAFFIC India released a study which
• Commercial hunting – in which the animals are killed
revealed that at least 5,772 pangolins for profit from sale of their furs, bones or other parts;
were captured in India from 2009 to • Subsistence hunting – the killing of animals to
2017 for illegal trade. provide food for survival; and
There are variety of products which • Sport hunting – the killing of animals for recreation.
are demanded by the trade and poaching includes Exotic pets and Luxuries, Bush meat,
Traditional Medicines, Clothing & Jewellery made from animal fur, tusks, fins, shells, skins, horns
and internal organs. In India, the illegal wildlife trade includes diverse products including
mongoose hair; snake skins; Rhino horn; Tiger and Leopard claws, etc.
The main reason for the unabated wildlife trafficking across India is its porous international land
borders. The main consumer markets are China and South East Asia, but wildlife is also smuggled
to the Gulf, Europe and Northern America. Beyond India, the main transit countries are Nepal,
Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and Myanmar.
Steps taken in India to International Organizations for control of Wildlife Trafficking:
counter IWT • TRAFFIC, established in 1976, is a wildlife trade monitoring network
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safeguard: Under
and various agencies to help study, monitor and influence
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every citizen of India • CITES, (the Washington Convention), signed in 1973 provides a
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to protect and mechanism to regulate the trade in wildlife. Under its guidance,
improve natural governments all over the world have taken steps to prevent this
environment illegal trade and bring it under control.
including forests, o India is a member.
lake, rivers and • IFAW: The International Fund for Animal Welfare is one of the largest
wildlife and to have animal welfare and conservation charities in the world. The
compassion for living organization works to rescue individual animals, safeguard
populations, preserve habitat, and advocate for greater protections.
creatures.
• In 2015, the United Nations General Assembly unanimously adopted
• Laws and a resolution for tackling illicit trafficking in wildlife. The Sustainable
Government Development Goals has laid down specific targets to combat
Initiatives: poaching and trafficking of protected species.
o Trade in over
1800 species of wild animals, plants and their derivative are prohibited under the
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
o The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1960 empower authorities to penalize and jail
those who harm wildlife.
o Indian Penal Code, 1860: Section 428 and Section 429 reads that killing, poaching, Student Notes:
maiming, poisoning or torturing an animal is a cognizable offence and the punishment
for such act is rigorous imprisonment which may extent to five years or fine or both.
o Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB) is a statutory multi-disciplinary body established
by the Government under the Ministry of Environment and Forests, to combat organized
wildlife crime in the country, under Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972.
• Other initiatives:
o Participation of local community: Five crore, people living around national parks and
sanctuaries are working as partners in environment conservation.
ü A 15-year National Wildlife Action Plan (2017-31) with a special focus on peoples’
participation has been launched.
o Demand-reduction campaigns: In May 2019, the WCCB launched a campaign in
collaboration with the UN Environment named ‘Not all animals migrate by choice’
campaign launched to raise awareness on illegal wildlife trade at airports across India.
ü Tiger, Pangolin, Star Tortoise and Tokay Gecko featured in the campaign.
7.4. Human- Animal Conflict
In India, human-animal conflict is seen across the country in a variety of forms, including monkey
menace in the urban centres, crop raiding by ungulates and wild pigs, depredation by elephants,
cattle lifting and human death and injury by tigers, leopards and other wild animals.
In the Monsoon session (2019), the Union Environment Ministry informed the Lok Sabha that
2398 people in India were killed by elephants while tigers claimed 224 lives in the last five years.
Human-animal conflict occurs both inside Protected Areas as well as outside Protected Areas.
The intensity of the conflict is generally more in areas outside Protected Area network than
inside.
Such conflict situations generally lead to growing antipathy among the people towards wildlife
conservation resulting in retaliatory killings or injuries to animals. Conflict-related mortality of
wildlife does not bode well for conservation. Moreover, loss to agricultural production and
livestock adds to the farmer's distress.
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• Habitat loss and fragmentation- thereby increasing the chances of wild animals moving out
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conflict between Asian elephants and agriculture. At the same time, local overabundance of
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elephants may also cause them to move into human production landscapes as seen in parts
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of southern India.
• Increasing Population: For e.g. the substantial recovery of once dwindling populations of
ungulates such as black buck and nilgai has also resulted in increased conflict with agriculture
in northwest and central India.
• Presence of a large number of animals and birds outside the notified protected areas. For
e.g. around 29% of tigers are outside tiger reserves and 67% of elephants are outside
protected areas.
• Land Use Changes: Land-use change outside forest areas, with irrigation from tube wells and
canals aiding the cultivation of crops for longer time periods may also attract animals such as
elephants. Highly productive crop fields that provide more palatable and nutritious forage
also promote conflicts with herbivores
• Adverse climatic events such as droughts have been implicated in increased conflicts
between lions and people as well as elephants and people.
• Adaptability: Many wildlife species have adapted to the changing landscape through
behavioural changes for crop raiding. This is true of elephants and of certain commensal
wildlife species such as black buck, nilgai, rhesus macaque of northern India, as well as the Student Notes:
bonnet macaque of southern India.
o Even non-commensal animals such as leopard have adapted to surviving in human-
inhabited areas.
• Another reason why animals move to new geographical areas is the government’s practice
of translocating them.
• Wildlife species are also impacted by accidental deaths due to development of
infrastructures, such as railway lines, roads, electricity wires etc.
Government initiatives
• Governance framework-
o The management of human-animal conflict is handled by State Government.
o The Union Government has issued guidelines in context of human-wildlife conflict to the
Chief Wildlife Wardens of all the State Governments/Union Territory Administrations in
2014 and 2015.
o The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) has brought out several Standard
Operating Procedures (SOPs) to deal with various challenges of the human-tiger
interface.
• National Wildlife Action Plan (NWAP-3) (2017-2031) prescribes guidelines to mitigate the
Human- Wildlife Conflict (HWC).
o These include creation of national, regional and state level database of HWC, scientific
management of wildlife populations as well as land-use practices and comprehensive,
species- and region-specific conflict-mitigation plans.
o It further talks about encouraging community participation in the HWC mitigation
through extensive education and awareness programmes by well-trained and adequately
equipped workforce.
o It provides for a Centre of Excellence (CoE) on HWC mitigation, under the aegis of the
MoEFCC, to address, develop and implement long-term and short-term measures to
reduce the adverse impacts of HWC.
o Draft National Forest Policy, 2018 also reasserts the objectives and guidelines of NWAP-
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o The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 empower the concerned authorities to deal with
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culled. E.g. Monkeys in Himachal Pradesh and Nilgai and Wild Boar in Bihar were declared
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o Mass sterilisation drive is conducted to control the faster population growth of monkeys
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o It also provides technical support at the national level and in selected states for effective Student Notes:
implementation of conflict mitigation measures so that both human and animal lives
could be saved by shifting from 'conflict' to 'co-existence' mode.
Landscape-Level Approach to Address Human-Elephant Conflicts
• A study involving close monitoring of elephants on daily basis for two years in Karnataka has
concluded that landscape-level management is necessary for mitigating human-elephant conflicts.
• As per the Food and Agricultural
Organisation (FAO), Landscape level
strategy deals with large-scale
processes in an integrated and
multidisciplinary manner, combining
natural resources management with
environmental and livelihood
considerations.
• It can be used as a viable solution for
minimising the Human-Elephant
conflicts, such as-
o Scientific management of
Monoculture Plantations: Since
elephants prefer to stay in
monoculture plantations (for
example monoculture plantations
of Acacia, Eucalyptus), forest
departments should think strategically when to clear-fell these plantations. If these places are
not available, elephants will start using agriculture habitats more frequently which may
aggravate human-elephant conflict situation
o Regular Monitoring of land-use practices: Proper planning needs to be done before making
any change in the land –use practices in habitats such as coffee, agriculture or forest patches
as it may have negative effects on elephant conservation or aggravate human-elephant
conflict.
o Preserving Forest remnants and monoculture refuges: These refuges are vital for elephants
and helpful in containing conflicts as most of the forest is fragmented
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Conservation needs different strategies, they can be species based or habitat based or ecosystem
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based. Some species are given importance at national level while some need treatment at
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international levels. Conservation efforts can be largely grouped into the following two
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categories:
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• Species specific program: Certain species have been identified as needing a concerted and
specifically directed protection effort. Project Tiger, Project Elephant and Project crocodile
are examples of focusing on single species through conserving their habitats.
7.5.2. Ex-Situ conservation Strategies
Ex-situ conservation is comprised of some of the oldest and best known conservation methods
known to human, it also involves newer, sometimes controversial laboratory methods.
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Ex situ conservation has certain limitations for conservation of animals. These include adaptation
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problems, loss of genetic variability due to inbreeding, and concentration in small place, surplus
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animals, and continuity in funds. Research on captive population can provide insight into the
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basic biology of the species and suggest new conservation strategies. Some of the important ex-
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embryos, pollen, protoplasts cells and suspension cultures of a number of plant species. Student Notes:
• Conservation at molecular level (DNA level): In addition to above, germplasm conservation
at molecular level is now feasible and attracting attention. Cloned DNA and material having
DNA in its native state can all be used for genetic conservation. Furthermore, non-viable
material representing valuable genotypes stored in gene banks can all be used as sources of
DNA libraries from where a relevant gene or a combination of genes can be recovered.
• Cultural model of Conservation
o This is based on a respect for the rights of indigenous peoples and other bearers of “traditional
knowledge” and prevents social conflicts.
o It involves forest dwellers in forest management and governance and acknowledges traditional
rights of tribal over minor forest produce and provisions for making conservation more
effective and more transparent.
o It is different from colonial Model of Conservation where human presence is taken as threat
to nature and which denied indigenous peoples’ rights and provoked long-term social conflict.
o The Kinshasa Resolution of 1975 (under IUCN) provides international recognition to cultural
model of conservation. It acknowledges the importance of traditional ways of life and land
ownership and called on governments to maintain and encourage customary ways of living.
Application by Cultural model of conservation in different tribes of India
• Bishnoi Tribe of Rajasthan: Bishnois consider trees as sacred and protect the entire ecosystem
including animals and birds that exists in their villages. Tribe has organized their own Tiger Force
which is a brigade of youth actively pursue wildlife protection.
• Chenchu Tribe of Andhra Pradesh: They are involved in tiger conservation at Nagarjunasagar
Srisailam Tiger Reserve (NSTR). Tribe has been coexisting with tigers and wild animals for long
without disturbing the ecological balance, which ensures enough water and fodder for the
herbivores.
• Maldhari Tribe in Junagadh (Gujarat): The success of lion conservation in Gir forest area is due to
peaceful coexistence of tribe with lions.
• Bugun Tribe of Arunachal Pradesh: The tribe using Community-led conservation initiatives and
traditional knowledge helped to protect the critically endangered bird Bugun Liocichla. For its
efforts Singchung Bugun Community Reserve won the India Biodiversity Award 2018.
• Nyishi tribe of Arunachal Pradesh in conserving hornbills in the Pakke/Pakhui Tiger Reserve.
Recently, government of Arunachal Pradesh declared the Pakke Paga Hornbill Festival (PPHF)–the
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1. Which one of the following is not a site for in-situ method of conservation of flora? (2011)
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2. The “Red Data Books” published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature
and Natural Resources (IUCN) contain lists of: (2011)
1. Endemic plant and animal species present in the biodiversity hotspots,
2. Threatened plant and animal species.
3. Protected sites for conservation of nature and natural resources in various countries.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 only
Answer: (b)
3. Which of the following can be threats to the biodiversity of a geographical area?(2012) Student Notes:
1. Global warming
2. Fragmentation of habitat
3. Invasion of alien species
4. Promotion of vegetarianism
Select the correct answer using the codes given below :
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: (a)
• Habitat loss and fragmentation: This is the most important cause driving species to
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extinction. Besides total loss, the degradation of many habitats by pollution also
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decline.
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• Over-exploitation: Many species extinctions in the last 500 years were due to
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• Ethical argument: every species has an intrinsic value. Humans have a moral duty to Student Notes:
care for their well-being and pass on the biological legacy in good order to future
generations.
Biodiversity conservation
2. Define the term invasive species and provide examples from flora and fauna in India.
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• Cite data and example of invasive species from fauna and flora in India.
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Also, 173 species of invasive exotic plants such as Cassia Uniflora, Prosopis Juliflora etc. Student Notes:
are also found in India.
Threats associated with expansion of these species are:
• According to IUCN, around 5 to 20 percent alien species become invasive and is
second most serious threats to the biodiversity after global warming. These species
may threaten indigenous species by competing with them for the same resources.
They can also change the food chain.
• Invasive species have been identified as an important factor of extinction.
• Many invasive alien species are major pests for the agriculture, forestry and fishing
industries.
• Alien species can also pose a health hazard or function as disease carriers.
• At the economic front they may cause problems for recreational activities and
tourism.
Measures taken to address the threats of alien invasive species are:
• Article 8(h) of CBD and Aichi target 9 aimed at controlling or eradicating alien species,
by 2020.
• Global invasive species program to support Article 8(h) of CBD.
• IUCN’s invasive species specialist group has been working to promote and facilitate
the exchange of information and knowledge to ensure linkages between policy
makings.
• Sustainable development goal (SDG) 15, which is aimed at controlling and eradicating
it.
• Invasive alien species management through border control measures such as
screening routes of transmission of these species.
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CHAPTER - 8 - PROTECTED AREAS NETWORK
8. Protected Areas Network
8.1. Protected Areas of India
• Protected areas are those in which human occupation or at least the exploitation of resources
is limited. The definition that has IUCN - World Database of Protected Areas
been widely accepted across • The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA) is
regional and global frameworks has the largest assembly of data on the world's
been provided by the International terrestrial and marine protected areas.
Union for Conservation of Nature • The WDPA is a joint venture between the United
(IUCN) in its categorization Nations Environment Programme World
guidelines for protected areas. Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC)
• There are several kinds of protected and the International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN) World Commission on Protected
areas, which vary by level of
Areas (WCPA).
protection depending on the • The role of custodian is allocated to the Protected
enabling laws of each country or the Areas Programme of UNEP-WCMC, based in
regulations of the international Cambridge, UK, who have hosted the database
organizations involved. since its creation in 1981.
• The term "protected area" also • The WDPA delivers invaluable information to
includes Marine Protected Areas, the decision-makers around the world, particularly in
boundaries of which will include terms of measuring the extent and effectiveness of
some area of ocean, and protected areas as an indicator for meeting global
Transboundary Protected Areas that biodiversity targets.
overlap multiple countries which remove the borders inside the area for conservation and
economic purposes.
• A National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) chaired by the Prime Minister of India provides for
policy framework for wildlife conservation in the country.
• India’s conservation planning is based on the philosophy of identifying and protecting
representative wild habitats across all the ecosystems. The Indian Constitution entails the
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subject of forests and wildlife in the Concurrent list. ( Figure as of December 2019)
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those in danger of extinction and the landscape heritage in a manner that does
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rare ones, so that they can live in not harm it, in order to provide enjoyment
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ii. It has relatively less restrictions and is protection, with human activity greatly
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• The MPAs in marine environment in India are primarily classified into following categories: Student Notes:
a) Category-I: This covers National Parks and Sanctuaries and having entire areas in
intertidal/sub-tidal or mangroves, coral reefs, creeks, seagrass beds, algal beds,
estuaries, lagoons.
b) Category-II: This includes Islands, which have major parts in marine ecosystem and some
part in terrestrial ecosystem.
c) Category-IIIA: This includes sandy beaches beyond intertidal line but occasionally
interacting with the seawater.
d) Category-IIIB: This includes ever green or semi ever green forests of Islands.
• The Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in India comprise of a 33 national parks and wildlife
sanctuaries designated under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, encompassing a few of the
country’s richest coastal habitats.
1927, Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and Biological
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Diversity Act, 2002 and the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers
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• In order to strengthen and synergise global wildlife conservation efforts, India is a party to
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Species of wild fauna and flora (CITES), International Union for Conservation of Nature
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• As per orders of the Supreme Court, no project can be allowed within 10 km of the boundary Student Notes:
of national parks and sanctuaries without the approval of the National Board of Wildlife
(NBWL), the highest body on wildlife regulatory issues, unless a site-specific Eco-Sensitive
Zone (ESZ) is notified around that park or sanctuary.
• Purpose for declaring ESZ around National Parks and Sanctuaries is to create some kind of
“shock absorber” for the protected areas.
o They would also act as transition zone from areas of high protection to areas involving
lesser protection.
o The activities in the ESZ would be of a regulatory nature rather than prohibitive nature,
unless and otherwise so required.
• Extent of ESZ: The width of the ESZ and type of regulations would differ from one protected
area (PA) to other. However, as a general principle the width of the ESZ could go up to 10 kms
around a PA (may not be uniform all around it) as provided in the Wildlife Conservation
Strategy-2002.
o In case where sensitive corridors, connectivity and ecologically important patches, crucial
for landscape linkages, are even beyond 10 kms width, these should be included in the
ESZ.
• Nature of Activities in ESZ: While some of the activities could be allowed in all the ESAs,
others will need to be regulated/ prohibited. However, which activity can be regulated or
prohibited and to what extent, would have to be PA specific. There are 3 categories of
activities-
o Prohibited- commercial mining, polluting industries, major hydroelectric projects etc.
o Restricted with safeguards (Regulated) - Felling of trees, Establishment of hotels and
resorts, Drastic change of agriculture system, widening of roads, introduction of exotic
species etc.
o Permissible- Rainwater Harvesting, Organic farming, Ongoing Agricultural Practices etc.
8.7.2. Coastal Regulation Zones (CRZ)
To conserve and protect the coastal environment, and to promote sustainable development
based on scientific principles Ministry of Environment and Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC),
under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, notified the CRZ Notification in 1991,
subsequently revised in 2011 and 2018.
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CRZ: The MoEFCC declares the coastal stretches and the water area up to territorial water limit,
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excluding the islands of Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep and the marine areas
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• Land area from High Tide Line (HTL) to 500 mts on the landward side.
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• Land area between HTL to 50 mts or width of the creek whichever is less on the landward side along
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o CRZ-III B: areas with CRZ helps in reducing the ecological vulnerability through: Student Notes:
population density of less • Regulated activities in ecologically most sensitive areas
than 2161 per sq km, as (CRZ-I A)
per 2011 census. o Regulate activities such as Eco-tourism subject to
• CRZ- IV: It constitutes the approved Coastal Zone Management Plans(CZMPs),
water area and further exceptional construction of public utilities in the
classified as: mangrove buffer etc.
o CRZ- IV A: The water area o Construction of roads and roads on stilts, by way of
and the sea bed area reclamation shall be permitted only in exceptional cases
between the LTL up to for defence, strategic purposes and public utilities,
12Nm on the seaward side. subject to a detailed marine/terrestrial environment
o CRZ- IV B: the water area impact assessment, to be recommended by the Coastal
and the bed area between Zone Management Authority and approved by the
LTL at the bank of the tidal MoEFCC.
influenced water body to o compensatory plantation of mangroves (Minimum
the LTL on the opposite three times the mangrove area affected/destroyed/
side of the bank, extending cut).
from the mouth of the • Areas requiring special consideration in the CRZ
water body at the sea up to o Critically Vulnerable Coastal Areas (CVCA): Sunderban
the influence of tide, i.e., region of West Bengal and other ecologically sensitive
salinity of five parts per areas identified as under Environment (Protection) Act,
thousand (ppt) during the 1986 such as Gulf of Khambat and Gulf of Kutchchh in
driest season of the year. Gujarat, Malvan, Achra-Ratnagiri in Maharashtra, Karwar
Salient Features of Coastal and Coondapur in Karnataka, Vembanad in Kerala, Gulf
Regulation Zone (CRZ) of Mannar in Tamil Nadu, Bhaitarkanika in Odisha,
Coringa, East Godavari and Krishna in Andhra Pradesh
Notification, 2018:
shall be treated as CVCA and managed with the
• Easing FSI norms: This involvement of coastal communities including fisher
notification de-freezes the folk who depend on coastal resources for their
restrictions imposed on sustainable livelihood.
Floor Space Index (FSI) or o CRZ for inland Backwater islands and islands along the
mainland coast.
the Floor Area Ratio (FAR)
o CRZ falling within municipal limits of Greater Mumbai.
under CRZ, 2011 in
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• No development zone (NDZ) reduced for densely populated areas: For CRZ-III areas
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o CRZ-III A areas shall have a NDZ of 50 meters from the HTL on the landward side as
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against 200 meters from the HTL stipulated in the CRZ Notification, 2011.
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o CRZ-III B areas shall continue to have an NDZ of 200 meters from the HTL.
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Tourism infrastructure for basic amenities to be promoted: The notification allows for
temporary tourism facilities such as shacks, toilet blocks, change rooms, drinking water
facilities etc on beaches at a minimum distance of 10 metres from HTL. Such temporary
tourism facilities are also now permissible in the NDZ of the CRZ-III areas.
• CRZ Clearances streamlined:
o CRZ clearances are needed only for projects located in CRZ-I and CRZ IV.
o States to have the powers for clearances w.r.t CRZ-II and III with necessary guidance.
• NDZ of 20 meters has been stipulated for all Islands: in the wake of space limitations and
unique geography and to bring uniformity in treatment of such regions.
• All Ecologically Sensitive Areas have been accorded special importance: Through Specific
guidelines related to their conservation and management plans.
• Pollution abatement has been accorded special focus: By permitting construction of
treatment facilities in CRZ-I B area subject to necessary safeguards.
• Defence and strategic projects have been accorded necessary dispensation.
communities.
displace the coastal community
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• Further, the reduction of NDZ is done without taking consideration of sea level rise. The
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coastline is already vulnerable due to erosion, fresh water crisis and loss of livelihoods. The
new changes will only increase this vulnerability and promote commercialisation of the coast.
• The Hazard Line, mapped by the Survey of India has, however, been de-linked from the CRZ
regulatory regime and will be used only as a tool for disaster management and planning of
adaptive and mitigation measures.
• The treatment facilities, allowed in CRZ-I to reduce coastal pollution, means several
ecologically fragile areas will have sewage treatment plants transferring pollution from land
to sea.
• The notification permits activities like reclamation of land for commercial activities,
interference with sand dunes, large scale recreation and drawing of ground water within the
200-500 metres from the HTL, which is detrimental to the coastal ecology and that will
displace the local communities and affect the bio-diversity.
The sustainable management depends on the nature of the social system, comprising political,
economic and industrial infrastructure and its linkages, with the knowledge about coastal
systems as well as local communities. India need to move from a purely regulatory approach
towards an Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM).
In India, sacred groves are found all over the country and abundantly along the western ghats in
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the states of Kerala and Karnataka. Although, there has been no comprehensive study on the
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sacred groves of the entire country, experts estimate the total number of sacred groves in India
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The threats vary from one region to the other and even from one grove to the other. But the
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• Disappearance of the traditional belief systems, which were fundamental to the concept of
sacred groves. These systems and their rituals are now considered mere superstition.
• Sacred groves in many parts of our country have been destroyed due to rapid urbanization
and developmental interventions.
• Many groves are suffering due to ‘Sanskritisation’ or the transformation of the primitive
forms of nature worship into formal temple worship.
• Invasion by exotic weeds such as Eupatorium odoratum, Lantana camara and Prosopis
juliflora is a serious threat to some groves.
• Pressures due to increasing livestock and fuelwood collection.
Biosphere reserves include terrestrial, marine and coastal ecosystems. Each site promotes Student Notes:
solutions reconciling the conservation of biodiversity with its sustainable use.
• Biosphere reserves are nominated by national governments and remain under the sovereign
jurisdiction of the states where they are located. Biosphere Reserves are designated under
the intergovernmental MAB Programme by the Director-General of UNESCO following the
decisions of the MAB International Coordinating Council (MAB ICC). Their status is
internationally recognized.
• Biosphere Reserves involve local communities and all interested stakeholders in planning and
management. They integrate three main "functions":
a) Conservation of biodiversity and cultural diversity
b) Economic development that is socio-culturally and environmentally sustainable
c) Logistic support, underpinning development through research, monitoring, education
and training
• These three functions are pursued through the Biosphere Reserves' three main zones:
8.8.1. Core Areas
• It comprises a strictly protected zone
that contributes to the conservation
of landscapes, ecosystems, species
and genetic variation
support;
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combining core protected areas with zones where sustainable development is fostered by
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local dwellers and enterprises with often highly innovative and participative governance
systems;
• Focusing on a multi-stakeholder approach with particular emphasis on the involvement of
local communities in management;
• Fostering dialogue for conflict resolution of natural resource use;
• Integrating cultural and biological diversity, especially the role of traditional knowledge in
ecosystem management;
• Demonstrating sound sustainable development practices and policies based on research and
monitoring;
• Acting as sites of excellence for education and training;
8.8.4. Criteria for Designation of BR in India
• A site that must contain an effectively protected and minimally disturbed core area of value
of nature conservation.
• The core area should be typical of a bio-geographical unit and large enough to sustain viable
populations representing all trophic levels in the ecosystem.
• The management authority to ensure the involvement/cooperation of local communities to Student Notes:
bring variety of knowledge and experiences to link biodiversity conservation and socio-
economic development while managing and containing the conflicts.
• Areas potential for preservation of traditional tribal or rural modes of living for harmonious
use of environment
8.8.5. Man and Biosphere (MAB) Program
• The MAB programme is an intergovernmental scientific programme that aims to establish a
scientific basis for enhancing the relationship between people and their environments. It
combines the natural and social sciences with a view to improving human livelihoods and
safeguarding natural and managed ecosystems, thus promoting innovative approaches to
economic development that are socially and culturally appropriate and environmentally
sustainable.
• UNESCO’s intergovernmental structure provides MAB with a framework to help national
governments support the planning and implementation of research and training programmes
with technical assistance and scientific advice.
• Participating countries establish MAB National Committees.
• The agenda of the MAB programme is defined by its main governing body, the International
Coordinating Council. The MAB Council consists of 34 Member States elected by UNESCO’s
General Conference. The Council elects a chair and five vice-chairpersons from each of
UNESCO’s geopolitical regions.
• The MAB Secretariat is based at UNESCO’s Division of Ecological and Earth Sciences.
• MAB is funded through the regular budget of UNESCO and mobilizes funds-in-trust granted
by Member States, bilateral and multilateral sources, and extra-budgetary funds provided by
countries, the private sector and private institutions. MAB-related activities are nationally
financed. The Programme can grant seed funding to assist countries in developing projects
and/or to secure appropriate partnership contributions.
8.8.6. World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR)
• The World Network of Biosphere Reserves of the MAB Programme consists of a dynamic and
interactive network of sites of excellence.
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• It fosters the harmonious integration of people and nature for sustainable development
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through participatory dialogue; knowledge sharing; poverty reduction and human well-being
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improvements; respect for cultural values and society’s ability to cope with change - thus
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contributing to the 2030 Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
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• Accordingly, the Network is one of the main international tools to develop and implement
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Student Notes:
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• “Biodiversity Heritage Sites” (BHS) are well defined areas that are unique, ecologically fragile
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ecosystems - terrestrial, coastal and inland waters and, marine having rich biodiversity
comprising of any one or more of the following components:
o richness of wild as well as domesticated species or intra-specific categories,
o high endemism,
o presence of rare and threatened species, keystone species, species of evolutionary
significance, wild ancestors of domestic/cultivated species or their varieties,
o past pre-eminence of biological components represented by fossil beds and having
significant cultural, ethical or aesthetic values and are important for the maintenance of
cultural diversity, with or without a long history of human association with them.
• Under Biological Diversity Act, 2002 (BDA) the State Government in consultation with local
bodies may notify in the official gazette, areas of biodiversity importance as Biodiversity
Heritage Sites (BHS).
• State Government in consultation with the Central Government may frame rules for the
management and conservation of BHS.
• State Governments shall frame schemes for compensating or rehabilitating any person or
section of people economically affected by such notification.
Bengaluru Bengaluru.
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developments in architecture or
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considers that this criterion should preferably be used in conjunction with other criteria); Student Notes:
• to contain superlative natural phenomena or areas of exceptional natural beauty and
aesthetic importance;
• to be outstanding examples representing major stages of earth's history, including the record
of life, significant on-going geological processes in the development of landforms, or
significant geomorphic or physiographic features;
• to be outstanding examples representing significant on-going ecological and biological
processes in the evolution and development of terrestrial, fresh water, coastal and marine
ecosystems and communities of plants and animals;
• to contain the most important and significant natural habitats for in-situ conservation of
biological diversity, including those containing threatened species of outstanding universal
value from the point of view of science or conservation.
The protection, management, authenticity and integrity of properties are also important
considerations. Since 1992 significant interactions between people and the natural environment
have been recognized as “cultural landscapes”.
8.11. Important Bird Areas (IBAs)
• Birds are excellent indicators of ecosystem health. The IBA programme of Birdlife
International aims to identify, monitor and protect a global network of IBAs for conservation
of the world's birds and associated biodiversity.
• The IBAs serve as conservation areas for protection of birds at the global, regional or sub-
regional level.
• According to Birdlife International, designation of IBAs is based on standardized criteria,
namely
a) hold significant numbers of one or more globally threatened bird species,
b) be one of a set of sites that together hold a suite of restricted-range species or biome-
restricted species and
c) have exceptionally large numbers of migratory or congregatory birds.
• The IBAs contain a range of habitats, such as wetlands, mudflats, microhabitats in biodiversity
hotspots, grasslands and scrublands, making them excellent indicators of biodiversity
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• The Bombay Natural History Society and Birdlife International have identified 467 IBAs in
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India (Islam and Rahmani, 2004). Forty percent of these IBAs fall outside the Protected Area
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network and thus form an important tool for landscape-level conservation planning.
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Prelims
1. Two important rivers — one with its source in Jharkhand (and known by a different name
in Odisha), and another, with its source in Odisha — merge at a place only a short
distance from the coast of Bay of Bengal before flowing into the sea. This is an important
site of wildlife and biodiversity and a protected area.
Which one of the following could be this?(2011)
(a) Bhitarkanika (b) Chandipur-on-sea
(c) Gopalpur-on-sea (d) Simlipal
Answer: A
3. In which one among the following categories of protected areas in India are local people
not allowed to collect and use the biomass? (2012)
(a) Biosphere Reserves
(b) National Park
(c) Wetlands declared under Ramsar Convention
(d) Wildlife Sanctuaries
Answer: B
5. The most important strategy for the conservation of biodiversity together with traditional
human life is the establishment of (2014)
(a) biosphere reserves (b) botanical gardens
(c) national parks (d) wildlife sanctuaries
Answer: A
6. With reference to ‘Eco-Sensitive Zones’, which of the following statements is/are correct?
(2014)
1. Eco-Sensitive Zones are the areas that are declared under the Wildlife (Protection) Act,
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1972.
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2. The purpose of the declaration of Eco-Sensitive Zones is to prohibit all kinds of human
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8. Recently there was a proposal to translocate some of the lions from their natural habitat
in Gujarat to which one of the following sites ? (2017)
(a) Corbett National Park (b) Kuno Palpur Wildlife Sanctuary
(c) Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (d) Sariska National Park
Answer: b
9. If you want to see gharials in their natural habitat, which one of the following is the best Student Notes:
place to visit? (2017)
(a) Bhitarkanika Mangroves (b) Chambal River
(c) Pulicat Lake (d) Deepor Beel
Answer: B
10. Which one of the following national parks lies completely in the Temperate alpine zone?
(2019)
(a) Manas national park (b) Namdapha national park
(c) Neora valley national park (d) Valley of flower national park
Answer: D
11. Which one of the following are Agasthyamala biosphere reserve? (2019)
(a) Neyyar, peppara and shendurney wildlife sanctuaries and kalakad mundanthurai
tiger reserve
(b) Mudumalai sathayamangalam and Wayanad wildlife sanctuaries and silent valley
national park
(c) Kaundinya gundla bhrameshwaram and papikonda wildlife sanctuaries and mukurthi
national park
(d) Kawal and Shree Venkateshwara wildlife sanctuaries; and Nagarjunasagar-srisailam
tiger reserve
Answer: A
8.13. Vision IAS Previous Year Question
1. Discuss the relevance of sacred groves and forests in protection of biodiversity in India.
Also, highlight the various challenges associated with the conservation of sacred
groves.
Approach:
• Give the definition of sacred groves and forest.
• Then bring out relevance of sacred groves and forests in biodiversity conservation
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• Finally bring out challenges faced by the conservation effort through means of sacred
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groves in India.
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Answer:
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Sacred groves are tracts of virgin forest with rich diversity, which have been protected by
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the local people for centuries for their cultural and religious beliefs. An inextricable link
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between present society and past in terms of biodiversity, culture, religious and ethnic
heritage exists in sacred groves. Whereas a forest is defined as a land area of more than
0.5 hectares with a tree canopy cover of more than 10%, which is not primarily under
agricultural or other specific, non-forest land use.
Sacred groves and forest plays significant role in in-situ protection of biodiversity in India.
Relevance of sacred groves
• A diverse range of ecosystem is preserved in grove tradition along with its regional
and local identities as represented in names, practices and management of groves.
• The restriction in resource usage, undisturbed condition and suitable microclimate
are the primary factors for this species richness.
• Groves act as shelter places for forest birds and small mammals during their foraging
activities.
• Simple protection measures and monitoring can play important role in preserving
these fragmentations as it portrays a fine example of community based natural
conservation without any extra support.
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Student Notes:
CHAPTER - 9 - POLICY AND INSTITUTIONAL
MEASURES
9. Policy and Constitutional Measures
9.1. Policy Framework in India
The range of human actions and needs that impact biodiversity are varied and affect all
ecosystems. Hence, nearly all sectoral policies of the government have a bearing on the
conservation and sustainable use of natural resources, directly or indirectly. This section brings
out the key elements of the four core policies, namely, NFP 1988, NEP 2006, National Agroforestry
Policy, 2014, and National Policy on Marine Fisheries (NPMF), 2017, that directly relate to
biodiversity and channelize conservation concerns into all other sectoral policies as well.
Policy, 2006 environment in all sectoral policies. It acknowledges and commits action
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(i) Creating a consolidated and coherent guidelines for all sectoral policies
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more severe on the rural poor, tribals and women as it enhances and Student Notes:
perpetuates poverty.
(iv) The most secure basis for conservation lies in ensuring that people
dependent on particular resources obtain better livelihoods from
conservation than from degradation of the resources.
(v) Mutually beneficial multi-stakeholder partnerships between local
communities, gender agencies, the academic and research community,
investors and multilateral and bilateral development partners should
become vehicles of enhancement of resources including technology and TK
for conservation.
(vi) Eco Sensitive Zones having environmental resources of incomparable
values should be identified and conserved with adequate participation of
the local communities.
National Agroforestry The policy promotes tree plantation in complementarity with crops and
Policy, 2014 livestock to:
(i) improve productivity, employment, incomes and livelihoods of rural
households,
(ii) achieve efficient nutrient cycling and organic matter addition for
sustainable agriculture,
(iii) expand vegetation cover,
(iv) increase FTC, and
(v) contribute to conserving natural resources and forests by meeting
demand for timber, food, fuel, fodder and other agroforestry products.
National Policy on The overarching goal of NPMF, 2017 is to ensure the health and ecological
Marine Fisheries, 2017 integrity of the marine living resources of India’s EEZ for the benefit of
present and future generations of the nation. Its goals include:
(i) Sustainable development of fisheries for socio-economic uplift of
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This section covers the enactments that directly deal with the elements and issues related to
biodiversity.
Biodiversity Act, 2002 The Act recognises India’s richness in biological diversity and associated
traditional and contemporary knowledge systems, acknowledges its
commitment to implement the CBD and provides for “conservation of
biological diversity, sustainable use of its components, and fair and
equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use of biological
resources and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.”
The Act inter alia obligates the Central Government to:
(i) develop national strategies, plans and programmes for conservation and
sustainable use,
(ii) institute measures to identify and monitor areas rich in biological
resources,
(iii) promote in situ and ex situ conservation of biological resources
(iv) create incentives for research, training and public education to increase
awareness about biodiversity, and
(v) integrate the conservation, promotion and sustainable use of
biodiversity into relevant sectoral, cross sectoral plans, programmes and
policies, “as far as practicable and wherever deemed appropriate.”
The Act also includes specific provisions for:
(i) notifying species which are on the verge of extinction, or likely to
become extinct in near future as threatened species; rehabilitation of such
species promoting Research and Development (R&D) and other necessary
actions,
(ii) chronicling of knowledge related to biological resources at the local level
with the object to respect, preserve and use such knowledge,
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(iv) The Act creates a three tier architecture for its implementation at
national, state and the local levels. This architecture coordinates the
implementation of the NBAP in collaboration with line agencies and other
non-government stakeholders.
It empowers the State to declare areas of ecological, faunal, floral, Student Notes:
Wildlife Protection Act,
1972 (Last amended in geomorphological or zoological association or importance as protected
2009) areas, under four categories, namely,
National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Community Reserves and
Conservation Reserves.
The wildlife division in the Directorate General of Forests in MoEFCC at
Central Government level, and state wildlife departments and their
subordinate offices at field level in states implement this Act.
Forest Conservation Act, The Act governs matters relating to diversion of forest land for any non-
1980 forest purpose. The diversion of forest is made subject to:
(i) stringent scrutiny, and
(ii) recovery of net present value (NPV) and compensatory afforestation
equal to the area diverted.
Environment Protection It covers all matters relating to the protection and importance of
Act, 1986. environment at a broad level and empowers the State to issue notifications
to protect the environment whenever necessary.
An example of this is the Coastal Regulation Zone Notification (CRZN)
issued by Ministry of Environment and Forests, 2019 declaring coastal
stretches as Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) to regulate industrial and other
activities in CRZ towards ensuring conservation and protection of coastal
areas, coastal ecosystems and the livelihoods of the coastal communities.
Wetland Rules, 2017 These Rules have succeeded the Wetland (Conservation and
Management) Rules, 2010. WR, 2017 aim at conservation and wise use of
wetlands making states responsible for conserving and sustainably
managing wetlands recognizing the fact that land and water, the two major
ecological constituents of wetland ecosystems are enlisted as State
subjects as per the Constitution.
The Plant Quarantine Notified under the Destructive Insects and Pests Act, 1914, it aims at
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The Protection of Plant The Act has established an effective system for:
Varieties and (i) protection of plant varieties,
Farmers’ Rights Act, (ii) recognition of varieties traditionally cultivated and evolved by farmers
2001 in their fields,
(iii) recognition of wild relatives or landraces of a variety about which the
farmers possess the common knowledge,
(iv) farmers’ and plant breeders’ rights including rights in respect of their
contributions made at any time in conserving, improving and making plant
genetic resources available for the development of new plant varieties,
and
(v) encouragement to development of new varieties of plants.
The PPVFRA set up under the Act ensures its implementation.
Student Notes:
The Scheduled Tribes The Act recognizes and vests the forest rights and occupation in forest
and Other Traditional land in the forest dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest
dwellers, who had been residing in such forests for generations but whose
Forest Dwellers
rights could not be recorded in the past.
(Recognition of Forest
The Act also seeks to balance these rights with the responsibilities for
Rights) Act, 2006 (Forest
sustainable use, conservation of biodiversity and maintenance of
Rights Act, 2006)
ecological balance so that forests are conserved while ensuring the
livelihood and food security of the forest dwelling Scheduled Tribes and
other traditional forest dwellers.
Section 3(1) of the Act enumerates the types of rights that the Act
recognizes. These include “Right of access to biodiversity and community
right to intellectual property and TK related to
biodiversity and cultural diversity”
Several other biodiversity relevant legislations that help in securing
conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity include Mineral
Conservation and Development Rules (MCDR) 2017, The Energy
Conservation Act, 2001, Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas)
Act, 1996 (PESA Act) The Patents Act, 1970 and the Mahatma Gandhi
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005 (MGNREGA).
The National Green The Act establishes a National Green Tribunal (NGT) inter alia for effective
Tribunal Act, 2010 and expeditious disposal of cases relating to environmental protection,
conservation of forests and other natural resources.
encourage the administration, security, upgrade and enlightened utilization of the earth.
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ii. Delaying sensible ecological security measures should not be an outcome of dangers of
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• Article 48A of the Constitution of India directs the State to protect and improve the environment
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and safeguard wildlife and forests. This article was added to the Constitution by the 42nd
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Amendment in 1976.
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• Article 51A imposes certain fundamental duties for the people of India. One of them is to protect
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and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife and to have
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was launched in 1973 and has put the endangered tiger on a guaranteed path of revival by
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Schedule I
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• This Schedule covers endangered species. These species need rigorous protection and
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therefore, the harshest penalties for violation of the law are under this Schedule.
• Species under this Schedule are prohibited to be hunted throughout India, except under
threat to human life. Absolute protection is accorded to species on this list.
• The Trade of these animals is prohibited. Examples: tiger, blackbuck, Himalayan Brown Bear,
Brow-Antlered Deer, Blue whale, Common Dolphin, Cheetah, Clouded Leopard, hornbills,
Indian Gazelle, etc.
Schedule II
• Animals under this list are also accorded high protection. Their trade is prohibited. They
cannot be hunted except under threat to human life.
• Examples: Kohinoor (insect), Assamese Macaque, Bengal Hanuman langur, Large Indian
Civet, Indian Fox, Larger Kashmir Flying Squirrel, Kashmir Fox, etc.
Schedule III & IV
• This list is for species that are not endangered. This includes protected species but the
penalty for any violation is less compared to the first two schedules.
• Examples: hyena, Himalayan rat, porcupine, flying fox, Malabar tree toad, etc. Student Notes:
Schedule V
• This schedule contains animals that can be hunted. Examples: mice, rat, common crow, fruit
bats, etc.
Schedule VI
• This list contains plants that are forbidden from cultivation. Examples: pitcher plant, blue
vanda, red vanda, kuth, etc.
9.2.1.3. Biodiversity Act, 2002
• The Biological Diversity, as federal legislation, was an attempt to uphold the objectives put
forth by the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 1992, giving immense
importance to the rights of a state over its resources.
• This Act broadly sets forth to protect and conserve the biological diversity, control the
utilization of resources, and maintain equality in the distribution of its resources and benefits
arising from it. Section 8, sub-Section (1) and (3) of this Act, puts forth the provision of
establishing a National Biodiversity Authority in Chennai.
Key Provisions of the Act
The Biological Diversity Act puts forth
definitions, principles, appointed
authorities, procedures, mechanisms for
conservation, access benefits, etc. all related
to biodiversity. It also mentions an
institutional structure to be established for
the same purpose.
Conservation Provisions
The Central government has responsibilities
such as:
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of biological diversity.
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non-monopoly rights nor for assessing contributions made by firms, local communities,
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or individual inventions.
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o The act doesn’t even give immediate rights-holders the authority of defending their
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rights in the way that it weaponizes the Indian state to fight against biopiracy or even
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with rights equivalent to that provided to patent holders or applicants. One of the main
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problems also stands to be no legal protection given to the information recorded in the
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and conservation of forests and other NGT gave judgment of complete prohibition on
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enforcement of any legal right – regarded as the single biggest landmark case
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in India.
relief and compensation for damages
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• The NGT is not bound by the procedure laid down under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908,
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• Further, NGT is also not bound by the rules of evidence as enshrined in the Indian Evidence
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Act, 1872. Thus, it will be relatively easier (as opposed to approaching a court) for
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conservation groups to present facts and issues before the NGT, including pointing out
technical flaws in a project, or proposing alternatives that could minimize environmental
damage but which have not been considered.
• While passing Orders/decisions/awards, the NGT will apply the principles of sustainable
development, the precautionary principle and the polluter pays principles.
• However, it must be noted that if the NGT holds that a claim is false, it can impose costs
including lost benefits due to any interim injunction.
Review and Appeal
• Under the NGT Rules, there is a provision for seeking a Review of a decision or Order of the
NGT. If this fails, an NGT Order can be challenged before the Supreme Court within ninety
days.
9.3.2. Institutional structure under the Biodiversity Act, 2002
• The National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) was established in 2003 by the Central
Government to implement India’s Biological Diversity Act (2002). The NBA is a Statutory body
and that performs facilitative, regulatory and advisory function for Government of India on Student Notes:
issue of Conservation, sustainable use of biological resource and fair equitable sharing of
benefits of use.
• The State Biodiversity Board (SBBs) focus on advice the State Governments, subject to any
guidelines issued by the Central Government, on matters relating to the conservation of
biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and equitable sharing of the benefits arising
out of the utilization of biological resources.
• The Local Level Biodiversity Management committees (BMCs) are responsible for promoting
conservation, sustainable use and documentation of biological diversity including
preservation of habitats, conservation of land races, folk varieties and cultivators,
domesticated stocks and breeds of animals and microorganisms besides chronicling of
knowledge relating to biological diversity.
9.3.2.1. Powers and functions of NBA
• It shall be the duty of the National Biodiversity Authority to regulate activities and by
regulations issue guidelines for access to biological resources and for fair and equitable
benefit sharing.
• The National Biodiversity Authority may grant approval for undertaking any activity.
• The National Biodiversity Authority may advise the Central Government on matters relating
to the conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and equitable sharing
of benefits arising out of the utilization of biological resources.
• The National Biodiversity Authority may advise the State Governments in the selection of
areas of biodiversity importance to be notified as heritage sites and measures for the
management of such heritage sites.
• The National Biodiversity Authority may perform such other functions as may be necessary
to carry out the provisions of this Act.
• The National Biodiversity Authority may, on behalf of the Central Government, take any
measures necessary to oppose the grant of intellectual property rights in any country outside
India on any biological resource obtained from India or knowledge associated with such
biological resource which is derived from India.
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• The State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) have the function of advising the State Government on
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• To the guidelines of the Central Government but more importantly to regulate granting of
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• The State Boards require a prior intimation for obtaining biological resources only from Indian
citizens or corporate associations or organizations registered in India.
9.3.2.3. Powers and Functions of BMCs
• Conservation and sustainable utilization of biological resources.
• Eco-restoration of the local biodiversity.
• Proper feedback to the SBB in the matter of IPR, Traditional Knowledge and local Biodiversity
issues, wherever feasible and essential feedback to be provided to the NBA.
• Management of Heritage Sites including Heritage Trees, Animals/ Microorganisms etc., and
Sacred Groves and Sacred Water bodies.
• Regulation of access to the biological resources and/ or associated Traditional Knowledge, for
commercial and research purposes.
• Sharing of usufructs arising out of commercial use of bio-resources.
• Conservation of traditional varieties/breeds of economically important plants/animals.
• Biodiversity Education and Awareness building.
• Documentation, enable procedure to develop bio-cultural protocols.
• Its headquarters, are at Central National Herbarium, Central Botanical Laboratory, main
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Garden at Howrah, the Botanical Museum at Calcutta and nine regional circles or stations in
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Objectives of BSI
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• Survey of Plant resources of the country for preparing an inventory of the plant wealth in the
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• It is under the Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change. Student Notes:
Objectives
• The objectives of ZSI are classified as follows:
Primary Objectives
i. Exploration, Survey, Inventorying and Monitoring of faunal diversity in various States,
Ecosystems and Protected areas of India.
ii. Taxonomic studies of all faunal components collected.
iii. Periodic review of the Status of Threatened and Endemic species.
iv. Preparation of Red Data Book, Fauna of India and Fauna of States.
v. Bio-ecological studies on selected important communities/species.
vi. Preparation of databases for the recorded species of the country.
vii. Maintenance & Development of National Zoological Collections.
viii. Training, Capacity Building and Human Resource Development.
ix. Faunal Identification, Advisory services and Library Services.
x. Publication of results including Fauna of India and Fauna of States.
Secondary Objectives
i. Environmental Impact Studies.
ii. Maintenance and Development of Museum at Headquarters and Regional Stations.
iii. Development of ENVIS and CITES Centers.
iv. Research Fellowship, Associateship and Emeritus Scientist Programmes.
v. Collaborative research programmes on Biodiversity with other Organizations.
vi. GIS and Remote Sensing studies for animal diversity as well as for selected threatened •
species.
vii. Chromosomal Mapping and DNA finger printing.
9.3.6. Central Zoo Authority (CZA)
• The CZA is the body of the government responsible for oversight of zoos constituted under
the Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972.
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in zoos.
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nature-based solutions to challenges related to urban well-being (SDG 11) and to climate
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• All these are however undermined by current unsustainable production and consumption
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patterns (SDG 12), as well as illegal wildlife trade, fishing, and timber trade (SDG 16).
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the decisions that CBD Parties adopted at the latest UN Biodiversity Conference, held in
November 2018, in Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt.
9.4.2. Convention on Biodiversity (CBD)
• It seeks to address all threats to biodiversity and ecosystem services, including threats from
climate change.
• It aims to promote the conservation of biodiversity, the sustainable use of its components,
and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.
• It was opened for signature on 5 June 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development (the Rio "Earth Summit").
• It’s a legally binding multilateral environmental agreement with a participation of 196
member countries.
• India is a member.
• The ‘Aichi Target’ were adopted by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) at its Nagoya
conference.
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Mechanisms and enabling environment are being created for recognising and protecting the
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1. How does biodiversity vary in India? How is the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 helpful in
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2. In India, if a species of tortoise is declared protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife Student Notes:
(Protection) Act, 1972, what does it imply? (2017)
(a) It enjoys the same level of protection as the tiger.
(b) It no longer exists in the wild, a few individuals are under captive protection; and
now it is impossible to prevent its extinction.
(c) It is endemic to a particular region of India.
(d) Both (b) and (c) stated above are correct in this context.
Answer: A
3. According to the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, which of the following animals cannot
be hunted by any person except under some provisions provided by law? (2017)
1. Gharial
2. Indian wild ass
3. Wild buffalo
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: D
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Student Notes:
CHAPTER - 10 - SPECIES SPECIFIC MEASURES
10. Species Specific Conservation Initiatives
10.1. Introduction
• Census of major flagship species is Recovery Programme for Critically Endangered Species
undertaken at the State-level by • It is one of the components of centrally sponsored
the respective State/Union scheme - Integrated Development of Wildlife
Territory Governments Habitats (IDWH) which provides assistance to the
periodically. However census of State/UT governments for activities aimed at wildlife
tiger and elephant is undertaken at conservation.
the national level once every four • Species Identified under the recovery programme
and five years respectively. As per o Snow Leopard,
the report of the latest census o Bustard (including Floricans),
o Dolphin,
carried out by the state and central
o Hangul,
government, the population of o Nilgiri Tahr,
endangered species especially o Marine Turtles,
lions, rhinos, tigers, and elephants o Dugongs,
has increased in country. o Edible Nest Swiftlet,
• The Ministry has formulated the o Asian Wild Buffalo,
3rd ‘National Wildlife Action Plan’ o Nicobar Megapode,
for a period of 2017 to 2031 to save o Manipur Brow-antlered Deer,
wild animals in the country. The o Vultures,
Plan focuses landscape approach o Malabar Civet,
o Indian Rhinoceros,
in conservation of all wildlife
o Asiatic Lion,
irrespective of where they occur. It o Swamp Deer and
also gives special emphasis to o Jerdon’s Courser
recovery of threatened species of o Northern River Terrapin,
wildlife while conserving their o Clouded Leopard,
habitats which includes terrestrial, o Arabian Sea Humpback Whale,
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Keystone species
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• A species which has a large and disproportionate impact on its ecosystem relative to its abundance
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is called a keystone species. The term was first coined by zoologist Robert Paine in the 1960’s. While
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studying marine invertebrates in the inter-tidal zone he observed that starfish had a
disproportionate impact on their ecosystem. If this animal were taken out of the equation half the
other species would vanish, hence making the starfish the keystone species of that ecosystem.
• The examples of keystone species Include beaver in swamp ecosystem, elephants in African
Savanna, parrotfish in the Great Barrier Reef, the starfish Pisaster ochraceus in the rocky marine
intertidal communities off the northwest coast of North America, etc.
Flagship Species
• A flagship species is a species selected to act as an ambassador, icon or symbol for a defined habitat,
issue, campaign or environmental cause.
• By focusing on, and achieving conservation of that species, the status of many other species which
share its habitat – or are vulnerable to the same threats - may also be improved.
• Flagship species are usually relatively large, and considered to be 'charismatic' in western cultures.
Flagship species may or may not be keystone species and may or may not be good indicators of
biological process.
Priority species
• The terms “flagship” and “keystone” have generally consistent definitions across the conservation
community, however “priority species” is a WWF term, and is solely for the purposes of planning
and simple communication.
• For WWF, a “priority species” may be either a flagship or a keystone species and is chosen to Student Notes:
represent an ecoregion or region.
• A “priority species” is reflective of a key threat across that ecoregion - such that conservation of the
species will contribute significantly to a broader threat mitigation outcome. It is often crucial to the
economic and/or spiritual wellbeing of peoples within that ecoregion.
Indicator species
• An indicator species is a species or group of species chosen as an indicator of, or proxy for, the state
of an ecosystem or of a certain process within that ecosystem.
• Examples include crayfish as indicators of freshwater quality; corals as indicators of marine
processes such as siltation, seawater rise and sea temperature fluctuation; peregrine falcons as an
indicator of pesticide loads; or native plants as indicators for the presence and impact of alien
species.
Umbrella Species
• Umbrella species are species selected for making conservation-related decisions, typically because
protecting these species indirectly protects the many other species that make up the ecological
community of its habitat. Species conservation can be subjective because it is hard to determine
the status of many species.
• With millions of species of concern, the identification of selected keystone species, flagship species
or umbrella species makes conservation decisions easier.
• Umbrella species can be used to help select the locations of potential reserves, find the minimum
size of these conservation areas or reserves, and to determine the composition, structure and
processes of ecosystems
10.2. Tiger
Indian Tiger or Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris)
• The tiger (Panthera Tigris) is the largest extant
cat species and a member of the genus Panthera.
• It is most recognizable for its dark vertical stripes
on orange-brown fur with a lighter underside.
• It is an apex predator, primarily preying on
ungulates such as deer and wild boar. It is
territorial and generally a solitary but social
predator, requiring large contiguous areas of
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habitat, which support its requirements for prey and rearing of its offspring.
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• Bengal tiger habitats usually are tropical rainforests, marshes, and tall grasses.
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• India is home to 80% of global tiger population. The largest populations of Bengal tigers are in
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India, but there are some smaller groups in Bangladesh, Nepal, and Bhutan. It may also be present
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(v) co-existence agenda in buffer and fringe areas with landscape approach;
(vi) deciding inviolate spaces and relocation of villages from critical tiger habitats within a time-
frame by providing a better relocation package, apart from supporting States for settlement of
rights of such people;
(vii) rehabilitation of traditional hunting tribes living in and around tiger reserves;
(viii) providing support to States for research and field equipments;
(ix) supporting States for staff development and capacity building in tiger reserves;
(x) mainstreaming wildlife concerns in tiger bearing forests outside tiger reserves, and
fostering corridor conservation in such areas through restorative strategy involving local
people to arrest fragmentation of habitats;
(xi) providing safeguards and retrofitting measures in and around tiger reserves and tiger
bearing forests for wildlife conservation;
(xii) strengthening the infrastructure of National Tiger Conservation Authority at the Centre;
(xiii) carrying out independent monitoring and the evaluation of tiger reserves;
(xiv) establishment and development of eight new tiger reserves;
(xv) provision of project allowance to all categories of staff working in tiger reserves;
(xvi) providing residential amenities to facilitate basic education to children of frontline field Student Notes:
staff posted in tiger reserves;
(xvii) providing assistance to States for fostering ecotourism to benefit local people.
National Tiger Conservation Authority
• It is a statutory body established in 2006 under MoEFCC performing functions as provided in
the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
• The Minister in charge of the Ministry of Environment and Forests is the Chairperson of
NTCA.
• Presently It implements major tiger conservation initiatives like project tiger, Tiger
conservation plan etc.
• Objectives of NTCA:
o Providing statutory authority to Project Tiger so that compliance of its directives become
legal.
o Fostering accountability of Center-State in management of Tiger Reserves, by providing
a basis for MoU with States within our federal structure.
o Providing for an oversight by Parliament.
o Addressing livelihood interests of local people in areas surrounding Tiger Reserves.
• Powers and functions: prescribed under Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, as amended in 2006
are:-
o to approve the tiger conservation plan prepared by the State Government
o evaluate and assess various aspects of sustainable ecology and disallow any ecologically
unsustainable land use such as, mining, industry and other projects within the tiger
reserves
o lay down normative standards for tourism activities and guidelines for project tiger from
time to time for tiger conservation in the buffer and core area of tiger reserves and
ensure their due compliance
o provide for management focus and measures for addressing conflicts of men and wild
animal and to emphasize on co-existence in forest areas outside the National Parks,
sanctuaries or tiger reserve, in the working plan code
o provide information on protection measures including future conservation plan,
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estimation of population of tiger and its natural prey species, status of habitats, disease
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other management aspects as it may deem fit including future plan conservation
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o ensure that the tiger reserves and areas linking one protected area or tiger reserve with
another protected area or tiger reserve are not diverted for ecologically unsustainable
uses, except in public interest and with the approval of the National Board for Wild Life
and on the advice of the Tiger Conservation Authority.
o facilitate and support the tiger reserve management in the State for biodiversity
conservation initiatives through eco-development and people’s participation as per
approved management plans and to support similar initiatives in adjoining areas
consistent with the Central and State laws
o ensure critical support including scientific, information technology and legal support for
better implementation of the tiger conservation plan.
o facilitate ongoing capacity building programme for skill development of officers and
staff of tiger reserves.
All India Tiger Estimate-2018
• India conducts the all India Tiger Estimation (which is the world’s largest wildlife estimation
exercise) every four years to keep a pulse on its tiger population.
• The four-year tiger census report, ‘Status of Tigers, Co-predators, Prey and their Habitat, Student Notes:
2018’ shows the count of tigers in India, has risen to 2967, in 2018 from 2,226 in 2014. The
33% rise in tiger numbers is the highest ever recorded between cycles which stood at 21%
between 2006 and 2010 and 30% between 2010 and 2014.
o Census was led by the National Tiger Conservation Authority and the Wildlife Institute
of India, in collaboration with State Forest Departments. World Wildlife Fund India was
the implementation partner.
• India has achieved the target set by the St. Petersburg declaration on tiger conservation (to
double the number of wild tigers (T X 2) across their global range by 2022) well ahead of
the stipulated period in 2019 itself which is evident from the results of the Fourth All India
Tiger Estimation, 2018-19.
• Other findings:
o Biggest increase in tigers: The biggest increase has been in Madhya Pradesh from 308 in
2014 to 526. Now, MP has most number of tigers.
o Continuing loss of tiger-occupied areas: The net loss in tiger-occupied area is estimated
to be 20% of the tiger habitat in four years.
o The decline was spread over three out of India's five tiger landscapes: The Shivalik,
Western Ghats and the North East, while Central India and the Sundarbans landscapes
registered an increase.
o No tiger was recorded in Buxa (West Bengal), Dampa (Mizoram) and Palamu
(Jharkhand) tiger reserves.
• MEE can
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• MEE is increasingly being used by governments and international bodies to understand the
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Global Tiger Forum, IUCN, United Nations Development Program (UNDP), WWF etc.
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• It is a key element in realizing the ambitious goal of doubling the global tiger population by
2022, a commitment made by all 13 Tiger Range Countries (TRC).
• Nepal is the first TRC to implement the process.
• To date, three sites- Lansdowne Forest Division in Uttarakhand, India, Chitwan National
Park in Nepal and Sikhote-Alin Nature Reserve in Russia have been awarded CA|TS Approved
status.
10.2.2.3. The Integrated Tiger Habitat Conservation Programme (ITHCP)
• It is a strategic funding mechanism which aims to save tigers in the wild, their habitats and
to support human populations in key locations throughout Asia.
• It is supported by the German Government and the German Development Bank (KfW) and
was launched in late 2014.
• The programme contributes to the international goal set up during the 2010 St- Petersburg
Tiger Summit to double wild tiger populations by 2022.
• IUCN as the programme implementing agency.
• One of the biggest threats to elephant populations is the ivory trade, as the animals are poached
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for their ivory tusks. Other threats to wild elephants include habitat destruction and conflicts with
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local people.
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• Karnataka has the highest number of elephants followed by Assam and Kerala respectively.
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new corridors are being used by elephants. Thus at present there are approximately 100
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(a) Financial and technical assistance is provided to 16 elephant range states under the
‘Project Elephant’.
(b) Improvement of elephant habitat, including Elephant Reserves and Corridors
(c) Regular and extensive patrolling of forest areas and anti poaching measures by frontline
filed staff of the State Forest Departments.
(d) Training and awareness camps are organised regularly for local people for conservation
of elephants and other wildlife.
(e) Local communities are organised into Joint Forest Management Committees/Eco-
development Committees for protection of elephant habitat, including elephant
corridors.
(f) Habitat improvement and eco-restoration is taken up in critical areas of elephant
reserves and corridors.
Key Components
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a) Conservation of key biodiversity areas and their effective management to secure long-term
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ecosystem resilience, habitat connectivity and conservation of snow leopard and other
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b) Securing sustainable community livelihoods and natural resource management in high range
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Himalayan ecosystems;
c) Enhancing enforcement, monitoring and cooperation to reduce wildlife crime and related
threats
10.4.1.3. Snow Leopard Population Assessment in India (SLPAI)
• SLPAI has been prepared by the Wildlife Institute of India, Nature Conservation Foundation,
GSLEP committee, Global Tiger Initiative Council, World Wide Fund for Nature, World Bank,
Global Tiger Forum and Wildlife Conservation Trust.
• National-level estimation processes are done for Tigers, Rhinos and Elephants. With this
protocol, the same can now be done for Snow Leopards.
• Only 2% of the total habitats of snow leopards have been sampled for population estimation
due to difficult terrain and an elusive nature of snow leopards, according to SLPAI document.
• The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change launched the “Asiatic Lion
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Conservation Project”.
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It will be funded from the Centrally Sponsored Scheme- Development of Wildlife Habitat
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(CSS-DWH) with the contributing ratio being 60:40 of Central and State share.
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• Focus: To cause habitat improvement, scientific interventions, disease control and veterinary
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care supplemented with adequate eco-development works for the fringe population in order
to ensure a stable and viable Lion population in the country.
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• By 2012, IRV 2020 successfully translocated 18 greater one-horned rhinos from Kaziranga
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o CITES: Appendix I.
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• It is the national aquatic animal and had been granted non-human personhood status by
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government in 2017.
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• Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary (VGDS) in Bihar is India's only sanctuary for the Gangetic
dolphin.
d) Evaluate the current status of invasive species in river scape. Student Notes:
e) Involve stake holders to develop a network which will assist in dolphin conservation.
10.7.1.2. Other Conservation Efforts
• A Conservation Action Plan for the Gangetic Dolphin 2010-2020 has been formulated by the
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. It provides following
recommendations:
i. Potential sites for intense dolphin conservation should be demarcated and States with
Gangetic Dolphin populations should have a regional Dolphin Conservation Centre.
ii. The use of nylon monofilament fishing gillnets should be banned and Critical water
flow and minimum depths for all river dolphin habitats should be determined.
iii. Trans-boundary Protected Areas between India, Nepal and Bangladesh.
• National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG): In its efforts of biodiversity conservation in
Ganga River basin, it has been working on the Ganges River Dolphin Conservation Action.
• National Dolphin Research Centre (NDRC), Patna: It's India’s and Asia’s first Centre for
strengthening conservation efforts and research to save the endangered mammal.
10.8. Dugong
About the Species
• Dugong (Dugong dugon) also called as ‘Sea Cow’ is one of
the four surviving species in the Order Sirenia and it is the
only existing species of herbivorous mammal that lives
exclusively in the sea including in India.
• They feed on seagrass.
• They can remain underwater for 3-12 minutes.
• They are found in warm tropical waters.
• They are distributed between East Africa and Vanuatau in South Pacific Ocean.
• In India they occur in Gulf of Mannar, PalkBay, Gulf of Kutch and Andaman and Nicobar islands.
• Once abundant in Indian waters, Dugong population has now reduced to about 200 individuals and
is believed to be continuously declining in its number and range.
Threats:
• Despite being legally protected in many countries, the main causes of population decline remain
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• With its long lifespan of 70 years or more, and slow rate of reproduction, the dugong is especially
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vulnerable to extinction.
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o CITES: Appendix I.
• Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change has constituted a ‘Task Force for
Conservation of Dugongs’ to look into the entire gamut of issues related to conservation of dugongs
and implementation of the ‘UNEP/CMS Dugong MoU’.
10.9. Vultures
About the Species
• Vultures are scavenging birds of prey.
• They have been divided into New World vultures, which include the Californian and Andean
condors, and the Old World vultures, which include the White-rumped and Red-headed vultures.
New World vultures are found in North and South America; Old World vultures are found in Europe,
Africa, and Asia.
• There are no vultures in Australia and Antarctica.
• Distinguishing characteristics of most vultures includes a bald head, devoid of normal feathers and
feathery neck. The bare head is supposedly to maintain hygiene while feeding on carcass and also
for thermo regulation.
• Nine species of vultures exist in India of which five belong to the genus Gyps.
• Three Gyps vultures, namely the White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis, Long-billed Vulture Gyps
indicus and Slender-billed Vulture Gyps tenuirostris are residents, and the remaining two, the
Eurasian Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus and Himalayan Griffon Vulture Gyps himalayensis are largely
wintering species.
• Vultures are nature's most efficient scavengers. The Gyps vultures are specialized to feed on the
soft tissue of the large ungulate carcasses. They play a vital role in the ecosystem by cleaning up the
rotten carcasses left in the open. The population of Gyps vultures in the Indian subcontinent has
crashed since 1990s onwards.
• The populations of White-rumped Vulture, Long-billed Vulture and Slender-billed Vulture had
declined by around 97% during the last two decades. Veterinary use of the non-steroidal anti
inflammatory drug 'diclofenac' is the main cause attributed for this drastic population decline.
• Government of India has banned the use of diclofenac in veterinary medicine, has initiated Vulture
Breeding Programme for ex-situ conservation and also enhanced in situ protection of the remaining
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(IUCN)
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Indian Long Indian vulture smaller and less heavily built vulture Critically Endangered.
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Gyps Indicus. The species feeds mostly from carcasses of dead animals
and reached up to the verge of extinction because of
veterinary drug diclofenac
Himalayan Himalayan griffon vulture is one of the two largest old Near Threatened.
Vulture -Gyps world vultures and a true raptor, found along the
Himalayensis Himalayas in India. This huge bird of prey is the largest
and heaviest bird found in the Himalayas of Indian
Subcontinent.
Bearded Vulture Bearded vulture is the only member of the genus Near Threatened
-Gypaetus Gypaetus found in mountainous regions of Himalayas and
Barbatus Ladakh in north India. These bearded vulture species are
also distributed from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh of
India subcontinent.
Slender-Billed Slender-Billed Vulture is one of the critically endangered Critically Endangered
Vulture -Gyps species of old world vulture found along the Sub-
Tenuirostris Himalayan regions of Indian Subcontinent. It has suffered
an extremely rapid population decline, particularly across
the India.
White-Rumped White-Rumped Vulture is a medium-sized vulture and one Critically Endangered. Student Notes:
Vulture -Gyps of the most abundant large bird of prey in the world. This
Bengalensis is the smallest of the Gyps vultures found in India and the
most common vulture found in immense numbers all over
the country.
Cinereous Cinereous vulture is a large raptorial bird found in India Near Threatened.
Vulture - and the member of the family Accipitridae. The cinereous
Aegypius vulture is believed to be the largest true bird of prey in
Monachus the world, found in northern India.
Egyptian Vulture Egyptian vulture is widely distributed species of small old Endangered.
-Neophron world vulture found in the north-west part of India. There
Percnopterus are three widely-recognised subspecies of Egyptian
vulture found in Indian subcontinent.
Red-Headed Red-Headed Vulture is also known as Indian Black Vulture Critically Endangered.
Vulture - found only in the Indian Subcontinent. This medium sized
Sarcogyps vulture has no subspecies found in deciduous forests and
Calvus foothills and river valleys.
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It was designated as the Coordinating Zoo for Vulture Conservation in India by the Central
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Zoo Authority.
10.9.1.2. Vulture Conservation Project 2020-2025
• Uttar Pradesh, Tripura, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu will get a vulture
conservation and breeding centre each, according to the Action Plan for Vulture
Conservation 2020-2025. The new plan has laid out strategies and actions to stem the
decline in vulture population, especially of the three Gyps species:
a) Oriental white-backed vulture (Gyps bengalensis)
b) Slender-billed vulture (Gyps tenuirostris)
c) Long-billed vulture (Gyps indicus)
• This would be done through both ex-situ and in-situ conservation. The plan has also
suggested that new veterinary non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) be tested on
vultures before their commercial release. NSAIDS often poisons cattle whose carcasses the
birds pray on.
o Once the species is lost, there will be no other species to replace it, and that will destabilise
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the ecosystem of the grassland and affect critical biodiversities, as well as blackbucks and
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2. Cheetah
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4. Snow leopard
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3. Which one of the following groups of animals belongs to the category of endangered
species? (2011)
(a) Great Indian Bustard, Musk Deer, Red Panda and Asiatic Wild Ass
(b) Kashmir Stag, Cheetal, Blue Bull and Great Indian Bustard
(c) Snow Leopard, Swamp Deer, Rhesus Monkey and Saras (Crane)
(d) Lion-tailed Macaque, Blue Bull, Hanuman Langur and Cheetal.
Answer: A
4. Other than poaching, what are the possible reasons for the decline in the population of
Ganges River Dolphins? (2014)
1. Construction of dams and barrages on rivers
2. Increase in the population of crocodiles in rivers
5. Recently, for the first time in our country, which of the following States has declared a
particular butterfly as ‘State Butterfly’? (2016)
(a) Arunachal Pradesh (b) Himachal Pradesh
(c) Karnataka (d) Maharashtra
Answer: D
6. In which of the following regions of India are you most likely to come across the `Great
Indian Hornbill’ in its natural habitat? (2016)
(a) Sand deserts of northwest India
(b) Higher Himalayas of Jammu and Kashmir
(c) Salt marshes of western Gujarat
(d) Western Ghats
Answer: D
7. The term M-STRIPES’ is sometimes seen in the news in the context of (2017)
(a) Captive breeding of Wild Fauna
(b) Maintenance of Tiger Reserves
(c) Indigenous Satellite Navigation System
(d) Security of National Highways
Answer: B
8. If you want to see gharials in their natural habitat, which one of the following is the best
place to visit? (2017)
(a) Bhitarkanika Mangroves (b) Chambal River
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Answer: B
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