First to View Cells

-In 1665, Robert Hooke used a microscope to examine a thin slice of cork(dead plant cells)
-What he saw looked like small boxes.

-Hooke is responsible for naming cells

-Hooke called them “CELLS” because they looked like the small rooms that monks lived in called Cells.

Anton van Leeuwenhoek

-In 1673, Leeuwenhoek (a Dutch microscope maker), was first to view organism (living things)
-Leeuwenhoek used a simple, handheld microscope to view pond water & scrapings from his teeth

Beginning of the Cell Theory

-In 1838, a German botanist named Matthias Schleiden concluded that all plants were made of cells
Schleiden is a cofounder of the cell theory.
-In 1839, a German zoologist named Theodore Schwann concluded that all animals were made of cells
Schwann also cofounded the cell theory.
-In 1855, a German medical doctor named Rudolph Virchow observed, under the microscope, cells
dividing He reasoned that all cells come from other pre-existing cells by cell division.

CELL THEORY
-All living things are made of cells.
-Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in an organism (basic unit of life)
-Cells come from the reproduction of existing cells (cell division)

Cells are Diverse…

both in size, shape, and internal organization.

Cell size is limited

Most cells are relatively small due reliance on diffusion of substances in and out of cells
Rate of diffusion affected by
-Surface area available
-Temperature
-Concentration gradient
-Distance

Terms
Cell – the smallest unit that can carry on the processes of life.
Unicellular – consists of only one cell
Multicellular – consists of more than one cell.
Prokaryotes – The first Cells
-Cells that lack a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles
-Includes bacteria
-Simplest type of cell
-Single, circular chromosome

THE STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA

1–1.5 μm wide and 2–6 μm long
Occur in three basic shapes:
-Spherical coccus,
-Rod-shaped bacillus,
-Spiral spirillum (if rigid) or spirochete (if flexible).

Prokaryotic Cells
-Cell wall outside of plasma membrane
-Do contain ribosomes (not membrane-bound organelles)
-Two domains of prokaryotes
Archaea
Bacteria

Prokaryotes
-Nucleoid region (center) contains the DNA
-Surrounded by cell membrane & cell wall (peptidoglycan)
-Contain ribosomes (no membrane) in their cytoplasm to make proteins

BACTERIAL CELL WALLS

-Most bacterial cells are encased by a strong cell wall:
composed of peptidoglycan
Cell walls of plants, fungi, and most protists different
-Archaea lack peptidoglycan

FLAGELLA
-Present in some prokaryotic cells
-May be one or more or none
-Used for locomotion
-Rotary motion propels the cell

Cilia & Flagella

-Function in moving cells, in moving fluids, or in small particles across the cell surface.
-Cilia are shorter and more numerous on cells
-Flagella are longer and fewer (usually 1-3) on cells
Eukaryotes
-Cells that HAVE a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
-Includes protists, fungi, plants, and animals
-More complex type of cells

Eukaryotic Cells
-Compartmentalization
Achieved through use of membrane-bound organelles and endomembrane system
-Possess a cytoskeleton for support and to maintain cellular structure

Contain 3 basic cell structures:

-Nucleus
-Cell Membrane
-Cytoplasm with organelles

Basic structural similarities

1. Nucleoid or nucleus where DNA is located
2. Cytoplasm
-Semifluid matrix of organelles and cytosol
3. Ribosomes
-Synthesize proteins
4. Plasma membrane
-Phospholipid bilayer

Two Main Types of Eukaryotic Cells

-Plant Cell
-Animal Cell

Organelles
-Very small (Microscopic)
-Perform various functions for a cell
-Found in the cytoplasm
-May or may not be membrane-bound

Cell or Plasma Membrane

-Composed of double layer of phospholipids and proteins
-Surrounds outside of ALL cells
-Controls what enters or leaves the cell
-Living layer

Phospholipids
-Heads contain glycerol & phosphate and are hydrophilic (attract water)
-Tails are made of fatty acids and are hydrophobic (repel water)
-Make up a bilayer where tails point inward toward each other
-Can move laterally to allow small molecules (O2, CO2, & H2O to enter)

The Cell Membrane is Fluid

Molecules in cell membranes are constantly moving and changing

Cell Membrane Proteins

-Proteins help move large molecules or aid in cell recognition
-Peripheral proteins are attached on the surface (inner or outer)
-Integral proteins are embedded completely through the membrane

Cell Membrane in Plants

-Lies immediately against the cell wall in plant cells
-Pushes out against the cell wall to maintain cell shape

Cell Wall
-Found outside of the cell membrane
-Nonliving layer
-Supports and protects cell
-Found in plants, fungi, & bacteria

Cytoplasm of a Cell
-Jelly-like substance enclosed by cell membrane
-Provides a medium for chemical reactions to take place
-Contains organelles to carry out specific jobs

Nucleus
-Repository of the genetic information
-Most eukaryotic cells possess a single nucleus

Nuclear envelope
-2 phospholipid bilayers
-Nuclear pores – control passage in and out
-Double membrane surrounding nucleus
-Also called nuclear membrane
Contains nuclear pores for materials to enter & leave nucleus.

In eukaryotes, the DNA is divided into multiple linear chromosomes

-Chromatin is chromosomes plus protein

The Control Organelle – Nucleus

-Controls the normal activities of the cell
-Contains the DNA in chromosomes
-Bounded by a nuclear envelope (membrane) with pores
-Usually the largest organelle
-Each cell has fixed number of chromosomes that carry genes
-Genes control cell characteristics

Inside the Nucleus -

-The genetic material (DNA) is found
-DNA is spread out And appears as CHROMATIN in non-dividing cells
-DNA is condensed & wrapped around proteins forming as CHROMOSOMES in dividing cells

What Does DNA do?

-DNA is the hereditary material of the cell
-Genes that make up the DNA molecule code for different proteins

Nucleolus
-region where ribosomal RNA synthesis takes place
-Inside nucleus
-Disappears when cell divides
-Makes ribosomes that make proteins

Cytoskeleton
- Helps cell maintain cell shape
-Also help move organelles around
- Made of proteins

Centrioles
-Found only in animal cells
-Paired structures near nucleus
-Made of bundle of microtubules

Centrosomes and Centrioles

- In many cells, microtubules grow out from a centrosome near the nucleus
- The centrosome is a “microtubule-organizing center”

Endoplasmic Reticulum – ER
-Network of hollow membrane tubules
-Connects to nuclear envelope & cell membrane
-Functions in Synthesis of cell products & Transport

Two kinds of ER ---ROUGH & SMOOTH

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER)

-Has ribosomes on its surface
-Makes membrane proteins and proteins for export out of cell
-Proteins are made by ribosomes on ER
-They are then threaded into the interior of the Rough ER to be modified and transported surface
Functions of the Smooth ER
-Makes membrane lipids (steroids)
-Regulates calcium (muscle cells)
-Destroys toxic substances (Liver)

Endomembrane System

Includes nuclear membrane connected to ER connected to cell membrane (transport)

-Series of membranes throughout the cytoplasm

-Divides cell into compartments where different cellular functions occur
-One of the fundamental distinctions between eukaryotes and prokaryotes

Ribosomes
-Made of PROTEINS and rRNA
-“Protein factories” for cell
-Join amino acids to make proteins through protein synthesis
Can be attached to Rough ER or Be free (unattached) in the cytoplasm

Golgi Bodies
-Stacks of flattened sacs
-Have a shipping side (cis face) & a receiving side (trans face)
-Receive proteins made by ER
-Transport vesicles with modified proteins pinch off the ends

Look like a stack of pancakes

Modify, sort, & package molecules from ER for storage OR transport out of cell
Lysosomes
-Contain digestive enzymes
-Break down food, bacteria, and worn out cell parts for cells
-Programmed for cell death (APOPTOSIS)
-Lyse & release enzymes to break down & recycle cell parts)

Lysosome Digestion
-Cells take in food by phagocytosis
-Lysosomes digest the food & get rid of wastes

Vacuoles
-Fluid filled sacks for storage
-Small or absent in animal cells
-Plant cells have a large Central Vacuole

-In plants, they store Cell Sap

-Includes storage of sugars, proteins, minerals, lipids, wastes, salts, water, and enzymes.

Mitochondrion
(plural = mitochondria)
-“Powerhouse” of the cell
-Generate cellular energy (ATP)
-More active cells like muscle cells have MORE mitochondria
-Both plants & animal cells have mitochondria

-Surrounded by a DOUBLE membrane

-Has its own DNA
-Folded inner membrane called CRISTAE (increases surface area for more chemical Reactions)
-Interior called MATRIX

Chloroplasts
-Found only in producers (organisms containing chlorophyll)
-Use energy from sunlight to make own food (glucose)
-Energy from sun stored in the Chemical Bonds of Sugars
Surrounded by DOUBLE membrane
-Outer membrane smooth
-Inner membrane modified into sacs called Thylakoids.
-Thylakoids in stacks called Grana & interconnected

Chloroplasts
-Organelles present in cells of plants and some other eukaryotes
-Contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis
-Surrounded by 2 membranes
-Have their own DNA