Professional Documents
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Effective Practices in Early Childhood Education Building A Foundation by Sue Bredekamp
Effective Practices in Early Childhood Education Building A Foundation by Sue Bredekamp
Effective Practices
in Early Childhood
Education
Building a Foundation
Sue Bredekamp
Early Childhood Education Consultant
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Dedication
To Joe Bredekamp, for a lifetime of love, friendship, wonderful memories, and tolerance
of craziness, and to Darby whose unconditional love enriches our lives every day.
About the author
Dr. Sue Bredekamp is an early childhood education specialist from the Washington,
D.C., area who serves as a consultant on developmentally appropriate practice, curricu-
lum, teaching, and teacher education for state and national organizations such as NAEYC,
Head Start, the Council for Professional Recognition, and Sesame Street. From 1981 to
1998, she was Director of Accreditation and Professional Development for NAEYC where
she developed and directed their national accreditation system for early childhood centers
and schools. Dr. Bredekamp is the editor of NAEYC’s best-selling, highly influential publi-
cation, Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs.
Dr. Bredekamp is Chair of the Board of the HighScope Educational Research Foun-
dation. She was a member of the National Research Council’s (NRC) Committee on
Early Childhood Mathematics, which produced a landmark report, Mathematics in Early
Childhood: Paths toward Excellence and Equity. Dr. Bredekamp serves on several advisory
boards and is a frequent keynote speaker and author of numerous books and articles re-
lated to standards for professional practice and teacher education. She has been a visiting
lecturer at Macquarie University in Sydney, Australia; Monash University in Melbourne;
University of Alaska; and University of Hawaii. She holds a PhD in Curriculum and In-
struction from the University of Maryland. The McCormick Center for Early Childhood
Leadership at National Louis University recognized Dr. Bredekamp with its Visionary
Leadership Award in 2014. For 45 years, Dr. Bredekamp has worked for and with young
children toward the goal of improving the quality and effectiveness of early childhood
education programs.
iv
Preface
In the previous editions of this book, I described the challenge of my first day of
teaching preschool in a child care center many years ago. It was the hardest job I have ever
had, primarily because my bachelor’s degree in English did not prepare me for it. I didn’t
know enough about child development, how and what to teach, how to communicate with
families, how to positively guide children’s behavior—the list goes on and on. Feeling com-
pletely incompetent, I seriously thought about not going back the next day. Then I realized
that although I had a choice not to return, the children did not. They deserved a better
teacher than I was at that time. As a result, I continued teaching, went back to school, and
set out to learn as much as possible about child development and how best to teach young
children. And I have been learning ever since. In short, my initial motivation in writing
this book was a personal one—to help ensure that new teachers get off to a better start
than I did and that the children do, too.
In the decades since I entered the early childhood profession, however, there has been
an explosion of new knowledge and research, and a huge increase in public recognition
and support for early education. A great many parents, policy makers, and researchers
now consider early childhood programs essential for fostering school readiness and long-
term success in life. Economists and business leaders consider high-quality child care and
early education a necessary investment in the future of our country. Nobel Prize–winning
economist James Heckman believes that investing in early education is a cost-effective
strategy that will improve educational and health outcomes, strengthen the economy, help
solve America’s social problems, and produce a more capable, productive workforce.
But the power of early education depends on the quality of interactions teachers have
with children, and the effectiveness of their instructional practices. To achieve their po-
tential, children need and deserve highly competent, well-educated teachers. My goal in
writing this book is to help all teachers, whether beginning or continuing their profession-
al journeys, gain access to the exciting new knowledge about child development, engaging
and challenging curriculum content, and effective ways of teaching. Today, our profes-
sion has a deep responsibility to meet the expectations of families, the general public, and
policy makers and to fulfill the promise that has been made to children.
My hope is that every teacher embraces new knowledge as well as the enduring values
of early childhood education, and encounters the sheer joy of teaching young children.
Every child needs and deserves a highly qualified teacher from day one.
v
New to This Edition
This is the first edition of Effective Practices in Early Childhood Education: Building a
Foundation offered in REVELTM.
REVELTM is Pearson’s newest way of delivering our respected content. Fully digital
and highly engaging, REVEL offers an immersive learning experience designed for the
way today’s students read, think, and learn. Enlivening course content with media inter-
actives and assessments, REVEL empowers educators to increase engagement with the
course, and to better connect with students.
REVEL offers:
Dynamic content matched to the way today’s students read, think, and learn
• Integrated Videos and Interactive Media Integrated within the narrative, v ideos
empower students to engage with concepts and take an active role in learning.
REVEL’s unique presentation of media as an intrinsic part of course content brings
the hallmark features of Pearson’s bestselling titles to life.
• Quizzing and Short-Answer Response Opportunities Located throughout
REVEL, quizzing affords students opportunities to check their understanding at
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response formats.
• Chapter Quiz “Demonstrate Your Learning” end-of-chapter multiple-choice ques-
tions allow students to check their understanding on chapter concepts.
vi
• Updated research and new examples of effective practices for children with diverse
abilities, particularly children with autism spectrum disorder.
• Expanded discussion of current research on brain development and executive
function and implications for teaching.
• New artifacts and examples of children’s work, especially from children in the
primary grades.
vii
Intentional Teaching of Young Children
Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education This text builds on the framework of developmentally appropriate practice emphasizing
that effective teachers are intentional, thoughtful, and purposeful in everything they do.
should not be viewed in isolation. All three considerations, in fact, interact with and
influence each other; they are always intertwined in shaping children’s development and 118 Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach
behavior. For example, children all over the world follow a similar developmental pat-
tern when learning language. They all progress from cooing, to babbling, to one-word
utterances, to telegraphic speech (“Daddy up”), to short sentences, and finally to more
complex sentences. However, a wide range of individual variation exists in language Becoming an Intentional Teacher
Intentional teachers know not only what to do with children
acquisition of children who are roughly the same age, because of differences in language
experience as well as developmental variation. At age 3, Joey speaks in three-word ut-
Teaching in the “Zone”
but also why they are doing it and can explain the rationale
Here’s What Happened In my kindergarten, we are to solve the problem, ex-
terances, whereas his same-age cousin, Michael, expounds in paragraphs. Finally, each working on the basic mathematical number operations— plaining each of their steps.
child speaks the language, including the dialect, of his or her own cultural group. Six- adding and subtracting. In our classroom, children work in
theyconversations
select the strategies they do,andand skills challenge students to
to support his understanding and application of subtraction: children learn best in the context of supportive relation-
with children, observes their behavior throughout the day, ships, and I structure interactions in my classroom to in-
1) I set aside 5–10 minutes twice a week to work individ-
and sets up specific tasks to evaluate their skills such as literacy tasks or solving math tentionally support each learner. I do this by: (1) assessing
reflect further
problems on these scenarios.
with counters.
ually with Miguel. Using manipulatives, including an
abacus and small counting trains. Miguel loves trains!
each child’s level of independent performance on a skill,
(2) assessing each child’s level of supported (with help)
As she gets to know her students, she regularly assesses their abilities and in- During this time, I verbally support Miguel’s grouping
performance on a skill, and (3) developing lessons that al-
and counting, using short word problems and number
terests in relation to what she knows from her study of child development, the cur- cards.
low a child to practice in their supported level, until the
child can do the skill independently. I then set the next
riculum goals, and her experiences teaching other 6- and 7-year-olds. She finds that 2) I also intentionally join Miguel and other children in
higher level of skill as the child’s goal skill.
the Home Improvement Store at center time. I intro-
a few children exceed her expectations in reading or social skills, whereas others are duce the concept of “Supply Lists” to the center, using Vygotsky used the term zone of proximal development
significantly behind their peers in some areas. Each child has a unique personality cards with pictures and labels of the different supplies. (ZPD) to describe the child’s skill level when supported by
and profile of abilities, and Frida becomes more aware of these. Children can add nuts, bolts, and tools to their baskets, an adult or more experienced peer. He believed that by as-
according to the list, and return (subtract) things they sessing only what a child knows, a teacher does not have
Neela has Down syndrome, and Frida has already met with her parents and the no longer need for their building projects. As Miguel information on how to support the child’s progress. But by
team of special education professionals who create and implement an individualized purchases and returns items for his building project, I assessing a child’s ZPD, I am able to structure for progres-
support and make explicit his adding and subtracting, sive development and learning.
educational plan for her. After a few weeks, Frida becomes concerned that another pointing out to Miguel how successfully he uses math
child, Almonzo, might have an undiagnosed language delay. In the case of the six for his project. Reflection How did this teacher use assessment to
3) Finally, during the morning math challenge, I pair guide her intentional teaching? What other strategies could
children whose home languages are not ones Frida knows, she recognizes that she Miguel with a friend who understands subtraction con- she have used to teach Miguel in his Zone of Proximal
must take extra steps to find out about them. Using community volunteers and, in cepts well, and is very verbal. I have them work together Development?
one case, a paid translator, Frida connects with the families of her students to build
relationships and to learn what capabilities the children exhibit in their homes and
communities.
gets over the last hurdle herself. Ave gives him a big smile as she pushes off with her feet
So we see that in meeting the children, Frida seamlessly draws on her knowledge zone of proximal development
and makes a circle around the room.
(ZPD) The distance between
of child development and learning, as well as her knowledge of them as individuals and the actual developmental level By giving Ave “a leg up,” Khari helped her accomplish a goal that she couldn’t do on
members of cultural groups. Precisely because children are so different and their abilities an individual has achieved (her her own, but could achieve with his assistance. Vygotsky (1978) identified this as the
independent level of problem zone of proximal development (ZPD)—the distance between the actual developmental
vary so greatly, Frida will need to draw from a wide repertoire of teaching strategies to solving) and the level of po- level an individual has achieved (their independent level of problem solving) and the
help them achieve developmentally appropriate goals. tential development she could level of potential development they could achieve with adult guidance or through
achieve with adult guidance
So far we have described the areas of knowledge that teachers consider in making or through collaboration with
collaboration with other children. The assistance, guidance, and direction teachers pro-
decisions about developmentally appropriate practice—what teachers need to know and other children.
vide children in their ZPD is called scaffolding. To gain deeper understanding of how
children learn in their ZPD, read the feature Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Teaching
think about. Now we turn to the work of the teachers—what do early childhood teachers scaffolding The assistance,
in the “Zone.”
do? What are the dimensions of practice that describe the teacher’s role? guidance, and direction teach-
ers provide children to help
Social Construction of Knowledge Scaffolding does not mean that teachers
✓ Check Your Understanding 3.3: Developmentally Appropriate Decision Making them accomplish a task or
learn a skill (within their ZPD)
that they could not achieve on
control or shape learning, as behaviorists believe (see p. 124). Instead, children learn by
solving problems collaboratively with the teacher’s support or by working with peers,
their own. which is called co-construction, or social construction of knowledge.
Effective teachers are informed decision makers who adapt
The Complex Role of the Teacher
According to the NAEYC’s (2009) guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice,
for individual differences, including for children with dis-
the complex job of an early childhood teacher has five interrelated dimensions: (1)
creating a caring community of learners, (2) teaching to enhance learning and devel-
abilities and special needs. Check Your Understanding
opment, (3) planning curriculum to achieve important goals, (4) assessing children’s features engage students in assessing their own learning.
learning and development, and (5) establishing reciprocal relationships with families.
Some questions involve critical thinking about a complex
teaching situation or issue confronting the early childhood
Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 99
field. TheseKey
quizzes
Terms appear only in REVELTM and include
feedback.
_C03.indd 84 10/8/15 11:56 AM ■ age appropriate ■ culture ■ intentional teachers ■ push-down curriculum
■ assessment ■ curriculum ■ learning centers ■ reciprocal relationships
■ caring community of ■ developmentally appro- ■ position statement ■ scientifically based
learners priate practice (DAP) curriculum
■ culturally appropriate ■ individually appropriate
Intentional teachers must reflect and apply their knowl- Readings and Websites
edge using a broad repertoire of effective teaching strat- Carter, M., & Curtis, D. (2014). Designs for living and National Association for the Education of Young
learning: Transforming early childhood environments. Children
egies. Demonstrate Your Learning features at the end St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.
Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (Eds.). (2009). Devel-
NAEYC’s website has a special section on resources for
developmentally appropriate practice and play, plus cop-
of each chapter require students to practice these skills. opmentally appropriate practice in early childhood
programs serving children from birth through age 8
ies of all their position statements.
ZERO to THREE—National Center for Infants,
This end-of-chapter quiz appears only in REVELTM and (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for the
Education of Young Children.
Toddlers, and Families
This website provides resources and practical tips for
includes feedback.
Epstein, A. S. (2014). The intentional teacher: Choosing working with infants, toddlers, and their families.
the best strategies for young children’s learning (Rev.
ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for the Edu-
cation of Young Children.
ASCD Whole Child Initiative
This website provides resources promoting elementary
education that supports all areas of children’s develop-
ment and learning.
viii
Current Research on Effective Practices
In an era of Common Core State Standards and Early Learning standards, accountability,
and rapid change in the field, the text makes research understandable and meaningful for
students and illustrates the connections between child development, curriculum content,
assessment, and intentional teaching.
Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 449
What Works
Teaching STEM to Dual Language Learners
Considerable attention is paid to research on how dual language
learners acquire English and learn to read. At times, there is an as-
graders used to interpret their graphs in
Figure 13.1.
What Works features present research-based practices in
action, including descriptions of demonstrated effective
sumption that because mathematics is about numbers and quan- Problem solving is playing a larger role in
tity, language is less of a barrier. However, mathematics itself is today’s curriculum due to the Common Core standards, but word
a language, and as we have seen, math talk is what makes its ab- problems complicate the challenge of math instruction for dual
move toward “both/and” thinking. Isaac brings the teacher the song card and then hood program. As is clearburgeoning from Isaac’s friendships.
case and by The class uses Skype to com-
Yao ofisthea Chinese speaker who doesn’t talk at all in
points to the picture water table. His teacher contrast Tara’s experience,municate with children’s
developmentally appropri-relatives in other parts of the
Culture Lens models, “I want preschool.
“Water table.” His
to play at the.
won’t
He is. .isolated
playproud
teacher, with of
.” Isaacfrom
him.his His
says,the ate
other
teacher knows
increasing
children
practice
successful
who the necessary
provides
thatinclusion
country orfoundation
without in theincluding
world. Within
program.native
for hisa few weeks, all the children,
But individually
English speakers, enjoy helping each
Understanding and Responding to Code verbal skills, givessocial
Switching him ainteraction,
hug and says, his “Off
English
you skills won’t develop.
go appropriate She are
adaptations also explore
other essential for children
different languages and learn together.
to the water table.” loansWhenhisIsaac’s
familymother
an iPad andhim
picks with the
withhelp of a trans-
disabilities and other special needs.
lator shows him a digital storytelling app to create a Children all over the world speak multiple languages. The
Code switching is the ability to understand and use both using the same strategies that promote language learning
story about his family with photos and narration in both opportunity to become bilingual or multilingual awaits
the commonly accepted version of English and the home in all children: listening and responding in a meaningful
language or dialect. When children are learning a second English
way, using real objects and nonverbal cues, Chinese. When he shares the story with the every child in America if schools take advantage of young
andintentionally
language, they often code switch, usually beginning a teaching new words, and extendingother conversations
children, they
withrealize that Yao has an interesting children’s inborn ability to learn language and the afford-
sentence in one language and then switching to the other quietly with
questions life andAseveral
a puzzle or pegboard.
and ideas. secondofgrader
them decide
loves totoread
use and
the spends all of herable,
app to create free technological resources now available.
as in: “I drew a picture de mi madre” or “Mi mano es stories about
time with abilingual
Sometimes book, while
teachersanother
think that they themselves.
struggles with
can reading but looks forward to math because
sup- Sources: Digital Story Helps Dual Language Learner Connect
dirty.” Code switching is not limited to children. In fact,
bilingual people of all ages alternate between languages
it’s her
port dualbest subject.
language learning by alternating languages
Kara’s kindergarten includes speakers of four different
with Classmates, by D. Bates, no date, Washington, DC: National
themselves.
The term Again, the opposite appropriate
individually is true. Children’s brains
refers to teachers aboutAssociation for the Education of Young Children, retrieved August
depending on the setting and the topic of conversation.
will automatically listen and respond home languages, some
to the language of whomusing whatarrived
are newly they know
immi- the individually
27, 2014,
appropriate
from http://www.naeyc.org/technology/digital-story-
Many bilingual individuals find that they can best ex- personality, strengths, interests,
grants. and abilities
She
they know best and tune out the other one. To promote relies of
on each individual
technology to child
create in
an the group
accessible to adapt Information about the strengths,
press their feelings and personal thoughts in their native helps-dual-language-learner;
interests, abilities, and“Using
needs Technology as a Teaching
for and
dual be responsive
language development, to bilingual
individual
environment variation.
teachers forcan Consider,
allread
the childrenfor instance,
as they two
acquire tricycle riders:
sufficient Tool for Dual Language Learners
language. of each individual child inin
thePreschool through Grade 3,”
The fearless
books in each rider maybut
language need more
should
English careful
do to
sonavigatesupervision
at separatethe school.to prevent injury,
Kara posts whileand
pictures the warier
by K. N. group
Nemeth
In the past, it was assumed that code switching meant times. that enables teachers2013,
and F. S. Simon, to Young Children, 68(1),
child may need extra encouragement and support
labels in various to develop
languages (in somehiscases
large motor skills. Similar-
with phonetic 48–52. adapt to and be responsive to
that children were confused or incompetent. But now we
know that the opposite is true: children are able to sepa-
ly, some children
Encouraging childrenwilltoneed
code enriched
switch and experiences
respondingto accelerate their language development, individual variation.
positively
while a few honorsmay theneed
language system support
individual that they toalready
continue to build on their precocious reading
rate the languages in their brains and apply the differ-
possess and helps them adapt to different communica-
ent rules of grammar of each language. Code switching ability. A withdrawn, timid child may need a great deal of emotional support to cope with
tion requirements in different situations. And it also
is actually a sign of children’s growing communicative life’s challenges, while another needs helpbecause
controlling aggression to make friends.
respects and supports their cultural identity
competence. They are using all they know to communi-
Withand
language the culture
individual differenceslinked.
are inextricably that exist,
Teach-teachers clearly cannot expect all children
cate as clearly as they can.
in ashould
ers groupalways
to learn theasame
create warm,thing
positivein classroom
the same way at the same time. Even when the
So what should teachers do about code switching? First, climate in which children feel safe
teacher introduces a concept or reads a book to express them-
to a whole group, each child will take away
they should expect code switching as a normal aspect selves. Capable code switchers acquire the ability to
of dual language learning. The most important thing is something
think about different
their own fromuse ofthe learning
language, experience.
which serves Therefore, to help children progress,
not to correct children when they mix languages. Cor- them well in other learning situations and has long-
recting children’s language attempts sends a signal that lasting positive effects on language, cognition, and so-
they’ve done something wrong. They may stop trying to cial development.
communicate in order to avoid making the “mistake” of
code switching. Source: Code Switching: Why It Matters and How to Respond, by
National Center on Cultural and Linguistic Responsiveness, no
Instead of focusing on children’s “errors,” teachers date, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human
should focus on understanding the child’s message. They Services, Office of Head Start. Retrieved January 26, 2015, from
should view code switching as a strength. As always, http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/cultural-linguistic
teachers should be good language models themselves, /fcp/docs/code-switching.pdf.
• Current research findings, such as effective strategies for teaching dual language learn-
ers or children with autism spectrum disorder, are brought to life and made meaningful
by connections to classroom and community examples.
• The terms and definitions used in this text contribute to establishing a shared v ocabulary
for all of those in and entering the field.
• Approximately 40% of the references are from 2012 and beyond.
ix
Connections between Curriculum and
Child Development
Unlike many early childhood texts that focus on child development only, this text shows
how child development and curriculum content knowledge are connected.
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 383
Developmental Continuum
Oral Language
Age of Child Developmental Expectations
In the Developmental Continuum feature, the text provides Birth to about
8 months
• Communicate through behaviors rather than words; signal distress by crying. Caregivers
need to interpret babies’ sounds and gestures.
• Chapters 12 to 15 help early childhood teachers understand right from the start
that there is content in the curriculum for young children. They describe the goals
for young children’s learning and development that predict success in school and
life. Each of these chapters includes examples of effective strategies such as teach-
ing children of diverse abilities in inclusive classrooms or ways to promote dual
language learning.
Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 31
Promoting Play
Addressing Threats to Children’s Play
A new feature, Promoting Play, presents new research on the
Pediatricians and psychologists agree that too many
children today experience high levels of unrelent-
important role of play in development and effective strategies
In an attempt to get children ready for school and
protect them from injury, early childhood programs
ing stress. Factors such as poverty and violence are
the primary sources, but stress affects the lives of
all children to some extent. Teachers today report
to help children learn through play or protect their right to play.
may actually be contributing to children’s stress by
minimizing children’s large muscle activity and child-
initiated play time. Because children spend so much
that more children are aggressive and disruptive as
a result of stressful events. Increasing numbers of
These features address play across the full age range, from birth
time in early childhood programs and school, it may
be their only opportunity to have physical activity or
Continuity and Change deems it unimportant. Therefore, you will find a discussion of
One overarching trend always affecting education is continuity and change. As the field
expands and changes occur in response to new political and economic realities, many
longtime early childhood professionals are concerned that the fundamental values of the
play in every chapter of this book.
• The emphasis on implementing effective curriculum reflects current trends such
field will be lost. Development, including development of professions, is characterized by
both continuity and change. In this book we describe how the fundamental values of early
childhood education can be retained and enhanced (thus maintaining continuity with the
important tenets of the past), while also presenting what is known from new research
as the goal of aligning prekindergarten and primary education, NAEYC accredita-
about effective teaching practices for all children. Some ways of thinking and practicing
should be cherished and held onto, whereas others may need to be updated or abandoned.
tion and CAPE professional preparation standards, and enhanced expectations for
teacher qualifications as described in the 2015 report, Transforming the Workforce
for Children Birth through Age 9: A Unifying Foundation by the Institute of Medicine
and the National Research Council.
x
Acknowledgments
Over more than four decades in early childhood education, I have had the
privilege of working with and learning from countless friends, colleagues, teachers, and
children. This book would not have been possible without the help and encouragement of
the following people:
My deepest appreciation goes to Kathleen Cranley Gallagher, my collaborator on this
edition, who revised Chapters 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 14, and 15. Kate’s vast experience with chil-
dren, with and without disabilities, as well as her research on children’s social-emotional
development and mental health greatly inform this edition. Kate contributed research and
effective practices on early intervention, teaching children with autism spectrum disorder,
and other cutting-edge topics. Without Kate’s help, I can’t imagine completing this work
in a timely fashion.
I especially wish to thank Carol Copple, with whom I have collaborated on Devel-
opmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs for several decades, and
who contributed features as well as invaluable assistance in conceptualizing aspects of the
book. Thanks also to Laura Colker for her overwhelming generosity, sharing of ideas, and
gracious support.
I want to acknowledge Carol Brunson Day for teaching me so much about diver-
sity, anti-bias education, and cultural influences on development. Her work contributed
greatly to the Culture and Language Lens features and Chapter 6.
Thank you to Gail E. Joseph, who was especially helpful on the first edition, and many
of her contributions are still present in Chapters 5 and 14 and the Including All Children
lenses.
Thanks to my longtime friend Kay M. Albrecht, who contributed to Chapter 15 and
provided numerous examples from her extensive classroom experience.
I wish to thank Linda Espinosa and Luis Hernandez for helping ensure that the book
reflects the most current research and practical examples for teaching dual language
learners.
Close colleagues whose wisdom and encouragement have educated and sustained me
for decades include Marilyn Smith, J. D. Andrews, Barbara Willer, and Barbara Bowman.
My deepest gratitude goes to Sharon Lynn Kagan for writing the foreword to this edi-
tion. The debt is never paid to the late Carol Seefeldt, who taught the first early childhood
course I ever took and mentored me through my dissertation. I hope that my work con-
tinues to reflect her vision.
A sincere thank you and acknowledgment of support to Arlington Public Schools
(APS) in Arlington, Virginia. Those assisting in the effort include: Arlington Public
Schools administrative personnel Regina Van Horne, Lisa Stengle, and Linda Erdos;
K. W. Barrett Elementary principal, Mr. Dan Redding; and K. W. Barrett instructional
staff Joshua McLaughlin, Anastasia Erickson, Emily Sonenshine, Stephanie Shaefer, Judy
Concha, Jennifer Flores, Elizabeth Jurkevics, and Richard Russey. Also, a big thanks to
those students and their parents who allowed us to use the student artwork and artifacts
found in this book.
I am also grateful to the many other schools, teachers, and administrators who
welcomed me as an observer, shared examples, and contributed artifacts, including:
Cathy Polanski, Second Grade, Arcola Elementary School; Hoaliku Drake Preschool,
Kamehameha Schools Community-Based Early Childhood Education; the Center
for Young Children at the University of Maryland; The Shoenbaum Family Center in
Columbus, Ohio, including Anneliese Johnson; Wickliffe Progressive Community School
and the Jentgen family; Linden, New Jersey, Public Schools; Far Hills Country Day School
in Far Hills, New Jersey; the HighScope Demonstration Preschool in Ypsilanti, Michigan;
and Easter Seals Blake Children’s Achievement Center in Tucson, Arizona.
I continue to be indebted to Julie Peters, my editor at Pearson, for contributing her
wealth of knowledge about early childhood teacher education, and her unwavering s upport
for my work. I also wish to thank Linda Bishop for leading me through the d evelopment
xi
of an Interactive eText for the first time. Thanks also for the creative contributions to the
first edition of Max Effenson Chuck and Kelly Villella Canton.
My life and work continue to be inspired by Patty Smith Hill, founder of NANE,
whose vision for early childhood education laid the foundation for NAEYC’s commitment
to developmentally appropriate practice.
I would also like to thank the many reviewers who contributed to the development
of this book. They are: Margaret Charlton, Tidewater Community College; Jody Eberly,
The College of New Jersey; Amy Howell, Central Oregon Community College; Claire
Lenz, St. Joseph’s College; Marilyn Roseman, Mount Aloysius College; and Lois Silvernail,
Spring Hill College.
Instructor Supplements
The following instructor tools supplement, support, and reinforce the content presented
throughout the text. All supplements are available for download for instructors who adopt
this text. Go to http://www.pearsonhighered.com, click “Educators,” register for access,
and download files. For more information, contact your Pearson representative.
• Online Instructor’s Manual (013402687X). The Instructor’s Resource Manual pro-
vides chapter-by-chapter tools to use in class. Lecture or discussion outlines, teach-
ing strategies, in-class activities, student projects, key term definitions, and helpful
resources will reinforce key concepts and applications and keep students engaged.
• Online Test Bank (0134026756). These multiple-choice and essay questions tied to
each chapter provide instructors the opportunity to assess student understanding
of the chapter content. An answer key is provided.
• Online PowerPointTM Slides (0134026829). Each slide reinforces key concepts and
big ideas presented throughout the text.
• TestGen (013402673X). This powerful test generator contains the same items that
are in the Online Test Bank, but you may add or revise items. Assessments may be
created for print or testing online. You install TestGen on your personal computer
(Windows or Macintosh) and create your own tests for classroom testing and for
other specialized delivery options, such as over a local area network or on the web.
xii
Foreword
Like all Sue Bredekamp’s work, Effective Practices in Early Childhood Education:
Building a Foundation has become a landmark. Since its publication, it has been
the major benchmark against which all volumes related to early childhood practice are
measured, domestically and internationally. Indeed, it has been a driving force, not only
guiding practice and scholarship, but also serving as a seminal vehicle to codify and
chronicle the impact of history, the experiences of practitioners and leaders, and the im-
pact of policy on the changing field of early education. In so doing, it has converted static
assumptions and understandings about early childhood pedagogy into living, dynamic,
and far more intentional practices.
Since its appearance, Effective Practices has been widely read and used to guide early
childhood teacher preparation and practice. Its popularity has placed a special burden on
the work; it, like the field, cannot remain stagnant or isolated from changes in the social
context. Precisely because it is so well used and because the field is changing so rapidly, a
new edition is necessary. Consider for example, the impact that the emergence of the K–12
Common Core has had on early education: whether one favors or disparages the Common
Core ideologically, it is here to stay and is having profound impacts on American educa-
tion generally, and American early education specifically. In addition, the revitalization
of an emphasis on continuity and transition, emerging currently in the form of the “P–3
Movement,” is altering the way early educators conceptualize and actualize the linkages
between pre-primary and primary education. Within the birth to 5-year-old component
of early childhood, a renewed emphasis on supporting the infrastructure through the Ear-
ly Learning Challenge Fund, with its focus on Quality Rating and Improvement Systems,
standards, and assessments, is precipitating dramatic changes in the way early childhood
education services are being designed and delivered. Finally, new research related to the
way children learn and process information is calling forth compelling pedagogical align-
ments that address the importance of dual language learners, executive functioning, early
mathematics, and learning progressions.
With the early childhood field changing so rapidly, time-honored questions are be-
ing catapulted to new prominence, often begging for urgent response: What should be
the balance between cognitive development and other domains historically important to
early childhood? What should be the balance between a focus on learning processes and
content? What should be the balance between teacher-guided, intentional pedagogy and
child-guided experiential learning? Note that none of these questions is new and that each
recognizes the critical importance of balance.
Indeed, the majesty of this volume is that it, too, understands and addresses the im-
portance of the contemporary context and the balance in perspective and practice it de-
mands. In this volume, Bredekamp takes a long-haul view; she renders solid definitions
of the field, situating the reader firmly in reality, and provides one of the most thorough
historical overviews available. But Bredekamp does not stop there, nor does she skirt the
tough issues, the new research, or the new demands being placed on early educators.
Rather, with clarity and grace, she systematically addresses them all, setting before the
field a rich compendium of research, firsthand and extremely well-cultivated practice,
and ever-wise counsel. Readers will be impressed by the currency, practicality, and clear
intentionality of the volume, evoking the same from those who regard it with the care with
which it was written.
Of particular importance in this ever-changing and increasingly connected world
is the role of culture and language. Bredekamp addresses these issues with honesty and
integrity, treating readers to a richly nuanced understanding of the important roles of
each in the development of young children. Cautiously, she reminds us that the words
“developmentally appropriate”—although bywords of the profession—must be deeply
contextualized in order to be understood and mastered. Indeed, in discussing how to
balance developmentally, individually, and contextually appropriate practices, Bredekamp
brilliantly notes that “a child with a disability acts like a magnifying glass on the
xiii
evelopmental appropriateness of an early childhood classroom.” In turn, early educators
d
must regard this seminal edition as the best possible lens through which to see and enlarge
what matters most in our field; with wisdom and prescience, it sheds all the light necessary
to advance our evolving, joyous profession and our critically important work on behalf of
children, their families, and their countries.
xiv
Brief Contents
Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach 100
Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development. . . . . 1
00
xv
Table of Contents
xvi
Johann Pestalozzi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Friedrich Froebel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Maria Montessori. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Early Childhood Movements in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
The Kindergarten Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Progressive Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
The Nursery School Movement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
The Child Care Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
A Wider View of Early Childhood History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
African Americans in Early Childhood History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Native American Early Childhood History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Latino Early Childhood History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Bringing the Stories Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
The Story of Head Start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
The Prekindergarten Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Building on a Tradition of Excellence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
xvii
Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach 100
Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning
and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Understanding Development and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
What Is Development? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
What Is Learning?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
The Role of Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
The Relationship between Theory, Research, and Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Why Study Child Development and Learning?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Brain Development and Implications for Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
How the Brain Promotes Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Implications for Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Implications for Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Child Development Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Human Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Maslow’s Self-Actualization Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Piaget and Cognitive Developmental Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Vygotsky and Sociocultural Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory of Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Learning Theories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
B. F. Skinner and Behaviorism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Albert Bandura and Social Cognitive Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
The Role of Play in Development and Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Types of Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
The Benefits of Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Play and Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Connecting Theory and Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
xviii
Individual Differences in Ability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
The Language of Early Childhood Special Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
What Teachers Should Know about Children with Disabilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Seeing Children with Disabilities as Individuals: The Case of Autism . . . . . . . . . 155
What Teachers Should Know about Legal Requirements
for Children with Disabilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Embracing Natural Learning Environments and Inclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Effective Practices for Children with Diverse Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Work on a Team. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Assess Young Children of Diverse Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Plan Individualized Instructional Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
xix
Communication with Families. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Barriers to Effective Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Effective Communication Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Family Engagement in Programs and Schools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Benefits of Family Involvement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Opportunities for Meaningful Family Engagement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Community Partnerships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
A Framework for Building Partnerships with Families. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Clarify Preferences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Communicate Preferences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Negotiate Successfully. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Demonstrate Willingness to Learn and Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Ch. 1: Addressing Threats to Children’s Play����������31 Ch. 10: Shaping Curriculum to Connect with
Children’s Needs and Interests������������������315
Ch. 2: The Image of the Child and the Role of Play�����42
Ch. 11: Using Assessment to Inform Teaching ������365
Ch. 3: Does Developmentally Appropriate
Practice = Play?������������������������������������������73 Ch. 12: Teaching the Alphabet and Phonological
Awareness������������������������������������������������399
Ch. 4: Incorporating Playful Exercise into the
Curriculum������������������������������������������������121 Ch. 13: Integrating Physical Science in Block
Building����������������������������������������������������446
Ch. 5: Supporting Pretend Play for Children with
Disabilities������������������������������������������������158 Ch 14: Integrating Social Studies Content to Meet
Standards ������������������������������������������������477
Ch. 6: African American Children and Play����������186
Ch 15: Teaching Fine-Motor Skills ������������������������501
Ch. 7: Get Outside and Play!��������������������������������223
Ch 16: Advocating for Effective Inclusion of Children
Ch. 8: All Can Play����������������������������������������������247
with Disabilities������������������������������������������531
Ch. 9: Teaching and Learning through
Transmedia Play����������������������������������������303
Ch. 10: Involving Children in Planning Their Play������329 What Works
Ch. 11: Play as an Assessment Context ����������������361 Ch. 1: Increasing School Readiness for All Children������25
Ch. 12: How Play Supports Language and Literacy Ch. 2: Developing Mathematical Skills with
Development��������������������������������������������403 Unit Blocks ������������������������������������������������53
Ch. 13: Digital Play and Traditional Play ����������������451 Ch. 3: How Both Teacher-Directed and Child-Initiated
Ch. 14: Learning to Get Along Using Board Games ������473 Experiences Promote Learning��������������������90
Ch. 15: Teaching Sports Skills in Primary Grades ������496 Ch. 4: Exposing Babies to Different Languages������107
Ch. 16: Resolving an Ethical Dilemma about Play������530 Ch. 5: Principles of Universal Design ������������������162
Ch. 6: Making Education Culturally Compatible������191
Ch. 7: Father-Friendly Practices��������������������������229
Becoming an Intentional Teacher Ch. 8: Teaching Emotional Literacy����������������������257
Ch. 1: Being Purposeful and Playful����������������������15 Ch. 9: Reciprocal Teaching����������������������������������293
Ch. 2: Expanding Children’s Experience����������������55 Ch. 10: Using Tools of the Mind to Close the
Ch. 3: Expanding Thinking and Communication Achievement Gap��������������������������������������332
Skills����������������������������������������������������������77 Ch. 11: Using Technology to Assess Learning��������371
Ch. 4: Teaching in the “Zone”������������������������������118 Ch. 12: Dialogic Reading ��������������������������������������389
Ch. 5: Individualizing Group Time������������������������167 Ch. 13: Teaching STEM to Dual Language
Ch. 6: Responding to Cultural Differences������������199 Learners ��������������������������������������������������449
xxv
Developmental Continuum/Learning Trajectory Ch. 14: Fostering Friendships in the Inclusive
Classroom������������������������������������������������465
Ch. 12: Oral Language������������������������������������������383
Ch. 15: Nutrition and Children with Developmental
Ch. 12: Second Language Learning ����������������������392
Disabilities������������������������������������������������513
Ch. 12: Early Literacy��������������������������������������������396
Ch. 12: Literacy in Kindergarten and Primary Culture Lens
Grades������������������������������������������������������405
Ch. 2: Early Childhood Education through the
Ch. 13: Cognitive Development������������������������������425
Lens of Non-Western Culture����������������������57
Ch. 14: Social-Emotional Development in Infants
Ch. 3: The Role of Culture in Development������������83
and Toddlers ��������������������������������������������461
Ch. 4: The Effect of Culture on Research and
Ch. 14: Social-Emotional Learning in 3- through
Theory������������������������������������������������������104
5-Year-Olds ����������������������������������������������462
Ch. 5: Responding to Cultural and Individual
Ch. 14: Social-Emotional Learning in the Primary
Differences ����������������������������������������������147
Grades������������������������������������������������������464
Ch. 7: Developing Partnerships with Latino
Ch. 15: Gross-Motor Skills from Birth through
Families����������������������������������������������������216
Age 8��������������������������������������������������������491
Ch. 8: Helping Each Child Adapt to School����������250
Ch. 15: Fine-Motor Skills from Birth through
Age 8��������������������������������������������������������498 Ch. 12: Understanding and Responding to Code
Switching��������������������������������������������������393
Ch. 13: Finger Counting in Cultural Context ����������432
Including All Children Ch. 14: Learning about Cross-Cultural Similarities
Ch. 1: What Does Inclusion Mean?��������������������������8 through the Milestones Project������������������476
Ch. 2: Early Childhood Special Education in Historical Ch. 15: Cultural Influences on Gross-Motor Movement
Perspective ������������������������������������������������63 and Development��������������������������������������492
Ch. 8: When to Teach Social and Emotional Skills258 Ch. 6: Using Technology to Teach Dual Language
Learners ��������������������������������������������������192
Ch. 9: Project DATA: A High-Quality Comprehensive
Early Intervention Program for Children with Ch. 9: Teachable Moments with Dual Language
Autism Spectrum Disorders����������������������287 Learners ��������������������������������������������������297
Ch. 10: Individualized Education Plans: Meeting Chil- Ch. 10: Curriculum Approaches for Dual Language
dren’s Individual Needs����������������������������339 Learners ��������������������������������������������������317
Ch. 11: Individually Appropriate Assessment Ch. 11: Involving Parents in Assessment of Dual
Practices��������������������������������������������������359 Language Learners������������������������������������357
Ch. 13: Science Exploration����������������������������������448 Ch. 12: Teaching Dual Language Learners ������������394
xxvi
Tables—Effective Practices Ch. 11: Methods of Recording Assessment Information:
Advantages and Disadvantages ����������������370
Ch. 1: NAEYC Early Childhood Program Standards������20
Ch. 12: Improving Teacher–Child Conversations������387
Ch. 4: Erikson’s Stages of Personal and Social
Development��������������������������������������������109 Ch. 13: Scientific Inquiry Processes in Children������445
Ch. 4: Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development����115 Ch. 13: Effective Science Teaching Strategies��������447
Ch. 4: Comparing Theories of Child Development����130 Ch. 14: Levels of Social Play����������������������������������467
Ch. 4: Principles of Development and Learning to Ch. 14: Social Studies Themes and Concepts��������475
Guide Practice������������������������������������������134 Ch. 14: Geography Education Standards����������������479
Ch. 5: Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences������148 Ch. 14: Teaching Early Economics ������������������������479
Ch. 5: Some Types of Exceptionality��������������������154 Ch. 15: Phases of Motor Development ������������������490
Ch. 7: Characteristics of Family Systems��������������210 Ch. 15: Effective Strategies: Gross-Motor Skills from
Ch. 7: Planning and Conducting Family Birth through Age 5����������������������������������494
Conferences����������������������������������������������226 Ch. 15: Effective Strategies: Gross-Motor Skills
Ch. 7: Strategies for Engaging Families����������������228 in the Primary Grades ������������������������������495
Ch. 8: What a Caring Community Looks Like��������249 Ch. 15: Effective Strategies: Fine-Motor Skills in
Infants and Toddlers���������������������������������499
Ch. 8: Strategies for Teaching Conflict Resolution����259
Ch. 15: Effective Strategies: Fine-Motor Skills in
Ch. 8: Effective Teaching and Intervention
Preschool and Kindergarten����������������������500
Strategies for Boys������������������������������������265
Ch. 15: Effective Strategies: Perceptual-Motor
Ch. 9: Effective Teaching Strategies ��������������������279
Development from Birth to Age 8��������������503
Ch. 9: Learning Centers and Suggested Materials ����295
Ch. 16: Considerations for Infant/Toddler
Ch. 10: Continuum of Curriculum Approaches Teachers ��������������������������������������������������520
and the Teacher’s Role������������������������������314
Ch. 16: Considerations for Preschool Teachers������522
Ch. 10: Components of Effective Curriculum����������316
Ch. 16: Considerations for Kindergarten
Ch. 11: Matching Purpose and Types of Teachers ��������������������������������������������������524
Assessment����������������������������������������������353
Ch. 16: Considerations for Primary Grade
Ch. 11: Effective Assessment Practices������������������354 Teachers ��������������������������������������������������526
Ch. 11: Learning to Observe����������������������������������362 Ch. 16: Recognizing Potential Signs of Child
Ch. 11: Methods of Gathering Assessment Information: Abuse ������������������������������������������������������533
Advantages and Disadvantages ����������������364
1
1 Continuity and Change in
Early Childhood Education
Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1.1 Define early childhood education.
1.2 Describe the career options of early childhood educators and the dimensions
of intentional, effective teaching.
1.3 Explain high-quality early childhood education and how it is measured.
1.4 Report research about the positive effects of early childhood education.
1.5 Analyze the current trends affecting early childhood education.
© Kali9/E+/Getty Images
Case Study
A
t Cresthaven Primary School, teachers, children, and family members
of all generations are viewing children’s work and sharing memories
during the year-end celebration. This public school serves children
from age 3 to grade 3, through a partnership with Reed Child Development Center nearby. The Reed Center
provides state-funded preschool classrooms for 3- and 4-year-olds who will attend Cresthaven as well as before-
and after-school care and child care for infants and toddlers.
The preschoolers are in awe of the “big school” where they will attend kindergarten and are excited to see their work
displayed in the hallway. “Look, Mommy! Here’s my painting of the yellow fish,” cries 4-year-old Amber as she tugs on her
mother’s hand. “See where I wrote my name. And here’s Brenda’s picture. She’s my new best friend.” Amber’s mother
smiles and tries to read what her daughter wrote: “I lk fsh.” The teacher, Ms. Engels, comes up and says, “Amber knows
a lot about writing and letters. She can write her name, and she is starting to write the consonants she hears in words.”
For several years, Cresthaven School has been involved with its neighbors in a community garden project.
In each class, the teachers connect the larger curriculum—especially science and social studies goals—to
aspects of the garden project. Six-year-old Sergio and his grandmother walk down the hall to find the list of all the
meals the kindergartners prepared with the vegetables they harvested. He exclaims, “And tonight, we get to eat
strawberries!” Meanwhile, first-grader Mathias quietly explains to some parents, “Me and my friends made this
graph. It shows the vegetables the kids liked most.” Third-grader Carola describes her class project to her father.
“You’ll like this, Dad. For social studies, we’re figuring out where food comes from and why it costs so much.”
The second-grade teacher, Ms. George, gets everyone’s attention. “Our class is going to present their video of
the garden project in 15 minutes.” Seven-year-old Kelsey takes 75-year-old Mrs. Carrero by the hand and invites
her to see the show. The children share most of the food raised in the garden with elderly neighbors such as
Mrs. Carrero. “I’ll show you the chapter book I can read, too,” says Kelsey.
Four-year-old Cooper, who has autism, has been in Ms. Watson’s class for 2
years. His mother comes up and quietly whispers to Ms. Watson,
“I wanted you to know that Cooper got invited to Martie’s birthday party.
I never thought that would happen, but he’s made more progress here
than I ever imagined.”
As she’s leaving, Nicky’s mom stops to thank Isela and Evan,
who are finishing their first year of teaching 2-year-olds. They
remember their struggles with Nicky’s tantrums
as he hugs his mom’s leg and playfully peeks
around at Evan. She says, “I know he is growing
up and has to move to preschool, but we are really
going to miss you two.” ■
L
istening to these children, parents, and teachers, some new to the field and others
with many years of experience, reveals the most exciting—as well as challeng-
ing—dimensions of early childhood education. Teaching young children is hard
work. It takes energy, physical stamina, patience, a sense of humor, and a wide range of
knowledge and skill. But early childhood professionals soon discover the rewards of their
efforts. Nothing is quite as exciting as making a baby smile and giggle, seeing a toddler’s
grin as he climbs the stairs on his own, or observing a preschooler’s serious look as she
comes to the rescue as a pretend firefighter. And what can compete with a first grader’s
feeling of utter accomplishment that accompanies learning to read?
3
4 Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education
and future of the field. NAEYC, headquartered in Washington, D.C., is the world’s largest
professional organization of early childhood educators. Founded in 1926, NAEYC’s mis-
sion is to act on behalf of the needs, rights, and well-being of all young children from birth
through age 8.
One way the association achieves its mission is by establishing standards for teacher
preparation at the associate, baccalaureate, and graduate-degree levels (NAEYC, 2011b).
NAEYC’s standards have considerable influence in the field; it is likely that the course
you are now taking is designed to meet the association’s teacher education standards.
NAEYC (2008b) also administers an accreditation system for high-quality children’s pro-
grams and provides resources such as publications and conferences to support teachers’
continuing professional development.
Given NAEYC’s definition of the field—birth through age 8—early childhood teachers
work with various groups:
1. Infants and toddlers: birth to 36 months
2. Preschoolers: 3- and 4-year-olds
3. Kindergartners: 5- and 6-year-olds
4. Primary grades 1, 2, and 3: 6-, 7-, and 8-year-olds.
Because early childhood is defined so broadly, the field encompasses child care
centers and homes, preschools, kindergartens, and primary grade schools. Figure 1.1 pro-
vides an illustration of the various settings where young children are educated and cared
for. Young children are always learning, and they always need loving care. Therefore, it is
important not to distinguish child care from early education, but rather to ensure that all
children have access to programs that are both caring and educational, regardless of the
length of day or who provides the service.
Types of
Early Childhood Settings
Preschools
Family Child Care Homes
3-, 4-, & 5-year-olds
Private or public Birth through school-age
Prekindergartens Caregiver’s home
Parent cooperatives Individuals and groups
Laboratory schools
Infants/toddlers
Ages 3, 4, & 5
Before- and after-school for
school-aged children
For-profit or nonprofit
FIGURE 1.1 Types of Early Childhood Settings Early childhood education is a diverse field
because young children’s care and education occurs in a variety of settings as depicted here.
6 Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education
Child Care The term child care typically refers to care and education provided
for young children during the hours that their parents are employed. To accommo-
date work schedules, child care is usually available for extended hours, such as from
7:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. In some settings, such as hospital-affiliated child care centers,
care is offered for longer hours to accommodate evening, weekend, or even night-shift
employment.
child care center Group Child care is typically provided in two types of group programs: child care centers
program that provides care and and family child care homes. In either setting, children’s care may be privately funded
education for young children by parent tuition or publicly subsidized for low-income families. Child care centers usu-
during the hours that their
ally enroll children from infancy through preschool-age children, and many also offer
parents are employed.
before- and after-school care for primary grade children. In family child care homes,
family child care home Child caregivers provide care in their own homes for a small group of children, often of varying
care in which caregivers provide ages. Family child care is the setting of choice for many parents of infants and toddlers
care in their own homes for a because of its home-like atmosphere.
small group of children, often
multi-age groups.
Preschool Preschool programs, as the name implies, serve 3- and 4-year-olds pri-
preschool Educational or to their entrance into kindergarten. Preschool programs may be operated by com-
rograms serving 3- and
p munity organizations or by churches, temples, or other faith-based organizations and
4-year-olds delivered under also by parent cooperatives, which are run and partially staffed by groups of parents.
various sponsorships. Preschools often operate half-day, although extended hours—the school day—are be-
parent cooperative Preschool coming more common. Some colleges and universities operate laboratory schools,
program owned, operated, and which usually serve children of students and faculty and also act as models for student
partially staffed by parents. teachers.
laboratory school School
Preschools are called by various names, including nursery schools and prekindergar-
operated by colleges and tens. (To further complicate matters, child care centers are also called preschools.) Pre-
universities that usually serves school programs are both privately and publicly funded. Those that are primarily funded
children of students and faculty by parent tuition tend to serve middle- or upper-income families. Two particular types of
and also acts as a model of preschool are designed primarily for children from low-income families: public prekin-
excellent education for student dergarten and Head Start.
teachers.
Head Start Head Start is a federally funded, national program that promotes school Head Start Federally funded,
readiness by enhancing the social and cognitive development of children ages 3, 4, and 5. national program that promotes
Head Start provides educational, health, nutritional, social, and other services to the na- school readiness by enhancing
tion’s poorest children and families whose incomes fall below the official poverty level the social and cognitive develop-
ment of children ages 3, 4, and
(Head Start, 2013). Head Start’s goal is to improve school readiness by supporting all areas
5 through providing educational,
of children’s development and promoting the early reading and math skills needed for later health, nutritional, social, and
success. In addition to these comprehensive services, parent involvement is a special focus other services to the nation’s
of the program. Parents volunteer in the classroom and also serve in governance roles, with poorest children and families.
the goal of empowering families to move out of poverty. In fact, 23% of Head Start staff
members are parents of current or former Head Start children (Head Start, 2013). Children
with disabilities make up about 12% of Head Start’s enrollment (Head Start, 2014b).
Head Start programs are quite diverse. Most Head Start children are served in
classroom-based preschool programs, although in rural or remote areas, a home-based
option is available. One of the smallest serves 30 children on the Havasupai reservation
in the Grand Canyon, accessible only by helicopter or donkey, while the largest programs
serve over 22,000 children in 400 centers across Los Angeles (Head Start, 2011a).
The families represent all the racial and cultural groups in the United States (Head
Start, 2014b). About 43% of the children are White, 38% are Latino, and 29% are Afri-
can American. A sizable number of families—almost 10%—report that their children are
biracial or multiracial. In addition, the program has a special focus on serving American
Indians, Alaska Natives, and migrant and seasonal workers. About 30% of the children
speak a language other than English at home. Of these, 85% speak Spanish, but 140 other
languages are spoken.
In response to brain research and concerns that age 4 or even age 3 is too late for
services to be effective, the government launched Early Head Start in 1995. Early Head Early Head Start Federally
Start serves low-income pregnant mothers, infants, and toddlers and promotes healthy funded program serving
family functioning. As of 2012, there were more than 1,000 Early Head Start programs in low-income pregnant mothers,
infants, and toddlers that
all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico (Head Start, 2014a). Research on
promotes healthy family
Early Head Start (Vogel, Yange, Moiduddun, Kisker, & Carlson, 2010) demonstrates that functioning.
it achieves its promise of lasting positive effects on children and families.
8 Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education
early childhood special educa- Early Intervention and Early Childhood Special Education Early
tion Services for children with
childhood special education serves children with disabilities or special needs who
disabilities or special needs who
meet eligibility guidelines that are
meet eligibility guidelines that are determined on a state-by-state basis, according to the
determined on a state-by-state Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). In addition to serving children
basis according to the Individuals with identified disabilities, some states provide early intervention services for infants
with Disabilities Education Act. and toddlers who are at risk of developmental delay and their families.
Individuals with Disabilities
Federal legislation enacted during the past three decades has fundamentally changed
Education Act (IDEA) Federal the way in which early childhood services are organized and delivered to children with
law governing provision of ser- disabilities and special needs (Division for Early Childhood & NAEYC, 2009). These
vices for children with disabili- children, including children who are at risk for disabilities or who exhibit challenging be-
ties and special needs. haviors, are far more likely to participate in a typical early childhood program than in the
early intervention Services for past. This trend, called inclusion, is defined and described in the Including All Children:
infants and toddlers who are at What Does Inclusion Mean? feature.
risk of developmental delay and All early childhood educators are likely to work with children with disabilities at
their families. some point in their careers. This inevitability broadens what teachers need to know right
inclusion Participation and ser- from the start, and requires that general early childhood teachers develop skills to col-
vices for children with disabilities laborate with special educators.
and special needs in programs
and settings where their typically Kindergarten and Primary Grades Most 5- through 8-year-old children at-
developing peers are served. tend public schools, although many attend secular or faith-based private schools funded
Child Care for Employed Families Expansion of the early childhood field is
directly related to the demand for child care for employed families. Currently, 64% of
women with children under age 6 are in the labor force (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014).
Infant and toddler care is a particular need because 58% of mothers of children under age
1 are in the workforce. Almost 80% of school-agers need care for some hours of the day
(Children’s Defense Fund [CDF], 2011).
10 Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education
Changing Demographics The 2010 U.S. census revealed that the population is
highly diverse, both racially and culturally. As illustrated in Figure 1.2, the racial and
ethnic composition of the child population has changed dramatically since 1990. The
white population of children declined from 60% to 53%. By 2018, the majority of young
children will be children of color—members of groups currently identified as minorities
(Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2014). In many school districts today, this is already the
case (Ennis, Ríos-Vargas, & Albert, 2011).
The largest increase is among individuals who identify themselves as Hispanic or
Latino. Between 2000 and 2010, the Hispanic population grew by 43%, accounting for
over half of the total increase in the U.S. population (Ennis et al., 2011). Due to both
higher birth rates and immigration, Latinos now constitute 24% of the nation’s children
Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 11
100%
15% 14%
1% 1%
3% 5%
80%
16% 24%
69%
60%
4%
53%
American Indian
White
0%
1990 2012
FIGURE 1.2 Child Population by Race and Ethnicity In the last two decades, the population of
young children in the United States has become dramatically more ethnically and racially diverse.
Source: Annie E. Casey Foundation. (2014). 2014 Kids Count data book: State trends in child well-being.
Baltimore: Author. Retrieved November 16, 2014, from http://www.aecf.org/2014db
(Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2014). Many of these children are dual language learners dual language learners
because they are learning to speak two languages at the same time—their home Children who are learning to
language and English. These demographic shifts have important implications for e arly speak two languages at the
same time—usually their home
childhood educators as discussed in the feature Language Lens: Preparing to Teach
language and English.
Dual Language Learners.
Language Lens
Preparing to Teach Dual Language Learners
Eight different languages are spoken among the children They can start by remembering some important princi-
in Natalia’s kindergarten class. Natalia and two of the ples about dual language learners:
children are the only ones whose first language is Eng-
lish. Natalia works hard to create a caring community • People who speak the same language, whether Spanish
where all the children comfortably experiment with learn- or another language, are not all alike—they come from
ing English while also developing their home language. a variety of countries and cultures.
She strives to communicate with the parents by using • Learning two or more languages does not confuse chil-
translators. Last year, Natalia’s class also included eight dren as some people think, but rather enhances brain
languages—but some of them were different from those development.
spoken this year. • Supporting home language development is essential
because children can learn many skills in their home
The number of languages represented in Natalia’s class- language and apply those skills as they learn English.
room may seem extreme, but linguistic and cultural diver- • Teachers need to intentionally teach English vocabulary
sity is now the norm in our nation’s schools. In the next and provide lots of opportunities for children to play
20 years, the biggest single child-related demographic together and practice their developing language skills.
change is predicted to be an increase in dual language • Communicating with families is essential regardless of
learners. Most of these children speak Spanish as a home the effort required.
language, but many others speak Asian, Middle Eastern,
and African languages. California, Florida, and Texas con- The children of today must be prepared to function as
tinue to have the largest percentages of Spanish-speaking citizens of a global society. Speaking two or more lan-
families, but according to the last census, between 2000 guages is an important skill for the 21st century. When
and 2010, the Hispanic population grew in every region children enter early childhood programs speaking a lan-
of the country. guage other than English, the foundation is already there
to build on.
In the past, most teachers could safely assume that they
Sources: The Hispanic population: 2010. 2010 Census Briefs,
would never encounter a language other than English in
by S. R. Ennis, M. Ríos-Vargas, and N. G. Albert, 2011, U.S.
their entire careers. Today, Natalia’s experience or some- Census Bureau, retrieved from http://www.census.gov/prod/
thing like it is not so very rare. New teachers may find cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04.pdf; Pre-K-3rd: Challenging
it beneficial to learn another language themselves, but common myths about dual language learners, an update to
learning eight languages is not a reasonable expectation. the seminal 2008 report by L. Espinosa, 2013, New York:
What can new and experienced teachers like Natalia do? Foundation for Child Development.
• Caring and committed. They recognize that developing a personal, positive, warm relationship
with each child is the foundation for everything they do. Their commitment to children means
putting children’s needs before their own and recognizing that teaching young children is less a
job than a calling.
• Enthusiastic and engaged. They genuinely enjoy being with young children however messy or
challenging they may be, and share in the excitement of their discoveries. They become energetically
and intensely involved in children’s activity, whether it means getting down on the floor to play and
talk with a baby or thinking through the solution to a problem with a kindergartner.
• Curious and creative. They are eager to learn, just as children are. Young children want to learn all
sorts of things that teachers themselves may not know—what’s inside a bug, why the sky is blue, how
an airplane flies. Intentional teachers model an inquisitive attitude. They want to find out along with
children, and they approach questions or problems in new, imaginative ways.
• Respectful and responsive. They value and treat children, families, and colleagues with dignity and
esteem. They respond thoughtfully to diversity in all of its forms: language, culture, race/ethnicity,
ability/disability, age, gender, and sexual orientation. They are open and accepting of perspectives
that are different from their own.
• Passionate and patient. They bring into their work their own emotions and deep interests, such as a
passion for music, painting, or poetry; a preference for belly laughs or quiet smiles. At the same time,
they recognize that children have their own intense feelings that can spill over into anger, frustration,
or fits of tears. Intentional teachers respond calmly and thoughtfully, without becoming upset or
annoyed themselves.
• Purposeful and playful. They have important goals for children—to help them make friends,
regulate their emotions, control their bodies, learn to read and write—and they plan carefully to help
children achieve their goals. But along the way, they joke and laugh with children, accept silliness,
encourage and support play, and make learning itself playful. A sense of humor is a necessity.
• Focused and flexible. They are like cameras that can scan the entire classroom and then narrow
their attention to meet one child’s need or respond to her question or idea. They can be teaching
a reading lesson with a specific goal in mind and switch gears when a child starts talking about his
brother’s illness.
• Aware and accountable. They are self-aware, they reflect on and evaluate their own performance,
and they strive to improve. But their judgments are not made in isolation; they compare their
performance to a standard of excellence. Intentional teachers are willing to be accountable; they
accept responsibility for their actions.
• Informed and effective. They know how children develop and learn; they know how to teach and
what to teach. They use research-based teaching practices that lead to positive outcomes for children
and help children make sense of the world around them. Intentional teachers also regularly check to
see if what they are doing is actually working. Are children making progress toward developmentally
appropriate goals?
• Listening and learning. They realize that the more they learn about children, the more they need
to know. They understand that choosing to teach is choosing to be a lifelong learner. Intentional
teachers learn from children every day; they listen to children, and they pay close attention to all of
children’s cues. They stay up to date about new knowledge and continue to grow as professionals.
FIGURE 1.3 Characteristics of Professional, Intentional Early Childhood Teachers Intentional teaching involves a
wide range of personal and professional qualities such as those listed here.
childhood community can do his or her job well without knowing what life is like in an
early childhood setting (Colker, 2008). This experience informs decisions at every level.
Working with Children Early childhood teachers are usually the first to admit that
they aren’t in this profession for the money. It is the satisfaction they get from working
with children that is deeply rewarding. For many of them, the fact that they make an
impact on the life of every child they encounter is a powerful incentive and the reason
that, once they enter the field, they are there to stay (Colker, 2008).
Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 15
Early childhood teachers work with different age groups from infancy through pri-
mary grades in a wide range of settings. The qualifications and required certifications
for specific jobs will vary, but a broad-based education in the field is necessary prepara-
tion. Following are some of the options and opportunities available for interesting and
rewarding work:
• Head Start teachers can alter the life trajectory of young children and their families
who are most in need. They help ensure that children from low-income families re-
ceive an excellent education and comprehensive health, nutrition, and other services.
• Early Head Start teachers intervene early with mothers and their babies to help set
them on a course of healthy development.
• Child care center teachers provide loving care and education to children for ex-
tended periods of time each day, and help employed parents feel secure about their
children’s care so they can do their jobs. Careers in child care offer the option
of teaching various age groups: infants and toddlers, preschoolers, and school-
age children before and/or after school. Although teaching in child care pays less
than does teaching in other settings, many teachers relish its flexible and cre-
ative environment. Conditions also vary by administrative agency; for example,
16 Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education
an employer-sponsored child care center may offer more benefits and higher com-
pensation than a community-based one.
• Teachers in family child care homes literally open their doors to small groups of
children from infancy through school age, providing a home-like atmosphere of
care and education. Family child care means being your own boss, but requires
administering a small business as well as caring for children.
• Preschools vary a great deal—public, private, faith-based, and so on—each with
its own benefits that will appeal to different teachers’ interests and match their
goals. A public prekindergarten, for example, may provide better salaries, whereas
a private one may be more flexible about curriculum and expectations for children.
• A teacher in a parent cooperative preschool has the opportunity to develop par-
ticularly close relationships with families but also needs the ability to work with
parents as co-teachers, an acquired skill.
• Teachers in public schools have the option of teaching different age groups from
kindergarten through primary grades. Schools are bureaucracies with regulations
and an established curriculum and tests, but as professionals, teachers make hun-
dreds of classroom decisions every day. Salaries and benefits in the public schools
are the most secure of any sector in early childhood.
• Early childhood special educators and early intervention specialists are qualified
individuals who work with children with special needs in various settings such
as in school systems, Head Start, or child care. Inclusion of children with spe-
cial needs means that early childhood special educators work closely with regular
classroom teachers. In fact, in some states, the same teacher education program
prepares teachers for certification in both fields simultaneously.
• Mentor teacher is an evolving career option for more experienced, outstanding pro-
fessionals. It is helpful for new teachers to work with a mentor teacher to improve
their skills or to get help for children with particular learning challenges. Mentor
teachers are becoming more common in elementary schools, preschools, and child
care programs.
• The need for bilingual teachers and those who are qualified to teach dual language
learners is growing. As the population becomes ever more diverse, these qualifica-
tions will be useful in any early childhood setting.
Given the variety of careers available, early childhood teachers have many options.
Even when an entire career is spent teaching the same age group in the same workplace,
teachers will always encounter new challenges and new experiences. I once asked a for-
mer teacher who had taught for 40 years, “Didn’t you ever get tired of teaching first
grade?” She looked stunned and replied, “Never, because every group was different.”
Having been a child in her class at one time, I clearly understood what she meant—that
every child is different and unique and that being a teacher never loses its fascination.
Working for Children At some point in their careers, all early childhood profession-
als should work with children in order to understand, firsthand, how educators help shape
our young children. However, there are many opportunities for early childhood educators
to pursue positions working for children. With additional education, specialized training,
and experience, a background in early childhood can lead to positions such as these:
• Director of a child care center or preschool, or school principal (with additional
course work in administration)
• Curriculum developer for an individual school, network of schools, or publisher
• Home visitor or family services worker in Head Start, Early Head Start, or another
community agency
• Policy staff at local/state/federal agencies, associations, and organizations
• College faculty teaching teachers and/or conducting research
• Writer/producer of resources for children such as children’s book author, technol-
ogy developer, children’s museum staff, or media performer
Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 17
Shared Identity Most professionals feel a sense of belonging to their group. They
identify themselves as members of the profession, whether it is as a doctor, a lawyer, or
an accountant. In early childhood education, it is often harder to “name” ourselves. The
profession itself does not have an agreed-on name (Goffin & Washington, 2007). Among
the names it is known by are early care and education, child care, early education, and
early development and learning. In this book, we refer to the field as early childhood edu-
cation. We prefer this term because it contains the word child, which is an ever-present
reminder of the primary focus of our work. We also believe that the term encompasses the
key elements of caring, development, and learning.
Another challenge to establishing a clear identity is what to call the role itself. Infant/
toddler teachers and teachers in center-based care are often called caregivers. In family
child care, adults are called providers. But we embrace the term teacher because it is the
broadest term, captures most of the job responsibilities, commands society’s respect, and
is after all what children usually call the adults who care for and educate them no matter
what the setting.
Shared Values The early childhood profession is committed to a core set of values
that is deeply rooted in the history of the field. NAEYC (2011a) articulates these core
values in its code of ethical conduct:
We have made a commitment to:
• Appreciate childhood as a unique and valuable stage of the human life cycle
• Base our work on knowledge of how children develop and learn
18 Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education
Early childhood educators are members of a profession that shares knowledge, values, and beliefs
about children and their work. Meeting with more experienced teachers is one way of becoming a
professional. Can you think of others?
• Appreciate and support the bond between the child and family
• Recognize that children are best understood and supported in the context of family,
culture (including ethnicity), community, and society
• Respect the dignity, worth, and uniqueness of each individual (child, family mem-
ber, and colleague)
• Respect diversity in children, families, and colleagues
• Recognize that children and adults achieve their full potential in the context of
relationships that are based on trust and respect.
I often take informal polls of teachers during speeches at education conferences. A
question I always ask is: “What are your values as an early childhood educator?” Most of
the core values just listed are mentioned. Yet there is one that is always stated emphati-
cally and is usually first—“play!” Early childhood professionals strongly value play as
essential for children’s development and learning. Because play is so important in early
childhood, we will revisit the topic throughout this book. Political and economic forces
threaten these values at times, but they nevertheless endure.
Shared Beliefs Although early childhood culture shares many beliefs, a few dominate:
• The strong belief in the potential of all children, regardless of their life circum-
stances and individual abilities or disabilities.
developmentally appropriate • The belief in the power of developmentally appropriate practice to produce posi-
practice Ways of teaching that tive results for children. Developmentally appropriate practice is teaching that en-
engage children’s interests and gages children’s interests and adapts for their age, experience, and ability to help
adapt for their age, experience,
them meet challenging and achievable goals.
and ability, to help them meet
challenging and achievable
• The belief that early childhood teachers are professionals who make informed deci-
learning goals. sions about what is developmentally appropriate for each child in each situation.
• The fundamental belief in the potential of our work to make a real and lasting dif-
ference in the world.
This is the final justification for joining the profession: the opportunity to make a con-
tribution to children’s lives. Many professions exist primarily to solve problems. Doctors
and nurses treat illnesses. Firefighters put out fires and rescue people. Insurance agents
Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 19
help people recover from losses or catastrophes. The work of early childhood profession-
als, on the other hand, is to prevent problems from occurring. Our job is to set children on
a positive course from the beginning. The proven effectiveness of early intervention when
young children face difficulties creates room for optimism and hope.
Source: From Overview of the NAEYC Early Childhood Program Standards, 2008, by National Association for the Education of Young Children,
Washington, DC, retrieved from http://www.naeyc.org/files/academy/file/OverviewStandards.pdf.
Military Child Care Act The largest employer-sponsored child care system in the
world is the U.S. military. Its voluntary workforce of men and women depends on the
provision of high-quality child care. In 1989, Congress passed the Military Child Care
Act to ensure consistently high standards of quality in these programs. The act required
that centers seek NAEYC accreditation, and also included provisions for teacher training
and a career ladder tying compensation to increased professional development. The Mili-
tary Child Care Act resulted in significantly improved quality and learning outcomes for
children that have been maintained for decades (Child Care Aware® of America, 2013;
Neugebauer, 2011). In addition, the military child care system is now seen as a model for
improving all child care systems (Whitebook, Phillips, & Howes, 2014).
Measuring Effectiveness
As we have seen, program quality is usually defined and measured in terms of “inputs”—
the environments children experience and their interactions with teachers. However, pro-
gram effectiveness is usually defined in terms of “outcomes”—the effects of these expe-
riences on children’s development and learning. As a result, effectiveness is measured
against specific, usually age- or grade-related goals. For preschoolers, the most common
early learning standards source of outcome goals are state early learning standards, which describe what chil-
Describe what children should dren should know and be able to do before entering kindergarten (Scott-Little, 2011). All
know and be able to do before 50 states have comprehensive learning guidelines for preschool children, and 30 states
entering kindergarten.
have such goals for infants and toddlers (Barnett, Carolan, et al., 2013).
Head Start has established its own set of comprehensive goals for children—the Head
Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework. Head Start programs are re-
quired by law to periodically assess children’s progress toward the framework’s goals.
State departments of education establish outcome standards for children in kinder-
garten and primary grades. Children’s progress toward these goals is often measured by
state-wide testing programs usually beginning at third grade, as we discuss later in this
chapter.
✓ Check Your Understanding 1.3: Early Childhood Program Quality and Effectiveness
Brain Research
Among the most exciting achievements in developmental psychology in the past cen-
tury were new insights into how the brain grows and functions during the earliest
years of life. Brain research, which had previously been confined to laboratories,
is now reported regularly in popular newspapers and magazines. Technologies such
as positron emission tomography (PET) scans and functional magnetic resonance
imagery (fMRI) reveal the inner workings of babies’ brains to policy makers, educa-
Brain research demonstrates
tors, and the public.
the importance of early child- Major conclusions from brain research have significantly lifted the profile of early
hood education, especially for childhood education—and especially the importance of experiences in the first three years
infants and toddlers. of life (Shonkoff, 2011; Shonkoff, Garner, & the Committee
on Psychosocial Effects of Child and Family Health, 2012):
1. Positive experiences in the early years—especially
warm, responsive, caring, conversational relation-
ships—literally grow babies’ brains and lay the foun-
dation for later learning.
2. Negative experiences such as prolonged stress,
© Carla Mestas/Pearson Education
The Perry Preschool Project The Perry Preschool Project, which began in the
early 1960s in Ypsilanti, Michigan, was one of the first studies to demonstrate the lasting
effects of a high-quality preschool program on educational and economic outcomes. (Perry
Preschool later became the HighScope Educational Research Foundation.) Researchers
found that Perry Preschool graduates were less likely to be assigned to special education
or be retained in grade and had better achievement test scores than children who did not
attend preschool (Berrueta-Clement, Schweinhart, Barnett, Epstein, & Weikart, 1984).
Preschool participation was also related to less involvement in delinquency and crime and
a higher rate of high school graduation (Schweinhart, Barnes, & Weikart, 1993). At age
40, program participants were significantly more likely to have higher levels of education,
be employed, earn higher wages, and own their own homes; they were less likely to be
welfare dependent and had fewer arrests (Schweinhart et al., 2005).
These outcomes benefited not only the participants but the larger society as well.
Economists estimated that for every dollar spent on the program, as much as $16 was
returned on the original investment (Schweinhart et al., 2005). This means that Americans
saved money in terms of the decreased costs of crime, special education, grade retention,
and welfare payments, as well as increased taxes paid by those children who achieve in
school and later earn higher incomes.
early childhood programs can have positive short- and long-term consequences for young
children. Research is also powerfully connected to another reason early childhood educa-
tion is a field on the rise—the country’s need to close the achievement gap, as addressed
in the next section.
What Works
Increasing School Readiness for All Children
As policy makers consider whether to increase funding for Head of their economic status or ethnicity.
Start, public prekindergarten, or child care for needy families, they The largest gains were for poor children
want to know whether these programs are effective. They want to of color, with Hispanic children making
know, “How well do early childhood programs prepare children for the most learning progress, followed by A frican
school?” and “Who should be eligible to attend?” A big issue is Americans. But even though gains were somewhat higher for
whether programs should be universal—that is, available to fami- low-income children, gains for children in the higher income group
lies of all income levels who choose to enroll their children—or were almost as large. A similar study comparing Tulsa’s (Oklahoma)
targeted to low income families as Head Start is. pre-K program and the Tulsa County Head Start program (which also
Oklahoma’s state-funded prekindergarten has generated con- receives state funds) found that both programs produce substantial
siderable attention. It is universal, based in the school system, improvements in early literacy and math.
and reaches a higher percentage of 4-year-olds than any other It is increasingly clear that children from low-income families
state pre-K program. Although most classes are located in public are not the only ones who need and can benefit from attending
schools, some classes are located in Head Start and child care preschool. Research shows that many middle-income children are
programs that meet the same standards for quality. also behind their peers from the highest-earning families at kin-
The Oklahoma program has high standards compared to other dergarten entry and they are less likely to have access to the kind
states, with lead teachers required to have a B.A. degree and be of high-quality programs provided in Oklahoma.
certified in early childhood education. Notably, prekindergarten
teachers earn the same wages and benefits as other public school
Sources: The Effects of Oklahoma’s Universal Pre-Kindergarten Program on
teachers. Student–teacher ratios are 10 to 1 and class sizes are
Hispanic Children, by W. T. Gormley, 2008, Washington, DC: Center for Re-
limited to 20. search on Children in the U.S. (CROCUS), Georgetown University, retrieved
An evaluation of the program involving more than 3,000 c hildren July 28, 2009, from http://www.crocus.georgetown.edu; “The Promise of
found strong positive effects for children from all income groups. All Preschool: Why We Need Early Education for All,” by W. S. Barnett and E.
children’s language and cognitive test scores improved, regardless Frede, 2010, American Educator, 34(1), 21–29, 40.
26 Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education
Where the Gap Begins Differences in children’s cognitive abilities are substan-
tial at a very early age and widen over time (U.S. Department of Health and H uman
Services, 2014). By 18 months of age, SES differences in language development
are evident, and by 24 months, economically disadvantaged children are as much as
6 months behind their more advantaged peers (Fernald, Marchman, & Weislader, 2013).
At age 4, children who live below the poverty line may be 18 months below what is
considered normal for their age group. In fact, inequity in socioeconomic status is the
most important predictor of children’s cognitive skills (Aud et al., 2010; McLoyd &
Purtell, 2008).
To describe this discrepancy, a more accurate term than achievement gap is really
knowledge gap. The differences in achievement are likely the result of differences in
children’s opportunities to gain knowledge from a variety of learning experiences. For
example, children from higher-income families are much more likely to attend pre-
school.
Early Education and Social Justice As we saw from research cited previ-
ously, these initial inequalities can be reduced. Children from low-income families who
attend high-quality early childhood programs begin kindergarten with higher achieve-
ment, thus providing the potential to narrow the gap at the outset. This research, as well
as studies on the effectiveness of services for children with special needs, proves that
early intervention is less costly, more effective, and more humane than later remediation
(Reynolds et al., 2011). Children living in poverty, however, are less likely to have access
to high-quality programs.
Improving quality and increasing access to early childhood programs are important
strategies for enhancing social justice in America and improving learning outcomes for
all children. These goals can be addressed, however, only in the context of current trends
in the field and the nation, which we discuss next.
result, issues that have dominated K–12 education for some time now affect programs for
younger children, such as more focus on standards and accountability.
Current trends in early childhood education include more focus on standards and accountability from
prekindergarten through third grade. The overarching goal is to help children become more successful
readers and writers.
Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 29
in college and the workplace and compete in the global economy, ensure highly qualified
teachers and principals, and turn around failing schools.
An additional concern is the need to maintain a diverse workforce that reflects the
population of children served. State prekindergarten programs have a larger percentage of
teachers with bachelor’s degrees than do Head Start or center-based programs. However,
Head Start teachers are much more likely to reflect the cultural and linguistic diversity of
the community (CLASP, 2011). For example, 30% of Head Start staff are proficient in a
language other than English (Head Start, 2013).
Advances in Technology
In no aspect of life is the speed of change as rapid as in the area of technology. In educa-
tion, technology has a tremendous impact on how teachers teach and function in their
work, but also on children’s experiences at home and in school. Increasingly innovative
uses of interactive media in all aspects of early education is a major trend. Given the de-
mand for highly qualified teachers, online teacher preparation and professional develop-
ment options are increasing rapidly.
As digital media such as handheld mobile devices and video games proliferate, so has the
development of educational apps, the majority of which are targeted to preschoolers (Shuler,
2009; Thai, Lowenstein, Ching, & Rejeski, 2009). In their position statement on technol-
ogy, NAEYC and the Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning and Children’s Media (2012)
acknowledge legitimate concerns about potential inappropriate uses of technology but also
promote the almost unlimited creative ways that interactive media can support learning and
development. The question is no longer whether young children should be exposed to digital
media, but rather what is the quality of technological tools provided for them.
Promoting Play
Addressing Threats to Children’s Play
Pediatricians and psychologists agree that too many In an attempt to get children ready for school and
children today experience high levels of unrelent- protect them from injury, early childhood programs
ing stress. Factors such as poverty and violence are may actually be contributing to children’s stress by
the primary sources, but stress affects the lives of minimizing children’s large muscle activity and child-
all children to some extent. Teachers today report initiated play time. Because children spend so much
that more children are aggressive and disruptive as time in early childhood programs and school, it may
a result of stressful events. Increasing numbers of be their only opportunity to have physical activity or
children, especially boys, are inaccurately diagnosed outdoor play.
as hyperactive and needlessly medicated. Childhood
Early educators need to draw on the support of
obesity is also endemic.
physicians and other experts to help educate parents
Research demonstrates that exercise and child- and policy makers about the importance of play in
initiated play are effective stress-relievers. Ironically, children’s lives and its essential role in helping chil-
however, a survey of child care, preschool, and Head dren cope with stress and improve school success.
Start teachers found that they tend to limit chil- They also need to advocate for funding to provide
dren’s opportunities for active play, especially out- safe playgrounds and adequate spaces indoors and
doors, due to safety concerns and the need to pre- outdoors for active engagement. Play spaces and
pare children academically for school. And children opportunities must be designed to protect children
living in poverty are most likely to suffer because from injury, but protecting them from stress is
they have less access to safe outdoor play areas and equally important.
programs feel extra pressure to focus on academic Sources: “Societal Values and Policies May Curtail
instruction to close the school readiness gap. Preschool Children’s Physical Activity in Child Care
Centers,” by K. A. Copeland, S. N. Sherman, C. A.
Part of the solution is that teachers, parents, and Kendeigh, H. J. Kalkwarf, & B. E. Saelens, 2012,
administrators need to understand that play and Pediatrics, 129(2), retrieved from http://pediatrics.
school readiness is not an either/or choice. The aappublications.org/content/early/2012/01/02/
American Academy of Pediatrics emphasizes that peds.2011-2102.full.pdf+html; “The Importance of
play is essential for children’s physical health, emo- Play in Promoting Healthy Child Development and
Maintaining Strong Parent-Child Bond: Focus on
tional and mental well-being, social relationships,
Children in Poverty,” by R. M. Milter, K. R. Ginsburg, &
and brain development and cognition. Vigorous play Council on Communications and Media Committee
develops large motor skills, and can reduce obesity. on Psychological Aspects of Child and Family Health,
In short, play contributes to all areas of develop- Pediatrics, 129(1), e204–e213, retrieved from http://
ment and learning. www.pediatrics.aappublications.org.
• Processes of child development and learning • Both how children learn and what they learn
• Inputs – standards such as licensing or accreditation • Both program standards and outcomes
that mandate what programs should do (early learning standards)
• Free play • Both child-initiated, developmentally valuable play and playful learning
• Developmental appropriateness • Both effectiveness and developmental appropriateness (Are children making
progress from the experiences we deem appropriate?
• Development, not academics (viewing early childhood • Both viewing learning and development as a continuum from birth to
education as separate from primary grades) age 8 and alignment from pre-K to grade 3
• Typical, normative development • Both adapting for individual variation of every child and
intervention and adaption for children with disabilities and
special needs, as well as children who are advanced
FIGURE 1.4 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education Early childhood education today builds on the enduring
values of its past but also changes as we acquire new knowledge about children, families, and the contexts in which they live.
1 Chapter Summary
• Early childhood education is a diverse field that covers and teaching each child as an individual, respecting
the broad age range of birth through age 8. Teachers linguistic and cultural diversity, and relationships with
work in child care centers and homes, preschools, families.
kindergartens, and primary grade schools. • The early childhood profession sets high-quality stan-
• Becoming a professional, intentional early childhood dards for programs. The most important determinants
teacher is a challenging and rewarding opportunity. of the quality of children’s experiences and strongest
Early childhood education is expanding and is a field predictors of positive outcomes are the social and
on the rise, benefiting from growing public recognition instructional interactions that occur between teachers
and support. Many career options are available to work and children.
with children or work for children. • Brain research demonstrates the importance of early
• Early childhood professionals are part of a cultural experience to later development. A large body of
group that shares a vocabulary, an identity, values, and evidence exists supporting the positive long-term and
beliefs. These include emphasis on the uniqueness short-term consequences of high-quality early child-
of early childhood, the value of play, the importance hood programs.
of relationships and a sense of community, valuing
34 Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education
• High-quality early education has an important role alignment across the full early childhood age span,
to play in improving children’s school readiness and stress in children’s lives, and advancing technology use
addressing social justice concerns about closing the by teachers and children.
achievement gap in our schools. • Early childhood education is a rewarding profession
• New political and economic realities present challeng- for many reasons, but above all, early childhood
es and opportunities for the field including the federal educators enter and stay in the field because they
and state policy initiatives, universal prekindergarten know that their work makes a difference in the lives of
movement, more focus on standards and accountabil- children and families.
ity, increased teacher qualifications, calls for greater
Key Terms
■ accountability ■ culture ■ family child care home ■ primary grades
■ accreditation system ■ developmentally appro- ■ Head Start ■ process quality
■ alignment priate practice ■ Head Start Program ■ professionals
■ charter schools ■ dual language learners Performance Standards ■ quality rating and
■ Child Care and ■ early childhood ■ inclusion improvement systems
Development Block education ■ Individuals with (QRIS)
Grants (CCDBG) ■ Early Childhood Disabilities Education ■ school readiness
■ child care center Environment Rating Act (IDEA) ■ scientifically based
Scale (ECERS-3) ■ intentional teachers instructional practices
■ child care licensing
standards ■ early childhood special ■ kindergarten ■ socioeconomic status
education (SES)
■ Child Development ■ laboratory school
Associate (CDA) ■ Early Head Start ■ structural quality
■ National Association for
credential ■ early intervention the Education of Young ■ Temporary Assistance
■ Classroom Assessment ■ early learning standards Children (NAEYC) for Needy Families
Scoring System ■ Elementary and Sec- ■ parent cooperative (TANF)
(CLASS) ondary Education Act ■ universal voluntary
■ prekindergarten (pre-K)
■ Common Core state (ESEA) prekindergarten
■ preschool
standards (CCSS)
and advocate for high-quality, effective early childhood New America Foundation Early Education Initiative
education for all young children. The Early Education Initiative of New America
Foundation, a nonpartisan organization that brings to-
National Resource Center for Health and Safety in gether diverse perspectives to address current issues, pro-
Child Care and Early Education motes a high-quality and continuous system of early care
This site provides access to child care licensing informa- and education for all children, birth to age 8. Read their
tion for every state and resources for educators, families, blog, EdCentral, to stay informed on the latest develop-
and health professionals. ments and research in the field.
2 Building on a Tradition
of Excellence
Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
2.1 Explain why it is important to learn from the past.
2.2 Describe how European educators influenced early education practices.
2.3 Describe the events and people that propelled the kindergarten, nursery
school, and child care movements in the United States.
2.4 Explain the experiences and contributions of African Americans, Hispanic
Americans, and Native Americans in the history of early childhood education.
2.5 D
iscuss the trends in early childhood history that came together to influence
the launch of the national Head Start program and current trends in early
childhood education.
E
arly childhood educators tend to like stories. We love sharing stories about the en-
chanting things that young children say and do. We listen to parents’ stories about
their children. And we exchange stories about our teaching—sometimes when we
have a bad day, and almost always when we have a very good day. Those good days usu-
ally involve seeing an exciting example of a child’s developmental progress.
Stories—that is what history is. The goal of this chapter, then, is to tell the story
of early childhood education. We begin by describing how studying history is relevant.
Next, we describe how the concept of childhood has changed over the course of history.
Finally, we tell several stories about major historical movements and how they influence
early childhood education practice today. Parts of these stories occurred simultaneously
and overlap. Click here to review the major events in early childhood education.
Avoid Getting Stuck in the Past Just as it is true that we continue to confront
questions and challenges similar to those faced by our forebears, it is equally true that
responses to these issues need to reflect current knowledge. As we will see, many of the
principles and values that guide the field today are remarkably consistent with earlier
views (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). There are also essential differences based on newer
research, theories, and realities. Getting stuck in the past can lead to defending past prac-
tices simply because we have always done it that way. Knowing why it was “done that
way,” however, can lead to changing it for the better.
Aspire to Make a Difference for Children History is not just the story of
events, but the stories of people. The history of early childhood education is replete with
inspiring stories of women and men who devoted themselves to improving the lives of
Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence 39
children and families. Many “dauntless women” (Snyder, 1972) contributed in count-
less ways to early childhood education at a time when women’s opportunities for higher
education and careers were severely restricted. Similarly, men have been at the forefront
of building the profession even though children were considered the purview of women.
The stories of these pioneers of early childhood education, who were forward look-
ing in both their thinking and their deeds, serve as inspiration and motivation for cur-
rent and future professionals. Learning about their lives, the obstacles they faced in their
work, and the brilliance of their minds sets a high standard for the rest of us.
Advocate for Change Understanding the paths history has taken is important if
early childhood educators are to be successful in improving services in the future. Even a
brief summary of historical underpinnings reveals that change is a constant. For example,
at times, services for children have been a priority while at other times (regularly, in fact),
the services are threatened. The Head Start program is a case in point. In the mid-1960s,
Head Start was launched to great fanfare as a means to end poverty in this country, an
impossibly unrealistic goal. But over the years, the program has fallen prey to changing
public attitudes and funding priorities.
Throughout these years, some advocates have set idealistic goals, which can be in-
spiring; yet history has taught us that unrealistic goals doom a program to failure. In
the intervening years, advocates have made it plain that Head Start plays a key role in
empowering low income families to improve their lives and in preparing their children
for success in school. However, Head Start is not a cure for the ills of poverty, nor is it an
inoculation against poor school experiences that might follow. To be most effective, ad-
vocates for improving Head Start and other early childhood programs and services should
use the lessons of successful efforts in the past.
Examining the history of childhood education reveals that there have been significant
changes—transformations, actually—in how children are viewed. In the sections that fol-
low, we examine the changing view of childhood and its effect on children’s lives.
Today, the image of children as miniature adults is apparent once again in the clothes
children wear and the images they are exposed to through the media. Primary-grade girls
dress like teenagers or young adults. Concern exists that they are too sexy too soon (Levin &
Kilbourne, 2008). Preschoolers engage in team sports previously reserved for older children.
Children’s toys have been replaced by adult-like video games and digital devices.
Children in Need of Redemption The image of the child during the 1300s to
1800s was shaped by the religious belief that children were born in sin and needed re-
demption. Misbehavior of any kind was considered sinful and punished harshly.
Schools in Europe and America in the 18th and 19th centuries were based on this
image of children. Children learned to read from the Bible, recited memorized passages,
and were often beaten or ridiculed for errors. Many people today continue to believe that
severe punishment is necessary to shape children’s moral character.
Children’s Economic Value At various points in history, children’s value has been
calculated in response to a number of factors. Even today, some consider children to be
their parents’ property. They were, and still are in some communities, economically neces-
sary to contribute work to the sustenance and care of the family; this includes taking care
of other children and parents in old age. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, however,
child labor laws limited children’s potential economic contributions to family well-being.
As children’s economic contributions diminished, they began to take on more intrinsic
emotional value in the family. For example, insurance companies compensated parents for
a child’s death or injury not only because of the costs involved and the potential income
lost, but also as an attempt to compensate for the emotional loss (Zellizer, 1981).
competent child The image
of children as active players The Competent Child Scientific study of children beginning in the 20th century
in their own development and led to an alternative view of childhood—the competent child—the idea that children
learning. are active players in their own development and learning. The more researchers learned
Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence 41
about children’s competencies beginning at birth, the less plausible it became to see them
as blank slates. Brain research in recent decades has further reinforced this image of chil-
dren’s innate competence.
The image of the competent child has had a major impact on early childhood prac-
tices and the larger culture. But negative consequences can emanate as well. Producers
of videotapes and television and computer programs claim that they can teach a baby
to read or produce a future Einstein. In addition, the image of the competent child has
contributed to the trend to hurry young children through childhood toward expectations
or experiences more appropriate for older children or adults (Elkind, 2007; Levin &
Kilbourne, 2008).
The Child as a Citizen with Rights The image of the child throughout his-
tory has come almost full circle in its relation to adults. But rather than seeing children
as small-scale adults, a present-day development is to view children as citizens who have
rights just as adults do (Hall & Rudkin, 2011). In a democratic society, rights are imple-
mented as laws such as those that protect children from abuse or prosecution as adults.
Similarly, toys and products used by children must meet safety regulations.
Internationally, the image of a child with rights has gained widespread attention.
In 1989, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (http://www.unicef.
org/crc) went into effect. It has been ratified by every developed country in the world
except Somalia and the United States. The declaration calls for protection of all children
from physical, mental, and sexual abuse. One provision states that, although parents have
primary responsibility for children’s upbringing, states should provide appropriate assis-
tance and support for child care programs. This is one of several provisions that have been
politically controversial in this country. Although the United States has not endorsed the
UN Convention, its existence promotes an image of the child with rights.
Images of Childhood Today Elements of all of these images of childhood are pres-
ent in children’s lives today and influence how they are treated. Although our country tends
to see children as innocents in need of protection by parents and the government, we also
propel them into adult experiences at young ages. Our schools swing back and forth, between
taking an approach that children are empty vessels, and viewing them as competent contribu-
tors to their own learning. On the one hand, children are highly valued, and on the other hand,
they are abused and neglected. As we have seen throughout history, the prevailing image of
children impacts their lives in many ways. One example is the role of play, which is described
in the feature Promoting Play: The Image of the Child and the Role of Play.
As we explore the evolution of early childhood practice in the sections that follow,
it will become apparent which of these images has had the greater influence on the field.
We can only present highlights of the rich history of the field here; for a more complete
picture, click here to consult the timeline of major events.
Promoting Play
The Image of the Child and the Role of Play
Children always play. However, many factors influ- And children’s free time became much more
ence how they play and the materials they play structured with formal dance or music lessons and
with. To some extent, children’s play reflects the participation on sports teams at younger ages.
prevailing image of the child. For example, when
The recent image of children as citizens with rights
children were considered miniature adults, there
is a noteworthy development relevant to play. Article
was little difference between their play pastimes
31 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights
and those of their elders. Adults and children
of the Child affirms that governments recognize the
played with hoops and danced the same dances.
right to “engage in play and recreational activities
When children were thought to be born in sin,
appropriate to the age of the child.”
Puritanical adults frowned on play as idleness and
thought children's time should be spent in Bible Although play is influenced by adults’ image of the
study or productive work. child, children always exercise a certain amount of
control over play, or the activity isn't play at all. And
The view that children are innocents who are inher-
their play is often based on their image of adults.
ently good meant greater freedom for children to play
As a result, children prefer toys and play themes
in less restricted, more creative ways. The late 19th
that are connected to the adult world. For instance,
and early 20th centuries saw changes in children's
when horses were the primary mode of transporta-
play as living conditions improved. When child labor
tion, children played with hobby horses or stick
laws went into effect, children enjoyed more time for
horses. Subsequently, these were replaced by cars,
free play unsupervised by adults. Children created
and then airplanes, and eventually spaceships.
their “toys” from real objects, such as bats out of
sticks. Boys and girls played make-believe, often out- The U.S. culture now seems to have come full
doors. Boys tended to engage in informal ball games, circle. In many respects children are once again
and girls enacted housekeeping scenarios with dolls seen as miniature adults. They dress like adults,
and pretend, rather than manufactured, props. play with adult-like toys (Barbies instead of baby
dolls), and desire the same exact “toys” as adults—
As scientific study of child development expanded
video games, cell phones, and iPads.
in the later 20th century, the image of the “compe-
tent child” had a significant impact on children's Sources: Centuries of Childhood: A Social History of
play. Whereas previously toys such as balls, dolls, Family Life, by P. Aries, 1962, New York: Vintage Books;
Play and Child Development, 4th edition, by J. L. Frost,
blocks, and cards were relatively open-ended and
S. C. Wortham, and S. Reifel, 2012, Upper Saddle River,
primarily designed for fun, “educational toys” began NJ: Pearson; United Nations Convention on the Rights of
to flood the market. Middle-class parents purchased the Child, 1989, retrieved from http://www.ohchr.org/en/
toys to teach rather than entertain their children. professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx.
© Thinkstock/Stockbyte/Getty Images
For example, he thought the early years
were an extremely important foundation
for later learning. He believed that chil-
dren learn through their senses and need
to be active, and he felt that children’s in-
terests and firsthand experiences promote
learning and memory. Comenius believed
that children are born in the image of God,
and was vehemently opposed to physical First created more than
punishment (Wolfe, 2000). Like Rousseau, he identified developmental stages. 400 years ago, picture
Comenius’s ideas have endured for centuries. For example, in the 1990s Eastern books remain one of the
European countries that had been under Communist dictatorship moved toward democracy. most popular, valuable, and
One strategy was to reform previously rigid educational systems. With the help of American engaging learning materials in
early childhood programs and
philanthropy, the International Step by Step Association (http://www.issa.nl) was founded to
homes.
develop Head Start–like preschool programs. There was some concern that these “American”
ideas—such as child-centered education—would be culturally inappropriate. However, these
concerns underestimated the lasting reverence for native son Komensky (Comenius)—who
is, after all, the forerunner of much of American early childhood education.
Johann Pestalozzi
Johann Pestalozzi (1746–1827) was a Swiss educator who, like Comenius, founded his
own school and trained the teachers. He believed that all children—including children
who lived in poverty—could benefit from education (Nourot, 2005). The field’s current
views of best practice are remarkably consistent with many of Pestalozzi’s ideas about
teaching and learning.
Froebel believed that the use of the gifts and occupations engaged children in sym-
bolically representing objects and events in the real world—such as creating a model or
drawing a picture of a building. The importance of representation, which Froebel pre-
saged, is now supported by research.
Impact of Froebel’s Work Froebel’s work had a major impact on education in the
United States, leading directly to a large-scale kindergarten movement here. Several teach-
ers and teacher educators who studied Froebel’s methods in Europe—“kindergartners” as
they were called—transplanted his ideas to this country.
Kindergartens today bear less and less resemblance to Froebel’s “children’s garden”;
today they have become more like formal first grades (Strauss, 2014). However, many
of his basic ideas are still evident in preschool and child care programs. His gifts and
occupations were clearly the prototypes for many of the toys and materials, such as one-
inch cube and parquetry blocks, that are pervasive in preschool classrooms. Common ac-
tivities—constructing models or using natural materials in art and projects—also mirror
some of his occupations.
Froebel’s work had a significant impact on the development of American kindergar-
tens, which we return to later in this chapter. First, we visit another European educator
who lived a century later than Froebel, but whose work also stands out for its contribu-
tions to the field—Maria Montessori.
Maria Montessori
Maria Montessori (1870–1952) was a major figure in the history of early childhood edu-
cation. A brilliant woman, she was Italy’s first female physician. She was nominated for
the Nobel Peace Prize, and her face graced the 1,000 lira note until Italy abandoned the
lira for the euro. Montessori was, and probably always will be, the only early childhood
educator whose face adorned a currency.
a public Montessori school in Milwaukee found that the approach contributed positively
to 5-year-olds’ literacy, math, and social skills (Lillard, 2005) and to creativity and social
skills at age 12 (Lillard & Else-Quest, 2006). With its emphasis on individualized instruc-
tion, the Montessori approach also has been found to be effective in improving the school
readiness of Latino prekindergartners (Ansari & Winsler, 2014). Interestingly, the found-
ers of Google, Larry Page and Sergey Brin, attribute their success to the self-motivation
they gained from attending Montessori preschool (http://msr.org/google-founders-
pay-homage-to-dr-maria-montessori/).
Early Days of the Kindergarten Movement The earliest leaders in the kin-
dergarten movement transplanted Froebel’s ideas directly. The first kindergarten in the
United States was founded by Margarethe Schurz (1833–1876) in Wisconsin in 1856
(Snyder, 1972). Schurz had studied with Froebel and, upon immigrating to the United
States, started a German-speaking school to teach her own and neighbors’ children. Later,
Schurz met Elizabeth Palmer Peabody (1804–1894), and their encounter was the impetus
for the American kindergarten movement.
Elizabeth Peabody was part of a well-known family of social reformers. Her sister,
Mary, was married to Horace Mann, considered to be the father of public education in the
United States. In Boston, Elizabeth Peabody organized the first English-speaking kinder-
garten in 1860, and soon after wrote the first American kindergarten textbook for teachers
(Cantor, 2013). She understood that teachers needed to be trained in Froebel’s philosophy
to ensure the quality and integrity of the expanding kindergarten movement. She also trav-
eled widely and became an outspoken advocate for the cause, inspiring new generations
of leaders, the most influential of whom was Susan Blow.
Susan Blow’s Leadership Susan Blow (1843–1916) was the major voice in ex-
panding the kindergarten movement and in fighting to keep it true to Froebel’s original
vision. Inspired by Elizabeth Peabody’s promotion of kindergarten, Blow visited Froebe-
lian kindergartens in the United States and Germany and became the leading interpreter
of the approach at home.
Founding Public Kindergarten In 1873, with the support of William Harris, a reform-
minded school superintendent in St. Louis, Blow founded the first public school kin-
dergarten (Snyder, 1972) in response to Harris’s concern that schooling did not begin
until age 7. Blow was ambivalent about connecting kindergarten to public school, fearing
that “the formality of the grades would seize kindergarten in its grip” (Snyder, 1972,
p. 66). Nevertheless, she worked with Harris and launched more than 50 kindergarten
48 Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education
classrooms. Teacher training was an essential part of her strategy, with teachers working
with children in the mornings and attending lectures in the afternoons on topics such as
the correct use of Froebel’s gifts and occupations—a combination of theory and practi-
cum that continues to this day in teacher education.
Upon Harris’s departure from his post, a new school administration was less sup-
portive of Blow’s cause and threatened her ideal vision of kindergarten. Subsequently,
Blow turned her energy from developing and spreading Froebelian kindergarten ideals to
defending them (Snyder, 1972). Blow promoted a rigid application of Froebel’s methods
(such as using the gifts in narrowly prescribed ways), which was actually antithetical to
his vision of kindergarten.
Founding the International Kindergarten Union In 1892, Blow convened a group
of ardent kindergartners from throughout the country and formed the International
Kindergarten Union (IKU). (Much later the IKU became the Association for Childhood
Education International.) The original mission of the IKU was not just to disseminate
information but also to protect the integrity of Froebelian kindergartens. Within two
decades, this mission was to come into direct conflict with winds of change that were
occurring in the wider educational world, emanating from the progressive education
movement, described in the next section.
Progressive Education
progressive education The progressive education movement was a major effort to reform schooling at all lev-
movement Major effort to els to make it more democratic. Its tenets were in direct contrast to the prevailing practices
reform schooling in the early in schools of the time, which emphasized rote memorization, strict conformity, and harsh
20th century to make it more
discipline. The traditional curriculum was limited to the “3 Rs”: reading, writing, and
democratic and responsive to
children’s needs. This move-
arithmetic.
ment was highly influential on The story of the progressive education movement in the United States is integrally
early childhood education and connected to the story of the nursery school movement (or preschool, as we now call it).
later ideas about developmen- Many principles of developmentally appropriate practice are derived directly from the
tally appropriate practice. work of early progressive leaders. Although differences exist between the earlier ideas
and current views, the commonalities between the two visions—progressive education
and developmentally appropriate practice—are striking. The following sections present
the contributions of John Dewey.
Experience, The School and Society, Freedom and Culture, and The Child and the Cur-
riculum. In Dewey’s mind, schooling could not be separated from the larger needs of
democratic society, and children, rather than subject matter, needed to be at the center of
the curriculum.
What the School Is Dewey (1900) believed that the school should function as a commu-
nity. The teacher’s role is to be a member of the community. Teachers should not directly
impose discipline, but rather influence and assist children as they work together.
According to Dewey, teachers and parents should learn from each other—an accept-
ed idea today, but radical for his time. In his school, parents and teachers met regularly to
discuss topics such as why children should or should not learn to read at an early age—
again, an issue that many educators and parents debate today (Wolfe, 2000).
What the Curriculum Is Dewey believed that subject matter—reading, writing, geog-
raphy, history, science—should be introduced to children in ways that they can under-
stand and that involve them in social interaction. He introduced the idea of integrated integrated curriculum
curriculum, now a staple of early childhood education, which addresses learning goals Learning plan that addresses
across multiple subjects at the same time. For example, children might learn economics, goals across multiple areas of
the curriculum at the same
history, geography, and other subjects by studying the workers in their neighborhood.
time.
A tenet of Dewey’s philosophy is that teachers should find ways to integrate traditional
curriculum into topics of interest to children, such as building a model of the neighbor-
hood. Dewey also brought expressive and constructive activities into the classroom such
as cooking, sewing, and woodworking. He felt academic skills should grow out of these
activities.
And yet, as Stoltz points out, the efforts overall led to real change in schools—and that
change is progress.
Although he was a philosophy professor, Dewey was strongly influenced by the trend
in his day toward more scientific approaches in education. This trend, called the child
study movement, is described in the next section.
The Child Study Movement As far back as Pestalozzi, educators understood that
teaching should be based on direct study of children. Beginning in the late 19th century,
child study movement Early G. Stanley Hall (1844–1924) launched the child study movement. Hall was interested in
20th century effort to scien- understanding individual differences in children through direct o bservation.
tifically observe and system- Hall’s students went on to develop systematic scientific approaches to studying child
atically document children’s
development. Arnold Gesell (1880–1961) is famed for launching a child study laboratory
individual development under
the leadership of G. Stanley
at Yale University called the Gesell Institute. There he observed large samples of children
Hall and Arnold Gesell. and derived age-related norms for children’s growth and development such as by what
age children should take their first steps or speak their first words. These norms were con-
sidered “universal” and have been widely influential. However, in the late 20th century,
Gesell’s age-related norms were criticized for understating individual differences and not
using diverse samples of children.
Hall was a strong critic of Froebelian kindergarten. He thought that its rigid methodol-
ogy lacked a scientific basis. Thus, the child study movement played an important role in
bringing about changes in the kindergarten movement, and it also contributed in large mea-
sure to the growing nursery school movement. We tell this story in the section that follows.
f ather believed that girls should be educated, a radical idea at the time. Her mother was
a progressive thinker who had secretly, and also illegally, taught enslaved people to read,
write, and calculate (Wolfe, 2000). Furthermore, Hill’s mother believed that play was
essential to childhood.
Work as a Kindergarten Teacher By the 1880s, the kindergarten movement was under-
way and Anna Bryan launched a teacher training program in Louisville, Kentucky, where
Patty Hill became one of the first students (Snyder, 1972). Hill started her own kinder-
garten where she encouraged creative uses for Froebel’s gifts as toys, and constructive
materials such as blocks and clay. Her kindergarten evidenced her belief in the value of
children’s play as a way to learn.
In 1896, Hill and Bryan were among a group of influential kindergarten educa-
tors who attended one of G. Stanley Hall’s lectures on new knowledge and insights
gained from the systematic study of children’s development. Hall’s severe criticism of
the Froebelian approach as unscientific outraged the attendees, all of whom stormed out
of the meeting—with the exception of Hill and Bryan (Hewes, 1976). They stayed and
continued to study with Hall, and they developed a new curriculum for teaching young
children.
In 1903, Louisville’s kindergartens became part of the public schools. Hill was ex-
cited about the potential benefits, but feared that key kindergarten practices, including
parent education, would be lost (Snyder, 1972). Hill’s vision for kindergarten included
three purposes: (1) to meet the needs of 4 to 6 year olds, (2) to lay the foundation for the
first-grade curriculum while ensuring the right of kindergarten children to develop at
their own level, and (3) to connect the child’s experiences at home and school, building
on what children learn there (Hill, 1926/1987). This vision of kindergarten, especially the
role of parents, was not just ahead of Hill’s time, but one to aspire to today.
Creator of Resources for Children Hill developed resources for children, including a
set of lumberlike wooden blocks from which children could build structures large enough
for them to play in. She and her musician sister, Mildred, wrote songs for children, us-
ing music as a teaching tool. Their most famous song is “Happy Birthday,” although few
people know its composers.
Hill also wrote many poems about children’s interests as well as books to help chil-
dren learn to read. Much like her mother, Hill was concerned about racial inequality. In
the early 1940s, she worked for months on a set of readers showing African American
children, but she despaired when no publisher would consider them (Hewes, 1976). She
believed that respectful images would help resolve racial prejudices.
Hill’s Work as a Teacher Educator In 1905, Hill joined the faculty of Teachers C ollege
in New York, where she stayed for 30 years and was considered a master teacher (Snyder,
1972). She focused her work in the community school, which served poor children, as
opposed to the campus lab school, which served well-off children of faculty.
The Dean of Teachers College, James Earl Russell, was famous for bringing to-
gether divergent points of view (Snyder, 1972). One of his provocative ideas was to
bring Susan Blow to coteach a course on kindergarten methods with Hill. Among the
topics they debated were opposing views of work and play. Although students loved their
lively debates, eventually it became clear that Hill’s point of view was carrying the day
(Snyder, 1972).
Hill’s Contributions as a National Leader Hill was active in the IKU and served as
its president. However, her more liberal ideas about kindergarten methods, including her
promotion of play and creativity, came into conflict with others’ more rigid interpretations
of Froebel’s ideas.
In 1904, the IKU formed the Committee of Nineteen, a group with varying per-
spectives on kindergarten practice, to resolve disputes on topics such as the role of play
and the curriculum (Wolfe, 2000). Each year the committee issued a report, and dis-
agreements became more apparent over time. By 1909, differences could not be resolved
52 Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education
and three reports were produced: one by Blow, another one by Hill, and a compromise
report by Lucy Wheelock (Snyder, 1972). Hill’s report was to become the vision for early
childhood practice as we know it today. Nevertheless, the process of debating conflicting
points of view, which she embraced, continues to be an essential part of the work of early
childhood educators (Bredekamp, 2001).
Founder of NAEYC As nursery schools began to proliferate in the 1920s, Hill was con-
cerned about the lack of standards and curriculum and the threat of unqualified people
taking leadership positions (Hewes, 1976). In 1926, she formed the National Commit-
tee on Nursery Schools, which became the National Association for Nursery Education
(NANE). The committee included Lois Meek Stoltz, Arnold Gesell, and Abigail Eliot.
Stoltz became the first president.
In the 1960s, NANE changed its name to NAEYC, the National Association for the
Education of Young Children. Hill was its first member, and her views dominated the
work of the nursery school movement during its early years. NANE’s first publication in
1929 was Minimum Essentials for Nursery School Education. In this tradition, NAEYC
has been involved in setting standards ever since (Bredekamp, 2001).
We have chosen to tell the story of Patty Smith Hill in such detail because she lived so
many of the historical events that helped define present-day early childhood education. In
the next section, we share the story of one of her close colleagues working in progressive
education, Caroline Pratt.
Caroline Pratt Caroline Pratt (1867–1954) attended the kindergarten education pro-
gram at Teachers College. Like Hill, Pratt rejected the Froebelian approach. She believed
that it was far too structured and did not allow children to play freely or experiment with
materials.
Pratt’s Educational Philosophy Pratt focused her energies on studying children direct-
ly. Her motto, as well as the title of the book for which she is best known, was “I learn
from children” (Pratt, 1948). She became intrigued by the potential of engaging children
with open-ended play equipment and materials.
Like others in the progressive education movement, Pratt looked to education to trans-
form society and worked in settlement houses with poor children. She set up classrooms
Caroline Pratt’s invention of with her own hand-made blocks and toys, crayons, and paper and observed children’s
wooden unit blocks was a major play. Based on her observations, Pratt realized the benefits for children of firsthand expe-
contribution that countless
riences and self-directed plans, field trips and pretend play, letting children find answers
children have enjoyed and
benefited from ever since.
to their own questions, the relationship of play and intelligence, and the need to nurture
Research continues to uncover children’s play (Wolfe, 2000). Pratt also saw an active role for teachers in supporting
new and lasting learning children’s play. These conclusions have all been supported by empirical research in the
benefits of block play. intervening years.
What Works
Developing Mathematical Skills with Unit Blocks
Terence and Sam are building tracks for their subway train. “It researchers studying children’s math
isn’t finished,” Terence says. “Let’s make the dark part where it’s development and learning have been
got a roof [the underground].” He starts to lay blocks along the particularly interested in the effects of block
side and then a roof. play. Young children’s spontaneous activities with blocks do in
“Wait, that’s not going to work,” Sam worries. “The subway fact include mathematical play and exploration of spatial relation-
cars can’t get in. We need to make it higher for them.” ships. Research suggests that benefits from block play persist over
After some trial and error, the boys use taller blocks for the the years.
tunnel sides, add a roof and run the train underneath, shouting, Evidence also indicates that teachers make a difference
“Yay, we did it!” in the complexity level of children’s constructions and the out-
The wooden unit blocks Terence and Sam are using are comes of their block play. Children’s block structures are more
among the most popular and highly regarded play and learn- complex when teachers talk with children during their play, say-
ing materials for young children. In the early 1900s, when ing, for example, “What would happen if . . .?” or “Sometimes
teacher Caroline Pratt designed these blocks—called unit blocks people use a block to join a structure. . . .” And children are es-
because each block is a fraction or multiple of the standard pecially likely to develop math concepts in block play if teachers
unit—she was most interested in providing open-ended tools to introduce math vocabulary and engage children in mathematical
promote children’s creative play. But many learning possibilities thinking related to their play. For example, the teacher might
emerged. As children built with the blocks, they developed their comment, “For your wall you have the blocks standing on their
fine motor skills; measured blocks and classified them by size thin edge,” or “Hmm, you’ve run out of the long blocks for your
and shape; explored symmetry, balance, and stability; discov- road. What can you do … and how many will you need?” When
ered the mathematical relationships among the blocks (e.g., two teachers give voice to thought and extend children’s thinking,
small blocks equal one longer block); engaged in pretend play; they enhance the learning potential of an already valuable and
worked and solved problems together; and did many other things much-loved learning material—unit blocks.
that would contribute to their development and give them hours
of pleasure.
Source: Based on Mathematics Learning in Early Childhood: Paths toward
Today, researchers agree that unit blocks are indeed valu- Excellence and Equity, edited by C. T. Cross, T. A. Woods, and H. Schwe
able learning materials. Because of the spatial and mathemati- ingruber, Committee on Early Childhood Mathematics, and National
cal relationships that exist between the types of unit blocks, Research Council, 2009, Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
research. For a summary of these benefits of block play, read the feature What Works:
Developing Mathematical Skills with Unit Blocks feature.
Pratt created wooden people representing families and community workers to add
a pretend element to the block play. She also designed large hollow wooden blocks to
encourage large muscle play and for outdoor use. For more than a century, millions of
children have enjoyed and learned from these wonderful, creative materials. However,
because she did not patent them, Pratt never benefited financially.
One of Pratt’s closest colleagues was Lucy Sprague Mitchell. Mitchell’s enormous
contributions to the field are described in the next section.
Lucy Sprague Mitchell Lucy Sprague Mitchell (1878–1967) has been identi-
fied as a major link between Dewey’s progressive education movement of the early
20th century and NAEYC’s current concept of high-quality, developmentally appro-
priate education (Field & Baumi, 2014; Greenberg, 1987). Indeed, her life spanned the
period from the beginning of John Dewey’s work to the birth of Head Start in 1965.
In the sections that follow, we describe her early life, her educational experiments
and ideas about curriculum, and the important role of Bank Street College, which she
founded.
54 Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education
Mitchell’s Early Years Lucy Sprague Mitchell was a brilliant woman who studied at
Teachers College with John Dewey and Edward Thorndike, the father of educational mea-
surement and statistical research. Her life’s work drew on both of these influences—a
progressive philosophy combined with research-based practice.
The Bureau of Educational Experiments In 1916, using inherited funds, Mitchell
launched the Bureau of Educational Experiments (BEE) to teach teachers and conduct
research. The goals of the Bureau of Educational Experiments (Wolfe, 2000) were to:
• Focus on child development rather than learning specific curriculum
• Take a whole-child approach to learning and development
• Observe how children’s development is stimulated by experiences and activities
• Focus on scientific measurement of stages of development and establishing norms
(representing the influence of Arnold Gesell as well as Thorndike).
Bank Street College When the bureau moved to 69 Bank Street in New York City, its
name was changed to Bank Street College of Education. A graduate program in teacher
education, Bank Street College played essential roles in the history of early childhood
education and continues to do so. We can only mention a few here.
Most notably, Mitchell’s educational philosophy emphasized children’s firsthand ex-
Bank Street approach periences and play. Her ideas came to be called the Bank Street approach, later called
Originating with Lucy Sprague the Developmental-Interaction approach to more accurately describe its tenets. In this
Mitchell at Bank Street model, children’s experiences in the “here and now” provide the launching pad for their
College and later called the
learning (Mitchell & David, 1992). These experiences, such as the field trips or projects
Developmental-Interaction ap-
proach, a curriculum framework
described earlier, gradually widen children’s horizons beyond the here and now. The con-
based on individual children’s cept is that curriculum should be based on individual children’s development, and that
development, emphasizing that learning occurs through interaction with the environment and other people (Biber, 1977;
learning begins in children’s Shapiro & Nager, 1999). The Bank Street approach has been widely influential in early
experiences in the immediate childhood curriculum development, especially in teaching social studies.
environment (here and now). One element of the Bank Street approach that has sometimes been underemphasized
is the role of the teacher. In Mitchell’s words, “We were looking at children learning, and
intentionally facilitating the process every day” (Greenberg, 1987, p. 75). Read the fea-
ture Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Expanding Children’s Experience for an example
of the teacher’s role in the Bank Street approach.
The Writer’s Workshops for Children’s Authors Mitchell herself was a prolific writer
and authored a series of children’s books. She created a writer’s workshop in 1937 for
authors of children’s books at Bank Street, which offered scholarships to ensure racial and
socioeconomic diversity. The writer’s laboratory was established to help authors better
understand children’s development and interests, and to promote their use of the rhythms
and rhymes of language that are so important and enjoyable for children (Wolfe, 2000).
Among the best-known writers who participated in the workshop were Margaret Wise
Brown and Ruth Krauss. Brown’s books Goodnight Moon and The Runaway Bunny re-
main classics, as does The Carrot Seed by Krauss.
Near the end of her life, Mitchell was instrumental in numerous national efforts to ex-
pand early childhood education beyond laboratory schools and use it for true social reform
(Field & Baumi, 2014). She lived to see the Bank Street approach used as the model for
the Head Start program. Head Start is also known for its emphasis on parent involvement,
which was another part of the nursery school movement, described in the next section.
the health of most poor children. Accordingly, they set up a health clinic, a nursery school
(they coined the phrase) for children under age 5, and teacher training.
The McMillan sisters developed a model open-air nursery that was unique in em-
phasizing outdoor play, nutritious food, cleanliness, and rest to promote healthy develop-
ment. The program was also educational. These centers for working families were called
day nurseries Programs day nurseries—the forerunner of present-day child care centers.
esigned to serve working fami-
d The McMillan sisters’ work was influential in the United States. Several Americans
lies in the late 19th and early studied with them in England, including Abigail Eliot (1892–1992), who subsequently
20th centuries; the forerun-
imported many of their ideas and founded one of the first nursery schools in the United
ner of present-day child care
centers.
States in 1922.
As always happens, events in the larger context had a major impact on early child-
hood education and particularly on the history of child care. These included the Great
Depression and World War II.
The Lanham Act World War II necessitated full deployment of not only men into
the armed services but also women into the workplace to replace the men and support
industry. This massive workforce shift required immediate child care assistance, which
Lanham Act Federal legisla- the federal government provided in the form of the Lanham Act. This legislation funded
tion to provide emergency child emergency work-site child care centers, which operated for 10 to 12 hours per day.
care and other services for One of the most famous centers was located at the Kaiser Shipbuilding company in Ore-
families employed in the war
gon (MacKenzie, 2011). Kaiser was the largest of the Lanham Act centers, operating 24 hours
effort during World War II.
a day all year long. Lois Meek Stoltz was the director, and the manager was Jimmy Hymes,
who later became a professor and president of NAEYC (Anderson, 2013). The program, still
considered a model, provided health services and nutritious meals for children and mothers,
parent education, teacher training, and a play-based educational experience for children.
As happened with the WPA nurseries, the Lanham Act centers ended along with the
war. Child care was no longer supported because mothers left the workforce as fathers
reentered it. These high-quality centers remain an ideal for working families; yet it wasn’t
until the 1980s that employer-sponsored child care again became a major sector of the
early childhood field.
The stories related thus far of the kindergarten, nursery school, and child care move-
ments were lived and recorded by members of the majority group—white, European
Americans. However, various groups of Americans were also part of these stories and
have made significant contributions to the history of early childhood education, which we
discuss in the next section.
✓ Check Your Understanding 2.3: Early Childhood Movements in the United States
Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence 57
Culture Lens
Early Childhood Education through the Lens
of Non-Western Culture
Ideas from non-Western, alternative histories have much specific community. Biological parents and community
to offer early childhood education practices. One con- members take care of all children. Exposure to various
temporary scholar who has written of diverse cultural crafts and skills needed for the community to thrive,
approaches to educating children is Timothy Reagan songs and dances that represent various stages of life,
(2005). He studies views from Africa, the Aztecs, North and the countless stories that recall the history of the
American Indians, the Rom, Chinese Confucians, Indian people are part of the child-rearing experience.… When
Hindus and Buddhists, and Islamic traditions. children engage in formal schooling, the motivation is
not based on personal achievement alone; there is a de-
Consider the African culture in which child-rearing prac- sire to bring pride and regard to the community through
tices and education are based on African people’s view of the personal achievement. This perception of purpose
the relationship between the physical and spiritual reality and success comes from a consistent socialization
(Mbiti, 1992). They believe that understanding children about the value of one’s family and community interde-
requires understanding their spiritual purpose. Before a pendent with the value of oneself. It is often referred to
child is born, the child is a complete spirit—in some as Ubunutu (I am because we are; we are because I am).
traditions, the child is an ancestor returning. At birth,
children are celebrated and the community is expected Understanding how other cultures rear children brings to
to make room for this child’s purpose in the community. light a very important consideration for all educators: Ev-
Because the spirit has come home to a community, not ery child is a product of his or her own history. Knowing
just to a biological set of parents, it becomes a com- that other cultures rear their children according to non-
munity responsibility to take care of this child (Bunseki Western beliefs deepens and broadens the possibilities for
Fu-Kiai & Lukondo-Wamba, 1988; Some, 1999). educating children to their full potential, in ways that may
resonate with their own historical and cultural realities.
According to Dr. Itihari Toure (C. B. Day, personal com-
Sources: Kindezi: The Kongo Art of Babysitting, by K. K.
munication, December 2008):
Bunseki Fu-Kiai and A. M. Lukondo-Wamba, 1988, New York:
The view of the spirit returning for the sake of the com- Vantage Press; African Religions and Philosophy, 2nd edition,
by J. Mbiti, 1992, Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann; Non-Western
munity also informs the responsibilities for the child.
Educational Traditions: Indigenous Approaches to Education
Child rearing is a collective process and children Thought and Practice, 3rd edition, by T. Reagan, 2005,
in different traditions not only have specific family Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; Welcoming Spirit
responsibilities but partake in various community tradi- Home: Ancient African Teachings to Celebrate Children and
tions as they must retain and transmit the values of the Community, by S. Some, 1999, Novato, CA: New World Library.
58 Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education
Marian Wright Edelman, founder and president of the Children’s Defense Fund, the na-
tion’s premier children’s advocacy organization (http://www.spelman.edu).
From 1929 to 1969, Oneida Cockrell (1900–1970) directed the Rosenwald-Garden
Apartment Nursery School and Kindergarten in Chicago (Simpson, 2012). This program
became a model for children’s centers in urban apartment dwellings, and also served
children with disabilities early on. Cockrell participated in the White House Conference
on Children and Youth in 1950. Cockrell also taught at the University of Chicago labora-
tory school.
Spelman College produced many future early childhood luminaries. Its first graduate
student, Ida Jones Curry, became head of teacher training at Hampton Institute in 1932
(Cunningham & Osborn, 1979). Curry worked with the McMillan sisters for a time in
London and was a leader in NANE.
Among Curry’s students at Hampton was Evangeline Ward (1920–1985), who made
significant contributions to the field (Simpson & McConnell-Farmer, 2013). Ward was
president of NAEYC from 1970 to 1974, and not only was she the first African American
president of the organization but also the only president ever to serve two terms. In the
mid-1970s, Ward (1977) was the first to take on the challenge of developing a code of eth-
ics for the profession. She was also the first executive director of the Child Development
Associate (CDA) national credentialing program.
Many other African American early childhood leaders played major roles in the
field’s history. Space does not permit citing all of their accomplishments. At a time when
their educational opportunity was severely limited, these professionals overcame huge
obstacles to earn doctoral degrees at major national and international universities, to edu-
cate and mentor future generations of teachers, and to voluntarily serve in professional
organizations. The harvest of their work is still being reaped, but was essential as the field
expanded tremendously.
Schooling for Indian Children Historically, education was part of the govern-
ment’s strategy of oppression and control. For example, in the 19th century, children
were often removed from the reservation to attend boarding schools in which they were
not allowed to wear native dress, speak their language, or practice their cultural traditions
(Wortham, 2002). Schools were also established on reservations but controlled by the Bu-
reau of Indian Affairs with the goal of assimilating native peoples into the larger society
and thus suppressing their cultural identity (Wortham, 2002). Surprisingly, one exception
was William N. Hailmann, Superintendent of Indian Schools both on and off reservations
from 1894 to 1898, who tried to implement Froebel’s ideas and methods and introduced
kindergarten teacher training (Lascarides & Hinitz, 2000).
In 1928, a government investigation resulted in the Meriam Report, which concluded
that previous policies toward Indians had been detrimental to their health, social, and
economic well-being. The report led to a shift in Indian education toward more progres-
sive practices—connecting education to family and the values of the community, and to
relevant skills and knowledge (Lascarides & Hinitz, 2000). However, schooling contin-
ued to be mostly segregated and inferior.
Federal legislation between 1965 and 1978 brought about significant change in the
education of Indian children. Funds became available to public schools to better meet
their needs and to provide bilingual education, enabling transmission of the culture and
60 Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education
preservation of the languages, many of which were becoming extinct. In 1972, the Office
of Indian Education of the U.S. Department of Education was established. Regulations
began to require that parents and tribal leaders be involved in setting policies.
American Indian/Alaska Native Head Start Head Start had a major im-
pact on Native communities, bringing more emphasis on early education and compre-
hensive services. For example, Head Start played a significant role in ensuring that
Indian children with disabilities receive intervention (T. Dobrec, personal communica-
tion, August 2, 2011). Dr. James Wilson, an Ogalala Sioux, worked with tribal leaders
to get them to accept programs on reservations (T. Dobrec, personal communication,
August 2, 2011).
Today, American Indian/Alaska Native Head Start programs are located in 26 states
(Marks & Graham, 2004). Promoting home language and cultural identity are key goals
of families and tribal leaders. Some, like the Cherokee nation, are committed to tribal
language preservation, and many Pueblos have teachers who are fluent in the tribal lan-
guage. But generally, language preservation is a challenge because in many situations,
only a few tribal elders still speak the language, and there is no written form. Head Start
and foundations such as Kellogg have been instrumental in expanding teacher preparation
by providing grants to tribal colleges.
Native American Early Childhood Leaders The field and Native American
children and families have benefited from the contributions of many key leaders. One who
was particularly important in higher education was Alice Paul (1930–2005). A lifelong
educator in Tucson, she was the first Tohono O’odham woman to receive a Ph.D. from
the University of Arizona. She served on the faculty of the University of Arizona from
1986 through 1999 and became head of Teaching and Teacher Education. Paul helped
create the Tohono O’odham Community College and served on the Board of NAEYC in
the 1990s.
Winona Sample (1917–2008), another important role model and national leader, was
involved with Head Start from its beginning. Born on the Redlake Chippewa reservation
in Minnesota, Sample had to go away to school like many Indian children. She became
director of a large Head Start program and eventually head of Indian Health Services for
the state of California. She, too, served on the NAEYC Board. In her own words, “The
highlight of my life was being selected as the vice chair of the International Year of the
Child (1979–1980)” (Neugebauer, 1995, p. 57).
Helen Scheirbeck (1935–2010) has been described as one of the 20th century’s most
significant American Indian leaders. She was an untiring advocate for American Indian
civil rights, Indian children and families, Indian control of their own education, and the
sovereignty of her Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina. She served as director of the Office
of Indian Education, where she led efforts to pass the Indian Education Act of 1975. She
was the head of the Indian Head Start Program beginning in 1991. Notably, Scheirbeck
was a member of the first Board of Trustees of the Smithsonian’s National Museum of
the American Indian in Washington, D.C., for which she planned museum exhibitions,
cultural arts programs, and educational materials.
© Antonio Perez/MCT/Newscom
K–12 Bilingual Education Perhaps be-
cause the United States has always been a nation of
immigrants, bilingual education has always been
an issue. As far back as the colonial era, German,
French, and Scandinavian immigrants provided
bilingual schools (Cerda & Hernandez, 2006). In American schools have always
the 1870s, William Harris, the Superintendent of Schools in St. Louis who helped Su- served large numbers of
san Blow found the first public kindergarten, also founded the first kindergarten taught children who speak a language
in German to help immigrant children get a “head start” on their education (Cerda & other than English at home.
Hernandez, 2006). By the 1920s, however, most bilingual schools were abolished and Every early childhood teacher
needs to know and use effec-
children were expected to learn only English.
tive strategies to teach dual
Modern bilingual programs began in the 1960s. The first two-way immersion pro- language learners.
gram (taught in both Spanish and English) was established in Miami in 1963. Several
important court cases in the 1970s, such as the Lau vs. Nichols decision in California and
Aspira vs. the City of New York on behalf of Puerto Rican children, established that meet-
ing linguistic and cultural needs, including providing bilingual education, was essential
for children to have equal educational opportunity.
The federal government has played an important albeit changing policy-setting role
in this history. Consider how names have changed in the U.S. Department of Education
over time. In 1973, the Office of Bilingual Education was established to implement the
first national Bilingual Education Act. From 1980 to 1995, the agency was called Office
of Bilingual Education and Minority Languages Affairs (OBEMLA). Eugene Garcia, a
highly respected scholar and advocate for early childhood education, was a director of the
agency. Another important early childhood advocate, Delia Pompa, also led the agency
and is now an executive at National Council of La Raza. OBEMLA’s mission included
helping school districts serve “limited English proficient” children (sadly called LEPs)
and administering provisions in the Elementary and Secondary Education Act that in-
cluded serving preschool children.
In the 1990s, bilingual programs came under attack as not effective and voters suc-
ceeded in banning them in California, Massachusetts, and Arizona. Emblematic of this
political shift, OBEMLA was renamed the Office of English Language Acquisition. Many
more states now have English-only laws for K–12 schools. These laws have not yet been
applied to preschool programs but certainly have an effect on how and by whom children
are taught. Despite research in support of dual language programs, strong public senti-
ment against them prevails. In the words of Antonia Lopez, Early Childhood Director at
the National Council of La Raza: “The history of Latinos in early childhood education is
tied into the history of not being seen as fully fledged Americans” (A. Lopez, personal
communication, March 30, 2012).
Preschool Level A slightly brighter picture of Latino history has prevailed at the
preschool level, with Head Start leading the way from its earliest days in support of chil-
dren and families who speak languages other than English. In 1972, The Head Start Pro-
gram Performance Standards required that programs help each child build cultural iden-
tity and that staff speak the primary language of the children and are knowledgeable about
their culture. As part of the Strategy for Spanish-Speaking Children in the 1970s, Head
Start funded development and dissemination of four Bilingual and Bicultural Curriculum
62 Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education
which brought together the strands of early childhood history (Hinitz, 2014).
The Civil Rights movement of the 1960s brought about real change in virtu-
ally every aspect of society. Early childhood education was no exception. In
response to the call for equal opportunity in this country, President Lyndon
Johnson launched the War on Poverty. One of the cornerstones of this effort,
and the only one that still exists, was the Head Start program. Head Start
represents a coming together of the nursery school movement, which had
previously served middle-class families, and the child care movement, which Classroom Connection
originated to serve the indigent and working poor. The following sections This video shows a quality Head
describe how the key elements of Head Start reflect the lessons learned from Start program. How does Head
early childhood history. Start today reflect the lessons
learned from early childhood
A Comprehensive Program Just like Patty Smith Hill, Maria Mon- history?
tessori, the McMillan sisters, and so many others, the framers of Head Start
believed in serving the whole child. Early childhood education has long been
a multidisciplinary field. Head Start reflects this history as a comprehensive program
providing health, mental health, social services, and parent involvement in addition to
education.
Head Start was also a pioneer in fully including children with disabilities, who
must constitute 10% of the population served. This mandate harkens back to the lessons
learned from Montessori about the benefits of early intervention. Early education for all
children with disabilities is a relatively recent phenomenon. For an overview of its history,
see the lens on Including All Children: Early Childhood Special Education in Historical
Perspective.
An Educational Program The educational model for the Head Start program is
the nursery school, specifically the Bank Street model (Shapiro & Nager, 1999). Over the
years, Head Start’s educational program has changed as new knowledge has emerged. But
its core is developmentally appropriate practice, with its foundation going as far back as
Comenius and Pestalozzi.
Because it was based on the laboratory nursery school model, many Head Start pro-
grams were and still are half-day. This is changing as more families need full-day child
care, but Head Start has yet to completely merge the child care and nursery school threads
of the field.
The rapid launch and expansion of Head Start meant that, like the WPA and Lanham
Act centers, a large workforce was needed on short notice. As a result, minimal training
was required for teachers. In recent years, the program has raised qualifications signifi-
cantly but compensation remains a challenge.
children’s learning and development? What should be the content of the curriculum and
how should it be taught?
Looking back through history, we find that many ideas are revisited: stages of devel-
opment, active learning, children’s interests, sensory learning, positive guidance, image
of the child, the teachers’ role, and the role of materials and environments. But differences
emerge as well. Today we view the teacher’s role as more intentional than our predeces-
sors did, and we no longer see children’s development as a natural unfolding. Instead, we
better understand the interaction of environment and biology. In addition, developmental
stages are not rigid as previously assumed. Standards and approaches need to be flexible
and changing—based on new knowledge—unlike Maria Montessori and Susan Blow,
who refused to change their views.
The most basic history lessons that early childhood teachers should never forget in-
clude these:
• We all need to learn from children, as did all of the historical figures discussed in
this chapter and as Caroline Pratt wisely put it.
• We need to draw on science and the wisdom of experience, as Patty Smith Hill and
Lucy Sprague Mitchell modeled for us.
• And, as Patty Smith Hill believed, it is always valuable to listen to opposing points
of view and to learn from them.
2 Chapter Summary
• S
tudying history is valuable because it helps people whose principles of developmentally appropriate prac-
understand current issues, avoid getting stuck in the tice are congruent with progressive ideas.
past, aspire to make a difference for children, and • T
he nursery school movement, which grew out of the
advocate for change. child study movement, eventually launched the wider
• D
ifferent periods of history have had different perspec- field of early childhood education through the leader-
tives on children and childhood, which have implica- ship of Patty Smith Hill and Lucy Sprague Mitchell,
tions for how children are treated and what kinds of among many others.
education they are provided. • T
he child care movement grew out of social welfare
• E
arly education in the United States was strongly efforts for low-income families, focused on the need to
influenced by Western European ideas, such as those support working parents, and became associated with
of Comenius, Pestalozzi, Froebel, and Montessori. physical care rather than education, although this divi-
Although European ideas are not the only, or necessar- sion is changing.
ily the best, educational concepts in the world, current • A
frican Americans, Native Americans, and Latino
practices strongly reflect these early influences. Americans played significant roles in the history of
• T
he kindergarten movement in the United States was early childhood education, although their contributions
based directly on the work of Froebel and led by Eliza- are not well documented.
beth Peabody, Susan Blow, and others who spread his • T he launch of Head Start in the mid-1960s brought
ideas widely through teacher training and founding the together the various strands of early childhood
International Kindergarten Union. history, which are reflected in its comprehensive
• T
he progressive education movement led by John services, developmentally appropriate educational
Dewey had a profound impact on education in the program, parent involvement, and its role as a
United States, especially early childhood education, national laboratory.
Key Terms
■ absorbent mind ■ child study movement ■ Froebel's occupations ■ nursery schools
■ Bank Street approach ■ competent child and gifts ■ progressive education
■ child-centered curricu- ■ constructivism ■ integrated curriculum movement
lum ■ day nurseries ■ Lanham Act ■ WPA nurseries
T
hroughout this book and throughout your studies and work as an early childhood
educator, you will hear the term developmentally appropriate practice. In this
chapter we discuss the evolution of this concept and examine how it is used in
the classroom. We also discuss the concept of becoming an intentional teacher. Next, we
address the question of how to decide what is developmentally appropriate and the multi-
faceted role of the early childhood teacher. We apply this decision-making process to how
teachers plan appropriate learning environments and daily schedules for children. Finally,
we briefly describe the research base for developmentally appropriate practice.
The concepts addressed in this chapter are part of the foundational knowledge of early
childhood education. These topics provide a basic framework for organizing much of your
beginning knowledge. A large body of literature exists about child development and its
application to early childhood practice (see Berk, 2012; Kostelnik, Soderman, Whiren, &
Rupiper, 2014). This chapter considers some of this literature, as well as the definition,
principles, and guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice as described by the
National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC, 2009).
69
70 Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education
What Is Developmentally
Appropriate Practice?
Over time, the phrase developmentally appropriate practice (often abbreviated as DAP)
has been defined and used in different ways. Its definition has evolved as new research
and knowledge have become available.
developmentally appropri- Developmentally appropriate practice is teaching that is attuned to children’s
ate practice (DAP) Ways of ages, experience, abilities, and interests and that helps them attain challenging and
teaching that engage children’s achievable goals. The foundations of d evelopmentally appropriate practice, as it is de-
interests and adapt for their
fined today, lie in the history of early childhood education. Most fundamental is the
age, experience, and ability to
help them meet challenging
premise that teaching young children should be based on what is known about how they
and achievable learning goals. develop and learn optimally.
Within the field of developmental psychology, the concept of developmentally ap-
propriate has been widely used for more than a century and refers to age-related and
individual human variation. Early childhood educators have long used the phrase devel-
opmentally appropriate to describe high-quality environments, materials, learning experi-
ences, or expectations for children of varying ages.
Push-down Curriculum Perhaps the most important motivation for defining de-
velopmentally appropriate practice over the years has been to counter the trend toward
push-down curriculum, in which content that was previously taught in first grade is push-down curriculum Con-
being taught in kindergarten or even preschool. This was one of the original motivations tent previously taught in a
for writing developmentally appropriate practice. However, the problem is even more higher grade in school being
expected to be learned in an
urgent today because the trend toward increased academic focus in kindergarten has ac-
earlier grade
celerated (Bassok & Rorem, 2014). For example, in 1998, about one-third of kindergarten
teachers believed that most children should learn to read in kindergarten. By 2005, 65%
of teachers held this expectation (Bassok & Rorem, 2014).
Not surprisingly, these increased academic expectations led to changes in the curricu-
lum. Time devoted to literacy in kindergarten has increased by 25% and social studies,
science, music, art, and physical education have decreased (Bassok & Rorem, 2014). In-
creased academic demands have resulted in many teachers using practices such as work-
sheets and whole-group, didactic instruction that are not developmentally appropriate
(Strauss, 2014). A related trend is that young children no longer are given time or materi-
als to play in school (Alliance for Childhood, 2010; Squires, 2014). As a result, increasing
numbers of children are experiencing stress, being judged not ready for kindergarten, or
struggling and failing in their earliest school experience (Almon & Miller, 2011; Bassok &
Reardon, 2013).
Push-down curriculum has been a trend for decades and is often attributed to the
accountability movement, whereby teachers are held responsible if children fail to
achieve certain standards. This trend was propelled by No Child Left Behind legisla-
tion in the early 1990s. More recently, a particularly troublesome trend is the require-
ment in many states that children read by the end of third grade or be held back. This
requirement puts additional pressure on teachers in the earlier grades, thus pushing
down curriculum even more.
72 Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education
Appropriate Practice in the Digital Age A third issue that is often discussed
in the context of developmentally appropriate practice is technology. Some early educators
are troubled by the fact that children spend too much time engaged with “screens,” which
takes away time from important activities such as play, outdoor time, conversations with
other children and adults, and other joyful childhood experiences (Campaign for Commer-
cial-Free Childhood & Alliance for Childhood, 2012). The fact is that from 2011 to 2013,
the number of children under age 8 using mobile devices doubled, and the average amount
of time children spent on digital media tripled (Common Sense Media, 2013). A related
concern is the quality and value of the content that is provided via digital devices.
On the other hand, technology and interactive media permeate children’s lives
and have demonstrated great potential to support young children’s learning (Donohue,
2015). Rather than simply “protecting” children from technology by limiting screen
time, educators have a responsibility to promote the effective integration of high-quali-
ty, developmentally appropriate media (Donohue, 2015; Rogow, 2015). Lisa Guernsey
(2014), a national expert on children’s media, advises that the most important consid-
erations are the quality and appropriateness of the content on the screen, the context
within which it is used (how long, under what supervision), and the age and character-
istics of individual children.
The joint position statement on technology in early childhood programs by NAEYC
and the Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning and Children’s Media (2012) is an ex-
cellent guide for decision making in the digital age. The fundamental principle is that
“Technology and interactive media are tools that can promote effective learning and
development, within the framework of developmentally appropriate practice”(p. 5). In
short, interactive media require many professional decisions on the part of early child-
hood teachers and media developers to ensure that they are of the highest quality and are
used appropriately and effectively.
Undoubtedly other issues will arise as they have in the past. Over the years, the
position statement has generated controversies, including questions about whether the
recommended practices apply equally well to diverse groups of children (e.g., Dahlberg,
Moss, & Pence, 2007; Graue & Delaney, 2011; Woodhead, 2006). In turn, new research
Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 73
Promoting Play
Does Developmentally Appropriate Practice = Play?
For many early childhood educators, play is synony- of play, including active outdoor free play, games
mous with developmentally appropriate practice. with rules, and dramatization.
There are many reasons why this is true. The pri-
Children’s play also varies with their individual in-
mary reason is that a vast amount of research dem-
terests and prior experiences. Girls and boys often
onstrates that play is critical to healthy development
gravitate toward different types of play despite the
and learning in the early years. To be developmen-
efforts of teachers and parents to discourage gen-
tally appropriate, teaching practices must reflect
der stereotyping. Some children prefer solitary play
what is known about how children develop and learn
while others take the lead in organizing a small
most effectively. Therefore, play must be an integral
group to build a fort or set up an airport.
component of a developmentally appropriate pro-
gram for young children. Finally, children play the culture in which they live.
Play is a natural context for children to practice
But play is complex. There are many types of
adult roles, and they mimic the activities, behaviors,
play that have different benefits for children and
and language of the adults and older children in
children play differently depending on their age,
their cultural group. For example, in a highly tech-
level of development, and experience. Observe
nological society such as ours, children play with
how babies play and you will notice that they tend
digital tools as well as the typical tools of daily life
to play with objects and explore the world us-
such as cars or microwaves.
ing their senses—especially touch and taste. As
toddlers gain mobility, their play involves their Like all other aspects of development and learning,
whole bodies with running and climbing among play varies in predictable ways by children’s ages,
their favorite activities. They begin to play more individual characteristics, and the social and cultur-
with toys, and occasionally with or near one other al contexts in which they live. To fully benefit chil-
child. The preschool years are prime time for play, dren, teachers must intentionally promote children’s
with children engaging in virtually every type of play and use it to help children reach challenging
play both alone and with friends such as block and achievable goals. Developmentally appropriate
building, table toys, pretend, or rough-and-tumble practice is more than play, but play is developmen-
play. Primary-grade children continue to need lots tally appropriate.
and critiques will continue to stimulate productive discussions among early childhood
educators about what is best for young children.
know about and are sensitive to the way children think and learn, the more effective their
teaching and the more satisfying their work. To successfully engage in developmentally
appropriate practice (Copple, Bredekamp, Koralek, & Charner, 2013b), teachers need to:
• Meet children where they are, as individuals and as a group.
• Use a variety of intentional strategies to help each child attain challenging and
achievable goals that contribute to his or her ongoing development and learning.
Meet Children Where They Are Knowing what children, within a given age
range, are generally capable of and how they learn provides teachers with a starting
point for planning and organizing a program. But such a broad picture is not enough.
Teachers must go beyond what is “typical”; they must recognize that they will have
little success if they try to teach everyone the same way. They must also recognize that
if their expectations are too high, children become frustrated; if their expectations are
too low, their students will become bored. In either case—teaching only what is “typi-
cal” or having unrealistic expectations—children will fail to make learning progress.
Good teachers continually observe children’s engagement with materials, activities,
and people in order to learn about each child’s abilities, interests, and needs. Based on this
information, they plan curriculum and adapt their teaching strategies to help children make
continued progress. Meeting children where they are might look something like this:
Nathan knows only a few letters, he does not sit still during story time, and he is
significantly behind on many of the kindergarten literacy goals. His teacher knows,
however, that all kinds of transportation vehicles fascinate him. On a class visit to the
library, she helps Nathan locate several information books on transportation to read
with him and have him take home. He especially likes one book about all kinds of
trucks. To interest Nathan in learning letters and words, his teacher prints the names
of the different trucks on cards for him to match with the pictures. Soon, Nathan is
drawing pictures of the trucks and trying to write the words himself.
Four-year-old Jamal speaks Arabic at home and is learning English at school.
His teacher often reads to him in a small group, with other children whose home lan-
guage is not English, using books with limited vocabulary and clear correspondence
between the pictures and words. She also uses other cues to aid his understanding.
For instance, she uses real objects as props when she introduces new words such as
the kinds of food that the Very Hungry Caterpillar (Carle, 1969) is eating. She stays
in close contact with his parents, communicating through a translator, to learn about
the competencies he demonstrates at home, and she encourages the family to talk and
read with him in their own language.
These examples demonstrate how teachers meet children where they are by assessing
what they already know as well as learning about their interests. At the same time, teach-
ers keep in mind the teaching goals.
Once new skills have been mastered, children need new challenges to continue to
learn. These new challenges should provide children with a reasonable stretch that is “just
achievable.” For example, consider a group of kindergartners learning to play catch. If
the teacher consistently throws the ball way over children’s heads, they will soon give up
in frustration. But if she makes the task too easy—rolling the ball on the ground—most
5-year-olds would quickly grow bored and call it “baby stuff.” Instead, a teacher who
is taking into account what is developmentally appropriate will provide just the right
amount of challenge. One child will need the ball thrown right into her extended arms,
while another who has had more practice will joyfully leap to catch it over her head.
Teaching in a developmentally appropriate way brings together meeting the learner
where he or she is and helping children achieve goals. Teachers keep the curriculum’s
learning goals in mind as they determine where children are and what the next steps for-
ward are. What is challenging and achievable varies from one child to the next, depending
on each child’s level of development; prior experiences, knowledge, and skills; and the
context within which the learning takes place.
To be developmentally appropriate, teaching practices must be effective—they must
contribute to children’s ongoing development and learning. That is, if children are not learn-
ing and progressing toward important outcomes, then the practices and experiences in the
program are not developmentally appropriate. To ensure their practices are in fact effective
and developmentally appropriate, teachers need to be intentional in everything they do.
Intentional Teaching
To be effective in their work, teachers cannot leave important aspects of children’s develop-
ment and learning to chance. In everything early childhood teachers do—from organizing
Developmentally appropriate teaching practices must be effective. Intentional teachers don’t simply as-
sume that play is developmentally appropriate. They support children’s play so that it benefits children’s
development as much as possible.
76 Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education
Purposeful Planning
Intentional teaching and developmentally appropriate practice go hand in
hand. Sometimes in early childhood classrooms where children spend sig-
nificant periods of time in exploration, play, and activities they choose and
pursue independently, uninformed observers may think that the situation is
“anything goes.” However, if the child is in a program that truly is develop-
Classroom Connection mentally appropriate, teachers’ intentionality undergirds the entire program
Observe how the teachers in this and all of the experiences provided. The teacher carefully organizes the envi-
video engage the children in ronment and selects and arranges the materials to promote children’s active
playful activities that are fun but engagement, both mental and physical.
also thoughtfully planned to meet In planning the learning experiences, the intentional teacher thinks care-
learning goals. fully about what will foster children’s enthusiasm for learning and enable
them to reach important goals in all areas of their development and learning.
She regularly observes and assesses children and then uses the information
gleaned to gauge her interactions with the children, both individually and in small groups,
to promote ongoing learning and enable children to master new challenges.
After a few days, I began asking children to reflect in small I started wherever each individual child was and tried to
groups and added some more challenge. For example, with help each one go a little farther. Sometimes I tried using a
children who were Pointers, I had a photo of each center, visual support like the photos to see if that would help stim-
and I asked the child to find the center where they had ulate more language. I also modeled both the language—for
worked. Then I said, “Ah, you were building in the block instance, by repeating the center names—and the practice
area.” I repeated the name of the center several times. of thinking back and reflecting on what one has done.
With the Namers, I asked them to tell me what they did in Having pairs of children talk to each other is useful be-
the center they identified. Sometimes I asked a question cause children want their peers to understand them and
such as, “What were you building today?” and if I got no will try hard to get their message across. I also model talk-
response, I added, “Were you building a road, or something ing and asking questions, and the children pick it up and
else?” I would also say things like “Hmm, let’s see, what do it themselves. Gradually the more verbal children who
was I doing? I took my sick puppy to Mark and Bobbie’s at first give a lot of disjointed details get better at giving a
veterinarian’s office.” coherent account of their activities.
With the Detailers, I used a variety of methods. Sometimes Reflection Are there other intentional teaching strate-
I paired two children who responded at similar levels and gies this teacher could use to achieve her goals? What other
had them tell each other what they had done that day. Often skills might these experiences help children develop?
parents or principals questioned her, she defended play by simply stating that it is
developmentally appropriate. But as pressures increased for literacy instruction in
kindergarten, Jana found herself thinking more critically about her practice. She ob-
served that during choice time, children’s play had become repetitive. Boys built the
same roads and towers in the block area. Few children engaged in dramatic play, and
those who did pretended to be characters they had seen on TV or in video games.
Other children wandered from one activity to another without engagement or sus-
tained interest.
Jana realized that she didn’t know enough about play; she couldn’t explain
clearly why it was valuable for children and didn’t know how to enhance children’s
involvement. After attending workshops and reading professional journals, Jana be-
came aware that there were many missed opportunities for learning in her classroom.
She learned ways to help children engage in mature, sustained, sociodramatic play
that builds social and emotional skills and language. She introduced board games to
help children learn mathematics while cooperating and having fun.
Jana began to see that choice time provided many opportunities for her to engage
in one-on-one, extended conversations with children or to build writing, reading, and
math into their play. In short, Jana became intentional in her interactions with chil-
dren during play and in the kind of play experiences she provided. As a result, play
became a more effective teaching and learning experience for the children in her
kindergarten.
78 Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education
Developmentally Appropriate
Decision Making
Teachers of young children make hundreds of decisions every day: which book to read
to what size group, which questions to ask when, how to intervene with a child who is
struggling to enter a play situation, and so forth. They must be able to negotiate difficult
situations, such as what to do when a child shares a confidential family secret, how much
support to give two boys who are trying to fairly divide the blocks, and what intervention
to try with a first grader who is significantly behind in reading development. The list goes
on and on. Day after day and hour after hour, teachers are called on to determine what is
developmentally appropriate.
In many cases, decisions are the result of careful advance consideration and plan-
ning. For example, teachers must consider what kinds of learning experiences will help
the group achieve important learning goals. These decisions include planning curricu-
lum so that the learning goals established for the group are achievable and challenging
for the children. For instance, although the school district prekindergarten curriculum
calls for teaching the alphabet, Ms. Jonas determines which children in her class have
not yet achieved this goal and which children have already mastered the alphabet. The
curriculum plan as written may be appropriate for many children in the former group,
but the latter group can connect letters and sounds and use recognizable letters in their
own writing.
Other decisions include setting up the physical environment, which materials to place
where, how to schedule the day, or how to group children for various learning experi-
ences. Ms. Jonas ensures that the alphabet is displayed at children’s eye level as a model
for children’s writing, and that magnetic letters and alphabet puzzles are available for
children to manipulate in their work and play. She organizes the daily schedule to ensure
that children have ample time to write on their own and, during the day, she works in
small groups with children who need extra help.
Some situations require teachers to make immediate decisions. For instance, suppose
a dump truck pulls up outside the preschool window. The teacher may decide to interrupt
his prior plans and follow the children’s interest by taking them outside to observe the
truck unloading the gravel for a new driveway. Or he may see that most of the children are
engrossed in learning centers and decide not to interrupt. Likewise, if the story a teacher
is reading to a group doesn’t hold the children’s interest, she can readily switch gears and
select another book or engage children in an active song.
Primary-grade teachers must make numerous short- and long-term decisions as they
support children’s learning, particularly each child’s reading progress. Some teaching
decisions have lasting consequences for individual children. For example, identifying a
child for special education services or determining a plan to work with a child who is
extremely aggressive and disruptive has far-reaching consequences. When making such a
decision, the teacher needs to take into consideration many sources of information, obser-
vations over time, and the diverse perspectives of family members and other professionals
such as special educators or social workers.
Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 79
Considering all this information is important because it reflects what we know about
how children develop. At each age, they share characteristics with other people within
that age range but also develop as individuals and as members of cultural groups whose
values and beliefs shape how their development occurs. Figure 3.1 depicts this model of
child development.
In each of these three areas, the knowledge to be considered is substantial and changes
over time. Intentional teachers make sure to stay informed both through ongoing profes-
sional development, which includes gaining information from new research, and through
those avenues that will provide necessary information about the children they teach, their
families, and their communities. Let’s examine each of these areas more closely and see
what each contributes to the decisions teachers make.
• Individual abilities,
strengths, needs
Unique
• Personality,
interests
• Similar to children
of same age
© Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock
Predictable
• Predictable
expectations
• Values of cultural
group
Context
• Community
influence
FIGURE 3.1 Model of Child Development This model illustrates the three core considerations of
developmentally appropriate practice—child development in general, individual variation, and social and
cultural contexts.
80 Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education
q uietly with a puzzle or pegboard. A second grader loves to read and spends all of her free
time with a book, while another struggles with reading but looks forward to math because
it’s her best subject.
The term individually appropriate refers to teachers using what they know about the individually appropriate
personality, strengths, interests, and abilities of each individual child in the group to adapt Information about the strengths,
for and be responsive to individual variation. Consider, for instance, two tricycle riders: interests, abilities, and needs
of each individual child in the
The fearless rider may need more careful supervision to prevent injury, while the warier
group that enables teachers to
child may need extra encouragement and support to develop his large motor skills. Similar- adapt to and be responsive to
ly, some children will need enriched experiences to accelerate their language development, individual variation.
while a few may need individual support to continue to build on their precocious reading
ability. A withdrawn, timid child may need a great deal of emotional support to cope with
life’s challenges, while another needs help controlling aggression to make friends.
With the individual differences that exist, teachers clearly cannot expect all children
in a group to learn the same thing in the same way at the same time. Even when the
teacher introduces a concept or reads a book to a whole group, each child will take away
something different from the learning experience. Therefore, to help children progress,
82 Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education
tend to feel uncertain, ignorant, and uncomfortable in environments different from those culture The explicit and
to which we are accustomed. (Are they talking about us?) implicit values, beliefs, rules,
and expectations for behavior
For teachers, being responsive to all social and cultural variation can be challenging.
of members of a group that are
Our own cultural experience is so integral to us that we are rarely aware of it. If we are
passed on from one generation
in the position of power as a teacher, we must be especially careful to be aware of and to the next.
respectful toward those whose cultural backgrounds and accepted rules for behavior may
be different from ours. Most important, we must be careful not to assume that our own culturally appropriate Applying
knowledge of the social and cul-
cultural perspective is superior and make negative judgments based on our cultural varia-
tural contexts in which children
tions. An example illustrates the potentially damaging result of such judgments: live, which helps teachers build
A European American teacher is employed in a school serving a predominantly African on children’s prior knowledge
American community. One of her principal teaching strategies is questioning. But she and make experiences meaning-
finds that her questions are often met with blank stares or disdain from the children ful and responsive.
and she assumes they don’t know the answers. She doesn’t realize that within their
cultural community, people rarely ask questions that they already know the answers to.
To better accommodate the realities of cultural and linguistic diversity in schools and
early childhood programs, teachers today need to work at being especially sensitive and
responsive to the perspectives of children and their families that may be different from
their own. To broaden your own perspective, read the Culture Lens: The Role of Culture
in Development feature.
Culture Lens
The Role of Culture in Development
Take a moment to think about what you understand It is circle time in kindergarten and the children are
about culture. Do you tend to think about culture only supposed to bring an object from home that has writ-
as characteristic of children and families who are ing on it. Most of the children eagerly seek their turn,
“culturally different”? Does the concept of culture ap- waving their hands widely, and showing off how well
ply only to some children? Actually, it is important to they can read the words. Jai has brought something
remember that every child is socialized in a cultural but is not eager to share. The teacher assumes that
group, and the most important elements influencing he can’t read the words. So, she doesn’t call on him.
children’s development are really aspects of their cul- As in all developmental domains, culture influences
tural experiences that are often the hardest to observe. the expression of emotions. Although emotions such
What people sometimes think of as “cultural” are the as fear, anger, and happiness are part of human inter-
products that culture produces, such as dress or holiday action in all cultural groups, variations emerge in the
celebrations. These are the surface features of culture. way they are expressed. Jai, who is from India, is from
But culture produces more indiscernible behaviors and a cultural group that avoids drawing too much atten-
attitudes that emerge from the same set of rules as the tion to individuals or expressing emotions too openly.
surface features of culture. These deep structural as- Children from other, more individualistic cultures such
pects of culture act as much more powerful influences as the United States’ are generally encouraged to ex-
on children’s development than the surface features do. press their feelings openly. These cultural differences
For example, if the cultural group believes that women account for Jai’s behavior and that of the other chil-
should not be seen by men except for those in the im- dren in his class more than their reading abilities do.
mediate family, a woman’s mode of dress will reflect Cultural differences do not mean that one way is right
this value. At the same time, this cultural belief will and the others wrong. They simply demonstrate that
have much farther reaching effects on her behavior and there is a wide variety of developmental patterns that
life choices than simply how she dresses. Consider an can be explained best by understanding the cultural
example in an early childhood classroom: context in which development occurs.
84 Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education
should not be viewed in isolation. All three considerations, in fact, interact with and
influence each other; they are always intertwined in shaping children’s development and
behavior. For example, children all over the world follow a similar developmental pat-
tern when learning language. They all progress from cooing, to babbling, to one-word
utterances, to telegraphic speech (“Daddy up”), to short sentences, and finally to more
complex sentences. However, a wide range of individual variation exists in language
acquisition of children who are roughly the same age, because of differences in language
experience as well as developmental variation. At age 3, Joey speaks in three-word ut-
terances, whereas his same-age cousin, Michael, expounds in paragraphs. Finally, each
child speaks the language, including the dialect, of his or her own cultural group. Six-
year-old Amelia speaks English to her mother and Spanish to her father. All of these fac-
tors influence children’s language development and how teachers think about supporting
it optimally for all children.
Now let’s look at how the meshing of the three considerations plays out in the deci-
sions of one primary grade teacher:
Frida Lopez has 22 children in her first-grade class. Her first challenge each year is to
get to know the children well. She meets with their families, engages in one-on-one
conversations with children, observes their behavior and skills throughout the day,
and sets up specific tasks to evaluate their skills such as literacy tasks or solving math
problems with counters.
As she gets to know her students, she regularly assesses their abilities and in-
terests in relation to what she knows from her study of child development, the cur-
riculum goals, and her experiences teaching other 6- and 7-year-olds. She finds that
a few children exceed her expectations in reading or social skills, whereas others are
significantly behind their peers in some areas. Each child has a unique personality
and profile of abilities, and Frida becomes more aware of these.
Neela has Down syndrome, and Frida has already met with her parents and the
team of special education professionals who create and implement an individualized
educational plan for her. After a few weeks, Frida becomes concerned that another
child, Almonzo, might have an undiagnosed language delay. In the case of the six
children whose home languages are not ones Frida knows, she recognizes that she
must take extra steps to find out about them. Using community volunteers and, in
one case, a paid translator, Frida connects with the families of her students to build
relationships and to learn what capabilities the children exhibit in their homes and
communities.
So we see that in meeting the children, Frida seamlessly draws on her knowledge
of child development and learning, as well as her knowledge of them as individuals and
members of cultural groups. Precisely because children are so different and their abilities
vary so greatly, Frida will need to draw from a wide repertoire of teaching strategies to
help them achieve developmentally appropriate goals.
So far we have described the areas of knowledge that teachers consider in making
decisions about developmentally appropriate practice—what teachers need to know and
think about. Now we turn to the work of the teachers—what do early childhood teachers
do? What are the dimensions of practice that describe the teacher’s role?
Create a
Caring
Community
of Learners
Build
Relationships
Teach to
with Families
Enhance Learning
and Development
Plan
Assess Curriculum
Learning and to Achieve
Development Important
Goals
FIGURE 3.2 Mariner’s Star: The Complex Role of the Teacher The image of the Mariner’s Star
illustrates how the teacher’s many roles are integrally connected.
Source: Adapted from Basics of Developmentally Appropriate Practice: An Introduction for Teachers of Children
3 to 6, by C. Copple and S. Bredekamp, 2006, p. 24, Washington, DC: NAEYC. Reprinted with permission from
the National Association for the Education of Young Children.
One way to remember these dimensions is to visualize the five points of a star, as
depicted in Figure 3.2. Each of the five points is necessary for the star to be complete,
and they are all interrelated—take one away and the figure is no longer a star.
It may be helpful, in fact, to think of it as a “mariner’s star.” Seafaring people use the
stars to guide their way, but without considerable knowledge of the stars’ positioning and
their relation to navigation, mindlessly following a star won’t lead to a destination. So it
is with the mariner’s star of early childhood teaching. Each of the star’s points links to
a set of guidelines that represent a large body of knowledge about early childhood edu-
cation. Just as the stars guide seafaring people, the mariner’s star helps guide teachers’
professional behavior; but without that strong foundation of knowledge, the guidelines
themselves have little meaning.
In the following sections, we introduce each aspect of the teacher’s role in accor-
dance with NAEYC’s guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice. Each of these
aspects of the teacher’s role is described in later chapters.
Children learn when they feel safe and cared for. They thrive in an en-
Classroom Connection vironment in which they see positive images that reflect their own identity,
Listen as these primary-grade such as photos of themselves and their families; where they see their own
children describe what it means contributions to the community; and when they see their own work displayed.
to be part of a caring community They also see examples throughout the community that reinforce their cul-
of learners. What other ways do tural identity. The messages are clear to each child: You belong here. We care
you think a caring school commu- about and support each other. You have important things to contribute to this
nity benefits children? group. You will thrive here.
The foundation of young children’s learning is in positive relationships
https://www.youtube.com/ with other people who are responsive to them. At the same time, the early
watch?v=zjrl2HqCTuA childhood setting is a learning community where adults and children learn
with and from each other. Each child’s thinking can build on or challenge that
of another. When Josué tells Willa she can’t be the doctor because she’s a girl,
Willa promptly informs him, “I go to Dr. Ashai and she’s a lady, so there.” Josué has to
adjust his concept of doctor to include women as well as men.
In a caring community, children acquire the ability to regulate their own emotions
and behavior and to make friends. Teachers actively teach children social and emotional
skills and engage in individualized interventions for children who persistently demon-
strate challenging behaviors such as aggression.
Intentional teachers use every possible opportunity to promote children’s learning, including preplanned
small group lessons, and conversations throughout the day.
Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 87
Teachers also use various learning contexts such as teacher-guided group work, in-
cluding large-group and small-group preplanned experiences, and periods of play and en-
gagement in which children primarily guide their own activity with the support of teachers
(Epstein, 2014; Pianta, Barnett, Burchinal, & Thornburg, 2009). Teachers use various ways
of grouping children for learning; they may gather a reading group of similar ability level or
organize a group of children with different language abilities to work together on a project.
Teachers’ behavior needs to vary with the setting as well. In addition, routines such as eat-
ing meals and transitioning from one place or activity to another are all potentially valuable
learning contexts if teachers use these activities as opportunities for one-on-one conversa-
tions with children or to reinforce a learning goal through singing a song or reciting a poem.
Developmentally appropriate practices are respectful of children’s cultural and linguistic backgrounds.
Intentional teachers build two-way, reciprocal relationships with families to get to know children as
individuals and to understand their cultural context.
in which information and power are shared evenly. Such a relationship is based on mu-
tual respect, trust, cooperation, and shared responsibility. A reciprocal relationship re-
quires regular open communication and a willingness to negotiate differences toward
shared goals.
We’ve already seen that in order to teach young children effectively, teachers must
get to know each child well. The younger the child, the more teachers must rely on family
members as key informants about the child’s competencies, interests, needs, and cultural
experiences. Young children’s competencies are not always apparent, especially if they
have been acquired in a cultural context that is different from that of the teacher. For
example, a child may know colors and basic shapes and be able to count up to 20 in Rus-
sian, yet demonstrate none of this knowledge in English at school. Through a relationship
with the parents, however, this teacher can ascertain that she needs to help the child learn
the English words for concepts he already knows, rather than teach these concepts. This
allows both the teacher and child the opportunity to use what he already knows and move
on to other important concepts more efficiently.
Her realization forces Gina to reflect on her own and Scotty’s behavior. She real-
izes that she doesn’t really know Scotty, and spends time systematically observing
him. Soon she discovers strengths she can help him build on, such as his exceptional
fine motor skills, and comes to see that there is much Scotty can do well. She gives
him opportunities to use these skills (she allows him to cut up the oranges for snack
under her supervision), and finally catches him doing something right for a change.
Gina also meets with Scotty’s mother so that together they can begin to focus on his
positive behavior rather than his missteps. Gradually, Gina notices that Scotty’s be-
havior improves. As a result, both Gina and Scotty’s mother begin to enjoy him more.
With more support and a sense of accomplishment, he makes friends with several
other children.
Scotty’s teacher wasn’t named Gina. I was actually his teacher, and I learned a lot
about developmentally appropriate practice from this firsthand experience. In making
professional decisions, teachers should always consider strategies to broaden their own
perspective, as illustrated by Scotty’s situation. They need to take into consideration as
many points of view as possible—to “widen the lens” with which they see children, their
families, and the educational process.
practice is based on children’s active engagement. Ms. Grantham believes that work-
sheets are just busy work for children and don’t really teach them anything.
At first, she thinks that the parents are just uninformed about good early child-
hood education. But she asks a few more questions to better understand their perspec-
tive. Ms. Grantham comes to see that both she and the parents want the children to
succeed—in the wider view, they are in agreement. And what the families are asking
for is evidence that the children are in fact learning and on track to succeed in school.
Reflecting on the parents’ legitimate desire, Mrs. Grantham realizes that she
could do a much better job of sharing with the families concrete samples of the chil-
dren’s work that show what they are learning and how they are thinking. She explains
that worksheets are not effective because instead of active learning, they simply call
for right answers (“circle the 4”) and busy work like coloring. Worksheets are more
like testing than learning. She begins to collect portfolios of children’s drawings and
writing, transcripts of their language, and photos of their project work and meets
with families regularly. She displays the children’s work, describes what they have
learned and will be learning next, and what she and the teachers are doing to help
build the children’s skills and knowledge. Along with the children, Mrs. Grantham
develops a class website through which they communicate to families about their
work in progress.
Now it’s your turn. What do you see when you widen your lens? Try to think of
several examples where widening the lens would help you be a better teacher or improve
your relationships with family members, college professors, or work colleagues. For an
example of the effectiveness of both/and practices, read the feature, What Works: How
Both Teacher-Directed and Child-Initiated Experiences Promote Learning.
✓ Check Your Understanding 3.4: The Complex Role of the Early Childhood Teacher
What Works
How Both Teacher-Directed and Child-Initiated
Experiences Promote Learning
One issue that is too often presented as a dichotomy in discus- practices that emphasized only teacher-directed
sions of developmentally appropriate practice is teacher-directed or child-initiated activities were less related to
vs. child-initiated experiences. As we have seen, both are impor- children’s school success over time.
tant components of intentional teaching. Considerable research One interesting pattern they found was that child-initiated
supports this finding, including data from the influential, longi- teaching in the early years was more associated with high school
tudinal study of the Chicago Child-Parent Centers. These centers completion by age 22 than approaches that were low in both
provided preschool and kindergarten for children from low-income teacher directedness and child initiation (that is, a low degree of
families with extensive parent involvement that continued into intentionality among teachers), and those that were overly teacher-
early elementary school. Strong positive effects on participating directed.
children’s school achievement and life outcomes were found 25 The researchers concluded that this both/and approach to
years later. early childhood teaching—intentionally providing teacher-initiated
To delve deeper into what accounted for the lasting effects, and child-initiated learning experiences—along with a high degree
researchers analyzed the curriculum and teaching practices that of parent involvement accounted for the long-term benefits of the
teachers reported using most often. This analysis involved more Chicago Child-Parent Centers.
than 900 children in 20 centers. The researchers found that chil-
Source: “More Than Teacher Directed or Child Initiated: Preschool Cur-
dren whose teachers used a blend of teacher-directed and child-
riculum Type, Parent Involvement, and Children’s Outcomes in the Child-
initiated activities were more likely to be ready for kindergarten, Parent Centers,” by E. Graue, M. A. Clements, A. J. Reynolds, and M. D.
have higher reading achievement in third and eighth grades, and Niles, 2004, Education Policy Analysis Archives, 12, retrieved from http://
avoid being retained in grade. Moreover, they found that teaching epaa.asu.edu/ojs/article/viewFile/227/353.
Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 91
Developmentally Appropriate
Learning Environments
How the learning environment and children’s daily schedules are organized
are the most obvious indicators of whether a program is developmentally
appropriate. The environment should be rich in equipment and materials that Classroom Connection
are safe, healthy, interesting, and engaging for the age group of children for This video takes you on a tour of
which it is designed. Because children’s needs and abilities predictably vary a developmentally appropriate
by age, to be developmentally appropriate, environments should look differ- preschool environment. Notice how
ent for infants, toddlers, preschoolers, or school-age children. the furnishings, toys, and space
are organized to allow for chil-
Organize the Physical Space dren’s independent use while also
Environments send messages, often subtle or even subconscious, about how encouraging them to stretch their
to behave or which behaviors are acceptable. Libraries convey the message abilities.
that soft voices and quiet reading are expected. Open spaces and playgrounds
invite children to run and chase one another around. With the knowledge that environ-
ments send messages, teachers need to consciously think about the messages they want
their classroom environments to send to children.
The classroom needs to be accessible to all children, including children with disabili-
ties, and organized so that children can interact positively, function as independently as
possible, and learn decision-making skills. For example, teachers should make sure there
is enough space for active play that is protected from traffic. They should also make sure to
provide enough age-appropriate materials and duplicates of popular toys so children do not
always have to share, which can lead to frustration and, ultimately, conflict.
A developmentally appropriate preschool or kindergarten environment should be or-
ganized into separate learning centers, which are defined areas of the classroom that learning centers Defined areas
have a particular purpose and that contain relevant furnishings and materials. Learning of the classroom that have a
centers in a preschool typically include a library area, blocks, dramatic play, writing cen- particular purpose and that
contain relevant furnishings
ter, art center, manipulative toys near tables, and a group meeting area. Learning centers
and materials.
enable children to focus their attention, promote small-group interaction, and require
children to make choices and experience the consequences of those choices. Figure 3.3
depicts a room arrangement for a preschool or kindergarten classroom that is organized
with these guidelines in mind:
• Allow children to independently choose their own activities for part of each day.
• Establish clear boundaries between learning centers by using furniture, floor cov-
erings (carpet, tile), or shelves that help limit the number of children who work or
play in each area at one time.
• Locate quiet areas, such as the book, art, writing, and computer centers, next to
each other, separated from noisier and more active centers such as blocks, dramatic
play, or woodworking.
• Provide easily supervised places for children to be alone or with a friend.
• Locate messy activities such as sand and water play and art projects near a source
of water for easy access and cleanup.
• Provide a comfortable meeting space for the whole group to engage in music,
movement, book reading, and other large-group activities. Designate seating ar-
rangements so children are not crowded or distracted by toys within reach.
• Eliminate unnecessary clutter, which can distract and agitate some children.
• Avoid large open spaces or corridors that invite children to run.
An environment for babies and toddlers, on the other hand, should be more individu-
alized with large areas for active play and separate spaces for sleeping, feeding, and dia-
pering. There should be carpeting for crawlers and soft furniture for children to snuggle
with a teacher while looking at a book or pull themselves up on.
92 Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education
Listening/Music Area
Large Hollow Blocks
Block storage
Blocks
Sofa
Overhead Teacher
Dramatic
Meeting Area
Play
Book Rack
Library Open
Book
Storage
Rack
Writing/Technology
Writing Center
Center
Cubbies, with Coat Hooks, Shelves
Discovery Area
Carpeted Area Plants, Pets,
Investigation Tools
Non-carpeted Area
Small Group Work Door to
Art Area Playground
Art Materials
Math Manipulatives
Table Table
Table
Sand Table
Water/
Puzzles
Child
Door Easel
Door to Bathrooms
Cots Overhead Teacher Storage Counter with Storage Sink
A classroom for primary-grade children would have tables or desks arranged in clus-
ters so children can face each other and work collaboratively. Primary-grade children
should take an active role in designing the environment. Learning centers in a primary-
grade school are more closely linked to curriculum areas such as a reading corner or a
science observation area. Spaces for individual or small group work are also needed as
well as a whole class meeting area.
Approximate
Times (vary
by program or
school schedule) Activity
15 to 30 minutes Arrival: Teachers greet children and families. Children store belongings, wash hands, find
8:00–8:30 a quiet activity such as looking at books or drawing, or eat breakfast.
15 to 20 minutes Morning meeting: Teachers and children gather in whole group to plan for the day and
8:30–8:50 encourage a sense of community and belonging in the group. They share music and
movement.
60 to 75 minutes Center time and small groups: Children play and work in learning centers that the
9:00–10:15 teacher has prepared. Teachers observe and interact one on one with children and also
work with small groups on projects, book reading, and playing a math game. Children
clean up and wash hands.
15 minutes Morning snack time: Teachers sit with children, engage in conversation, and model
10:15–10:30 mealtime behavior. Children serve themselves.
15-20 minutes Group time: Children share/revisit experiences of the morning. Teachers lead music,
10:30–10:45 movement, and read and discuss a book.
30 to 45 minutes Outdoor play: Teachers supervise children at play and as they make nature discoveries;
10:45–11:30 they interact with them one on one or in small groups.
10 to 15 minute Half-day program, group meeting: Teacher and children reflect on the day and plan for
11:30–11:45 tomorrow.
30 to 45 minutes Lunch: Teachers sit with children, engage in conversation, and model mealtime behavior.
11:45–12:30 Children serve themselves.
60 to 90 minutes Full-day program, group meeting, nap, or rest time: Teachers help children relax. They
(varies with age and also supervise and provide quiet activities for those who do not sleep.
needs of children)
12:30–2:00
15 to 30 minutes Afternoon snack and activities: Children have an afternoon snack and engage in quiet
2:00–2:30 activities such as putting puzzles together, book reading, drawing, or writing.
45 to 60 minutes Full-day program: Children engage in outdoor play or large muscle experiences indoors.
2:30–3:30
Children continue projects from morning and/or make different choices or play
outdoors: Continue projects from morning and/or make different choices, or outdoor
play.
10 to 15 minutes Group time: Reflect on the day and plan for tomorrow.
3:15–3:30
60 to 90 minutes Full-day program center time: Children play, continue projects from morning, and/or
3:30–4:30/5:30 make different choices.
FIGURE 3.4 Sample Daily Preschool/Kindergarten Schedule Young children need a predictable
daily schedule designed to meet their developmental needs, but they also need flexibility.
Source: Based on The Creative Curriculum for Preschool, 5th ed., by D. T. Dodge, L. J. Colker, and C. Heroman,
2010, Washington, DC: Teaching Strategies.
difficult to maintain because there are so many distractions. So time should be planned
accordingly. Figure 3.4 provides an example of a daily schedule for a preschool or kin-
dergarten classroom.
Ideally, in an effective classroom, the schedule for the day is posted so that chil-
dren can predict what will happen throughout the day. At times, the schedule will
94 Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education
Research on Developmentally
Appropriate Practice
The basic research question regarding any educational practice is this: Does it work? Is
this educational practice effective in helping children achieve important learning out-
comes? Because developmentally appropriate practice involves many different teach-
ing behaviors and aspects of classroom organization, research on the broad construct
of developmentally appropriate practice is difficult to conduct. However, subsequent
chapters present the research base for each dimension of the teacher’s role and area of
the curriculum.
Research Reviews
Well-grounded research about learning and development is the foundation for NAEYC’s
work on developmentally appropriate practice and provides solid guidance for early
childhood educators. This knowledge is summarized in major scientific reports such as
Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers (Bowman, Donovan, & Burns, 2001), From
Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development (Shonkoff &
Phillips, 2000), Handbook of Early Childhood Education (Pianta, Barnett, Justice, &
Sheridan, 2012), and Handbook of Child Development and Early Education (Barbarin &
Wasik, 2009).
A vast amount of evidence demonstrates the lasting positive effects of high-quality
early childhood programs (see Diamond, Justice, Siegler, & Snyder, 2013; Weiland &
Yoshikawa, 2013; Yoshikawa et al., 2013). Although the studies reviewed were not de-
signed to evaluate developmentally appropriate practice per se, the practices employed
in effective programs are consistent with NAEYC’s guidelines. One large-scale review
identified the key components of effective early childhood education as “stimulating
and supportive interactions between teachers and children that support learning and are
emotionally supportive, and effective use of curricula” (Yoshikawa et al., 2013, p. 10).
That review found the most benefit from developmentally focused curricula, meaning
curricula that are not intended to be completely comprehensive, but rather that focus
on a developmental area such as social skills or an academic topic such as mathematics
or literacy.
One review of research identifies the key components of effective early childhood
education as a blend of “explicit instruction, sensitive and warm interactions, respon-
sive feedback, and verbal engagement or stimulation intentionally directed to ensure
children’s learning while embedding these interactions in a classroom environment
Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 95
that is not overly structured or regimented” (Pianta, Barnett, Burchinal, & Thornburg,
2009, p. 50). They point out that this type of teaching is also related to children’s
achievement in K–12.
The Oklahoma universal prekindergarten program, which is the largest state-
funded voluntary pre-K program in the country, found substantial improvements in
school readiness for children from all racial and ethnic groups. The largest gains,
however, were for Hispanic children and boys. When the children were followed
through third grade, the most lasting benefits were found in mathematics (Hill, Gorm-
ley, Adelstein, & Willemin, 2012). Similarly, a large-scale effort to address inequity
in the quality of education in the Abbott School District in New Jersey focused on
providing excellent prekindergarten programs for low-income children. The children
who participated made strong gains in language, literacy, and math at kindergarten
entry that persisted into second grade. Researchers followed the children through
fifth grade and found that the program helped close the achievement gap, and fewer
children were assignment to special education or retained in grade (Barnett, Jung,
Youn, & Frede, 2013).
Developmentally appropriate classrooms function as caring communities of learners where each child is
valued, and families are welcomed.
Effects of Teaching Practices In the last decade, more research has increas-
ingly become available on the effectiveness of developmentally appropriate teaching
strategies. A large number of studies using the CLASS have found that teachers’ scores
on instructional climate (which measures the quality of their language modeling, concept
development, and feedback that engages children’s higher-order thinking) predict chil-
dren’s language, literacy, and mathematics ability and their on-task behavior (Mashburn
et al., 2008; Rimm-Kaufman, La Paro, Downer, & Pianta, 2005).
The Boston public schools are engaged in a highly successful early childhood initia-
tive to close the achievement gap by instituting high-quality prekindergarten programs
that are NAEYC accredited and use the same developmentally appropriate mathematics
and literacy curricula with professional development for teachers. A rigorous evaluation
found substantial gains in language, literacy, mathematics, and executive function for
all groups of children, but the largest gains were for Hispanic children (Weiland & Yo-
shikawa, 2013).
A large-scale observational study in England (Sammons et al., 2008) used an expand-
ed version of the ECERS that incorporated curriculum content items. The study found
that by age 5, children who attended developmentally appropriate, high-quality programs
scored better on measures of early literacy, math, reasoning, and social-emotional skills.
This study also found that the most effective preschools provided both teacher-initiat-
ed small group work and child-initiated play activities that were supported by teachers
(Sylva, Melhuish, Sammons, Siraj-Blatchford, & Taggart, 2004). A similar balance of
child-directed, free-choice activity and teacher-directed group activities was found to im-
prove low-income children’s language development in U.S. preschools (Fuligni, Howes,
Huang, Hong, & Lara-Cinisomo, 2012).
A classic, longitudinal study compared the effects of the HighScope curriculum or
child-centered nursery school experience with a highly scripted, teacher-directed curricu-
lum called Direct Instruction (Schweinhart, Weikart, & Larner, 1986). The HighScope cur-
riculum is a blended approach incorporating child-centered, active learning and intentional
Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 97
teaching. A longitudinal follow-up study (Schweinhart & Weikart, 1997) found that at age
23, the Direct Instruction group had three times as many felony arrests per person, espe-
cially those involving property crimes, while 47% of the Direct Instruction group exhibited
emotional problems during their schooling, as compared to only 6% in the other groups.
Researchers attributed these results to the emphasis on planning, social reasoning, and
other social objectives in the developmentally appropriate HighScope and nursery school
curricula, but not in the Direct Instruction curriculum.
A more recent study demonstrated the effectiveness of building on a developmentally
appropriate framework such as HighScope with additional research-based teaching strate-
gies (Bierman et al., 2008), such as those we describe in this book. This Head Start inter-
vention program involved brief lessons on literacy and social skills, hands-on activities,
and specific teaching strategies designed to promote children’s social-emotional compe-
tencies, language development, and emergent literacy skills. Materials were also provided
to parents to enhance children’s development at home. The program significantly im-
proved children’s vocabulary, emergent literacy, emotional understanding, social problem
solving, social behavior, and learning engagement.
3 Chapter Summary
• Developmentally appropriate practice is teaching that important goals, (4) assessing children’s learning and
is attuned to children’s ages, experience, abilities, and development, and (5) establishing reciprocal relation-
interests, and that helps them attain challenging and ships with families.
achievable goals. • “Widening the lens” is a metaphor to help teachers
• Intentional teachers have a purpose for everything that remember to consider diverse perspectives and move
they do, are thoughtful and prepared, and can explain beyond either/or thinking to both/and thinking when
their decisions and actions to other teachers, adminis- solving problems or making decisions about practice.
trators, or parents. • How the learning environment and children’s daily
• Decisions about developmentally appropriate practice schedules are organized are the most obvious indica-
are based on knowledge of child development and tors of whether a program is developmentally ap-
learning (what is age appropriate), knowledge about propriate and therefore, they should look different for
children as individuals, and knowledge of the social infants, toddlers, preschoolers, and school-age children
and cultural contexts in which children live (what is because abilities and needs predictably vary by chil-
culturally appropriate). dren’s ages.
• The role of the early childhood teacher has five • Well-grounded research about learning and develop-
interrelated dimensions: (1) creating a caring com- ment is the basis for NAEYC’s position statements
munity of learners, (2) teaching to enhance learning on developmentally appropriate practice and provides
and development, (3) planning curriculum to meet solid guidance for early childhood educators.
Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 99
Key Terms
■ age appropriate ■ culture ■ intentional teachers ■ push-down curriculum
■ assessment ■ curriculum ■ learning centers ■ reciprocal relationships
■ caring community of ■ developmentally appro- ■ position statement ■ scientifically based
learners priate practice (DAP) curriculum
■ culturally appropriate ■ individually appropriate
© Rawpixel/Fotolia
Case Study
Y
vonne Donati is a prekindergarten teacher in an inclusive public
school. One of her goals is to create a caring community in which her
energetic youngsters learn how to get along and work together. Yvonne’s
approach to guiding children’s behavior is to engage the children in lively discussions of the classroom rules and
how to solve conflicts that arise with their classmates.
In planning curriculum, Yvonne draws on the children’s interests to integrate literacy instruction with science
study of plants or animals, and children often work on small-group projects such as making a terrarium. She
and the children have large-group meetings and she sometimes reads to the whole group, but she keeps these
periods brief. She tries to find ways to make sure the children are physically active such as doing motions to
songs or fingerplays. She also actively engages children’s minds, as when she gives clues for the children to
guess what object is hidden in a paper bag or has them take turns figuring out what a new word means in a story.
When children encounter challenges in their play, Yvonne helps them to come up with their own solutions
rather than solving the problem for them. She asks probing questions: “Why do you think your tomato plant didn’t
grow tall?” “Let’s compare your plant and Juana’s—why is hers taller?”
Because some children in Yvonne’s class have identified disabilities, she regularly meets with the special
education team and cooperates in implementing the children’s individualized education programs (IEPs). Maya has
severe behavior problems, and the team works together to plan and implement a positive behavior support program
to reinforce her desirable behaviors. After a few weeks of systematically working with Maya, Yvonne observes that
the new strategy is working and Maya is less aggressive.
After a month of school, Yvonne observes that every day the block area is dominated by boys, while girls prefer
the dramatic play center. She isn’t sure if this is just reflecting typical gender differences or if there is another
reason. Yvonne knows from studying the importance of play that children benefit from both block building and
pretend play and that the benefits differ. She contemplates assigning children to areas,
but then she designs an experiment. One week she closes the dramatic play center,
and the next week she closes the block center, observing and recording children’s
behavior. Yvonne finds that without the availability of the dramatic play
center, girls freely enter the block area; some boys play with them while
others go elsewhere. On the other hand, when the block center is closed,
the girls continue to play in the dramatic center, but the boys
seem at loose ends and do not choose pretend play. Based on
the results of her experiment, Yvonne institutes a play planning
session each morning to make sure that girls
have block-building opportunities. She also adds
themes and props, such as creating a car wash,
to interest more boys in pretend play. ■
T
his brief visit to Yvonne’s classroom reveals several things about her approach to
teaching. Although Yvonne may not be fully aware of it, the decisions she makes,
like those of every teacher, actually reflect various theories of how children learn
and develop. The purpose of this chapter is to help you understand and apply the prevail-
ing theories of child development and learning. At times, beginning as well as experi-
enced teachers wonder why theories matter or what relevance theories have to their work.
We begin by describing how theories of child development and learning are most
useful in informing and influencing practice. Next, we describe research on brain
development and its implications. Then, we discuss all the major theories and how
101
102 Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach
they apply to early childhood practice. Next, we explain the critically important role
of children’s play, which is supported by the key developmental theories. We conclude
the chapter with a summary of the main principles of child development and learning
derived from research and theory that guide early childhood practice.
Understanding Development
and Learning
Intentional, effective teaching requires that teachers understand how children think and learn,
and how best to support their healthy development at various ages in all areas—physical,
social, emotional, and cognitive. Both development and learning are complicated processes
requiring that teachers not only study research and theory but also study children themselves.
What Is Development?
If you spend any time with early childhood educators, you are likely to hear that it is im-
portant for teachers to understand child development. This is true. But what do they need
to know about development and why is it important? To answer these questions, we must
development Age-related first define terms. Development refers to age-related change that results from an interac-
change that results from an tion between biological maturation and physical and/or social experience.
interaction between biological Development occurs as children grow, adapt, and change in response to various ex-
maturation and physical and/or
periences. Consider how language develops. Biology plays a role, with babies all over
social experience; development
occurs as children grow, adapt,
the world producing similar sounds at about the same age. But language development re-
and change in response to vari- quires more than maturation. Babies need social interaction with adults and older children
ous experiences. who talk to them. As they grow physically and are able to get around on their own, infants
and toddlers encounter more examples of language interaction, and their speech starts to
take off around age 2 (just as their legs do).
(Hyson, 2012). These lists of goals are overlapping and consistent, and they demonstrate
the connection between development and learning, which we define in the next section.
What Is Learning?
Learning is a change in knowledge or skill that results from experience or instruction.
Learning and development are not the same things, although they affect each other. Learn-
ing is a similar, though not identical, process whether a person is 3 years old or 33. For
example, for a first grader, learning to read isn’t completely different from the way it is
for an older person.
Culture Lens
The Effect of Culture on Research and Theory
An especially important consideration in evaluating theo- styles and preschool children’s social- emotional skills.
ries is the cultural background of the children and fami- What might account for these contradictory findings
lies who participated in the research. For decades, one between diverse cultural groups? When children grow up
theory of how parental child rearing affects preschool in poverty-stricken, dangerous communities and face possi-
children’s development has been assumed to apply to ble discrimination and prejudice, parents’ priorities reflect
all children and families (Baumrind, 1971). The theory these conditions. They may express their love by focusing
identifies three parenting styles: on survival skills and making sure that their children b
ehave
maturely and competently in situations where people are
• Authoritative. Loving, nurturing, involved, and sensitive
biased against them. With these goals in mind, the effec-
parents who explain their reasons for discipline have
tiveness of restrictive parenting makes more sense.
children who are motivated to learn and are well ad-
justed socially and emotionally. In addition, compared to Caucasian middle-class fami-
• Authoritarian. Restrictive, punishing, rejecting, and lies, African American child rearing tends to be spread
controlling parents have children who lack initiative among a number of people in the extended family and
and are inhibited. community. The mother may be relatively passive and
• Permissive. Parents who are warm and accepting of permissive, for example, whereas others in the child’s
children but minimally involved and laissez-faire circle such as a grandmother or aunt may be more re-
about discipline have children with the lowest levels strictive or actively responsive.
of motivation and achievement.
What can we conclude from revisiting a widely accept-
Authoritative parenting is found to be the most effective ed child development theory like Baumrind’s parenting
style of child rearing. Most research on the theory, how- framework? Research that leads to a new theory needs to
ever, has been conducted with Caucasian middle-class be conducted with diverse populations of children and fami-
families. More recent research with Head Start families lies. Otherwise, the theory simply can’t be said to apply
(McWayne, Owsianik, Green, & Fantuzzo, 2008) using to them. In addition, research needs to be interpreted
culturally familiar language and behaviors identified sim- through a wide lens that considers the social and cultural
ilar but not identical types of parenting: contexts in which children live—in this case, the realities
• Active-responsive (e.g., tell child “I’m proud” when he of life for low-income, urban, African American families.
tries to be good). Sources: “Current Patterns of Parental Authority,” by D. Baumrind,
• Active-restrictive (e.g., I spank the child when she is 1971, Developmental Psychology, 4, 1–103; “Parenting Behaviors
disobedient). and Preschool Children’s Social and Emotional Skills: A Question
• Passive-permissive (e.g., tell child “I’ll punish,” but don’t). of the Consequential Validity of Traditional Parenting Constructs for
Low-Income African Americans,” by C. M. McWayne, M. Owsianik,
Research with low-income, urban, African American families L. E. Green, and J. W. Fantuzzo, 2008, Early Childhood Research
found no relationships between these different parenting Quarterly, 23, 173–192.
Maturation theory led to the notion that teachers needed to wait until children were ready
for experiences to be effective. Because it was assumed that children were not ready to read
until first grade, few literacy experiences were provided in preschool or kindergarten. Re-
search in the intervening years demonstrated that differences in children’s abilities are heav-
ily influenced by their experiences (Sameroff, 2009; Tierney & Nelson, 2009). As a result,
maturationist theory has been displaced by other theories. Nevertheless, maturationist theory
continues to influence some practices such as kindergarten “redshirting”—holding children
out of kindergarten until they are a year older and presumably more ready to learn.
Theories can also drive the way research is conducted and findings are interpreted. For
example, if a theory is assumed to be universally true for all children, then research that sup-
ports the theory is assumed to apply to all children. Even if the research has been conducted
only with white, middle-class children, the findings are applied to children of color or children
of different socioeconomic, linguistic, or cultural backgrounds. Understanding the role of cul-
ture in development and learning requires that theory and research be more cautiously inter-
preted through these lenses. Therefore, despite the frequent claim that theories are “universal”
and apply equally well to all children, they need to be evaluated from a broader perspective, as
described in the Culture Lens: The Effect of Culture on Research and Theory feature.
Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 105
Brain Development
and Implications for Practice
Some of the most exciting discoveries about human development ever made have occurred
in the past 30 years as advanced technologies have enabled scientists to directly study
how the brain grows and changes. Tools such as positron emission tomography (PET)
scans and functional magnetic resonance imagery (fMRI) open windows into how the
brain functions when people perform different tasks and how the brains of children and
adults compare (Fusaro & Nelson, 2009). An explosion of brain research has captured the
imagination of the general public and policy makers, in addition to educators and parents.
A major conclusion of this research is that brain development results from an interaction
between what is happening in children’s minds and their experiences in the world (Center
on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2010). In other words, experiences, both
positive and negative affect brain development, and brain growth and change affect learning.
connection might alert the baby to look at a human face; another might signal a smile in
response to mommy’s face. These connections that carry information between neurons
synapses Connections in the are called synapses.
brain that carry information In utero, the baby’s brain undergoes astonishing growth. Neurons are produced at a
between neurons. rapid rate, and they migrate (or move) to the places in the brain where they will develop
and be used. They also begin the process of differentiation—specialization for particular
functions. The processes of neuron production, migration, and differentiation are mostly
directed by genes. However, they are also affected by maternal health, nutrition, and en-
vironmental risks such as alcohol or drug use.
The adult brain has about 100 billion neurons, about the same number that babies
have at birth. The major difference between the newborn brain and adult brain, however,
is the intricate network of connections (synapses) between the neurons, the brain’s wiring
system (Fusaro & Nelson, 2009). During the first 2 to 3 years of life, babies’ brains over-
produce synapses, going from about 2,500 at birth to 15,000—many more than adults
pruning The process whereby have. After that, the brain starts pruning unnecessary or unused synapses. Throughout
the brain eliminates unneces- life, new synapses are formed and others are pruned away.
sary or unused synapses, which Pruning is important because it contributes to efficient brain operation, aids learning and
contributes to efficient brain
memory, and increases the brain’s flexibility, actions that neuroscientists term plasticity.
operation, aids learning and
memory, and increases the
Plasticity is the brain’s ability to develop and change in response to experiences. After prun-
brain’s flexibility. ing, fewer and stronger connections among brain cells strengthen those that remain. This
process is similar to pruning a bush that has grown too large; cutting off unneeded branches
plasticity The brain’s abil-
strengthens those that remain and may mean more blossoms in the future.
ity to develop and change in
response to experiences.
The Role of Experience in Brain Development During early childhood—a
period of rapid brain growth—the brain is most receptive and responsive to experience
(Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2010). Children’s relationships
with the family and community impact brain development and influence how well the
neurological system works. Both positive and negative experiences modify
the brain architecture, with the most emotionally intense and most meaning-
Classroom Connection ful experiences having the greatest effects (Levitt, 2008). For these reasons,
Watch this video to learn more highly stressful experiences during early childhood can have lasting negative
about how the young child’s consequences (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2010).
experiences and interactions Although too little stimulation can lead to poor outcomes, exposing
influence the architecture and young children to overstimulating environments is not supported by brain re-
health of the developing brain. search (Thompson, 2008). Babies and toddlers in particular become stressed
when they are overstimulated. They either tune out (usually by going to sleep)
https://www.youtube.com/ or act out (usually by crying). Either way, they aren’t learning.
watch?v=m_5u8-QSh6A Brain research indicates that the years up to age 10 are the prime time for
learning. Instead of critical periods, researchers use the term windows of
opportunity to suggest that there are times in life when the brain is most open to certain
windows of opportunity
Periods of time during which
types of experiences. One such example is language development, as described in the
human brains are particularly feature What Works: Exposing Babies to Different Languages.
susceptible and responsive to Young children’s brains are much more active, connected, and flexible than are
certain types of experience. adults’ (Thompson, 2008). However, this does not mean, as some people have concluded,
that the first few years of life are such a critical period that after age 3 or 5, the window for
learning closes. On the contrary, brains remain flexible throughout life, as demonstrated
when an 80-year-old learns to knit or a 58-year-old learns Italian.
What Works
Exposing Babies to Different Languages
One of the conclusions from research on brain development is that This research supports the value
there are windows of opportunity during which human brains are of intensive social interaction for learn-
particularly susceptible and responsive to certain types of expe- ing language for infants, for building the brain’s
riences. One of those windows relates to language development capacity to learn and use language. Previously,
among very young children. Kuhl and others have found that if children are introduced to a
Patricia Kuhl is a leading authority on speech development. second language before 7 years of age, they are able to speak it
She has conducted numerous studies with very young infants to like a native—that is, without an accent. After about age 10, how-
test babies’ ability to discriminate the sounds of diverse languages. ever, people who learn another language are never able to speak it
Using MEG (magnetic) technology to view stimulation of different like a native speaker. Contrary to this finding, most “foreign” lan-
areas of the brain, Kuhl and colleagues found that the auditory guage instruction in U.S. schools doesn’t occur until high school,
(hearing) and motor areas of the brain were activated when hearing long after this window of opportunity has closed, making learning
speech syllables of any language, including those they had never a new language more difficult.
heard. This means that American babies reacted when new sounds What brain research tells us is that when babies are born, a
were introduced, whether in English, Spanish, or other languages. great deal of neurological capacity is in place. But during the first
Kuhl next investigated what would happen after babies were a little few years of life, the brain changes in major ways in response to
older and had more experience hearing the language around them. experience—the brain learns, especially from human interaction.
At 11 months of age, babies showed more auditory reaction to sylla- Which leads to another conclusion: The brain—and the baby, of
bles from their own language, and more motor reaction to syllables course—learn best from interaction with people.
from another language. This suggests that by 11 months, babies
already know the sounds from their own language, and that they
Source: “Infants’ Brain Responses to Speech Suggest Analysis by Synthe-
are attempting to understand and make the sounds from their non- sis,” by P. K. Kuhl, R. R. Ramirez, A. Bosseler, J. L. Lin, and T. Imada,
native language. Apparently, long before babies can talk, the brain 2014, Proceedings of the National Academies of Sciences, 111(31),
is practicing the sounds, especially those of their native language. 11238–11245.
• Different parts of the brain are more responsive to experiences at different times.
There are windows of opportunity for particular types of learning.
• Neglect, abuse, and stress pose serious threats to healthy brain development. Pre-
vention and early intervention become even more important in light of the poten-
tially lasting negative consequences for brain development.
• Brains develop best when children experience loving relationships, play, oppor-
tunities to explore their world, interesting and engaging things to learn about, and
healthy, safe environments.
• Brain development is integrated; as children get older, the areas within the brain
become better connected.
During preschool and the primary grades, considerable growth and change take place
in the frontal lobes of the brain, the areas that are responsible for regulating thought and
action (Obradović, Portilla, & Boyce, 2012). As a result, the following skills improve
considerably during these years: attention, impulse control, planning, reasoning, problem
solving, and memory.
school. At other times, children may experience more long-lasting stressful experiences,
such as an injury or death in the family, which are difficult but tolerable as long as a caring
toxic stress Children’s experi- adult is there for support. The biggest threat to children’s developing brains is toxic stress,
ence of intense, frequent, and/ which occurs when children experience intense, frequent, and/or prolonged anxiety such
or prolonged anxiety such as as abuse, neglect, violence, or economic deprivation without adult support to help them
abuse, neglect, violence, or
cope (Shonkoff, Garner, & the Committee on Psychological Aspects of Child and Family
economic deprivation without
adult support to help them
Health, 2012). Such prolonged stress can impair brain growth and have lasting negative
cope. consequences for physical and mental health.
Threats to brain development reinforce the need to prevent child abuse and neglect
and to eliminate risk factors such as poor nutrition and exposure to toxic substances. Like-
wise, evidence from brain research supports the need for Head Start–like comprehensive
family services to minimize stress and trauma in children’s lives and improve the mental
and physical health of caregivers.
At least at the present time, brain research is not precise enough to provide guid-
ance about specific ways to optimize development (Center on the Developing Child at
Harvard University, 2010). In general, it validates the importance of positive relationships
with parents and teachers. And because the areas of the brain that contribute to social-
emotional and cognitive development are connected, early childhood programs should
focus on both (Thompson, 2008).
However, we have much less knowledge of specific curricula, products, or teaching
practices that enhance brain development; therefore, teachers should be wary of products
that claim to be based on brain research (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard
University, 2010). It appears that the best course is to use educational practices that have
been shown to be effective. Neuroscience is most useful when coupled with the larger
body of knowledge about theories of development and learning, which we describe in the
sections that follow.
✓ Check Your Understanding 4.2: Brain Development and Implications for Practice
Source: Based on Child Development and Education (5th ed.) by T. M. McDevitt and J. E. Ormrod, 2013, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Based on extensive investigations conducted with his wife, Joan, Erikson published his
seminal book, Childhood and Society (1950/1963).
He proposed an eight-stage theory of personal and social development in which at
each stage of life an individual confronts a major challenge or “crisis.” Successful nego-
tiation of the crisis requires achieving a balance between two possible extremes. If crises
are not resolved positively at particular points in the life span, Erikson postulated that later
problems will ensue. Table 4.1 provides an overview of Erikson’s eight stages, the typical
crisis, and successful resolution.
Stage 2: Autonomy versus doubt (18 months to 3 years). Belinda is 22 months old.
She has been in the same child care center with the same primary caregiver, Sandy,
since she was 5 months old. She and Sandy have a warm, loving relationship. But
lately, Belinda has begun to resist just about everything Sandy wants her to do. As
soon as Sandy finishes dressing her, Belinda starts pulling off her shoes or shirt. She
yells, “I want red shirt.” Sandy calmly says, “Okay, you can choose. Do you want
your red shirt or your yellow one (the one she is already wearing)?” Belinda pumps
up her chest and says, “Yellow one.”
Belinda’s behavior may seem like a step backward toward infancy, but actually it is
evidence of her advancing development. By 18 months, most babies are mobile and are
soon able to communicate their wants and needs in words. They begin to separate from
primary caregivers, try to do things for themselves, and assert their autonomy with state-
ments like “Me do it!” or “Mine.” This desire to break away from caregivers is sometimes
called the “terrible twos” because it can lead to power struggles. One minute the child
wants to hold onto the adult, and the next minute she wants to push away. But becoming
a more autonomous human being is a major task of growing up. If adults are too harsh
or restrictive with children at this age, children can feel powerless and doubt their own
competence. One effective strategy is giving a toddler a manageable amount of power,
such as Sandy did by offering a choice of two shirts.
Stage 3: Initiative versus guilt (3 to 6 years). Donald teaches 4-year-olds. He loves
this age group because he finds that most 4-year-olds can do many things on their
own, while at the same time expressing their unbridled joy at every new accomplish-
ment. He sets up his classroom and daily schedule to allow for as much choice as
possible, while also being available to assist children during these periods of child-
initiated activity. Dorcas especially needs his help because her parents have been
somewhat overprotective and she is hesitant to try new experiences.
The preschool and kindergarten years are marked for most children by an increasing
sense of their own abilities, especially improved motor skills and exploding language
capacity. This sense of confidence, at times unwarranted, leads children to initiate their
own activities. When children’s initiatives are regularly punished or thwarted, they may
begin to feel guilty and withdraw. The resolution for negotiating this stage is making sure
that encouraging children’s initiative and risk-taking is balanced by ensuring their safety.
Stage 4: Industry versus inferiority (6 to 12 years). Melodie’s second-grade class is
working in small groups on subtraction problems. One group works feverishly, argu-
ing over the correct answers and giving each other high fives when they figure them
out. Another group of children is quieter, appearing frustrated and unsure. Looking
over at the others, Max says, “We’re the dumb group. We’ll never do good in math.”
During the elementary school years, children’s spheres expand, and the opinions of
teachers and peers become more important and parents’ less so. School work becomes
a major part of children’s lives, and they begin to find satisfaction in achievement and
in mastering new skills. They also begin to compare themselves to others and are more
capable of judging their own performances. When children’s accomplishments are not up
to their standards, they may develop a sense of inferiority.
Erikson emphasized that development does not end during childhood but continues
throughout the life span. Adults—students, teachers, and parents—will see themselves in
the later stages (see Table 4.1). Understanding the struggles of the later stages—identity
versus role confusion, intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus self-absorption, and
integrity versus despair—can provide teachers with insight into the behavior of adoles-
cents (who may be parents) and other adults, including parents and colleagues. However,
the first four stages are most relevant to the work of early childhood educators.
Implications for Teaching Erikson’s theory has important implications for the
social-emotional climates of early childhood programs, as we can see from visiting the
Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 111
Love and Learn Child Care Center. In this center, babies and toddlers have primary care-
givers who stay with them for 2 or 3 years so teachers get to know them well and can
provide consistent, responsive care. The preschool and kindergarten classes are structured
with extended periods of time for children to initiate their own activities within the op-
tions that the teacher provides. Teachers encourage children to voice their opinions and
ideas. The after-school program provides time, space, and materials for primary-grade
children to pursue and master hobbies and interests such as photography, computers,
painting, sports, and writing stories.
In this book, we advocate a both/and approach to many questions regarding early
childhood practice. Erikson’s theory is an example of this approach because each of the
crises that children must negotiate is resolved by achieving a balance between the two
poles. Trust is essential, for example, but children also need to develop a healthy sense of
caution when interacting with strangers. Similarly, preschool children’s initiative should
be encouraged, but they also need to learn limits.
Erikson’s theory emphasizes the role of the sociocultural context on children’s per-
sonal and social development, but parts of his theory assume particular cultural perspec-
tives. For example, his emphasis on the singular role of the mother during the first three
stages doesn’t reflect the value that some cultural groups place on multiple caregivers
(see the Culture Lens feature on page 104).
these goals contributes to life satisfaction and successful learning. Although children will
not reach the pinnacle of Maslow’s hierarchy—self-actualization—the foundations are
laid during those early years. Adults might want to consider that a career teaching young
children can be a self-actualizing experience, especially for those who find this work
meaningful, playful, rewarding, and contributing to a better world.
The theories of both Erikson and Maslow apply primarily to social and personality
development and the motivation to learn. Next, we turn to two theorists—Piaget and
Vygotsky—whose work applies primarily to cognitive development. Because all domains of
development are so integrally connected, however, these theories also have implications
for social-emotional development.
© Jupiterimages/Stockbyte/Getty Images
As young children play and interact with objects and other people, they construct their own understanding
about the world, such as what a crayon can do and how paper is used.
owever mistaken Pearson is at this point, he is clearly thinking and trying to connect what
H
he is learning to what he already knows.
Piaget believed that all children, like Pearson, have an inborn ability to organize and
scheme or schema The orga-
make sense of their experiences. Piaget coined the term scheme or schema for the orga- nization of mental structures
nizing structures people use to think or guide behavior. Schemes develop and change with people use to think or guide be-
experience. Toddler Veronica has a big German shepherd dog named Darby. When Ve- havior; the structures develop
ronica meets the Labrador next door, she calls him Darby, too. Her mom responds, “He’s and change with experience.
a doggie, but his name isn’t Darby. It’s Milo.” Then, Veronica sees a pony at the petting adaptation The mental
zoo and exclaims with glee, “Doggie!” But when she goes to pet the pony, she realizes he process of altering concepts
is much taller than either Darby or Milo. Again, her mother clarifies: “No, he has four legs (schemes) in response to
like Darby and Milo, but he’s a pony, not a doggie.” experience, which occurs in
two ways: through assimilation
After many such experiences, Veronica changes her scheme for dogs (including the
and accommodation.
fact that dogs are not all the same) and another scheme for ponies. This process of chang-
assimilation When new
ing schemes in response to experiences is called adaptation, and occurs in two ways:
information or experience is
through assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation occurs when new information or understood in connection with
experience is understood in connection with an existing scheme. Veronica assimilated her existing knowledge (schemes).
experience with Milo into her scheme for dogs.
accommodation When new
By contrast, if the new information doesn’t fit within an existing scheme, the child information or experience
must modify that scheme or construct a new one, a process called accommodation. doesn’t fit within an existing
In Veronica’s case, the pony couldn’t be assimilated into her doggie scheme, so a new concept (scheme), the child
scheme for pony had to be created. As Veronica gets older and has many more experi- must modify it or construct a
ences, she will create different schemes to organize this basic information. Pony will be new scheme.
connected with the general scheme of animals, as well as the narrower scheme of animals disequilibrium An imbalance
you can ride. in thinking that occurs when
When Veronica touched the pony and her mother gave her new information, she ex- new information or physical ex-
perience cannot be understood
perienced disequilibrium, which is an imbalance in thinking that occurs when new in-
in terms of what is already
formation or physical experience cannot be understood in terms of what is already known known (cannot be assimilated).
(i.e., cannot be assimilated). Piaget believed that human beings seek equilibrium—we
equilibration The process
want the world to make sense, so we try to restore balance by creating new schemes or
whereby humans try to make
adapting existing ones, the process of equilibration. sense of new experiences by cre-
Piaget theorized that learning depends on this process of adapting schemes through ating new concepts (schemes) or
assimilation and accommodation in order to achieve equilibrium. He also believed that adapting existing ones.
114 Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach
Types of Knowledge Another important point of Piaget’s theory is that there are
different kinds of knowledge. Piaget believed that children’s minds develop as the result
of interactions between experience and biology. But the process is not identical for every
type of learning. In fact, Piaget (1952) identified three types of knowledge—physical,
logico-mathematical, and social-conventional—each acquired in different ways.
physical knowledge Under- • Physical knowledge is understanding how objects move and function in space—
standing how objects move and how the physical world works. Two-year-old Evan loves to watch the rubber ball
function in space and how the roll down the ramp, and repeats the action over and over. Then he tries using a rub-
physical world works.
ber block. Even though the block is soft like the ball, it doesn’t cooperate. Evan’s
hands-on experience with the ball and block adds to his knowledge of how different
objects function in the physical world.
logico-mathematical • Logico-mathematical knowledge is the relationships that are constructed in our
knowledge The relationships minds between objects or concepts. Unlike physical knowledge, logico-
that are constructed in our mathematical knowledge is not directly observable. While playing with his ramp,
minds between objects or
Evan sees that Delia has two small balls and he has one big one. He decides that he
concepts.
wants a second ball. The idea that two balls are more than one ball is an example of
logico-mathematical knowledge. Evan created the relationship between the objects
in his mind; it does not exist otherwise. He could just as easily have focused on the
relationship of size instead of quantity and decided to keep the big ball.
social-conventional • Social-conventional knowledge is the culturally agreed-on names and symbols
knowledge The culturally that need to be transmitted to the learner directly. For example, the letters of the
agreed-on names and symbols alphabet, number names, and the meaning of the colors on the stoplight are all ar-
that need to be transmitted to
bitrary. This kind of knowledge can’t be reinvented by every learner. Usually,
the learner directly.
children learn these symbols by repeated exposure (hearing and seeing them
frequently) or being directly taught.
A challenge for teachers is that different types of knowledge require different types
of teaching and learning. Just because social-conventional knowledge is most efficiently
learned through instruction does not mean that other types of knowledge can be easily
acquired this way. Complex concepts such as counting, which is logico-mathematical
knowledge, require much deeper understanding than simply reciting the number names.
At the same time, children can’t learn to count if they don’t know the number sequence,
just as they can’t learn to read if they don’t know the alphabet. Therefore, in constructing
their understanding of concepts, children often draw on all three kinds of knowledge.
Source: Based on Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice, 11th edition, by R. Slavin, 2015, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
As children get older and are able to move on their own, crawling and toddling, they
use more conscious movements to find out how things work. But their learning occurs
through their actions; they don’t yet think or plan in advance. Consider 18-month-old
Ronde, who stacks his blocks in front of the cabinet door. When he opens the door, the
blocks fall over, much to his surprise and dismay. Nevertheless, Ronde keeps stacking and
knocking over the blocks, not realizing that if he moved the toys before opening the door,
they wouldn’t fall down.
Very young children also tend to see everything from their own point of view, what
Piaget called egocentrism. Their experiences, such as shaking the rattle or making milk egocentrism The process
flow by sucking, convince them that they are the center of their world and can cause whereby very young children
events to happen. tend to see everything from
their own intellectual and emo-
By about age 2, young children begin to be able to use symbols such as words, in-
tional point of view.
stead of relying on actions and objects to learn about the world, and they move into
Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development—preoperational.
Preoperational Stage (Ages 2 to 7) Several major cognitive developments occur dur-
ing this stage. First, children’s language development explodes, which provides symbols
that enable children to think (that is, hold a mental representation) of an object or event.
Ronde can now picture the door knocking down his blocks and, therefore, thinks ahead to
building in a safer place. As a result of this new thinking ability, children are less depen-
dent on sensorimotor learning, although active learning is still most effective.
Piaget did many classic experiments with preoperational children, trying to gauge their
ability to solve various prearranged tasks. What he concluded from these studies is that
preoperational children rely on their perceptions or intuitions about solutions rather than on
logic. For example, at snack time, 4-year-olds Isela and Ruth each have one graham cracker.
Isela breaks hers into four pieces and tells Ruth, “Look! I have more crackers than you do!”
Nothing her teacher says will convince Ruth that they have the same amount. Ruth is not
content until the teacher resignedly breaks her cracker into four pieces as well.
From his observations, Piaget concluded that there are several specific limitations to
the thinking of preoperational children. Ruth and Isela’s situation demonstrates that they
were unable to conserve quantity. Conservation is the concept that the quantity of objects conservation The understand-
or liquids does not change just because their physical appearance is transformed. If Ruth ing that the quantity of objects
had a tall glass of milk and her teacher poured the milk into a short fat one, no doubt she stays the same regardless of
changes in appearance.
would think that she had less milk and feel cheated once more. Ruth is unable to reverse
the operation of pouring the milk in her mind and figure out that the amount has not
changed. The same phenomenon—judging by appearances rather than logic—is observed
when preschool children are presented with two equal rows of checkers. After one row is
spread out and appears longer, even though no checkers have been added or removed,
preoperational children will assume that the spread-out row has more checkers.
116 Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach
Piaget changed the way we view young children and how they learn.
Piaget believed that children developed understanding by interacting with
objects and people in the environment. He relied on observing and interview-
ing to understand what children thought. However, he overestimated the role
of exploration and discovery in children’s cognitive development and un-
derestimated the important role of the teacher. Piaget also thought cognitive
development was essentially the same across cultures. Lev Vygotsky, a Rus-
sian psychologist, studied Piaget’s theory and expanded our understanding of Classroom Connection
children’s development in important ways. See constructivism in action in
this primary school classroom.
Vygotsky and Sociocultural Theory Observe how the teacher supports
Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) was born in Russia the same year as Piaget. Al- children as they construct their
own knowledge. He asks questions
though he died young, he was a prolific writer, and after his death his theories
and encourages experimentation.
were further developed and disseminated by his students. Because his work
How do you think questioning
was not translated into English until 1962, it was unknown in the West until
supports children’s scientific
long after his death. The Stalinist regime also suppressed his work in his
understanding better than just
native country. telling them the information?
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory is based on his belief that children
learn from social interaction within a cultural context. He emphasized that
what children learn is determined by the culture in which they grow up, such sociocultural theory
as an urban child learning to negotiate dangerous street crossings, or a rural child learning Vygotsky’s theory that children
to milk a cow. In recent years, Vygotsky’s views on learning and teaching have become learn from social interaction
more influential than Piaget’s, although the theories are actually complementary (Copple within a cultural context.
& Bredekamp, 2009).
gets over the last hurdle herself. Ave gives him a big smile as she pushes off with her feet
zone of proximal development
(ZPD) The distance between
and makes a circle around the room.
the actual developmental level By giving Ave “a leg up,” Khari helped her accomplish a goal that she couldn’t do on
an individual has achieved (her her own, but could achieve with his assistance. Vygotsky (1978) identified this as the
independent level of problem zone of proximal development (ZPD)—the distance between the actual developmental
solving) and the level of po- level an individual has achieved (their independent level of problem solving) and the
tential development she could level of potential development they could achieve with adult guidance or through
achieve with adult guidance
collaboration with other children. The assistance, guidance, and direction teachers pro-
or through collaboration with
other children.
vide children in their ZPD is called scaffolding. To gain deeper understanding of how
children learn in their ZPD, read the feature Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Teaching
scaffolding The assistance,
in the “Zone.”
guidance, and direction teach-
ers provide children to help
them accomplish a task or
Social Construction of Knowledge Scaffolding does not mean that teachers
learn a skill (within their ZPD) control or shape learning, as behaviorists believe (see p. 124). Instead, children learn by
that they could not achieve on solving problems collaboratively with the teacher’s support or by working with peers,
their own. which is called co-construction, or social construction of knowledge.
Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 119
Seven-year-olds Lucrezia and Gloria are drawing a map of their school. Lucrezia is co-construction Children
working on the classrooms and Gloria is drawing the entrance area, lunchroom, and learning by solving prob-
lems collaboratively with the
offices. They have the following exchange:
teacher’s support or by working
Lucrezia: You are making them too big. There won’t be room for my part. with peers; also called social
construction of knowledge.
Gloria: Well, they are bigger. See all the stuff we have to put in.
Lucrezia: But the lunchroom is the biggest. How can we make this work?
Each girl has a different perspective on the problem. As they continue to work on it,
they try different solutions, none of them satisfactory to both. Finally, they determine
the following:
Language and Thought Because Vygotsky (1962) believed that learning depends
on interaction with other people, he also believed that speech is the most important tool
for learning. Babies begin by communicating through gestures, as when they learn that
holding up their arms means “pick me up.” Then they connect sounds and words with
their meanings; saying “Da Da” gets a different result from saying “Ma Ma.” Language
growth during the preschool years enables children to learn through conversation. Speech
gradually becomes internalized and used for thinking.
Think of a situation, such as learning a psychology concept or solving a mathemat-
ics problem, which you didn’t really understand until you talked about it with some-
one else or at least stated your ideas out loud. According to Vygotsky, articulating an
idea is necessary for real understanding. He described the relationship between language
and thought as moving from interpersonal (between people) to intrapersonal (inside the
child). Learning begins in conversation between people and then becomes part of an in-
dividual’s thinking.
Interpersonal understanding or socially constructed knowledge is turned into intrap-
ersonal knowledge through private speech (Vygotsky, 1962). For preschool children, private speech The process
private speech can look like thinking out loud. As 3½-year-old Ivor stands in front of the whereby interpersonal under-
easel contemplating the next color to use, thick paint starts running down the paper. Ivor standing or socially constructed
knowledge is turned into
says, “Whoa, don’t do that. I’m gonna get you with my brush,” and proceeds to do so. By
intrapersonal knowledge (think-
age 6 or 7, private speech becomes silent and is used for thinking and problem solving.
ing aloud becomes thinking to
To summarize, children first use language for conversation. Then, through the vehicle oneself).
of private speech, they literally use language to talk to themselves and to control their own
behavior—that is, for self-regulation (Bailey & Brookes, 2012).
Effective teachers draw on all the relevant theories to support children’s learning progress. What strategies
do you think this teacher is using to help this young girl accomplish a new skill?
capacity to control one’s impulses both to stop doing something that is unnecessary (even
if one wants to continue doing it), and to start doing something that is needed (even if one
does not want to do it)” (Boyd, Barnett, Bodrova, Leong, & Gomby, 2005, p. 4). This is
why self-regulation is so strongly related to success. Every day preschool teachers require
children to stop playing (which they usually want to continue) and start cleaning up
(which they don’t want to do). Similarly, children in primary grades must attend to the
reading lesson when they would rather go outside for recess.
The activities of the prefrontal cortex region of the brain that allow us to self-
regulate—to manage our emotions, focus and shift attention, and regulate behavior to
executive function The ability meet our goals—are known as executive functions (EF) (Jones & Bailey, 2014;
to control emotions, focus Obradović, Portilla, & Boyce, 2012). They are some of the most important skills for
attention, plan and think learning and development (Galinsky, 2010; Gilpin, Boxmeyer, DeCaro, & Lochman,
ahead, and monitor cognitive
2014). Children who have ADHD typically have developmental delays in their executive
processes.
functions. They are often impulsive, and have trouble paying attention. They also may
have difficulty with working memory, the brain ability that allows us to remember infor-
mation in the short term and use the information to understand and solve problems. While
some children are identified with ADHD in preschool, children are typically diagnosed in
early elementary school, when the demands of formal schooling highlight children’s EF
skills of attention and regulation.
Teachers can support EF in development of children with ADHD in several ways
(Murphy, 2014). To help children focus better, teachers can break instructions and tasks
into structured pieces, give individualized instructions, and check for un-
Classroom Connection derstanding of instructions. Teachers can help children regulate their own
behavior by providing positive reinforcement for positive behavior, and by
In this video, learn more about
avoiding negative feedback, which can lead to poor self-image in children
how executive function develops,
with ADHD. Many children with ADHD take medication to help them attend
why it is important, and how
and regulate in the school setting; however, research suggests that the sup-
adults can support its develop-
ports families and teachers can provide may help as much as medication in
ment in early childhood.
helping children experience school success.
https://www.youtube.com Children with ADHD benefit from an environment that allows for play
/watch?v=efCq_vHUMqs and exercise. Recent research has examined the role of physical activ-
ity in children’s attention and EF. Physical exercise enhances sustained
Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 121
Promoting Play
Incorporating Playful Exercise into the Curriculum
Tamara has 22 children in her combined First, Tamara shifts the most demanding aspects of
kindergarten-first grade class. She enjoys their the daily schedule. She starts the day with a large
energy and enthusiasm, but has noticed that group activity that ends in a “dance time”—the
several children have been struggling with main- children pick the music and they spread out across
taining attention during math and literacy work the room—and dance playfully. Children may move
blocks. A few children have even started to act as they wish or follow a leader. Literacy block fol-
silly when they are supposed to be working. Two lows, and Tamara ensures that Mabel and Nassim
of the children who struggle with attention, Mabel complete their most demanding tasks at the begin-
and Nassim, have diagnoses of ADHD. Tamara ning of the literacy block. Tamara schedules other
knows that they are intelligent, but sees that they demanding lessons such as math and science after
are falling into patterns of not finishing their work. morning and lunch recess.
Mabel is acting a bit anxious, possibly in response
Next, Tamara and her co-teacher arrange for a move-
to frequent redirection and reminders. Nassim’s
ment center, and choose animals for the first theme.
disruptive behavior is escalating during large
Using cue cards and a flip-video camera, children in
group activities, and he is wandering during center
the center tape each other moving like animals. The
time and teasing his classmates. Tamara consults
teachers plan themes for future movement centers,
with her co-teacher and the school resource teach-
including yoga, calisthenics, and dance party. They
er, and together they come up with a plan that will
discuss how to introduce rules for this center and
support Mabel, Nassim, and all of the children in
monitor for safety, and include the children in think-
the class.
ing of fun ways to move in the center.
Before implementing any changes in the class-
Finally, Tamara makes accommodations for Mabel
room, Tamara, her co-teacher, and the resource
and Nassim, observing any other children who might
teacher take turns observing the children during the
benefit. Because she knows that children with
course of classroom routines and activities. They
ADHD often benefit from being able to move while
notice that children are more attentive after morn-
learning, Tamara arranges for Mabel and Nassim to
ing recess, lunchtime recess, and physical educa-
stand while doing work, if they choose. She provides
tion. Conversely, they notice that before recess
“fidget toys” for them to hold during large group
and lunch, the children have the most difficulty
time, and identifies special classroom jobs for them
attending, following directions, and working inde-
to move and help during the day.
pendently. Although Tamara and colleagues cannot
add more recess time to the children’s day, they Tamara knows that she can’t let children play all
decide to: (1) introduce physical activities into large day, but by thinking about playful movement and
group time, (2) shift activities in the daily schedule, exercise in her daily routines and curriculum, Ta-
(3) introduce an exercise area at center time, and mara and her co-teacher witness dramatic increases
(4) adjust learning environments for children who in engagement and attention for Mabel, Nassim,
need more activity. and the entire class.
Chrono system
(changes in
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Cultural context environment
Over time)
Exosystem
Interactions
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Socioeconomi
Biology
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Famil
Temperament
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Time
Media
B
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A
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START
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1
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BACK
B
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Belie
fs and values
r egulations, religious traditions, and school board decisions. When a teacher experiences
stress in her home life, she may carry that stress into the classroom, impacting the quality
of her relationships with students and the impact of her teaching. On the other hand, a
teacher whose school board institutes policies that support good working conditions may
be more likely to interact positively with children and provide effective instruction. An
exosystem can include economic, media, education, health, legal, and political entities
that directly effect a person or circumstance in the child’s microsystem.
macrosystem System that in- The outermost level of Bronfenbrenner’s model is the macrosystem, which refers to
cludes the overarching cultural the overarching cultural context of the values, beliefs, laws, and policies of a society.
context of the values, beliefs, American society, for example, is strongly influenced not only by values of freedom and
laws, and policies of a society
individual rights and responsibilities, but also by the value of collective responsibility for
its neediest members. As a result, our institutions and social policies reflect these values,
such as laws regarding provision of public assistance for families living in poverty. While
it may not seem that macrosystems effect a child’s daily life, they can exert a powerful
chronosystem System that influence over time. Bronfenbrenner uses the term chronosystem to refer to effects of
refers to effects of circum- circumstances over time. According to Bronfenbrenner, children who experience home-
stances over time. lessness for a short period of time will likely suffer fewer negative outcomes than a child
who is homeless for their entire childhood.
Bronfenbrenner’s theory has helped educators and child development researchers re-
alize the importance of considering the multiple, complex systems that impact children’s
development. Bronfenbrenner believed that society needs to attend carefully to support-
ing children by supporting all of the systems needed for a child to develop. Especially
committed to supporting children and families who live in poverty, Bronfenbrenner was
one of the key conceptual founders of the Head Start program. The comprehensive ser-
vices (education, health, and family engagement) that are the hallmark of Head Start can
be attributed, in part, to the influence of Bronfenbrenner’s thinking.
In the previous sections we described the developmental theories of Erikson, Maslow,
Piaget, Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner. Erikson’s work, as well as that of Maslow, pro-
vides insights into children’s social and personality development and their motivation.
The theories of Piaget and Vygotsky cast considerable light on the processes of cogni-
tive development and have much to teach teachers. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems
theory attempts to connect children’s social and cognitive development with the many
influential systems that are involved in children’s development. In the next section, we
turn to descriptions of the most influential theories of learning.
Learning Theories
In contrast to developmental theories, which are linked to age-related changes in chil-
dren, learning theories are assumed to apply in the same way regardless of the age of the
learner. In the following sections, we describe the work of two major learning theorists:
B. F. Skinner and Albert Bandura. (Another learning theory is Howard Gardner’s multiple
intelligences theory, which we discuss in the chapter on individual differences.)
When teachers use positive reinforcement such as smiling or commenting on what a child is doing well,
children are more likely to continue to stay engaged in learning.
making him miss recess. If the child wants to avoid recess because he doesn’t get chosen
for a team or is bullied, then removing him from recess is not a punishment but a reward
and, thus, will have the opposite effect from the one the teacher intended. When reinforc-
ers are removed, the conditioned behavior diminishes and eventually disappears, a pro-
extinction The process cess called extinction.
whereby a conditioned behavior
diminishes and eventually What to Reinforce: Shaping Behavior Most human behavior is complex,
disappears when reinforcers much more so than that of the hungry rats Skinner studied. Children learn to take turns,
are removed.
follow classroom rules, or ride a bike over time and after many tries, some successful and
others not. It would be impossible to wait to reinforce a highly complex behavior until a
child performed it well. What if a kindergarten teacher only reinforced a child’s writing
when the letters were formed perfectly on the line? Many children would give up. Instead,
an effective teacher recognizes the child’s attempts, each step on the way to mastering
writing the letters correctly. Teaching a new skill or behavior by rewarding each step to-
shaping Teaching a new skill ward the goal is called shaping.
or behavior by rewarding each Shaping requires the teacher to carefully observe the successive approximations—
step or successive approxima- not the actual desired behaviors, but each approximate behavior that is closer to the
tion toward the goal.
goal. For example, when 3-year-old Lola’s scribbles begin to look like (approximate) a
successive approximations circle or straight line, her family child care provider Titia says, “Oh, look, Lola, you
Behaviors that are reinforced made an O like in your name.” Lola didn’t intend to draw an O, but it is likely that Ti-
(shaped) that are not the actual
tia’s praise will result in Lola producing pages of O’s to get more of Titia’s positive
desired behaviors, but each
approximate behavior that is
attention.
closer to the goal.
Implications of Behaviorism for Practice Research supports the effective-
ness of principles of behaviorism, especially for children with special needs (Division
for Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Children, 2014). Some disabilities,
such as cerebral palsy or Down syndrome, affect children’s ability to perform functional
behaviors (e.g., eating or dressing) that typically developing children learn relatively easily
through imitation and repetition. Children with autism benefit from behavioral techniques
to support learning social communication skills (Wong et al., 2014). In these situations,
using behavioral learning techniques can be effective, as Yvonne learned in the opening
vignette of this chapter. For another example of the application of behavioral principles,
Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 127
read the feature Including All Children: Teaching Self-Help and Social Skills to Children
with Disabilities.
Behaviorism is a learning theory, not a theory of development. Therefore, the prin-
ciples apply regardless of the age of the learner. However, as the name implies, the ef-
fectiveness of behaviorism is limited to teaching or changing observable behaviors. Even
with this limitation, the important thing to remember is that behaviorism can be highly
effective. At times, the wrong behaviors get reinforced, such as when an aggressive child
gets what he wants by bullying.
Behaviorism, as epitomized by Skinner’s work, is often pitted against developmental
theories and teaching approaches. This is usually because behaviorism is connected to spe-
cific instructional practices, such as when teachers tell children facts and reward their correct
answers. Another strong criticism of behaviorism is that overreliance on external rewards un-
dermines children’s internal motivation (Kohn, 2014; Reineke, Sonsteng, & Gartrell, 2008).
128 Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach
For example, paying children to read books may make them less motivated to read on their
own when the payment isn’t available.
But effective teaching is not an either/or choice between constructivism and behav-
iorism. These theories each apply best to different phenomena. Behaviorism may work to
change observable behaviors, but it does not explain, nor is it effective in influencing the
less visible but essential processes of thinking, concept development, and problem solving.
To explain this kind of learning, we must look to the theories of Piaget or Vygotsky, as de-
scribed earlier. Building on the work of behaviorists and bridging the gap between behav-
iorism and cognitive theory is the work of Albert Bandura, described in the next section.
According to Bandura, children learn from watching what other children do and the consequences that
follow. What do you think the teacher should do if one of the children is hurting other people?
Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 129
others—and (2) they can learn vicariously. Vicarious learning is based on observing the vicarious learning Learning by
effects of other people’s behavior rather than experiencing the rewards or punishments observing the effects of other
people’s behavior, rather than
directly. Consider the following example of modeling:
experiencing rewards or punish-
Mr. Evans’s group of 3-year-olds is getting louder and louder as they boisterously ments directly.
encourage each other to jump up and down and scream at the top of their lungs.
Wanting to scream himself, Mr. Evans chooses instead to tiptoe around the group,
take Bettina by the hand, and whisper softly to follow him. One by one, the c hildren
stop their jumping and begin imitating Mr. Evans’s toe walking. Gradually, their
voices quiet, in hopes of getting a turn to be the teacher’s partner.
The children in Mr. Evans’s group observed his behavior and saw that Bettina gained
his favor by following his lead. According to Bandura (1986), observational learning has
four phases:
1. Attention. The first step in observational learning is paying attention. Children pay
attention to role models who are interesting, novel, or seemingly powerful. This is
why action figures on television garner a lot of children’s attention. Teachers use
many fun and interesting ways to get and hold children’s attention, such as talk-
ing through a puppet, having them guess what is hidden in a bag, or simply being
excited themselves. Mr. Evans surprised the children with the novel behavior of
walking on his tiptoes.
2. Retention. During this phase of the process, the teacher models the behavior and
gives children a chance to practice it. Mr. Evans’s goal was to get the children to
lower their voices, so he modeled whispering and got the children talking softly.
3. Reproduction. The next step is for children to try to reproduce the behavior on
their own. Mr. Evans and Bettina step aside from the group and observe as the
other children take their turns whispering and tiptoeing.
4. Motivation. Observational learning works because children find that they will be
rewarded in some way for imitating the desired behaviors. Such motivation can be
based on something that happened in the past or is promised in the future. Or, as in
Mr. Evans’s class, the potential reward can be vicarious. Seeing Bettina rewarded
with the teacher’s positive attention encouraged the others to follow her lead.
Types of Play
Play is complex and difficult to define because there are different kinds of play: play with
toys, movement play, rough-and-tumble play, make-believe play, and play with games
and computers. Most often, play is defined as activity that is freely chosen, initiated and
controlled by children, and enjoyable. Despite the lack of definitional clarity, most people
would say, “You know it when you see it.” And more important, children know when they
are playing.
Different types of play have different benefits for children. Definitions for different
types of play follow:
• Functional play. Children play with and manipulate objects, such as when a baby
shakes a rattle or a toddler bangs a drum.
• Constructive play. Children use toys or objects to create something new, such as
making a puppet from a sock, a design on a computer screen, or a castle out of
Legos.
• Symbolic play. Children use one thing to represent or stand for another. Pretend
play is a form of symbolic play. A stick becomes a magic wand. A piece of cloth
becomes a veil or a cape.
• Games with rules. Children follow prescribed rules for playing together toward a
common goal. Games include simple ones such as Candyland or Chutes and Lad-
ders, as well as complex ones such as chess or baseball.
Piaget related types of play to stages of development (Johnson, Christie, & Wardle,
2005). He theorized that functional play dominates the sensorimotor stage (birth to
2 years) and that the preoperational stage (2 to 7 years) is characterized by symbolic and
constructive play. Children in the concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years) tend to play
games with rules. Children’s pretend play becomes more complex over time, especially if
people play with them and provide props. The following sections describe this sequence.
Functional Play Babies and toddlers engage in functional play, focusing on objects
and then on the people who use the objects with them. Toddlers enjoy repetition and prac-
tice as they play—for example, when they bang a toy hammer over and over.
If parents or teachers pretend with young children during functional play, toddlers
will begin to pretend, too. Ms. Morgan sits next to 2-year-old Hester, picks up a cup, and
pretends to drink. “This is delicious tea,” she says. Soon Hester takes a cup and says,
“Yum.” This type of pretense is the foundation for later symbolic play.
Constructive Play Constructive play begins as functional play and becomes more
symbolic as children use objects to create new ones. For example, children act out pretend
132 Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach
roles during block building. Constructive play aids logico-mathematical learning and can
be as basic as a 2-year-old stacking three blocks or as complex as a second grader build-
ing a model airplane.
symbolic representation The Symbolic Play Play helps build symbolic representation—using one thing to mean
process of mentally using one something else—such as when letters are used to represent sounds or number symbols
thing to stand for something represent quantities. At first, toddlers use real objects or toys in their pretend play, such as
else.
picking up the cup and pretending to drink. If adults encourage this type of play, children
use other objects in their play. They might pretend that a block is a cup. Finally, children
who have lots of experience with pretend play no longer need an object to pretend, using
their hands to represent drinking from a cup or stomping their feet and saying, “I’m an
elephant.” This type of play helps children move from thought that is linked to physical
actions to the ability to use words and other symbols to represent concepts (Piaget, 1962;
Vygotsky, 1962).
By the time most children turn 4 years old, they begin to develop more complex play
with roles and symbolic uses of props. Many preschool- and even kindergarten-age chil-
dren, however, still play at the toddler level. Bodrova and Leong (2012b) define this kind
of repetitive, unimaginative play as “immature play” to distinguish it from the “mature
play” that is expected of 4- and 5-year-olds. Mature play promotes self-regulation, execu-
tive function, and other skills (Diamond & Lee, 2011).
Games with Rules As children move into primary grades, they spend less time
in pretend play and more time playing games with rules (e.g., sports and board or
computer games). Games, including well-designed digital games, can build turn-taking
skill, delay of gratification, problem-solving, strategizing, and motivation to learn
(Lieberman, 2006).
Games require children to follow the established rules; they rarely get a chance to
discuss, negotiate, or change the rules—which would contribute to the development of
social competence and self-regulation (Bodrova & Leong, 2012a). When pretend play is
replaced by sports or other organized activities during the preschool years, these impor-
tant foundational skills might not develop fully (Bodrova & Leong, 2012a).
© Benjamin LaFramboise/Pearson Education
Vygotsky saw play as the leading activity of the preschool years. Socio-dramatic play—when children dress
up and play parts in a scenario—builds many skills such as language and self-regulation.
Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 133
✓ Check Your Understanding 4.5: The Role of Play in Development and Learning
Source: Based on Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth through Age 8, revised edition,
edited by C. Copple & S. Bredekamp, 2009, Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
behavioral principles can be particularly effective under certain circumstances, such as when she ap-
plies them for a limited period of time in working with Maya’s special need.
Finally, Yvonne does some theory building of her own by testing her hypotheses about children’s
play with an informal research study. Theories are born, grow, or die from research that often begins in
informal observations of children such as Yvonne’s. ■
4 Chapter Summary
• Development is age-related change that occurs as the Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. The most prominent
result of an interaction between biological matura- theories of cognitive development are Piaget’s theory
tion and physical and/or social experience. Learning of constructivism and Vygotsky’s sociocultural
is a change in knowledge or skill that results from theory. A theory for understanding the interactive
experience or instruction. influence of social and cultural contexts on human
• A theory is an explanation of how information and development is Bronfenbrenner’s ecological sys-
observations are organized and relate to one another. tems model.
Theories are important because they affect how people • The most prominent learning theories are B. F. Skin-
think and behave. In education, theories of learning ner’s theory of behaviorism and Albert Bandura’s
and development affect how teachers treat children, social cognitive theory.
how they structure environments, and how they teach. • Research demonstrates that play contributes to lan-
• Early experiences change and organize the physical guage development, self-regulation, attention, creativ-
structure of the brain. Neglect, abuse, and stress pose ity, problem solving, social and emotional skills, and
serious threats to healthy brain development. High- literacy and mathematics skills.
quality, developmentally appropriate early childhood • Effective early childhood education is based on knowl-
education can contribute to healthy brain development. edge of child development and learning. NAEYC sum-
• The most influential theories of social-emotional marizes the key concepts of that knowledge base in 12
development are Erikson’s psychosocial theory and principles that can be used to guide practice.
Key Terms
■■ accommodation ■■ egocentrism ■■ neurons ■■ shaping
■■ adaptation ■■ equilibration ■■ object permanence ■■ social cognitive theory
■■ assimilation ■■ emotional development ■■ operant conditioning ■■ social-conventional
■■ behaviorism or ■■ executive function ■■ physical development knowledge
behavioral learning ■■ exosystem ■■ physical knowledge ■■ social development
■■ chronosystem ■■ extinction ■■ plasticity ■■ sociocultural theory
■■ cognitive development ■■ 5- to 7-year shift ■■ positive reinforcement ■■ successive
■■ co-construction approximations
■■ hypothesis ■■ private speech
■■ consequences ■■ symbolic representation
■■ learning ■■ proximal processes
■■ conservation ■■ synapses
■■ logico-mathematical ■■ pruning
■■ constructivism knowledge ■■ theory
■■ punishment
■■ development ■■ macrosystem ■■ toxic stress
■■ reinforcer
■■ domains of development ■■ maturationist ■■ vicarious learning
■■ scaffolding
■■ domain-general ■■ mesosystem ■■ windows of opportunity
■■ scheme or schema
processes ■■ microsystem ■■ zone of proximal devel-
■■ self-actualization theory
■■ disequilibrium opment (ZPD)
■■ modeling ■■ self-regulated learning
■■ ecological systems theory ■■ negative reinforcement ■■ self-regulation
Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 137
Mind in the Making website National Association for the Education of Young
Children (NAEYC)
Ellen Galinsky’s book, Mind in the making: The seven
essential life skills every child needs, and website of the The NAEYC website has a section dedicated to Play
same name, provide a useful description for families and and Learning including research, books and teach-
teachers of how to support children developing life skills ing resources. Information on gender in play, how to
that are essential for healthy development and learn- choose toys, and how to support play at different ages is
ing and success in life, including executive function and included.
self-regulation.
Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University
This website has rich resources about brain development
and explains how early relationships and experiences
5 Adapting for Individual
Differences
Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
5.1 Identify the kinds and sources of individual differences among children.
5.2 Describe what teachers need to know about variation among children, and
identify ways to accommodate individual differences.
5.3 Restate Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences, and discuss its implica-
tions for teaching practices.
5.4 Compare ways of differentiating instruction to adapt for individual differences
in ability, interest, and personality among children.
5.5 Explain practices that are required by law for children with disabilities and
special needs.
5.6 Apply your knowledge of effective practices for teaching children with special
needs to teaching all children.
© Kali9/E+/Getty Images
Case Study
L
indsay Creighton is ready for open house night. When Shira arrives with
her mom in tow, she greets Lindsay with an exuberant hug and turns
to see Rohan coming down the hall. “Rohan! It’s the open house!” Rohan
clings to his father’s leg. He is painfully shy and seems unnerved by Shira’s enthusiastic greeting. His father says,
“Go play with Shira.” But Rohan retreats and shakes his head “no.”
The next to arrive are Cal and his grandmother. “Cal!” screams Shira, and the two embrace. Cal runs by his
grandmother on his way to play, and she speaks sternly to him in Chinese. He stops running. Slowly he moves to
the block corner with Shira. When she hands him a pink car, Cal sighs, “This is for girls. I need a boy car.”
Carter and his parents arrive. Shira says hello to Carter, but then speaks to his parents, “Carter can play if he
wants.” Carter flaps his arms and repeats a favorite phrase from a children’s movie. He moves closer to Shira and
grabs her cheeks. His parents intervene and say, “Too close, Carter.” Behind Carter and his parents are the twins,
Alice and Alexandra. Shira’s mom, Beth, greets them, “Hello, Alice. Hello, Alex.” Alice rolls her eyes and says,
“You got us mixed up again!” Beth apologizes, but the twins’ mom says, “Even I get them mixed up sometimes,
until they are in a place like this. Just watch. Alice will try to take over, and Alex will stay in a quiet corner until the
open house is over.” Ruby is the last to arrive. Her father immediately asks Lindsay if any of the food has nuts.
When Lindsay says, “No, I made sure,” he still asks to see the ingredient labels due to Ruby’s severe allergy.
Later, Lindsay reflects on the evening. Although the children are all about the same age, they are so different.
She marvels at the fact that even the identical twins have such different personalities. She wonders if Rohan’s
shyness is exacerbated by his father’s insistence on participation. And what about Shira—how did she get to be
such a social butterfly? Is it in her genes, or did her parents cultivate that, too?
Lindsay’s thoughts turn to Carter, who has autism. She considers how well his parents coordinate with his
teacher and other specialists to reinforce what he’s learning in school. Lindsay also
thinks of 5-year-old Cal, living with his grandmother after his mother’s parental rights
were revoked as a result of neglect. How is it that he is such a positive and vivacious
boy given all he has had to deal with in his young life? Lindsay smiles
when she thinks about Cal wanting a “boy car.” How and when do these
gender stereotypes crystallize?
Finally, her thoughts turn to the challenges she faces. How
will she be able to meet the needs of these children? How will
she provide experiences that challenge Shira and Cal but don’t
overwhelm Carter? How will she make Rohan
and Alex feel at ease in social situations? And
how will she create a strong sense of belonging
and friendship among these children? ■
I
ndividual differences abound in every group of young children. As is evident from
the open house vignette, even children of the same chronological age differ from one
another in many ways. The purpose of this chapter is to examine what is known about
the range of individual differences among children and how teachers can effectively adapt
the curriculum and teaching strategies to help all children participate, develop, and learn
to their fullest potential. Understanding individual differences is a critical dimension of
developmentally appropriate practice.
We begin with a discussion of the range of individual variation that exists among all chil-
dren and some of the origins of these differences. Next we describe Howard Gardner’s theory
of multiple intelligences, which is a useful framework for thinking about individual children’s
strengths, needs, interests, and abilities. Then we discuss differentiating instruction and present
139
140 Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach
a framework for responding to the diverse learning needs of all children. We conclude with a
discussion of effective practices for teaching children with disabilities and special needs.
nature The hereditary or The Influence of Biology on Development In the past, some psycholo-
genetic contributions to human gists (Jensen, 1980) proposed that people behave as they do because of inborn char-
development. acteristics. This belief emphasizes the influence of nature, the hereditary or genetic
Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 141
The Transactional Relationship between Nature and Nurture Although transactional theory of
the nature versus nurture debate continues, the current thinking is that “nature and nur- development Theory that de-
ture are partners in how developing people interact with the surrounding environment” velopment is the result of both
(Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000, p. 39). The transactional theory of development (Sameroff, biology and experience and how
2009) explains that development is the result of both biology and experience and the ways they influence each other.
in which they influence each other.
To illustrate how nature and nurture interact, consider the following
examples. Myra, a highly verbal and inquisitive 6-year-old, seems to in-
Classroom Connection
spire her teacher to engage her in intellectually stimulating projects, such as Understand more about how biol-
finding out what causes earthquakes, which in turn further Myra’s already ogy and environment interact to
accelerated development and learning. By contrast, Alyssa, who is deaf, is influence how individuals develop
withdrawn and rarely joins in activities even though her teacher uses sign in different ways in this video
language. Alyssa’s lack of responsiveness may provoke her teacher to initiate “What is Nature vs. Nurture?”
communication with her less often. What does the presenter say
Both biology and experience play critical, interrelated roles in children’s about the importance of environ-
ments for how young children
development. Therefore, the kinds of experiences children have become
develop? What can teachers do to
vitally important. As the Center on the Developing Child at Harvard Uni-
provide positive environments?
versity (2010) reports, “Experiences children have early in life—and the
environments in which they have them—shape their developing brain archi-
https://www.youtube.com/
tecture and strongly affect whether they grow up to be healthy, productive watch?v=P-D33oWiOEg
members of society” (p. 1).
142 Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach
risk factors Inherited or Understanding Risk Factors Risk factors are inherited or experiential condi-
experiential conditions that tions that potentially contribute to negative outcomes for children (Huffman et al., 2001).
potentially contribute to poor Among the most frequently identified risk factors are living in poverty, living with a
developmental outcomes for
single parent, low education level of parents, disability, and child abuse (Moore, 2006).
children, such as peer rejection,
academic failure, juvenile delin-
The concept of risk factors has led to the use of the term children at risk of school failure.
quency, and school expulsion. When risk factors multiply in children’s lives, they produce a growing number of poor
developmental outcomes (Burchinal & Willoughby, 2013). That is, the more risk factors chil-
dren have, the more likely they are to experience developmental delays and social or health
problems. These conditions, in turn, can lead to a host of poor outcomes such as peer rejec-
tion, academic failure, dropping out of school, mental health disorders, or criminal behavior.
Gender Differences
“Is it a boy or a girl?” seems to be the first question asked about a new baby. From the
first moments of life, and even prenatally, powerful assumptions are made about children
on the basis of their sex. These assumptions are soon influenced by experience. When
3-year-old Lucienne receives a soccer ball and goal, she insists that she cannot play with
them because “It’s for boys.” Her belief was reinforced by the fact that the packaging
showed two boys playing soccer. Indeed, stereotypes about girls and boys are durable
and pervasive, which raises questions about what the actual differences are, if any, in the
development and characteristics of boys and girls.
Social Behavior Popular culture suggests that vast differences exist in social be-
havior between females and males; however, scientific research suggests that few broad
gender differences exist in the area of social behaviors (Eliot, 2009). There are, however,
subtle differences. Girls engage in more imaginary play than boys do, while boys tend
to play in slightly larger groups and their play generally takes up more space (Woolfolk
& Perry, 2015). Girls tend to form more intimate play and friendships (Dolgin & Kim,
1994), whereas boys’ friendships are more geared toward a mutual interest in activities
(Erwin, 1998). And even as early as 2 years of age, girls talk more about emotion than
boys do (Cervantes & Callanan, 1998).
Perhaps the most notable gender difference is that boys are more overtly aggres-
sive than girls beginning in the preschool years. Possibly as a result of male hormones,
boys are also more physically active and more likely to engage in rough-and-tumble
play (Woolfolk & Perry, 2015). They display more physical aggression, try to dominate
peers, and subsequently display more antisocial behaviors than females (Woolfolk &
Perry, 2015).
Although it is tempting to think these gender differences are innate, the reality
is more complicated. Current thinking is that sex differences in social behaviors are
144 Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach
heavily influenced by the situation (Zakriski, Wright, & Underwood, 2005). Because
boys and girls are often observed playing with their same-sex peers, differences be-
tween the sexes can appear to be greater than they really are and similarities less obvi-
ous (Maccoby, 2002). For example, preschooler Leo gets into frequent fights with his
peers and appears to be more aggressive than Johanna. But this difference might have
more to do with Leo’s rough-and-tumble play than any innate tendency to aggressive
behavior.
In addition, gender differences in aggression are largely a function of where the be-
havior occurs and how aggression is defined. The largest gender differences are found in
less structured, natural environments such as on the playground. However, when aggres-
sion consists of attempts to hurt another person through manipulation, gossip, or exclu-
sion from a social group, it is called relational aggression. When we consider relational
aggression, girls are more aggressive than boys starting in the preschool years (Burr,
Ostrov, Jansen, Cullerton-Sen, & Crick, 2005; Crick, Casas, & Mosher, 1997). If Johanna
were to be picked on as often as Leo is, she might be perceived as being aggressive, too.
There is also the possibility that Johanna would react differently from Leo. Rather than
using physical aggression, she would probably resort to relational aggression, such as
name-calling or saying, “I won’t be your friend.”
and comfort other children in distress (Bowman, Donovan, & Burns, 2001). Children
who have poor social skills are more likely to be angry and to argue and fight or withdraw
from others.
Individual differences in social and emotional development are often related
to temperament, and can often be observed when children are infants and toddlers.
Temperament refers to individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation as shown temperament The pattern of
in children’s emotions, activity level, and attention (Rothbart, 2011). While tempera- arousal and emotionality that is
ment has genetic and biological roots, research has shown that warm relationships with characteristic of an individual.
family members and teachers help all children develop positive social skills, regardless
of their temperament type (Bates, 2012; Stright, Gallagher, & Kelley, 2008). One impor-
tant aspect of temperament is how children react to new situations and people. Recall
the twins, Alexandra and Alice, in the chapter-opening vignette. Alice confidently joins
in and becomes the life of the party, whereas Alex is fearful and inhibited in the new
situation.
Some studies have shown that children with certain temperament characteristics
struggle in school (Gartstein, Putnam, & Rothbart, 2012); however, warm and respon-
sive relationships with caregivers help children to be successful in academics and so-
cial relationships (Bates, 2012; Rudasill, Gallagher & White, 2010). Teachers who learn
about and understand their children’s different temperaments will learn how to adapt the
learning setting to meet children’s individual needs (Bates, 2012). Instead of assuming
that a shy child has poor social skills or that an outgoing, energetic child is too aggres-
sive or out of control, teachers should adapt to each child’s needs. Alex’s teacher will
need to help her feel comfortable in new surroundings and teach her skills for making
new friends (Gallagher, 2013). Alice’s teacher may need provide gentle guidance for
following structured routines, redirecting her energy, and paying attention when needed.
approaches to learning
Temperament is one dimension of a larger topic, approaches to learning, which is dis- Behaviors, tendencies, or
cussed next. typical patterns that children
use in learning situations that
Approaches to Learning include both how they feel
about learning—their level
Early childhood educators are becoming increasingly aware that children’s approaches to of enthusiasm, interest, and
learning are critically important determinants of their success in school (Fantuzzo, Perry, & motivation—and how they
McDermott, 2004; Hyson, 2008). Approaches to learning are “behaviors, tendencies engage with learning.
or typical patterns that children use in learning situations” (Hyson, 2008, p. 10). These
include both how children feel about learning—their level of enthusiasm, interest, and
motivation—and how children engage with learning. Do they pay attention? Do they per- There are individual differences
sist when tasks are challenging or frustrating? If one solution doesn’t work out, are they in children’s approaches to
flexible and creative in trying something new? learning. As you can see, this
As with all other aspects of learning and development, there are individual differ- child hesitates to join in play,
while others may be enthusi-
ences in children’s approaches to learning, which vary depending on the situation. For
astic and engaged right from
example, 7-year-old Wes enjoys taking things apart and putting them together; he will the start.
persist for hours working on his simple machines
project for science. But during reading class, Wes
loses interest and his attention wanders; his reading
progress suffers. In response, his teacher brings in
several books on machines and Wes’s enthusiasm for
reading improves.
Even a brief visit to a classroom during choice time
reveals the diversity of children’s approaches to learn-
ing. Dontrelle can play with Legos for an hour. Ivy loves
© 2xSamara.com/Shutterstock
Physical Development
Children of the same chronological age vary considerably in height and weight. Teach-
ers sometimes inaccurately judge children’s maturity based on their physical character-
istics. For example, boys who are small for their age may be thought to be less mature
than taller boys and inaccurately judged as not ready for kindergarten. At the same time,
taller children, girls as well as boys, are often assumed to be older and more capable
than they are.
Physical development is largely determined by biology; however, experience also
plays a role in how physical skills and abilities develop, as when childhood malnu-
trition or chronic illness stunts growth. On average, girls develop fine motor skills
earlier than boys do, but cultural expectations for girls’ behavior may contribute to
these differences (Woolfolk & Perry, 2015). Girls, for instance, may be given dolls to
dress with miniature clothes and shoes that require fine motor skills, and they may be
encouraged by teachers or parents to play in a more restricted way than boys. Simi-
larly, because boys may be less adept with pencils or unable to sit still for group time,
teachers might think they are less competent. Just as teachers must understand each
child’s temperament, they must also come to understand each child’s physical skills
and capabilities in order to provide a wide range of learning opportunities to find the
best match.
Culture Lens
Responding to Cultural and Individual Differences
Early childhood teachers must respond to both individual After the incident with Edwin, Ms. Amos decides to
differences in children and to cultural differences. Why learn more about his background. She talks to col-
both? When teachers respond to the individual child, leagues and becomes a more careful observer of Edwin
aren’t they also responding to the cultural child? The an- and his family, as well as of other children from his
swer is yes and no. cultural group. One day Edwin’s cousin Sammy comes
in soaked and covered with mud. Ms. Amos decides
Every child is unique and develops an individual personal-
not to help him clean up, but offers him a change of
ity as a result of her or his personal history. At the same
clothes. When he takes the clean clothes, returns to
time, everyone develops some behaviors that are shared
the playground, and throws them in the sandbox, his
with members of his or her cultural group. Because culture
teacher is stunned because she expected him to go
is a group characteristic, the rules of a culture are shared
in the bathroom and change. Sammy, however, was
by group members and are not unique to individuals. When
not at all upset by the wet clothes and enjoyed acting
teachers think of children only as individuals, they risk
contrary to expectations.
missing important information about what children have
learned about group expectations. Consider this example: So why did the two boys—both from the same cultural
group—behave so differently? Because culture is learned;
Edwin comes in from outdoor play crying; he is soaked
it can be well learned by some people in the group and
and covered with sand and mud. His teacher, Ms.
less well learned by others. Some families are tradition
Amos, starts to undress him to help him get cleaned
oriented, others less so. Further, even though families
up and he cries harder. When she tries to help him
and individuals learn the cultural rules, some people con-
remove his shoes, he forcefully pulls away. Ms. Amos
form to what they have learned, while others don’t.
knows him to be stubborn and tries to coax him into
letting her help and consoles him while attempting to Thus, members of a cultural group will behave differently
undress him, but to no avail. What his teacher doesn’t depending on how deeply embedded they are within the
know is that in Edwin’s cultural group, you don’t get core of a culture. Thinking about differences in behavior
your school clothes dirty, boys don’t cry, and boys in this way helps teachers understand why, for instance,
dress and undress themselves in private. all Japanese people don’t always “act Japanese.” And it
helps teachers avoid stereotyping groups and applying
Had this teacher known more about Edwin’s cultural
untested assumptions about individuals.
group, she could have responded in a more appropriate
way. She might have offered him a change of clothes and An important thing to remember is that knowing who
let him go to a private place to change himself. On the children are as members of cultural groups provides
other hand, what teachers know about group differences more information than simply knowing them as individu-
when blindly applied to all individuals in a cultural group als. But the most important point is that children are
may be equally inappropriate because individuals within both individuals and cultural beings at the same time
groups differ from one another. and in the same place.
exams result in scores for math and verbal ability. When educators test only children’s ver-
bal and math abilities, as is often the case, they miss children’s strengths in other important
areas such as sociability or psychomotor skills. Gardner also believes that attention to the
full range of children’s capabilities could help more children succeed in school, thus nar-
rowing the achievement gap for children from low-income families and children of color.
What are the implications of Gardner’s theory for teachers? Consider the following
example of teaching with multiple intelligences in mind. Hanita Blume teaches a mixed-
age group of 4- and 5-year-olds. One of the primary goals of the math curriculum is to
develop children’s concept of number, which includes counting and beginning operations
such as adding and subtracting. The range of ages and experiences among children within
her group affects their levels of math ability. She takes these differences into account as
well as the fact that each of these children has different capabilities and interests.
Hanita does not try to evaluate individual children’s “intelligences.” Instead, she
plans a variety of learning opportunities to draw on children’s strengths and interests to
help them all achieve the math goals. Following are some of the learning experiences she
provides relevant to each of the multiple intelligences:
• Logical/mathematical. Hanita engages children in solving real-world problems
with numbers, such as “We have nine children and only five chairs. How many
more chairs do we need?”
• Linguistic. Hanita reads a counting book in small groups and engages children in
counting the objects on each page.
• Musical. In large and small groups, Hanita sings counting songs and does fingerplays
such as Five Little Monkeys to engage children in counting forward and backward.
• Naturalist. During outdoor play time, Hanita works with children to make col-
lections of natural objects such as leaves or stones. Children place the objects in
categories (large or small, according to color), count the number in each category,
and determine which has more or fewer.
• Spatial. Hanita provides many different kinds of blocks and small manipulative
toys for children to count and categorize, and talks with them, supplying the count-
ing words for those who need the help.
• Bodily/kinesthetic. Hanita engages children in using their bodies to learn the count-
ing sequence and concept of number. Children stomp their feet or clap their hands
three times, four times, and so on.
• Interpersonal. Hanita organizes small cooperative groups of children to work on
math games such as Chutes and Ladders; children roll the die, read the number of
dots, and count the number of spaces. There is no competition.
Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 149
• Intrapersonal. Hanita works one-on-one with some children in tasks such as calcu-
lating attendance, and then asks them to reflect on what they know about counting.
As we can conclude from the example of Hanita’s classroom, seeing children as
individuals with multiple intelligences does not mean that every child must be taught
differently. Instead, individual variation among children requires using various teaching
practices to be responsive to the abilities of all learners, including children whose devel-
opment is well above the typical range, as discussed next.
Responsive Education
for All Learners
differentiated instruction In this section, we first describe how intentional teachers adapt their teaching practices in
The creation of multiple paths response to individual variation among all children. Then we describe a specific frame-
so that children of different
work for systematically addressing the needs of all learners—Response to Intervention.
abilities, interests, and learn-
ing needs experience equally
appropriate ways to achieve
important learning goals.
Differentiating Instruction
In every classroom, teachers need to differentiate instruction so that they support the
engagement, interest, full participation, and success of every child (Tomlinson, 2014).
Differentiated instruction refers to creating multiple paths so that children
of different abilities, interests, and learning needs experience equally appro-
priate ways to achieve important learning goals. Equally appropriate does
not mean the same or uniform. Nor does differentiated instruction mean that
children receive their own assignments or that they receive a private, one-
on-one lesson. Rather, it means that teachers provide interrelated learning
opportunities that help facilitate children’s mastery of new skills and content
knowledge.
Classroom Connection Differentiated instruction is a cyclical process that is illustrated in
In this video, the teacher imple- F
igure 5.1. First, teachers must get to know each child in the classroom. They
ments a math lesson that takes must also know the curriculum. Both of these components influence how
the form of a game with dominos. teachers plan and differentiate instruction. Planning must take into account
How is this game an example of the learning environment and materials, the content, the teaching strategies,
differentiated instruction? and the products that demonstrate what children have learned (Tomlinson,
2014), each of which is described next.
Plan
curriculum
using learning
standards
and children’s
interests
Adapt
learning
Prepare
environment,
learning
what to teach,
environment
and how to
teach
Plan the Environment The environment refers to the overall look and feel of the
classroom. A differentiated environment provides various spaces throughout the class-
room for learning to occur. For example, soft, cozy spaces allow some children to work
alone. Other spaces are designed for intrapersonal learners to work together in small
groups. A differentiated environment also provides a variety of materials. For example, a
reading center includes books at different levels on various topics for children. A writing
center might have sandpaper letters or plastic magnetic letters for tactile learners. Chil-
dren who learn best while moving may have places to stand and work at tables.
Assess Learning Products The product that results from differentiated instruction Response to Intervention (RTI)
is the demonstration of learning. When content and processes are differentiated for children, A three-tiered framework
the products they produce will be different, too. Consider Josh Peters, a kindergarten teach- intended to prevent learning
delays in primary grades from
er in an inclusive classroom. As he is reading a story, he stops occasionally to ask questions.
becoming learning disabilities.
The purpose of asking questions is so the children can demonstrate what they have learned
(the product). He asks some children to recall the events of the story and others to predict
what will happen next. One child may even be asked to simply point to an illustration of a
character in the story. Josh takes each child’s level of literacy into account and targets their
engagement to successful participation and extending learning.
Benefits of RTI RTI is a framework that applies to all children. It is very important
that RTI tiers are not misinterpreted or misused to categorize or label children. In reality,
the tiers are flexible, and individual children move between them based on ongoing as-
sessment of their progress.
Successful implementation of RTI depends on accurate, ongoing assessment of
children, which can be challenging for teachers of dual language learners. An Eng-
lish language learner or a child who speaks a variation of English may have a well-
developed vocabulary and understand many concepts, but may not be well understood
at school (Espinosa, 2010a). In such a situation, it can be difficult to accurately assess
either the child’s competence or his or her needs, as illustrated in the Language Lens
feature.
The value of such prevention/intervention models is becoming more widely recog-
nized. A growing body of research demonstrates the effectiveness of RTI in preventing
and addressing learning disabilities (Coleman et al., 2009). As of 2004, the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) permits schools to use special education funds for
RTI, which may reduce the number of children who are identified for special education.
Nevertheless, there will always be a small percentage of children with identified disabili-
ties and special needs, a topic we discuss next.
Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 153
Language Lens
Accurate Assessment of Linguistically Diverse Children
Accurately assessing the abilities of children who speak a speak English, but she knows that there is nothing
home language other than English or whose cultural back- wrong with her son.
ground varies from the majority of children and teachers
Scott privately meets with Patrizia’s grandmother,
can be a challenging task. Cultural and linguistic diversity
again using a translator. Her reaction is different from
are not learning delays or disabilities. However, cultural
Reynoldo’s mother’s reaction: “I’ve been worried, too,
and linguistic diversity can have a significant impact on
because she hardly talks at home either. But I under-
identification and diagnosis of children’s special needs,
stand her when she talks, and so does her brother.”
as the following example illustrates:
In these situations, Scott and Tess must walk a fine line.
The student body of Rosa Parks Elementary School is
They can easily make a mistake. In this case, Reynoldo’s
about 30% Latino, 30% European American, and 40%
speech problems were real and not a product of learning
African American. Scott James is an African American
a second language. Without an accurate assessment of
first-grade teacher. The school’s speech therapist, Tess
the problem, Reynoldo did not receive therapy and his
Brooks, is a white, European American. Scott meets
language delay worsened. Patrizia, on the other hand, did
with Tess because he is concerned about two students,
not have a hearing loss. What her grandmother and Scott
Reynoldo and Patrizia, who are behind in reading. Both
thought was a language delay was actually shyness.
children speak Spanish at home but speak both Eng-
lish and Spanish at school. Reynoldo is quite verbal; When assessment tools aren’t sensitive to language differ-
Patrizia hardly speaks at all. Scott thinks that Reyn- ences, or when professionals do not understand a child’s
oldo’s reading problem is related to a language delay language, they can inaccurately diagnose a delay. In this
but, because Scott doesn’t speak Spanish, he can’t be case, a child may be mislabeled as “delayed,” which can
sure. However, the other children, even the Spanish- negatively affect teachers’ and parents’ expectations for
speaking children, don’t seem to understand Reynoldo, him. On the other hand, if professionals assume that a
either. As for Patrizia, Scott thinks she may have an language difference is the only cause, they can miss a
undiagnosed hearing loss. real problem. The latter error has lasting consequences
because the child may not receive needed intervention
Scott’s bigger concern is that the screening tools aren’t
services.
very accurate for assessing language delays in Spanish,
and Tess shares his concern. She thinks the best strat- Source: Based on Cross-Cultural Considerations in Early
egy is to get more information from Reynoldo’s family Childhood Special Education (Technical Report #14), by T.
about his communication at home. Using an interpret- Bennett et al., 2001, Urbana-Champaign, IL: University of
er, Tess and Scott meet with Reynoldo’s mother. She Illinois, Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services
is clearly alarmed. She tells the translator that these (CLAS), retrieved December 15, 2011, from. http://clas.uiuc.
teachers think Reynoldo is stupid because he doesn’t edu/techreport/tech14.html#4b.
the disability, whereas the latter communicates that Zain is first and foremost a child, person-first language
whose special needs are only part of his identity. Language that recognizes that
a child is a child first, whether
By contrast, placing the adjective first modifies the entire noun to which it is refer-
or not he or she has a disability
ring; this can place undue emphasis on inability. For example, if you hear a traffic reporter
(e.g., saying “child with special
describe a “disabled car,” you think of a car that cannot be driven at all. Compare this to needs” as opposed to “special
what you may think when you hear “a car with a flat tire.” For similar reasons, we refer needs child”).
to a “child with Down syndrome” or “a child with autism,” instead of saying a “Down’s
child” or “an autistic.” A fundamental tenet of inclusion is that children are children re-
gardless of disability status, and the use of person-first language reflects this principle.
Admittedly, using person-first language can sometimes feel cumbersome. But lan-
guage matters. How we describe people and conditions communicates our attitudes about
them. Currently, person-first terms begin with the word individuals, thus emphasizing the
uniqueness of each person regardless of an identified disability.
© Fotosearch/SuperStock
Inclusion means that every teacher must be prepared to work with children with disabilities and special
needs in the regular classroom. The first step is for teachers to remember that children with disabilities
are children first and, like every child, they are unique.
(American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The first signs of autism often appear between 2
and 3 years of age. Young children with autism often have delays in language and communica-
tion, including nonverbal communication such as pointing and gesturing. They may display
repetitive motor behaviors, and are often inflexible in their routines and play. For example, a
child with autism may have a severe emotional reaction to a change in schedule or inability to
find a favorite toy. The thinking and learning abilities of children with autism can vary—from
gifted to a more significant intellectual disability. Consider the following examples:
Jeffrey is two and a half years old with a head of curly brown hair. He does not talk
yet, but if he wants something he will pull an adult by the hand to what he wants.
Sometimes it is easy for his teacher to guess what he wants, but lately he has started
crying, screaming, and falling on the ground if she is not able to get him what he
wants right away. He spends most of his time wandering around the classroom hold-
ing his favorite toy. When another child or teacher tries to play near him, he will
quickly leave the area. He will often cry when changing from one activity to another,
and once he starts crying it is very difficult to calm him down. Other children and
teachers are starting to avoid interacting with him, afraid it may trigger his crying.
Nathan is 3 years old and can climb higher and faster than most other 3-year-
olds. He has known his letters and numbers since age 2 and can read a variety of
words and phrases. He cannot, however, consistently answer simple questions from
adults, interact with children his own age, or tolerate changes to his routine. His
parents are extremely concerned because they have been asked to stop bringing him
to music lessons at the local community center. They were also told to find a “more
appropriate” placement than the local co-op preschool. His grandparents wonder if
there is anything “really wrong” with him or if his parents are simply overindulgent.
Cherish is 30 months old and has beautiful blue eyes. Her parents report that she
used to walk around the house, point to objects, label them, and laugh. She does not
do that anymore. In fact, these days she rarely speaks except to request certain apps
or preferred foods. She rarely looks at people or things, unless she can find something
that is spinning, and then she is mesmerized by it. Her parents cannot remember the
last time that they heard her laugh.
These children are some of the characteristics of ASD. Each child is a reminder that
ASD is a spectrum disorder, which means that children who receive this diagnosis differ
Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 157
dramatically in their abilities, preferences, needs, and areas of delay. As Jeffery, Nathan,
and Cherish remind us, there is no “typical” child with ASD. Every child and family
brings a unique set of strengths and challenges that must be considered when planning
an educational program. Early identification and intervention for children with ASD can
dramatically improve educational outcomes (Dawson et al., 2010).
Often, the first adults to notice some of the early signs of autism are teachers and
caregivers. It can sometimes be difficult for caregivers to articulate developmental con-
cerns when autism is the question, because many of the behaviors associated with ASD
can seemingly be explained by other factors such as “He just needs to be disciplined,” “He
is just like his father,” or “It is a phase he or she is going through.” As a result, teachers
are often the first to recognize that a child’s behavior may be a red flag for a more serious
developmental delay and may need to recommend to the family to take action by seeking
out a trained professional in this area who can help. Red flags for autism in early child-
hood (http://www.autismspeaks.org) include:
• No big smiles or other warm, joyful expressions by 6 months or thereafter
• No back-and-forth sharing of sounds, smiles, or other facial expressions by
9 months or thereafter
• No babbling by 12 months
• No back-and-forth gestures, such as pointing, showing, reaching, or waving, by
12 months
• No words by 16 months
• No two-word meaningful phrases by 24 months
• Any loss of speech or babbling or social skills at any age
The foundation of any program for a child with autism should be the practices that are
important for all children, including supportive, caring adults, activities that promote high
levels of active engagement, and meaningful interactions with peers. While a common
goal is for all children to have opportunities to interact successfully with children and
adults, children with autism may require special supports and strategies to be successful in
social interactions. Fortunately, researchers have identified many practices that work well
for supporting learning and social development for children with autism; some of these
practices are described later in this chapter (Wong et al., 2014). One of the most valuable
of these strategies is using pretend play to engage children with autism, as described in
the feature, Promoting Play: Supporting Pretend Play for Children with Disabilities.
In addition to understanding how to work effectively with children with special
needs, all teachers must be familiar with special education laws. These laws are discussed
in the next section.
Promoting Play
Supporting Pretend Play for Children with Disabilities
Play is an important learning activity for all chil- which a child might pretend to pour milk into a
dren, and an important context for teachers to ob- cup and drink it. At the next level, substitution,
serve what and how children are learning. Pretend the child uses an object in some symbolic man-
play skills are associated with later language and ner, such as using a block as a pretend cell phone.
social skills, self-regulation, and even reading skills. Teachers can support children in using sequences
Children with disabilities, and especially children of pretend play and add vocalization. As an ex-
with autism, often have difficulty engaging in social ample, Adele enjoys playing with dolls, and her
and pretend play. Since pretend play is an impor- teacher, Alec, has noticed that she uses the toy
tant context for learning and development, teachers spoon to feed the doll. Alec takes the opportunity to
should carefully plan and support play activities and encourage a higher level of pretend play, and uses
opportunities for children with disabilities. a small block as a bottle to “feed the baby” (substi-
tution). He then encourages Adele to feed the baby,
Pretend play skills are excellent functional goals for
offering the block “bottle,” saying, “It’s your turn
children with disabilities: children learn to play with
to feed the baby.” As Adele’s play becomes more
peers in a natural setting, and can learn important
sophisticated, Alec can continue to add more play
cognitive and motor skills embedded in the context
sequences with the baby doll and include Adele’s
of play. Furthermore, teachers can learn about chil-
peers in the pretend play.
dren’s skill strengths and challenges by watching
children play.
Sources: “Teaching Pretend Play to Children with
Teachers can support growth in children’s pretend Disabilities: A Review of the Literature,” by E. E. Barton
and M. Wolery, 2008, Topics in Early Childhood Special
play by modeling (showing how) and prompting
Education, 28, 109–125; and “Children’s Play: Where
children to engage in more sophisticated levels We Have Been and Where We Could Go,” by K. Lifter,
of pretend play. At the most basic level, children E. J. Mason, and E. E. Barton, 2011, Journal of Early
engage in functional play with some pretense, in Intervention, 33, 281–297.
Part B of IDEA is a federal program that provides funds to states and local school
districts to support education for children with disabilities from ages 3 to 21. The most
relevant part of the law for early childhood teachers is Section 619 of Part B (also known
as Early Childhood Special Education), which applies specifically to preschoolers with
disabilities. To meet all children’s individual needs, the law requires that a team of educa-
tors and family members create an individualized education plan for each student.
Part C (Early Intervention) provides funds for states to provide services for infants
and toddlers who have disabilities or developmental delays. Some states provide early
individualized education intervention services for infants and toddlers who are at risk of developmental delay and
program (IEP) A written their families. Early Intervention services are discussed in more detail later in the chapter.
plan designed to meet the
unique needs of a child with Individualized Education Programs When a child meets the disability re-
a disability or special need; it
quirements of the law and is identified as needing special education and related services,
is developed, reviewed, and
revised by an IEP team during
school districts are obligated to prepare and implement an individualized education
meetings for each child who is program (IEP), which is designed to meet the unique needs of the child. The IEP is a
eligible for special education written plan for services that is developed, reviewed, and revised by an IEP team. Click
services. here to see a sample IEP. An IEP must contain the following information:
1. A statement of the child’s present levels of academic achievement and functional
performance
Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 159
The IEP Team The IEP is developed by a team that consists of educators, therapists
and medical professionals, and family. By law, the team members must include:
• The child’s parent(s) or guardian(s)
• The child’s early childhood teacher
• The child’s early childhood special education teacher
• A representative of the community program who has certain specific knowledge
and qualifications
• An individual who can interpret the instructional implications of evaluation results
(this may be one of the other listed members, such as an occupational therapist or
speech language pathologist)
• Other individuals, who are chosen at the discretion of the parent or the agency, who
have knowledge or special expertise regarding the child, including related services per-
sonnel such as the speech language pathologist or physical therapist, as appropriate
© Suzanne Clouzeau/Pearson Education
A universal design element, such as this automatic sink, eliminates a barrier for children who might have
difficulty operating the handles while also achieving the goal of teaching proper hand washing to all children.
160 Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach
Early Intervention for Infants and Toddlers Children from birth to 3 years
old who have a developmental delay, a diagnosed condition, or, in some states, who are
identified as at risk for developing a developmental delay may qualify for early inter-
individualized family service vention (EI) services. These children will have an individualized family service plan
plan (IFSP) Documents and (IFSP). An IFSP documents and guides the early intervention process for children with
guides the early interven- disabilities and their families. The IFSP contains information about the services neces-
tion process for children with
sary to support a child’s development and enhance the family’s capacity to facilitate the
disabilities from birth to age 3
and their families; contains
child’s development. Some parents learn that their child has a disability before or imme-
information about the services diately after birth, and the hospital may initiate EI soon after. For other children, delays
necessary to facilitate a child’s or disabilities emerge later. In these cases, a parent, other family member, pediatrician,
development and enhance the teacher, child care provider, or family friend initially may raise concerns about the child’s
family’s capacity to facilitate development.
the child’s development. Children with developmental delays enter EI services following diagnostic testing
or developmental evaluation administered in partnership with the family by a team of
specialists. Through the IFSP process, family members and service providers work as a
team to plan, implement, and evaluate services tailored to the family’s unique concerns,
priorities, and resources.
According to IDEA, the IFSP, like the IEP, is a written plan that must contain specific
information, including:
1. The child’s present levels of physical, cognitive, communication, social or emo-
tional, and adaptive development
2. The family’s resources, priorities, and concerns relating to enhancing the develop-
ment of the child with a disability
3. The major outcomes to be achieved for the child and the family; the criteria, pro-
cedures, and timelines used to determine progress; and whether modifications or
revisions of the outcomes or services are necessary
4. Specific early intervention services necessary to meet the unique needs of the child
and the family, including the frequency, intensity, and the method of delivery
5. The environments in which services will be provided, including justification of the
extent, if any, to which the services will not be provided in a natural environment.
The natural environment refers to settings that are natural or normal for the child’s
same-age peers without disabilities
6. The projected dates for initiation of services and their anticipated duration
7. The name of the service provider who will be responsible for implementing the
plan and coordinating with other agencies and persons
8. Steps to support the child’s transition to preschool or other appropriate services
Differences between IFSPs and IEPs Unlike the IEP, the IFSP
(Bruder, 2001):
• Revolves around the family, because the family is the constant in a
child’s life
• Includes outcomes for the family, as opposed to focusing only on the child
• Includes activities involving multiple agencies to integrate all services
into one plan
• Names a service coordinator to help the family during the develop-
Classroom Connection ment, implementation, and evaluation of the IFSP
• Involves the notion of natural environments, which create opportu-
In this video, a parent describes nities for learning interventions in everyday routines and activities,
her experience with early inter-
rather than only in formal, contrived environments
vention and early childhood spe-
cial education services. In what The laws that dictate services for children with disabilities and special needs
ways have these services helped reflect research demonstrating the benefits of such services for children with
her daughter and supported her special needs and the larger society. The laws also reflect underlying values
family? about what life should be like for all children. However, laws and p rocedures
related to services can be confusing for families. Community organizations,
Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 161
schools, and teachers are responsible for understanding and communicating to families how
educational systems work for children with special needs.
What Works
Principles of Universal Design
Universal design is the creation of products and environments that needs and also making the toys more inter-
are accessible to all people—individuals with and without disabili- esting for all children.
ties. Obvious examples of universal design are sidewalk curb cuts • Blocks are an excellent example of universal de-
and ramps that are essential for people in wheelchairs. However, sign because there is no right or wrong way to play
ramps also benefit travelers with roller-bag luggage, parents with with them. Wooden unit blocks come in various shapes and
strollers, elderly people, and even toddlers who haven’t mastered sizes, enabling children to engage with them in multiple ways.
steps. Examples abound in today’s world, including Velcro, auto- Blocks that have textured sides and make noise add additional
matic doors, nonslip surfaces, closed captioning, and signs with sensory clues as well as challenges for children.
universally recognizable symbols. • Colorful, magnetic plastic blocks or table toys can be stacked
Planning environments based on principles of universal de- and rearranged easily without frustrating children who have
sign from the beginning prevents the need to modify at a later physical or sensory disabilities. Originally invented by Maria
time. Successful inclusion in early childhood programs requires Montessori, puzzle pieces with knobs enable children with vi-
three major components: access to the learning environment and sual impairments to use their sense of touch to successfully
curriculum, participation in activities and routines, and adequate play with others.
support for teachers—all of which are facilitated by attention to • Books with easy-to-turn pages, and various sizes of pictures
universal design. Intentional planning and implementation of uni- and text, facilitate children’s independent literacy learning.
versal design enables teachers to promote development and dif- Those with textures, cutouts, and sound effects engage chil-
ferentiate instruction for every child. Following are examples of dren’s interests. Sturdy board books make page-turning easier.
practices based on universal design principles: Books on iPad or audiotape help children with hearing disabili-
• Provide toys and learning materials that have a variety of tex- ties participate in the language and literacy curriculum.
tures, scents, and sounds, as well as visual stimuli. For example,
Sources: Based on “Learning Materials for Children of All Abilities: Begin
an assortment of balls of different colors, sizes, and textures
with Universal Design,” by K. Haugen, 2005, Exchange, 161 (January/
(squishy, soft, or rubbery) facilitate engagement for children February), 45–47; and About UDL: What Is Universal Design for Learning,
with sensory impairments. Some balls make noise or light up as National Center on Universal Design for Learning, retrieved September 22,
they roll or bounce, providing extra cues for children with special 2012, from http://www.cast.org/udl.
universal design The creation develop opportunities to share in the daily life of their community, and they do as well or
of products and environments better than children in specialized programs, particularly with respect to social develop-
that are accessible to all
ment (NPDCI, 2007). Children without disabilities benefit by developing positive attitudes
people—individuals with and
toward individuals with diverse abilities. Families of children with and without disabilities
without disabilities.
benefit from developing strong, supportive relationships that enhance the quality of life.
In the sections that follow, we describe what teachers need to do for children with special
needs if inclusion is to be effective.
c hildren with disabilities should be familiar with and adhere to this set of recom-
mended practices.
Children with disabilities often require environments that are “organized and ad-
justed to minimize the effects of their disabilities and to promote learning of a broad
range of skills” (Wolery, Strain, & Bailey, 1992, p. 95). They also may need special-
ized instruction, as with Tier 3 interventions in RTI (NPDCI, 2009). Such specialized specialized instruction
instruction involves teachers matching an individual child’s goals and objectives with Involves teachers matching an
appropriate teaching methods and materials. In addition, teachers need to decide what individual child’s goals and
objectives with appropriate
amount of assistance each child with special needs requires, provide the assistance, and
teaching methods and materi-
then determine whether the instruction was effective. Most often, a team of specialists als, deciding what amount
is available to help the early childhood teacher achieve these goals. Three types of prac- of assistance each child
tices that early childhood teachers can employ to support children with special needs with special needs requires,
are described below: team collaboration, assessment, and planning and implementing providing the assistance, and
individualized strategies. then determining whether the
instruction was effective.
Work on a Team
Working collaboratively with a team is critical to the success of including young children
with special needs in the classroom. Each member of the team has different expertise in
areas such as early childhood, special education, motor development, and communication
development. Additionally, all members possess specific knowledge about the particular
child. The child’s family plays an important role in the collaborative team. They (1) pro-
vide information about their child’s strengths and needs, (2) help assess functional skills
and develop the IFSP or IEP with the team, (3) implement intervention strategies at home
and in the community, and (4) provide critical information about the effectiveness of
interventions.
At the IEP or IFSP team meeting, professionals and family members collaborate to
(1) identify and prioritize individualized goals, (2) determine if modifications to the en-
vironment or curriculum are needed, (3) design specialized instructional strategies, and
(4) monitor the child’s progress toward the goals. Teamwork and collaboration goes be-
yond team meetings. Many people, including family members, teacher assistants, and
community partners, work to facilitate children’s learning beyond the classroom, into
home and community settings.
Curriculum-Based Assessments Curriculum-based assessments trace a child’s functional skills Skills that
progress along a continuum of functional skills within a developmentally sequenced are useful to children in their
curriculum organized by developmental domain. Functional skills are those that are everyday lives.
useful and meaningful to children in their everyday lives. For example, it is generally
developmental domain An
useful for children to learn to use the toilet, feed themselves, communicate and play
area of development such as
with peers, and count objects. A developmental domain is an area of development such fine and gross motor skills,
as fine and gross motor skills, cognitive abilities, self-help capabilities, and social and cognitive abilities, self-help
communication skills. Curriculum-based assessments serve to link assessment, interven- capabilities, and social and
tion, and evaluation, as the following example illustrates: communication skills.
164 Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach
Corwin (age 3½) has experienced an eligibility evaluation for special education
based on a recommendation from his pediatrician. According to the multidisciplinary
team, he qualifies for early childhood special education because he has a moderate
communication and social skills delay. Consequently, Corwin’s parents are referred
to the local preschool special education program near their house. After his parents
observe the inclusive program, they enroll Corwin. During his first week at school,
Corwin’s teachers use a published curriculum-based measure to identify his needs
and develop functional goals and objectives for his IEP. Test items list functional
skills in predictable developmental sequence. The assessment is conducted within the
context of the preschool routines and activities.
When Taiya Stoner, Corwin’s teacher, observes him independently perform
items that are on the test, these tasks are noted as “mastered” and listed as his cur-
rent levels of performance on his IEP. For example, Corwin mastered one goal—uses
simple problem-solving strategies—because he said “NO!” when a child took his
crayon. Behaviors he had difficulty displaying or did not display over the course of
a few observations, such as initiating play activities with another child, were consid-
ered targets for intervention and added as goals for his IEP. After his teachers and
therapists provide instruction to Corwin on the identified goals, they administer the
assessment again to determine whether their guidance was effective and to establish
new goals for Corwin.
In this example, all of the steps of the linked system are in place. First, the teachers
use the assessment to determine what the child needs to learn and then they teach the
skills identified. Finally, the team reassesses, using the same tool to determine whether
Corwin is making progress.
can help write objectives that are functional and generative. Generative skills are generative skills Skills that
those that can be used across settings, people, events, and objects. For example, one can be used across settings,
people, events, and objects.
of the skills identified for Damon is “uses two fingers to pick up objects.” To be gen-
erative, Damon needs to learn to use the skill across settings such as during mealtime
to pick up Cheerios, or in the bath to pick up the soap. He also needs to use the skill
across objects, such as crayons or beads, and under various conditions, such as when
the items are mushy or hard. If an identified skill is too limited, such as “uses a finger
and thumb grasp to put beads into a bottle,” it is difficult to create enough learning
opportunities to be effective and the skill is less likely to be useful in different
situations.
Use Helping Strategies To help children learn skills, teachers use helping strate-
gies called prompts. These are gestural, model, physical, pictorial, or verbal supports prompts Gestural, model,
that help children use a specific skill (Neitzel & Wolery, 2009; Sandall & Schwartz, physical, pictorial, or verbal
2008): clues that elicit responses from
children to assist them in using
• Gestural prompts. Movements that teachers use to let children know what behavior a specific skill.
is expected. For example, when the teacher wants Julia to ask for more raisins, she
waits and looks expectantly at Julia until Julia says, “I want more raisins.”
• Model prompts. Involves the teacher saying or doing the behavior he wants the
child to do. The teacher says “please” and “thank you” when he passes food during
lunchtime.
© Fotosearch/SuperStock
All children have different abilities and interests that teachers can use to help them meet learning goals.
With minor adaptations, this teacher provides support for every child to learn early literacy skills.
166 Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach
Lindsay’s study of child development helps her to understand that children’s personalities and
behaviors are the result of an interaction between their genetic makeup and their experiences in the
environment. Therefore, she is aware of how important her work is in helping them achieve their full
potential. Lindsay has high goals for each child’s learning. But she realizes that because children are
unique, she needs to use differentiated instruction to help them achieve the goals.
For Cal, whose grandmother does not speak English, Lindsay works with a translator as well
as a team that includes a social worker. Lindsay recognizes that Rohan and Ruby, who both seem
painfully shy, are also very different. They each have different interests and abilities. Because
Rohan likes quiet activities and playing with one other child, Lindsay encourages him in that direc-
tion and he gradually becomes more confident. Ruby is hesitant until she is assured that Lindsay
will protect her from an allergic reaction. The other children soon become comfortable with that
fact as they say, “Ruby’s body was born not liking peanuts.” They all embrace the need to protect
Ruby’s health.
Although at first Lindsay and the other children mix up the twins, Alex and Alice, they soon
become aware that each is an individual. Lindsay focuses on working with each girl separately and
engaging them in different activities so their uniqueness becomes evident to all. Carter’s needs
are more severe and specific. Working as a member of his IEP team and supported by his parents,
Lindsay becomes more confident in her ability to teach Carter and to help him achieve his indi-
vidualized goals.
After several months of working with this class, Lindsay decides that adapting for individual varia-
tion is the most interesting part of her work. At first, she was concerned when confronted with such
diversity. But now, she finds that children’s individuality is what makes her days most interesting and
unpredictable. As she expands her repertoire of skills for working with diverse children, she finds that
seeing individual children’s progress is richly rewarding. ■
5 Chapter Summary
• Children differ from one another in many ways, • All teachers need to be prepared to work with children
including rate and timing of cognitive and language who have special learning and developmental needs
development, social skills and temperament, and inter- because federal law requires it, effective practices exist
ests. The transactional theory of development explains to alter the course of children’s learning, and many of
that development is influenced by both biology and these practices can be used with typically developing
experience, and how they interact with each other. children.
• Effective early childhood teachers understand the • Specialized instruction involves teachers matching
importance of knowing each child as an individual. an individual child’s goals with appropriate teaching
One of the most useful frameworks for thinking about methods and materials, deciding what amount of assis-
the variation among children is Gardner’s theory of tance is needed by the child, providing the assistance,
multiple intelligences. and determining whether the instruction was effective.
• Differentiating instruction means to create multiple Of equal importance to specialized instruction is culti-
paths so that children of different abilities, interests, or vating a culture of inclusion, which provides children
learning needs experience equally appropriate ways to with disabilities with a sense of belonging and mem-
achieve important learning goals. bership in the peer group.
Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 169
Key Terms
■■ approaches to learning ■■ eligibility guidelines ■■ naturally occurring ■■ specialized instruction
■■ autism spectrum ■■ exceptional children reinforcers ■■ temperament
disorder (ASD) ■■ free appropriate public ■■ nature ■■ theory of multiple
■■ children with disabilities education (FAPE) ■■ nurture intelligences
■■ children with special ■■ functional skills ■■ person-first language ■■ transactional theory of
needs ■■ generative skills ■■ prompts development
■■ Council for Exceptional ■■ individualized education ■■ protective factors ■■ universal deign
Children (CEC) program (IEP) ■■ resilience
■■ developmental domain ■■ individualized family ■■ Response to Intervention
■■ differentiated instruction service plan (IFSP) (RTI)
■■ Division for Early ■■ natural learning ■■ risk factors
Childhood (DEC) environments
S
ome readers may think that Stacey’s struggles as a new teacher are caused by the
fact that she is working with difficult or uninterested parents. Others may think that
Stacey is too inflexible to respond to legitimate concerns of families. In fact, Stacey
and Mrs. Arguenta are operating from two different, albeit equally legitimate, cultural
perspectives on appropriate child rearing. In the example above, we see the conflicts
entirely from Stacey’s perspective. But if the story were told from Mrs. Arguenta’s view
or that of other families, we might question Stacey’s skills as a teacher; we might also
question her sensitivity to the families’ perspectives. In this situation, whatever appears to
be happening on the surface, the underlying reality is an encounter between individuals
from different cultural contexts.
The United States is becoming an increasingly diverse country. In the last decade,
the number of white students in public schools decreased from 60% to 52%, and the His-
panic population of students increased from 17% to 24% (National Center for Education
Statistics, 2014c). Most early childhood programs serve children from diverse linguistic
and cultural groups or will do so in the future. Therefore, it is essential for teachers to
understand and embrace the realities of a culturally and linguistically diverse world.
But culture and its influences are subtle. Moreover, the majority cultural group of the
United States—predominantly individuals of Anglo-European descent—tends to define
171
172 Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach
culture and linguistic diversity as issues or challenges to be dealt with or solved. In fact,
the word diverse means different, which raises the question, “Different from what?” The
implication is that people whose cultural identity is not white European American or who
are not native speakers of English are different from the norm.
In this book, we talk about the realities of culture and language because these forces
influence the learning and development of all children. At the same time, we use the verb
embrace when discussing culture and language to create a classroom climate that is cul-
turally and linguistically supportive and responsive for all children. We believe that such
a perspective is a precursor to helping all children achieve their full potentials.
In this chapter, we define the term culture and identify the basic principles of the role
of culture in development and learning. We also describe a framework for thinking about
contrasting cultural beliefs, values, and practices. We discuss effective teaching and learn-
ing strategies for working with all children, beginning with awareness of one’s own cultural
perspective.
Visible
Surface
Aspects Language Foods
Celebrations Clothing
Norms
Assumptions
Beliefs
Invisible
Deep
Structure Expectations for Behavior
Values
History
FIGURE 6.1 Model of Culture The complexity of culture is like an iceberg—the visible elements are
only a small part while the deeper structures truly influence behavior and decisions.
d evelopment—on how they are nurtured (Trawick-Smith, 2013). In general, cultural rules
influence how children behave and how they make sense of their experiences.
acculturation The process Culture Influences Behavior Acculturation is the process whereby children
whereby children learn learn expected rules of behavior. From their cultural group, children learn such critical
expected rules of behavior. lessons as how to show respect and how to properly greet an older or younger person, a
friend, or a stranger (Rogoff, 2003).
Consider the range of child-rearing practices among various cultural groups. Are
babies carried on mother’s backs or pushed in strollers? Does the family remain silent
during meals or talk openly? Do parents feel comfortable playing with their children or
find this behavior embarrassing? Are mothers primarily responsible for a baby’s care or is
that care shared among different members of the extended family? These are only a few
examples of the many ways cultural practices begin to shape children’s development from
the earliest moments of life.
Some cultural rules are explicitly taught, such as “hold the fork in your right hand and
the knife in your left,” or vice versa. In most countries, mixing up these rules would be
of little consequence. By contrast, in Middle Eastern cultures, people eat with their right
hand and use their left hand for toileting. Therefore, offering your left hand to someone
is interpreted as a grave insult.
Children learn many cultural rules from adults or other children through m odeling.
From observation, children learn when to smile or look someone in the eye ( Gonzalez-Mena,
2008). They also learn when to speak up and when to listen (Ramsey, 2004). They learn
whether people shake hands or bow in greeting. In fact, what is considered a ppropriate
behavior, thinking, or problem solving in a given situation is always culturally determined
(Lynch, 2011). Consider how different cultural perspectives on appropriate child rearing
come into play in the following situation:
Patty Briggs is so excited because she has finally been approved to adopt a child from
Costa Rica. She is prepared to stay there for several weeks to get to know her little boy,
who is 12 months old, and for his foster family to get to know her. Even though Patty
has studied child development and taken care of many young children, after a few days
in Costa Rica, she starts to feel uncertain. Whenever she puts the baby down to crawl on
the floor, the foster mother frowns and immediately picks him up. Patty is concerned
because the baby is always so warmly dressed in a tropical climate. She finds that he has
diaper rash and wants to remove some of his warm clothing to help him heal. However,
it’s clear that the foster mother thinks he will get cold and become ill. During the time that
Patty is in Costa Rica, she respects the foster mother’s mode of caring for the baby, but
also treats his diaper rash. After the adoption, she sends photos of him to his foster fam-
ily to reassure them that he is well cared for. (P. Briggs, personal communication, 1990)
Culture Creates Meaning Cultural rules determine the meaning attached to par-
ticular behaviors. Therefore, teachers need to be aware of how different experiences can
carry different meanings for children. Consider the example of physical touch. Touch is
an important aspect of human behavior, but different cultural groups attach different inter-
pretations to the same kinds of touch (Lynch, 2011). In the United States, it is not unusual
for opposite-sex couples to hold hands or lock arms as outward signs of affection. In other
parts of the world, these behaviors between men and women might not be tolerated. Simi-
larly, in some countries, members of the same sex walk arm in arm as a sign of friendship,
but in the United States, same-sex public displays of affection are interpreted as a sign of
sexual orientation. Accordingly, we see that the same behavior—holding hands or taking
someone’s arm—means something different, depending on the cultural context.
How does this concept affect teachers and children? When the same behaviors mean
different things or different behaviors mean the same thing, mixed messages can result, as
occurred in Stacey’s classroom at the beginning of this chapter. Stacey thinks that using
one’s first name signals a positive relationship, whereas Mrs. Arguenta interprets it as a
sign of disrespect.
Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 175
Teachers need to understand that although a very limited number of racial catego-
ries, such as Asian or Caucasian, are identified based on skin color and other physi-
cal characteristics, hundreds of cultural/ethnic groups exist. Asian peoples include
Chinese, Japanese, Koreans, Vietnamese, Hmong, and many others, some of which
have been historical enemies (Wardle, 2008a). Similarly, Hispanic is not an actual
racial, cultural, or even linguistic group, despite its designation as such by census tak-
ers. The term Latino/a is currently used to refer to people of Mexican, Cuban, Puerto
Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin (Derman-Sparks
& Edwards, 2010). Given these complex realities, the increasing diversity of immi-
grants, and the growing number of biracial and multiracial children, it is essential that
teachers not make assumptions about children and families’ racial and cultural identi-
ties (Wardle, 2008a).
The most useful strategy is for responsive teachers to create a classroom climate in
which it is safe to talk about and notice racial and cultural differences (Derman-Sparks &
Edwards, 2010). Reading books such as Colors around Me (Church, 1997) or Shades of
People (Rotner & Kelly, 2010) can start a conversation about how people with different
shades of black skin are a part of the same race because their ancestors originally came
from Africa.
In the previous sections, we described principles for understanding culture and how
they interrelate. In the next section, we discuss similarities and differences among diverse
cultures and how they govern various cultural groups’ thinking and behavior.
Families value the welfare of the group—the extended Families value the welfare of the nuclear family
family—over the achievements of individual members. and its individual members.
Respect for elders, traditions, and the past is a strong focus. The future, youth, and technological advances are
valued.
Respect for adult authority is expected; teacher-child Relationships with adults are relatively informal;
relationships are formal. children are encouraged to engage in conversation
with teachers.
Time is flexible; people are more important than time. Time is valuable; schedules are important. Being
late or wasting time is considered disrespectful.
Extended families—grandparents, aunts, uncles, older siblings— The nuclear family is primarily responsible for
care for and help raise children. childrearing and may live far away from relatives.
Calling attention to oneself—standing out from the group— Children’s individual achievement and self-esteem
may be seen as selfish and rejection of family. Cooperation is valued. are highly valued. Competition is encouraged.
Children are expected to contribute to the family functioning. Children are expected to achieve on their own.
Children are encouraged to help each other, older ones help younger. Children are encouraged to do things for
themselves such as toileting, feeding, dressing at
an early age.
Activity focuses on relationships, not objects; babies are carried and Activities often focus on objects; children play on
children engage in daily routines with family members. floor and with own toys and materials.
Children share family and community spaces, activities, and events. Children have their own separate spaces (for
example, their own rooms) and child-centered
activities.
Gender and age determine rights and roles. Individual freedom and rights are highly valued.
Ultimately, cultures may tend toward one end of the continuum or the other, but
the values of most people fall somewhere in between. All cultures value families, for
instance, but they define family membership differently. Similarly, rigidly categorizing
groups is likely to lead to inaccurate assumptions. For example, Japanese cultural values
are typically viewed as traditional (on the interdependent end of the continuum) and yet
Japan readily embraces new technologies.
Following is an example of what might happen during an encounter between mem-
bers of individualist and interdependent cultural groups:
To help children feel comfortable in their new surroundings, kindergarten teacher
Alisha Watson created a bulletin board to display photos of children’s families so
that there would be something familiar to the children in the room. She asked for
children to bring in pictures of themselves with their siblings and parents, and
couldn’t understand why some of the families never responded to her request.
She thought perhaps families didn’t have cameras or didn’t want to participate in
school activities. In frustration, she finally gave up the idea of the family bulletin
180 Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach
board. Alisha never imagined that some parents weren’t comfortable limiting the
photo to just the immediate family. To many of them the extended family, which
includes neighbors and friends, is what matters. One mother was upset that grand-
parents would not be included, but didn’t want to alienate the new teacher.
As we can see, Alisha’s concept of “family” represents a more individualistic orienta-
tion than that of many families in her classroom. Alisha could have avoided the problem
by respecting the families’ own definitions of their members.
The continuum of cultural values (Lynch, 2011) is intended to help you concentrate
on common values—how cultural groups are similar as well as different. At the same
time, effectively working across cultural groups requires looking inward and analyzing
your own cultural perspective, as we describe next.
p erspective affects your views of appropriate c hild-rearing practices. Ask yourself the
following questions and compare your answers with those of colleagues:
• What are your thoughts regarding infant feeding practices? Should the goal be for
children to learn as toddlers how to independently feed themselves? Or do you
believe that adults should feed babies as long as possible?
• What do you think are appropriate discipline techniques? Should children be given
time-outs, spanked, or lose privileges when they misbehave? Should parents ex-
plain their reasoning to children?
• Should young children be directed by adults and their movements controlled? Or
should they be allowed to explore and make choices?
• What behaviors are acceptable for girls? For boys?
• How should children behave around adults?
Finally, examine how your cultural beliefs and biases affect your behavior and e motions.
Reflect on these questions:
• Have you ever felt uncomfortable or surprised in another part of the United States
or in another country? What was the situation? Perhaps you felt that people invaded
your personal space? Or weren’t respectful of your possessions?
• Have you ever felt awkward or embarrassed by something you said or did when
you were traveling or among another cultural group? Did you think about why you
might have felt that way?
• Have you ever done or said something that was culturally inappropriate? For
example, did you fail to offer an appropriate greeting? Did your behavior embarrass
or offend other people?
Finding yourself in another group and experiencing what it feels like not to be cer-
tain of the rules is an excellent way to gain deeper understanding of your cultural views
and those of other groups. I (the author) have had many such experiences when speaking
about early childhood education throughout the United States and in other countries.
I remember specifically telling a story about the struggles I encountered during my early
days of teaching. I often said, “I knew that I was smart, but I also knew that I didn’t know
enough about teaching young children and I had a lot to learn.” Much to my surprise (and
subsequent embarrassment), I later learned that some audiences were so stunned to hear
me call myself smart that they couldn’t hear anything else I said! Pointing out individual
achievement even with self-deprecating humor is simply not considered appropriate be-
havior in many groups.
A part of reflecting on your own cultural experience includes comparing your per-
spective with that of other people. Therefore, the next step is to learn about other cultural
groups and how your views and behaviors compare and contrast with theirs.
• Read books and magazines, watch movies, or search websites produced by mem-
bers of diverse cultural groups.
• If possible, immerse yourself in another culture and experience the discomfort of
not knowing exactly what to say or how to behave.
• Most important of all, observe carefully and listen closely to learn how various
cultural groups communicate and nurture their young.
Learning generalities about cultural groups is a useful starting point, but it can easily
lead to stereotyping—making assumptions that all children who appear part of a group
share similar backgrounds. For example, a Cuban American father was dismayed to learn
that his daughter’s teacher kept telling her what she knew about the young girl’s “His-
panic” culture and how the teacher was being responsive to it. None of the teacher’s ac-
commodations were meaningful to the little girl, whose family had lived in Minnesota for
three generations.
Now that we have discussed the complex concept of culture and identified several
key principles that describe how culture functions in children’s development, consider
how this knowledge can be applied to the classroom. How will this knowledge inform
your teaching?
Teaching in a Culturally
and Linguistically Diverse World
Imagine it is the first day of school. Parents who are dropping off their children are using
various dialects and languages that you don’t recognize. Some of the children are crying
and clinging to their parent, while others, it is clear, have been told that crying is not al-
lowed, so they are standing with quivering chins trying to hold it together. You are making
the rounds, introducing yourself to the children, trying to get them excited about the day
and the upcoming year.
You may have been through this before, as a student teacher working in a cultur-
ally diverse classroom, but every year the dynamic and the ethnic mix change. It will
be up to you to find a way to communicate with dual language learners, to be sensitive
to the fact that the English language has many idioms that may be foreign to children
who are mastering English, and to be sensitive to each child’s home life, whether they
live with their parents and siblings, or their extended family, or are from a single-
parent home. The key is to learn as much as you can about each of the children, to get
to know their families, and to always be culturally and linguistically responsive in the
classroom.
Assessing the learning of English language learners or children who speak a varia-
tion of English requires special tools and expertise. Too many English language learn-
ers are judged to be language delayed when they are actually demonstrating typical
second language development (Paradis, Genesee, & Crago, 2011). No assumptions
about children’s competence should be based on measures in a language in which
children are not fluent (Barrueco, Lopez, Ong, & Lozano, 2012). An English lan-
guage learner or a child who speaks a variation of English may have a well-developed
vocabulary and understand many concepts, but may not be well understood at school
(Espinosa, 2010a).
One of the biggest mistakes that educators and the general public make is to equate
cultural differences with disabilities. The fact is that children with disabilities cross all
cultural groups. Likewise, cultural and linguistic diversity impact all dimensions of spe-
cial education services.
In a classroom of diverse learners, teachers may have a difficult time identifying
students who have special needs. In addition, diagnosis and intervention planning for
children with disabilities is a challenge when the child is of a different culture or language
group than the professionals (Hanson & Lynch, 2004). Read the Including All Children:
Diversity and Disability feature for an example of these challenges.
Promoting Play
African American Children and Play
Early childhood educators consider pretend play to a ccepted by their peers, and more prone to teacher-
be an integral part of developmentally appropriate child conflict. On the other hand, comparable
practice and beneficial for children’s development levels of imagination and expression in pretend play
and learning. However, there are individual and cul- resulted in positive ratings of these same character-
tural differences in how children play as well as how istics for non-Black children.
teachers view children’s play that have important
Children in all racial groups—Hispanic, Black,
consequences for children, as revealed by recent
White, and bi/multiracial—played similarly in
research.
imaginative and expressive ways. But Black chil-
This study compared a large group of racially mixed dren’s pretend play skills were evaluated negatively
preschoolers’ pretend play and their adjustment by teachers, while non-Black children with similar
(self-regulation and cognitive flexibility) as evalu- play behaviors were evaluated positively. Teachers
ated by outside observers in a laboratory setting also rated Black children who demonstrated more
with teachers’ reports of children’s social and negative play behaviors as less prepared for school,
educational adjustment. Teachers rated children’s less accepted by other children, and involved in
school readiness, peer relationships, and amount of more teacher-child conflict than non-Black children
teacher–child conflict. whose play behaviors were equally negative.
The main finding of the study was that preschoolers’ This study raises significant concerns about teacher
race affected how teachers viewed their play and bias regarding the play of young African American
how they rated their adjustment in the classroom, children. Black children who are imaginative and
even after accounting for differences in individual expressive may be judged and treated differently in
children’s age, IQ, family income, and gender. early childhood programs. Teachers need to become
Moreover, even when the teacher and child were self-aware about the way they view children based
the same race, and the teacher and child knew on race and how those judgments can have lasting
each other for the same length of time, these dif- negative effects for children.
ferent evaluations of children based on their race
Source: “Through Race-Colored Glasses: Preschoolers’
held true. For Black preschoolers, teachers evalu- Pretend Play and Teachers’ Ratings of Preschooler
ated their imaginative and expressive pretend play Adjustment,” by T. M. Yates and A. K. Marcelo, 2014,
and rated them as less prepared for school, less Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 29, 1–11.
transmitting culture. Dual language learners are learning not only two lan-
guages, but also two cultures. Children must learn how to use each language
in culturally meaningful and appropriate ways (Hamayan, Genesee, & Cloud,
2013).
If a concept does not exist in a culture, there is no need for a word to
represent that concept. Consider a language without a word for privacy. What
would that tell you about the culture’s values? Most likely, the cultural group
places greater value on the needs and rights of the group than on those of the
Classroom Connection individual. Also, personal space and private ownership may be less important.
This video describes the rela- How words are defined and used also reflects cultural differences. For
tionship between language and example, in Italian, the verb discutere can mean “to discuss” but can also
culture. Note the important ways mean “to argue.” Picture a group of Italians or Italian Americans all talking
that teachers can help dual lan- at once, with raised voices and many gestures. Arguing is just another form
guage learners become bicultural of discussion and is much less threatening than in societies where English is
to be successful in school. spoken and where arguing has negative connotations.
Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 187
Similarly, some languages may have many words to distinguish subtle variations in
meaning that are important to the group. A large vocabulary for types of snow and ice is
essential in the Arctic, but unnecessary in more temperate climates. What if English only
had one word for blue? How could we communicate clearly without words like turquoise,
navy, or periwinkle? The inextricable link between language and culture means that one
cannot be embraced without also embracing the other. Language is also strongly conne
cted to emotions. Words can trigger strong emotions in some cultures and not in others.
For example, in Arab cultures the word crusade carries a negative connotation dating
back to the Middle Ages, while in the United States we regularly have positive crusades
to collect money for charity or fight disease.
The United States has always been a country in which many people are bilingual
or multilingual. With increasing numbers of children speaking a language other than
English at home, opportunity exists to help these children become bilingual. To do
so, it is important that teachers support children’s development and maintenance of
their home language while helping them acquire proficiency in English. In short, these
children are dual language learners—learning two languages at once. In fact, many dual language learners Chil-
children are multi-language learners who are learning more than two languages. dren who are learning to speak
All children in our society need to acquire English, but they can become proficient two languages at the same
time—usually their home lan-
without giving up their home language (Espinosa, 2010c; Tabors, 2008). The key is for
guage and English.
teachers to support continued development of the home language and to inform parents
that if they encourage their children to speak English both in the home and at school at multi-language learners Chil-
a very early age, their children may lose their home language. Home language loss can dren who are learning more
than two languages.
harm children’s long-term academic achievement (Espinosa, 2010c; Slavin & Cheung,
2005). In addition, if parents do not speak English well and their children lose the
home language, serious communication and relationship problems between parents and
children are likely to occur (Espinosa, 2010c; Wong Filmore, 1991). Therefore, teachers
should encourage families to speak to children in whatever language the parent is most
proficient, usually their native tongue, to support children’s educational achievement.
In the previous sections, we discussed how educational systems often misunderstand,
inaccurately assess, and fail to serve culturally and linguistically diverse children. One
key to avoiding these pitfalls is for teachers to become more culturally competent, as we
discuss in the next section.
cultural competence The Cultural competence is the ability to work effectively across cultural groups (Olsen
ability to work effectively across et al., 2007, p. 2) and to work respectfully with those who are different from oneself.
cultural groups. Cultural competence is not a set of skills but is instead a way of being—an openness
to continual learning (Olsen et al., 2007). Although various characteristics demonstrate
cultural competence, several are particularly applicable to teachers in diverse classrooms
(Lynch, 2011; Lynch & Hanson, 2011). Some characteristics of cultural competence fol-
low, along with the ways they apply to the teachers at Decatur Elementary School and the
lending library situation:
• An awareness of their own cultural perspectives. Teachers reflect on their own
feelings about losing the books. They are mystified and a little upset. They invested
time and money in the library and can’t understand why it failed.
• Appreciation and respect for individuals from other cultures. Teachers do not pre-
judge children and families by their standards, realizing that more interdependent
cultural groups view ownership of materials differently than do individualistic ones.
• A belief that cross-cultural interactions should be viewed as learning opportunities
rather than challenges. Teachers decide to find out what might have caused the
misunderstanding, rather than giving up in frustration.
• An ability to identify and use cultural resources. Teachers seek the advice of leaders
in the community to help them understand what happened.
• An appreciation for the integrity and value of all cultures. Teachers realize that
sharing the books more widely is a valuable although different way of achieving
their goal of making reading material available to children.
• Willingness to continue to try to understand other people’s perspectives. Teachers
decide to talk regularly with older children, family, and community members to
discuss school happenings.
• Flexibility and a sense of humor. Teachers look back and laugh at how naïve their
expectations were and how rigid their reactions.
• Comfort with uncertainty. The main lesson the teachers learn is that they aren’t
going to be right all the time; there are no simple answers to complex situations.
This list of competencies is prerequisite for becoming a truly suc-
cessful teacher. Encompassing all of these characteristics and behaviors
is an attitude of cultural humility—the stance that one can “expect to be
surprised, to be wrong, and (the need) to ask for help” (Sparrow, 2011,
p. 14). Cultural humility assumes that one can never fully comprehend the
perspective of another human being and requires the ability to put aside
feelings of superiority and the tendency to judge.
Classroom Connection
In this video, experts describe Cross-Cultural Communication
intercultural communication. The foundation of cultural competence is the ability to communicate ef-
Why are such communication
fectively with members of diverse cultural groups (Lynch, 2011). To fos-
skills important and what strate-
ter good communication, teachers must develop an understanding of how
gies can teachers use to foster
various cultural groups use verbal and nonverbal means of communicating.
cross-cultural communication in
These communication styles are another example of a cultural continuum
the classroom?
such as those described earlier in the chapter. In this case, the continuum
extends from high-context cultures to low-context cultures.
✓ Check Your Understanding 6.5: Cultural Competence: The Key to Effective Teaching
What Works
Making Education Culturally Compatible
A body of research demonstrates that taking children’s cultural 4. Teachers have high expectations for
backgrounds into consideration in curriculum and teaching is re- children, challenging their learning,
lated to positive learning outcomes for students across age groups. and focusing on complex thinking. Teachers
These studies were conducted with elementary school children pose problems for children to think about, such as what would
across many cultural groups: Puerto Ricans, African Americans, happen if the trees were cut down.
Native Hawaiians, Native American Indians, Mexican immigrants, 5. Teachers and children engage in instructional conversations,
Appalachian urban immigrant whites, Southeast Asian new- discussing the content they are learning. Children are grouped
comers, Eskimos or Aleuts, and European American gifted and by interest, talk with each other, and meet with the teacher
talented children. Based on this research, six key principles of to discuss and share what they have learned and identify new
effective practice for culturally diverse learners were gleaned that questions.
are also congruent with several aspects of NAEYC’s position on 6. Teachers model language and actions, such as carefully
developmentally appropriate practices: handling a pet, so that children can learn through observation.
7. Teachers provide opportunities for child-initiated learning.
1. Teachers and students work together toward a common goal.
Children generate learning topics or brainstorm solutions to
Teachers participate with children in activity such as a nature
problems.
walk near the school.
2. Teachers incorporate language and literacy learning throughout Sources: “From High Chair to High School: Research-Based Principles
the day and in all areas of the curriculum. For example, chil- for Teaching Complex Thinking,” by R. Tharp and S. Entz, 2012, in
dren talk, read, and write about the life cycles of the animals C. Copple (Ed.), Growing minds: Building strong cognitive foundations
in early childhood, edited by C. Copple, pp. 131–136, Washington,
they observe on their walk.
DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children; “Research
3. Teachers make learning meaningful by connecting school to Practice. Joint Productive Activity: Collaboration That Builds New
learning to children’s lives. The conversation begins with what Understandings,” by L. A. Yamauchi and R. H. Kuwahara, 2008, Young
children already know about animals. Children, 63(6), 34–38.
Following are some effective, research-based practices that help dual language
learners achieve at high levels in English (Alanis, 2013; California Department of
Education Child Development Division, 2008; Magruder, Hayslip, Espinosa, & Matera,
2013):
• Directly instruct children on English vocabulary and certain aspects of literacy, such as
pointing to objects or pictures as you say the word (“This book is about a bird. See the
bird. Say bird.”). Model the language for children, describing what the child is doing
(“You put on your coat”) or what you’re doing (“I’m getting the red paint for you”).
• Give lots of opportunities for children to practice the new language, such as during
play and small-group times that require them to speak (rather than just point) to
take a turn.
• Pair children with English-speaking peers for several activities. For example, ask a
question in whole group and have children turn to a buddy to talk it over (“What do
you plan to do outside today?”).
• Support continued development in the home language, including teaching in that
language as much as possible (at least learning key words and phrases), using qual-
ified teachers, family members, or volunteers from the community who fluently
speak the home language.
• Collaborate with families to plan curriculum reflecting children’s cultural back-
grounds and language(s), such as rhymes, song, and books children can identify
with to help them connect what they already know to what is taught at school.
• Frequently review skills and concepts, do repeated reading.
• Draw attention to similarities between English words and the word in the home
language, called cognates (mucho/much).
192 Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach
Dual language learners are individuals. They need differentiated instruction to devel-
op their English skills, to maintain and further develop their home language, and achieve
in school. Today’s vast array of digital tools make individualizing instruction for multi-
language learners much easier than in the past, as described in the feature Language Lens:
Using Technology to Teach Dual Language Learners.
Awareness and responsiveness to all forms of diversity must be integrated across all
areas of curriculum and teachers’ relationships with children to ensure that all children
succeed in school. But more than that, schools have a responsibility to provide today’s
children with the skills to function in a complex, global society. In short, they benefit from
an anti-bias education, which we describe in the next section.
Anti-Bias Education
anti-bias education Learning The early childhood field has embraced the concept of an anti-bias education. Anti-bias
experiences and teaching education includes learning experiences and teaching strategies that are specifically
strategies that are specifically designed not only to prepare all children for life in a culturally rich society but also
designed not only to prepare all
to counter the stereotyping of diverse groups and to guard against expressions of bias
children for life in a culturally
rich society, but also to counter
(Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010). In this section, we discuss goals of culturally
the stereotyping of diverse responsive, anti-bias education and ways of helping children achieve those goals. The
groups, and to guard against overarching goal of anti-bias education is to help all children reach their full potential.
expressions of bias. To do so, anti-bias education focuses on four core goals for children (Derman-Sparks &
Edwards, 2010; Teaching Tolerance, 2012):
1. Identity. Teachers foster and support children’s self-awareness, confidence, and
pride in their family and own identity.
Language Lens
Using Technology to Teach Dual Language Learners
With growing numbers of dual and multi-language learn- spellings) to help children learn routines and safety pre-
ers in our classrooms, all teachers need to be prepared cautions. On the Internet she finds images, songs, and
to support English language acquisition while also pro- stories that accurately depict children’s homelands, and
moting continued home language development. Using uses these to spark conversations among small groups of
technology exponentially increases teachers’ options to children. She teaches all the children to use iTranslate
achieve these goals, as these examples illustrate: on classroom tablets to aid communication and support
burgeoning friendships. The class uses Skype to com-
Yao is a Chinese speaker who doesn’t talk at all in municate with children’s relatives in other parts of the
preschool. He is isolated from the other children who country or world. Within a few weeks, all the children,
won’t play with him. His teacher knows that without including native English speakers, enjoy helping each
social interaction, his English skills won’t develop. She other explore different languages and learn together.
loans his family an iPad and with the help of a trans-
lator shows him a digital storytelling app to create a Children all over the world speak multiple languages. The
story about his family with photos and narration in both opportunity to become bilingual or multilingual awaits
English and Chinese. When he shares the story with the every child in America if schools take advantage of young
other children, they realize that Yao has an interesting children’s inborn ability to learn language and the afford-
life and several of them decide to use the app to create able, technological resources now available.
stories about themselves. Sources: Digital Story Helps Dual Language Learner Connect
with Classmates, by D. Bates, no date, Washington, DC: National
Kara’s kindergarten includes speakers of four different
Association for the Education of Young Children, retrieved August
home languages, some of whom are newly arrived immi- 27, 2014, from http://www.naeyc.org/technology/digital-story-
grants. She relies on technology to create an accessible helps-dual-language-learner; “Using Technology as a Teaching
environment for all the children as they acquire sufficient Tool for Dual Language Learners in Preschool through Grade 3,”
English to navigate the school. Kara posts pictures and by K. N. Nemeth and F. S. Simon, 2013, Young Children, 68(1),
labels in various languages (in some cases with phonetic 48–52.
Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 193
2. Diversity. Teachers assist children to experience and value human diversity, and
use accurate language for differences.
3. Justice. Teachers help children recognize unfairness, stereotypes, and biases
(negative expressions toward groups) and their harmful impact on people.
4. Action. Teachers help children to stand up, alone or with others, to counteract
unfairness, prejudice, and/or discrimination against others.
Curriculum and teaching practices to help children achieve these goals need to be de-
velopmentally appropriate; that is, within the range of what is understandable and achiev-
able for children. Let’s look more closely at each of these goals.
Help Children Learn about Differences As our nation’s history demonstrates, just
exposing children to people of different races, cultures, abilities, or backgrounds is not
sufficient to help them learn to value diversity. In fact, simple exposure can actually exac-
erbate negative reactions (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010).
Research on inclusion of children with disabilities, for example, finds that teachers
need to work with all of the children to help a child with special needs be accepted and
included in the group (Sandall & Schwartz, 2008). Preschoolers may think that if they
talk to or play with a child in a wheelchair, they won’t be able to walk, either. Teachers
need to actively support positive interactions among children and intervene when negative
reactions occur. Teachers shouldn’t deny differences with statements such as “He’s just
like you.” Instead, an honest explanation is best: “You and Justin both like to move around
the classroom and playground. You walk and run, while Justin uses his wheelchair to get
where he wants to go.”
Similarly, teachers should not admonish children for noticing differences. A teacher
who says “It isn’t nice to ask questions about other people” leaves a child without the cor-
rect information she or he needs. A child might ask, “Why is Derrick’s skin darker than
Deion’s?” A more helpful explanation might be, “Children usually look like their parents,
and Derrick’s parents also have dark skin.”
Likewise, dismissing children’s anxieties or fears about differences may lead to
avoidance or contribute to the development of prejudices. Consider the situation where
5-year-old Ariel says, “I don’t like Mashiko because she don’t speak English.” Her teacher
responds, “Oh, yes, you do. We’re all friends here.” Such a patronizing comment may lead
Ariel to avoid or dislike Mashiko even more. Instead, the teacher might say, “Mashiko can
speak Japanese and she’s learning English. Maybe you can help her. And she can teach
you some words in her language.”
Avoid Tourist Curriculum In helping children to understand and value diversity, teach-
tourist curriculum An ers need to avoid the “tourist curriculum.” A tourist curriculum (Derman-Sparks &
approach in which a culture Edwards, 2010) is one in which a culture is visited as though it were an exotic destina-
is visited as though it were an tion where people dress, talk, dance, and eat differently before returning to the “normal”
exotic destination where people
place where we all live. Here are some signs of a tourist curriculum (Derman-Sparks &
dress, talk, dance, and eat
differently before returning to
Edwards, 2010):
the “normal” place where we • Trivializing by organizing activities around food or holidays
all live.
• Tokenism, such as having only one book about any cultural group
• Disconnecting diversity from the rest of the curriculum, such as having a
one-week unit on a different culture or only discussing diversity on Martin
Luther King Day
• Stereotyping groups, such as using Native American images only from the past or
wearing traditional dress
• Misrepresenting groups such as using only books about Africa to teach about
African Americans
Integrate Diversity into the Curriculum Developing relationships with people from
diverse cultural groups and engaging in authentic experiences is the best way to help
children experience and value diversity. Such opportunities also help children to under-
stand that their perspective on the world is not necessarily the only or the best, but simply
different. It is also important for children to understand that there are many languages
in the world and no language is better than others. Regardless of the composition of
Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 195
hurts them, but it also makes you look mean and not very smart. If you have bad
feelings about someone’s behavior, we need to learn better ways for you to express
them.”
3. Don’t be afraid to intervene. Fear and ignorance are among the biggest impedi-
ments to confronting and eliminating discrimination in our society. Teachers may
be afraid that they will say the wrong thing to children, or that parents will be upset
if they talk about race, culture, language, or socioeconomic conditions. However,
unless they are part of the solution to addressing bias and discrimination in society,
teachers must accept the responsibility for being part of the problem. For example,
two children in Mr. Pinto’s second-grade class are living in a homeless shelter.
The children are teased for coming to school each day wearing the same clothes.
Mr. Pinto privately arranges for them to receive clothing donations. He also talks
with the teasers about their feelings, and finds out that some of the most verbal
children are actually afraid of losing their homes, too.
onsequently, those who observe this dynamic without this shared cultural perspec-
C
tive may not appreciate the love that is being conveyed. Similarly, African American
teachers and parents may value children learning academics more than playing in pre-
school because they know these skills are essential for their children to succeed in
school (Sanders et al., 2007).
To further illustrate how culturally determined our view of “best practice” is, con-
sider a recent effort by Chinese researchers (Li, Hu, Pan, Qin, & Fan, 2013) to adapt a
widely used American measure of high quality, the Early Childhood Environment Rat-
ing Scale (Harms, Clifford, & Cryer, 2005). The researchers found that the tool did not
adequately reflect their Asian collectivist culture, especially in terms of their emphasis
on group activities and whole-group instruction. They found it necessary to develop
items measuring the quality of whole-group teaching, which they subsequently found
to be highly related to children’s learning outcomes. Another difference was in the way
quality outdoor play is defined. Such play is far more restricted in their programs, per-
haps due to overprotection by parents because most children are the only child in the
family.
The point of this discussion is to acknowledge that the prevailing standards for good
practice in early childhood education described throughout this book and taught in most
teacher education courses reflect the dominant culture of society. At the same time, these
standards require that programs be responsive to cultural and linguistic diversity. Given
the diversity of children and families served today, teachers must help children to become
bicultural Capable of operat- bicultural, capable of operating successfully in both their home environment and the
ing successfully in both the culture of the larger world. Accomplishing this goal requires teachers to resolve some
home environment and the of the inevitable contradictions that arise between what is considered developmentally
dominant culture of the larger
appropriate and what is culturally appropriate.
world.
Resolving Contradictions As you have seen, when you are caring for and edu-
cating other people’s children, you are being relied on to do so in a way that adheres to
other people’s beliefs and values. In the case of infants and toddlers, for example, how
feeding, sleeping, dressing, and toileting are handled is not consistent across cultures.
Likewise, with preschoolers and elementary-grade children, teachers and families may
disagree fundamentally on appropriate discipline as well as how and what children should
be learning. Resolving these differences is an important part of working with children and
families. Read the Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Responding to Cultural Differences
feature for an example of how one teacher finds the balance between her ideas and family
perspectives.
Professionals tend to think they know the right answers to situations that arise in the
classroom. Yet in most situations, no one right answer exists. It is true that some practices,
such as spanking children, are prohibited by law and others by licensing standards. In
these cases, no compromise is possible. But more often, both/and solutions are more use-
ful than either/or choices when such contradictions occur, as illustrated in the following
real-life example (adapted from Bredekamp, 1997a, p. 47):
Antonia Lopez was director of a program for Mexican American children and fami-
lies in California. One of the program’s primary objectives was to promote cultural
congruity. As a relatively interdependent cultural group, Mexican Americans value
cooperation over competition, and this value was encouraged in the program. Another
accepted cultural practice is the giving of gifts to express respect and appreciation.
During the year, an uncomfortable situation arose. Parents began giving teachers
gifts, and over time the gifts became more elaborate. The gift-giving escalated into
a competition to see who could give the best gift, a direct contradiction of the pro-
gram’s goals. To resolve this dilemma, Antonia and her staff established two rules for
dealing with the situation:
Rule 1) You can’t accept the gifts.
Rule 2) You can’t reject the gifts.
Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 199
With these rules in place, the staff had to arrive at an alternative solution. They agreed
that rather than teachers’ accepting gifts for themselves, gifts would be accepted on be-
half of the school. Depending on the gift, it was shared by all the children, or displayed in
a place of honor for everyone to appreciate. Soon families’ gift-giving became less com-
petitive and moved toward the goal of making the program a better place for everyone.
When teachers and families disagree on what is best for children, remembering
ntonia’s rules may be a good strategy. If teachers cannot accept the family’s position for
A
some reason, but they also cannot reject it, then they will have to work toward an alterna-
tive solution—one that might better serve everyone’s interests.
Although it is true that all children are born ready to learn, it is equally true that their
learning takes place within social and cultural contexts. Just as our cultural backgrounds
influence our own development, behavior, and learning, developing an understanding of
the role of each child’s culture should influence what and how we teach young children.
Although overall learning goals may be more or less the same across cultures, different
teaching strategies may be required to help children achieve those goals.
To build successful relationships with children, you will need to take into account
and learn about each child’s cultural worlds because their experiences and home
language are integral components of their identity. As a teacher, you will need to
demonstrate respect and support for children’s language and culture. You must also help
children make sense of their new experiences in school by making connections to their
200 Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach
prior knowledge and experiences obtained in their own cultural contexts. Culturally
and linguistically appropriate ways of teaching are not “add-ons”; they are integral
dimensions of developmentally appropriate practice.
6 Chapter Summary
• Culture can be defined as the values, beliefs, and pat- • Cultural competence is the ability to work and commu-
terns of behavior, both explicit and implicit, that are nicate effectively, both verbally and nonverbally, with
passed on from generation to generation. All learning members of various cultural groups.
and development occur in and are influenced by social • Culturally responsive learning goals for children are to
and cultural contexts. foster and support children’s development and sense
• A framework for studying culture is to understand of identity within their own cultural group, to assist
that the beliefs, values, and behaviors that characterize children to experience and value diversity, to foster
cultural groups vary along a continuum from individu- children’s critical thinking, and to counter stereotypes
alistic to interdependent. and biases (negative expressions toward groups).
• Teachers need to become aware of their own cultural • Given the diversity of children and families served to-
perspectives as the first step toward becoming cultur- day, teachers must help children to become bicultural,
ally competent. capable of operating successfully in both their home
• Knowledge of culture is important because without environment and the larger world. Helping children
it, teachers can misunderstand children, inaccurately become bicultural requires teachers to resolve some of
assess children’s competence, and/or fail to promote the inevitable contradictions that arise between what
children’s learning. is considered developmentally appropriate and what is
culturally appropriate.
Key Terms
■■ acculturation ■■ cultural competence ■■ identity ■■ low-context culture
■■ anti-bias education ■■ dual language learners ■■ individualistic cultural ■■ tourist curriculum
■■ bias ■■ multi-language learners groups
■■ bicultural ■■ ethnicity ■■ interdependent cultural
groups
■■ culture ■■ high-context culture
Head Start National Center on Cultural and Linguis- in the online address will lead you to a site with a large
tic Responsiveness selection of books representing many diverse groups and
This federally funded center provides online practi- in many languages.
cal resources to guide programs serving culturally and Teaching Tolerance: A Project of the Southern
linguistically diverse children and families, including Poverty Law Center
materials in Spanish and other languages.
This website has a wealth of classroom resources includ-
Multicultural Children’s Literature ing sample lessons designed for different age groups on
A number of sites offer multicultural children’s books, all aspects of diversity and anti-bias education.
but searching for one that has “multiculturalchildrenslit”
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7 Building Effective
Partnerships with Families
Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
7.1 Distinguish characteristics of contemporary families and describe the role of
families in their children’s development, including how social, economic, and
cultural contexts affect family functioning.
7.2 Discuss how reciprocal relationships develop with families and apply prin-
ciples of family-centered practice.
7.3 Explain effective strategies for maintaining two-way communication with
families.
7.4 Elaborate on how teachers can productively involve families in their children’s
care and education.
7.5 Apply what you have learned about families to build partnerships that
achieve both teachers’ and parents’ goals for children.
© Comstock/Stockbyte/Getty Images
Case Study
V
ilma Suarez has worked as a toddler teacher in an Early Head Start
center for 3 years. She loves her job, but her days can be exhausting.
Today was one of those days. Before the children even arrived, Vilma had
a meeting with the early intervention team to discuss Aiya’s individualized family service plan (IFSP). Aiya is deaf,
and the team wants Vilma to begin signing with her. Aiya’s mother is silent throughout the meeting. She is a new
immigrant and feels threatened by this powerful group of professionals. Vilma is patiently working to gain her trust,
beginning with being available to talk about other things besides Aiya’s hearing impairment.
When Mrs. Vacaro drops 2-year-old Tomas off, he sobs and clings to her, and Mrs. Vacaro is clearly torn about
leaving him. Vilma speaks softly to Tomas and gets his attention with his favorite stacking toy. Finally, Mrs. Vacaro
is able to pry him loose and reluctantly departs. Vilma tries to call and text her during the day to reassure her, but
Mrs. Vacaro attends school and must have turned off the sound on her phone.
The assistant teacher supervises the children’s naptime while Vilma conducts a parent conference. The
conference is difficult because she has to talk to Mr. Henderson about his son’s out-of-control biting. Mr. Henderson
angrily says, “Just smack him. That’s what I do.” Vilma realizes that this situation will have to be negotiated
carefully.
At 5:00 p.m., when Mrs. Vacaro comes in clearly dreading the worst, Vilma greets her with the news that Tomas
had great fun today playing with his friends, ate well, and even said two new words. As Vilma reassures her about
how well Tomas is doing, Mrs. Vacaro sighs and fights back tears. She stoops to cuddle Tomas, and Vilma turns to
talk with Marcy’s grandmother and David’s father, who have just arrived.
During her bus ride home, Vilma reflects on her day. She remembers that when she
began her career, she was excited about working with very young children. Because
she has three children of her own and helped parent her younger siblings,
she felt confident working with babies and toddlers and was relieved to
have a job where she didn’t have to work with adults. Vilma shakes her
head, remembering how naïve she was. She now knows that
working with children is only one part of her job. Working with
their families is the bigger challenge. But doing so is also very
rewarding. She understands that by learning
from and with families, her contributions to
children’s lives will last long after they leave her
classroom. ■
W
hatever your age, if someone asked you to picture the most important people in
your life, images of your family members would likely come to mind. Perhaps
you would picture the people you grew up with, or your spouse/partner and
children. Some of you might picture both your nuclear family of parents and siblings and
your extended family of cousins, aunts, uncles, and grandparents. Families play essential
roles in every aspect of human development through the life span. During early child-
hood, however, families are the primary context for children’s development and learning,
with child care and early education settings playing a secondary, albeit critically impor-
tant, role. Given that these two contexts—families and early childhood programs—are the
two main environments in which children develop and learn, it is essential for teachers
and parents to work in concert if children are to develop to their fullest potential.
205
206 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
Because young children are inherently connected to their families, early childhood
teachers work with children and families. The younger the child, the stronger the connec-
tion to family and, therefore, the closer the relationship between teacher and parent must
be. Most early childhood educators enter the field because of their interest in teaching
young children; initially, they may not grasp the importance of developing skills to work
with families. In fact, teachers report that working with families is among the areas where
they feel least prepared and need the most help (Early & Winton, 2001). Throughout
this book, we use the terms families and parents to mean those people who are primarily
responsible for the children you teach, whoever they are—parents, stepparents, grandpar-
ents, guardians, foster families, or other household members.
This chapter describes how teachers establish reciprocal relationships with fami-
lies. We begin by painting a picture of today’s families, their exquisite diversity, and
the challenges they face in providing for their children. Next, we describe the principles
of family-centered practice as well as the nature of productive, reciprocal partnerships
between teachers and families. We describe effective strategies for communicating with
families and involving them in their children’s education. We also acknowledge that some
strategies are not effective in all situations; relationships with families are not always
smooth. Therefore, the chapter provides a framework for building partnerships that is ef-
fective in resolving the inevitable conflicts that arise when working with families.
Today’s Families
One can hardly read a newspaper or watch a television program today without hearing
dire warnings about the state of the American family and the myriad threats it faces.
Although it is true that families in the 21st century confront many challenges, it is equally
true that the family is and has always been a dynamic, resilient, and effective institution
for nurturing and acculturating each new generation.
What is a family? This may seem like a fairly easy question to answer, but it is not.
Each of you, no doubt, has your own definition of family based on your own experiences.
Throughout your career as a teacher, you will work with children who experience a wide
range of family configurations, as discussed next.
© Dubova/Shutterstock
Families today come in all shapes and sizes. How would you describe the membership in your family?
How does it compare with the family your parents or grandparents grew up in?
Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 207
Regardless of your own family experiences or values, as a teacher you will encounter
many different family configurations. The likelihood of successfully working with fami-
lies will increase if you accept the following assumptions:
• Families are diverse in many ways: composition, culture, religion, economic status,
work, mobility, and sexual orientation.
• Families are not good or bad; they are different and unique.
• Families, with rare exceptions, want the best for their children, regardless of the
difficult circumstances they may be trying to overcome.
• All families have strengths and resources, hopes and dreams for their children, just
as all families face challenges.
• It is not your right to pass judgment on families. You do not need to agree with
families at all times, but you cannot reject a child’s family and at the same time
successfully care for and educate the child.
The more you know about the intricacies of family functioning, the more likely you
will be able to put the above assumptions into practice. In the next section, we describe
the theoretical perspectives that help explain how families function and change.
Family Dynamics
Joelynn and Jeff Robeson already have 18-month-old twins when their third child, Eric,
is born with spina bifida, a physical disability that requires repeated hospitalizations and
considerable care. Just when Joelynn and Jeff are beginning to adjust to the strain on their
marriage of caring for three young children, including one with special needs, the factory
where Jeff works closes down and he loses his job. Suffering from depression and alcohol
abuse, Jeff leaves Joelynn without child support, forcing her to seek public assistance.
After a while, however, the rules for continuing on public assistance require Joelynn to
work full time, and she must leave her three young children in the care of her sister, who
also has two preschool-age children. Joelynn suffers from the stresses of caring for her
children and supporting them on her minimum wage salary.
As is true for every family, the development of each member of the Robeson family
is affected by many different factors, both internal and external to the family. Two theo-
retical perspectives are helpful for thinking about families: Bronfenbrenner’s ecological
theory of human development and family systems theory. Each of these frameworks helps
explain the complex interactions known as family dynamics.
the Robeson family, the exosystem includes economic factors beyond their control that
seriously affected the family. Jeff’s unemployment led to the family’s requiring pub-
lic assistance. The laws governing eligibility for public support necessitated Joelynn’s
employment and the children’s enrollment in child care.
Consider how changes in various elements of the exosystem could alter outcomes for
the Robeson family and their children, especially Eric. With Jeff out of work and Joelynn
working for minimum wage, the family’s income is below poverty level, making them
eligible for Early Head Start. This federal program provides child care for children from
birth to age 3, early intervention services for Eric, and family support. The early interven-
tion team helps Joelynn learn how to support Eric’s development at home. They put Jeff
in touch with mental health counselors to help him deal with his depression, and they also
connect him to Alcoholics Anonymous and career retraining. Through the counseling of-
fered by Early Head Start, Jeff gets a maintenance job while he attends computer school.
Joelynn begins training as a nurse’s aide, inspired by her newfound abilities to care for
Eric’s health. The twins thrive in the social atmosphere at the child care center. The family
reunites, and its emotional as well as financial security improves. The changes in Eric’s
family will have lasting benefits for his development as well.
When aspects of the child and family systems provide substantive supports outside
of their home life, families have what they need to have positive interactions inside their
home—and children benefit. Now that you have seen how various ecological systems
interact to influence the family and children’s development, we focus on family systems
theory, which explains more about the internal workings of family dynamics.
Source: Based on “Understanding Families: Applying Family Systems Theory to Early Childhood Practice,” by L. G. Christian, 2006,
Young Children, 61(1), 12–20.
negative developmental and learning outcomes, such as dropping out of school. However,
the term “at risk” has no consistent definition and often tends to stigmatize children, fami-
lies, and/or communities by oversimplifying the strengths and challenges of children and
families with a label that does not help address their needs (Moore, 2006).
Because families are the most critical setting for children’s development, risk factors
affecting families, such as poverty, single parenthood, and low levels of parental educa-
tion (which tend to co-occur), are found to be related to poor outcomes for children. Other
Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 211
factors that place families at risk include family dysfunction, abuse, parental
mental illness, substance abuse, and illness (U.S. Department of Health and Classroom Connection
Human Services, n.d.). Community risk factors create challenges for families Watch this video about the
as well; these include poverty, crime, unemployment, and high levels of teen Campsey family, and analyze how
parenthood. family experiences, in this case
the birth of a child with disabili-
Challenges for Families The largest risk factor for poor child out- ties, can change family dynamics
comes is poverty, which the federal government defines as less than $22,050 and circumstances in challenging
per year for a family of four. Because research shows that almost twice this ways.
income is required to adequately cover expenses, the National Center for
Children in Poverty (2014) estimates that almost 45% of children live in low- http://www.youtube.com/watch?v
income families. In 2012, almost 25% of children under the age of 6 were =exaWw4hPzwE&index=34&
living in poverty or extreme poverty (less than half the poverty level)—an list=PLK1JOJxrAG2E-BE-
increase of 33% in the first decade of the 21st century (Children’s Defense CoAk15nr190X3Sw8ZI
Fund [CDF], 2014). Growing up in poverty is related to many negative out-
comes for children, including increased likelihood of abuse, neglect, school
failure, delinquency, and violence.
Child poverty continues to grow despite the fact that most poor children live in work-
ing families (CDF, 2014). Moreover, a disproportionate number of children of color live
in poverty (CDF, 2014). Compared to 12% of white children, 40% of African American,
34% of Hispanic, and 37% of American Indian c hildren under age 5 are poor (CDF,
2014).
Children living in poverty are at risk for poor physical and dental health, more likely
to experience hunger and malnutrition, and less likely to have access to health care (CDF,
2014). African American children are more than twice as likely as white children not to have
medical insurance. In addition, homelessness is on the rise; in fact, families with children,
including many preschoolers, are the fastest growing group of homeless people (CDF, 2014).
Cumulative risk factors increase the likelihood of poor outcomes for children. Pov-
erty coupled with other factors such as low level of parent education (less than high
school), single-parent family, or teen parent multiplies risk. Economic stress also affects
two-parent families. Almost 60% of mothers of children under age 5 are in the workforce,
which adds the cost of child care for many financially strapped families.
© Carla Mestas/Pearson Education
Programs such as Head Start and Early Head Start serve our nation’s neediest families. Early child-
hood teachers work closely with families and can be resources to help strengthen and build resilience in
families facing challenges.
212 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
Reciprocal Relationships
with Families
In her book on partnerships with parents, Janis Keyser (2006, p. xi) describes her develop-
ment as an early childhood professional as progressing through three stages of relationship
with parents: save the child, save the parents, and draw on parents’ expertise. These stages
are identical to my own experience and that of many other early childhood teachers.
Like many others in the early childhood profession, Keyser chose this field because
of her love of children. In the earliest days of her practice, when she encountered a child
whose needs were great, she entered the first stage: “save the child.” Inevitably there would
be several children whom she thought if only she could save them from their parents, their
lives would be better. She quickly realized the futility of this approach and moved on to the
next stage of her development, which she calls “save the parents.” Realizing that it would be
impossible to save all of the children from their parents, she determined to fix the parents.
She thought that if she taught them everything early childhood professionals know, they
would become better parents. Soon, however, she realized that this notion fails to recognize
funds of knowledge Expe- that families bring funds of knowledge—experiences, traditions, goals, resources, and rich
riences, traditions, goals, culture to their roles. In fact, she concluded that families add unique value to the knowledge
resources, and rich culture that of early childhood teachers (Gonzalez, Moll, & Amanti, 2005; Iruka, 2013). In the final
families bring to their roles.
stage of development in her relationships with families, she rejected both goals of saving
children and saving parents in favor of drawing on parents’ expertise to work in partnerships
with them in ways that are in the children’s best interests.
Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 213
Keyser’s story about her own development as a teacher mirrors how the profes-
sion’s views of parent-teacher relationships have evolved over time (Powell & Gerde,
2006; Powell & O’Leary, 2009). In the past, and even today in some educational set-
tings, teachers thought that they could care for and educate children almost in spite of
their parents. Today, however, the prevailing view of effective practice requires recip-
rocal relationships and partnerships between teachers and families (Olsen & Fuller,
2012; Iruka, 2013). R eciprocal relationships are two-way relationships in which in- reciprocal relationships
formation and power are shared. Before describing the elements of effective partner- Two-way relationships in
ships, it is important to clarify the distinct roles of teachers and parents in the lives of which information and power
are shared; based on mutual
young children.
respect, trust, cooperation, and
shared responsibility.
Roles of Teachers and Parents
One of the challenges to building effective partnerships for early childhood teachers is
that the younger the child in their care, the more blurred the lines become between fami-
lies and teachers. Nevertheless, there are definite distinctions between the roles of parent
and teacher. Children’s relationships with their family members often last a lifetime. They
view their children’s development and learning more emotionally. Their relationships are
often intense, and culturally embedded. While family members are considered children’s
“first teacher,” they typically have no training in how to care for and educate their child.
While teachers’ relationships with children are very important for their learning and
development they typically have short-term relationships with children and find it easier
to be objective. Furthermore, teachers benefit from formal education related to supporting
children’s learning and development. These distinctions help explain why both perspec-
tives are essential in providing high-quality care and education for each child (Baker &
Manfredi-Pettit, 2004).
Understanding these different but complementary roles reminds teachers of the im-
portant boundaries between their roles and those of parents. Children benefit greatly
from the lasting unconditional love of at least one adult, usually a parent (Brazelton &
Greenspan, 2000). At the same time, children benefit from the more objective view that
© ViewStock/Getty Images
Young children are integrally connected to their families. Effective early childhood programs depend on
positive relationships between teachers and parents.
214 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
teachers can bring when they evaluate the children’s needs and strengths. To help all of
their students, teachers can draw on their experience from observing many children’s
development and knowing how to effectively support children’s social and academic
development in group situations such as that of the school or child care center. By con-
trast, parents are the most knowledgeable sources of information about their child’s
development and experience in settings outside the school. Moreover, parents are the
most accurate, key informants about children’s cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Once
teachers are clear about what they and parents bring to the table, the opportunity exists to
build reciprocal relationships with families.
Family-Centered Practice
Reciprocal relationships can develop only in an atmosphere of mutual respect, trust,
cooperation, and shared responsibility. These are the elements of what is now called
family-centered care or family-centered practice (Child Welfare Information Gateway,
2014).
family-centered practice Family-centered practice is a term that originated in the early childhood special
Providing resources and sup- education community. According to special educators, family-centered practice provides
ports to families that promote to families the resources and supports that promote children’s development and learning
children’s development and
and, at the same time, strengthen the competence of families in their roles and improve
learning and, at the same time,
strengthen the competency of
family well-being (Dunst, 2011). Professionals may provide parent education to sup-
families in their role. port parents’ competence, confidence, and enjoyment of interactions with their child. To
achieve these goals, professionals must actively involve families, be responsive to their
requests, and treat them with dignity and respect.
Considerable research documents the benefits of family-centered practice for chil-
dren and families, especially for children with disabilities and special needs (Trivette,
Dunst, & Hamby, 2010). The Including All Children feature demonstrates the value of
family-centered practice for children and their families. Although family-centered prac-
tices have been at the heart of early childhood special education, they are also now rec-
ognized as essential elements of all high-quality early childhood programs (NAEYC,
2014).
Family-centered practice is interpreted slightly differently by general educators
than by special educators because the needs of the families they work with are differ-
ent, and because of the child’s specific needs. For general educators, family-centered
practice focuses on building partnerships with families. These partnerships are char-
acterized by several key principles: mutual respect and trust; regular, frequent two-
way communication; collaboration, shared decision making, and shared power; and
negotiation of conflicts toward win-win solutions (Bredekamp, 1997a, 1997b). When
working with families who are racial and ethnic minorities, Iruka (2013) suggests that
professionals employ a b i-directional approach, which integrates the families’ cul-
ture and perspectives, and capitalize on a strengths-based approach. What this means
for teachers is that efforts to increase family engagement should include extensive,
meaningful input from families on their family traditions, interaction preferences, and
individual needs.
Mutual trust and respect develop gradually after numerous interactions. Although
teachers and parents may initially disagree on certain issues, the goal is to recognize and
respect one another’s knowledge and expertise (Keyser, 2006). If parents feel respected,
they are more likely to share information that teachers need to know.
Differences of opinion and goals are inevitable when working with other people’s
children. If mutual trust and respect are to be maintained and parents are to continue to be
empowered, such conflicts must be negotiated toward win-win solutions (discussed later
in this chapter). There are instances, however, when negotiation is not an option, such as
in cases of suspected child abuse or neglect. Policies regarding teachers’ responsibilities
for reporting child abuse should be clearly communicated to families as well as teachers
(National Research Council [NRC], 2014).
Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 215
Collaboration, shared decision making, and shared power can be difficult to negoti-
ate for inexperienced teachers. Many early childhood educators fail to grasp the extent
of their actual and perceived power in relationships with families. In addition, cultural
differences may be a complicating factor in supporting family engagement in school com-
munity and activities. The Culture Lens feature describes research that sheds light on how
Latino mothers may view engagement in their child’s education differently than mothers
of other cultures—and how building on cultural strengths can support the family and
child in the educational process.
216 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
Culture Lens
Developing Partnerships with Latino Families
Teachers are sometimes frustrated when families don’t including sacrificios (sacrifices), consejos (advice), and
participate in the parent involvement activities offered. apoyo (moral support).
Some families don’t attend back-to-school night, rarely Most mothers shared that they believed in making sacri-
return paperwork, or fail to volunteer for school activities. fices (sacrificios) to support their children’s education and
Research shows that children develop and learn best took great pride in working hard to support their children’s
when families are engaged in their children’s education. education. They described how they gave advice (consejos)
Developing productive relationships and partnerships to their children to support their education, which for these
with families can be challenging. Just as with children, Latino mothers included academic and social education.
a teacher cannot assume a “one-size-fits-all” approach Finally, they described how they saw their role related to
toward building family partnerships. When families’ cul- supporting their children’s motivation to learn, morale and
ture and language are different from the school culture, confidence, and respect (respeto) related to learning.
it can be even more challenging.
Ramos translated her findings to important implica-
Families’ cultural perspective impacts how they engage tions for teachers working with immigrant families and
in the school community, and in their children’s educa- non–European American families, in addition to Latino
tional activities. Taking a perspective of capitalizing on families. She recommends that teachers learn about
family strengths and funds of knowledge, Manica Ramos the family cultures of the children in the classroom and
interviewed immigrant Latino mothers about how cul- school—from the families themselves. Ramos encour-
ture impacted their involvement in their preschool-aged ages teachers to think creatively about what constitutes
children’s education. Ramos found that Latino mothers family engagement opportunities, and consult with fami-
were very invested in their children’s education, and that lies on how they would like to be engaged. To understand
they expressed this investment in ways that were similar different family values and beliefs, Ramos recommends
to and different from non-Latino families. For example, visiting families regularly in their homes to develop warm
Latino mothers in Ramos’s study reported attending and productive relationships.
student–teacher conferences and reading to their chil- Source: The Strengths of Latina Mothers in Supporting their
dren, similar to school expectations. However, they also Children’s Education: A Cultural Perspective, by M. Ramos,
discussed forms of involvement in their children’s educa- 2014, Bethesda, MD: Child Trends, retrieved November 1,
tion that were more culturally specific to Latino families, 2014, from http://www.childtrends.org.
If you, like many of your colleagues, think early childhood education involves just
working with children, you might feel intimidated by the idea of developing reciprocal re-
lationships with families. In the next section, we address the fundamental skill of two-way
communication with families.
c hildren are in school and perhaps child care for part of the day. In each of these situations,
communication problems can arise.
© P Deliss/Godong/Picture-alliance/Newscom
Infant/toddler teachers sometimes find that parents may feel threatened or unsure about sharing their child’s care
with another person. How can this teacher build a positive relationship that will benefit the baby and the family?
218 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
These parents’ feelings illustrate that sharing their children with other adults is diffi-
cult and can be threatening to the close parent–child relationship. When other people have
considerable influence over their children’s lives, parents can feel powerless.
Reciprocal relationships with parents begin in everyday chit chat—casual conversation about children that
builds trust and respect.
220 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
listener’s feelings, but so vague that the message is easily misunderstood. The listener be-
aggressive communication comes confused about expectations and loses trust. Aggressive communication is truth-
Speaking the truth in a hurtful ful, but the delivery is hurtful. The listener feels angry and resentful, and the relationship
way. is damaged. Assertive communication—telling the truth in a thoughtful and considerate
assertive communication way—is the most effective form of communication (NAEYC, 1998). Assertive commu-
Telling the truth in a thoughtful nication strengthens relationships and increases the likelihood of successfully resolving
and considerate way; consid- problems.
ered the most effective form of
The goal in sending a slippery egg message—the kind that is difficult to send as well
communication.
as to receive—is to use assertive communication. Compared to passive or aggressive
styles of communication, assertive communication succeeds in delivering the difficult
message while also maintaining and perhaps deepening the relationship.
Following is an example of these three communication styles in action. First-grade
teacher Julia Sykes is concerned that one of her students, DeShawn Jameson, is not mak-
ing progress in reading. Julia sets up a meeting with DeShawn’s mother to discuss the
problem. They chat comfortably for a few minutes, but Ms. Jameson is clearly nervous,
anticipating bad news. Here are three ways that Julia might present the situation:
• Passive communication. “I know you are worried about how DeShawn is doing in
school, and so am I. All the children take time to get settled and he’ll come around as
soon as he’s ready.” With such a passive statement, Julia demonstrates caring for the
parent and child, but fails to convey the seriousness of the situation. Ms. Jameson is
confused and a little angry because she doesn’t understand why she took off work
for this meeting.
• Aggressive communication. “We’ve got a problem with DeShawn. He is so far be-
hind in reading, he’ll probably have to repeat first grade.” Julia dreaded delivering
this bad news, so she blurted it out with little concern for Ms. Jameson’s feelings.
Ms. Jameson immediately becomes defensive: “What do you mean? Why aren’t
you teaching him right?”
• Assertive communication. “Ms. Jameson, during the first three months of school,
I’ve found that DeShawn isn’t making the reading progress that he should be. We
don’t expect all the children to learn to read at the same time. But I’m concerned
that if he falls further behind, he will really have a hard time catching up. What I’d
like to do is have a reading specialist evaluate him to see if he would benefit from
tutoring, which is provided free by the school. I wanted you to come in today so we
could talk about how DeShawn is doing at home and what options we have to help
him.” In this communication, Julia conveys caring for DeShawn and his mother,
but she also tells the truth—that there is a problem and there are possible solutions
to work on together.
Assertive communication is often effective when the teacher is working with chal-
lenging situations and distraught or angry parents. As the Becoming an Intentional
Teacher feature reveals, it is important to be open and really listen to parents’ concerns
and complaints. Teachers use many different vehicles to accomplish clear, honest, regu-
lar communication. In the sections that follow, we describe some of these strategies.
One day, when Noah returned after an absence, his mother Here’s What I Was Thinking Months before school
looked particularly weary. I asked my assistant teacher to begins, I work hard to build a relationship with my chil-
take over the group while I spoke with Mrs. Mayer privately. dren’s families. I make home visits, hold open houses, and
She explained that she had spent the night with Noah in write letters or e-mails to families to introduce myself and
the emergency room. As we talked, I realized that due to the school—everything I can think of. When Mrs. Mayer
Noah’s chronic illness, colds and other seemingly innocu- began to complain about Noah’s getting sick at school,
ous childhood sicknesses are life-threatening experiences. I wondered if she was just a negative person or if she should
I gave Mrs. Mayer a copy of our center’s health policy hand- find another program. As I spoke more with her, I came to
book and asked her to review it and give me feedback. We realize that her complaints were evidence of her commit-
set up a time to meet again. ment as a parent. In meeting with Mrs. Mayer, I learned
that her experience as the parent of a chronically ill child
Mrs. Mayer came back to me 2 days later with sugges- provided valuable knowledge and a perspective that could
tions for ways we could focus everyone’s attention on ill- help our program be better. I realized that it wouldn’t work
ness prevention. For example, to accommodate parents if I was the only one who changed health procedures, so
so they wouldn’t have to miss school or work, we often I had to get the other parents and staff involved. The out-
allowed sick children to attend the center when perhaps come was improved health for all the children and for the
they should have stayed home. We had a policy that teachers, too.
required children to remain home when ill. When children
arrived at school with symptoms of illness, our policy said Reflection What issues or situations in child care pro-
we should take the child’s temperature and exclude chil- grams or schools might parents frequently complain about?
dren who had a fever. We also had a policy that stated if In the above situation, the teacher almost automatically felt
children were heavily sneezing and coughing, or required defensive and initially attributed blame to the “complain-
one-on-one care for their symptoms, that they should not ing” parent. How do you think you would feel if the same
attend the program until their symptoms remitted. And parent consistently complained about your teaching? What
though our program worked hard to teach and attend to could you do in response?
In another circumstance, Ms. Kelly looks distraught and responds, “Monique’s father
left last night and I’ve been up all night crying.”
Here is an entirely different situation, calling for an entirely different response. “I can
see you are upset. I’ll take Monique now so you can go to work and I’ll call to let you
know how she’s doing. If you would like, we can talk privately later.”
Moments of informal conversation are so important for building trust and mutual
respect. At the same time, teachers need to make sure that children are supervised during
these conversations, and that it is clear who is responsible for this duty. Any confidential
conversation should be scheduled for another time.
222 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
Use Technology Technology has transformed all communication in the 21st cen-
tury. Parents are more accessible than ever because of handheld mobile devices. Indi-
vidual e-mails, texts, or voice-mail messages can be used to share information about a
child’s daily activity or progress. Teachers, along with children, can create and maintain a
classroom or school website where they post photos and samples of children’s work. The
potential is limited only by their imaginations and the technological resources available.
Kaldor (2015) recommends many ways that teachers can use technology to strengthen
relationships with families and increase family engagement in the school community,
such as:
• Use video e-introduction before the school year begins. By posting on YouTube or
a secure website, and e-mailing the link, children and family members can see the
classroom and learn about their child’s teacher.
• Use video from the classroom to demonstrate daily routines, and tips for transitions
and guiding children’s positive behavior.
• Use the Message from Me online feature. Children can use tablets and cameras to
take photos or videos of classroom activities and send with an audio message to
their family.
• Create e-books to share with families. Children can use photos, text, and audio
recordings to document classroom experiences and produce e-books that can be
shared online or printed, and read at home with family.
• Use messaging technology, such as instant message, Twitter, or WhatsApp to send
messages and images (photos or videos) of special happenings during the school day.
Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 223
Promoting Play
Get Outside and Play!
With the demands of the elementary curriculum and or more of daily, active play, and they discuss many
restrictions on recess in her school district, Lucia is ways children could reach that goal.
concerned that her students are not getting enough
Families brainstorm and generate many ideas for ac-
active play time during the day. During the day at
tive play, including turning on music and dancing in
school, children have recess for only 20 minutes
the home, making an obstacle course in the house or
after lunch.
backyard, sport activities, and going to the neighbor-
Realizing that she cannot take on the full responsi- hood playground with an older sibling. After generat-
bility of her students’ health, Lucia enlists families ing many ideas, Lucia turns their attention to safety,
as partners to support children’s active play. Lucia and they discuss bicycle and scooter safety (including
holds a Get Active parent meeting. Because many helmets), supervision, and following safety rules. Lucia
of her students’ families work evening shifts at the shares resources for limiting screen time, and explains
local restaurants, Lucia videotapes the meeting for how adults’ modeling of activity is also important for
those who cannot attend and posts it on a secure children. The evening ends with a healthy snack, while
YouTube site. Using resources from the Centers families share their plans for building more active play
for Disease Control and the Internet, Lucia illus- in every day. Following the encouragement of families,
trates for families the importance of active play for Lucia agrees to send text messages several times a
children’s health, development, and learning. She week, reminding them to support their child’s active
explains the research that children need 60 minutes play and sharing some good ideas of how to do so.
Arguing that technology devices should be used responsibly and respectfully, Kaldor
(2015) provides guidelines for how to do a BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) Night.
Rather than leaving devices behind, families bring their devices and learn how to connect
with their child’s classroom and school, and see demonstrations of children’s technol-
ogy use in the classroom. Families learn how to respect boundaries around technological
communication, and sign a digital contract.
Families may turn to early childhood professionals to learn about using technol-
ogy with their children. Teachers can provide important information regarding how chil-
dren use technology and how much they use it. Children under 3 years old should have
few, short periods of screen time, combined with lively interaction with family members
(Lerner & Barr, 2014). Early Connections (http://www.commonsensemedia.org/educators/
early-connections) provides guidelines and ideas for families to use technology to enhance
social relationships and learning.
Technology can make communication with families much more efficient. For ex-
ample, listservs can be used to inform parents of logistical information such as reminders
about school closings. Technology also addresses the challenge presented by the fact that
many children go back and forth between the homes of divorced parents or extended fam-
ily (Mitchell, Foulger, & Wetzel, 2009). However, it is also important to recognize limita-
tions of technology. For example, sensitive information should typically not be shared by
text or e-mail—telephone conversations or in-person meetings are much better for dis-
cussing behavior concerns and for problem solving (Kaldor, 2015). Teachers should set
clear boundaries on communicating with families, and families’ preferences for commu-
nication should be respected. For example, teachers may not be willing to answer e-mails
in the evening while they are with family, but will answer the next day. These boundaries
and expectations should be clearly stated in the digital contract.
224 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
Formal parent-teacher conferences are important times to communicate about children’s progress and
potential problems. But for conferences to be effective, teachers need to make parents as comfortable as
possible and listen as much as they talk.
Websites need to be password secured to limit access. Interactive sites are labor in-
tensive, needing to be checked and responded to regularly and monitored for inappro-
priate content. Some families might not have access to the Internet. For families that
do not speak or read English, teachers should be prepared to enlist the assistance of a
bilingual colleague or an online translator application (Nemeth, 2015). Finally, e-mail and
especially texting may foster the use of incorrect grammar and spelling. Teachers should
always be accurate in written communication, electronic or otherwise.
day, her questions keep me on my toes. Last week, before we visited the aquarium,
she wanted to know how the fish breathe.”
Jillian’s mother smiles and says, “She drives us crazy with her why, why, why.”
“Let me show you some of the things she’s been learning,” Noreen replies, “and
how she’s discovering ways to get answers to her questions.”
When Noreen describes some of the literacy goals, Jillian’s mother says, “Oh,
I know. At home she is always rhyming words and retelling me the stories you read.”
Noreen makes a note about what she’s learned from this parent because Jillian
has not yet demonstrated these skills at school.
As children get older, three-way conferencing becomes more possible and desirable.
Kia is a third grader whose parents are surprised to find that during the “parent–teacher”
conference, their role is primarily to observe while Kia and her teacher, Mr.
Colbert, have a conversation about her work. Kia reports on how well she
thinks she’s doing and sets a goal for next term: to read 8 chapter books. He
then asks what she wants to be when she grows up. “A chef!” she replies.
He asks her to pretend she is interviewing for a job and convince him that
she would make a good chef. Kia proceeds to describe how she helps her
mom cook, reads cookbooks, and makes up her own recipes—exhibiting
her language and literacy skills, general knowledge, and reasoning ability as
well as her confidence and competence. Kia’s parents watch in wonder as
their usually soft-spoken and shy daughter becomes increasingly animated.
Privately, her Dad questions Mr. Colbert about whether reading 8 books will
be too hard for her. “Trust her,” replies Mr. Colbert. Classroom Connection
These two examples include many key points to keep in mind when pre- In this video, observe how the
paring and conducting conferences with families. Table 7.2 summarizes prin- teacher shares information with
ciples for planning and conducting family conferences. Formal conferences Kayla’s mother and learns some
take considerable time to plan and carry out effectively. This time is well new ways to work with Kayla in
spent, however, when it is used to build partnerships and solve problems. the classroom.
Home Visiting In home visiting, a teacher goes to the child’s home on home visiting Visits made by
a regular basis to exchange information with parents. Home visiting has a long tradition a teacher to the child’s home
in early childhood education. Since its inception, Head Start has required regular home on a regular basis to exchange
information with parents.
visits. The large majority (71%) of Early Head Start programs combine home visiting
with center-based child care (Cohen, Vogel, & the Baby FACES Team, 2011). In addition,
the model early childhood programs that demonstrated lasting effects, such as the Perry
Preschool Project and the Abecedarian Project, included weekly home visits. Two types
of home visiting exist—teacher home visits and home-based programs.
Teacher Home Visits Home visits are an excellent way for every teacher to establish more
comfortable relationships with families, and children usually love the idea of their teacher
visiting them at home. Conferences are typically held at school or in the child care center—
on the teacher’s turf. As a result, a disproportionate amount of power is attributed to the
professionals, putting parents at somewhat of a disadvantage. Home visits by teachers can
be effective in creating a more reciprocal relationship and enhancing children’s learning.
Even middle schools are now discovering the power of home visiting to increase student
achievement and motivation. Following are some guidelines for successful home visits:
• Be available for a home visit. Let families know that you would like to visit the
children at home to make them more comfortable with you and to learn more about
their interests. Do not be offended if families decline the opportunity.
• Set a time for the visit and stick to it. Visits should last from 15 to 30 minutes.
• Reassure families in advance about the visit’s purpose. Families need to know that
you do not expect them to entertain you, feed you, or clean up for your visit. Never-
theless, teachers should be respectful of diverse cultural perspectives; for example,
some cultural groups would be hurt or insulted if a guest refused food.
226 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
Source: Based on Families, Schools, and Communities: Building Partnerships for Educating Children, 3rd edition, by C. Barbour, N. H. Barbour,
and P. A. Scully, 2005, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Pearson; and From Parents to Partners: Building a Family-Centered Early Childhood Program,
by J. Keyser, 2006, St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.
• Include the child in the visit. Ask children to share something they like to do at
home or in the community.
• If you take a photo, ask permission first, and perhaps pose the family together at
the front door to protect their privacy. Use a digital camera so the family can see
the photo that you will display at school.
Home-Based Programs Child development programs based on visits to families—
home-based programs home-based programs—are designed to support parents in the parenting role, fully
Programs based on visits to
involve them in their children’s education, and help them achieve their own life goals
families designed to support
parents in the parenting role,
(Council for Professional Recognition, 2012). In recent years, research demonstrating the
involve them in their children’s lasting benefits of home-visiting programs for expectant and new parents, infants, and
education, and help them toddlers has led to significant expansion and increases in funding. In 2010, states invested
achieve their own life goals. $1.4 billion in home-visiting programs (Pew Center on the States, 2010a). Home-visiting
Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 227
programs enhance mother and child health, strengthen parenting skills, reduce child
abuse, increase children’s achievement, and have lasting economic benefits for parents
by decreasing unemployment and welfare dependence (Pew Center on the States, 2010b).
The most effective home visiting programs employ qualified early childhood profes-
sionals who actively engage parents with their children. Parents stay in close proximity to
the child and home visitor, interact and play with their child, and learn how to use daily
activities of life to promote children’s development (Roggman, 2011).
Meeting on Neutral Ground In recent years, teacher home visits have become
more challenging for several reasons. They are time consuming, and union contracts may
discourage them. Because children do not live in self-contained communities and take
transportation to school, home visits become logistically difficult. Teachers may feel un-
safe visiting communities where there have been incidents involving violence or drugs.
Likewise, some families may be uncomfortable about teachers’ visiting for reasons of
poverty or differences in language and cultural background.
Given that home visiting and conferencing at school can be threatening or difficult,
some teachers find that meeting families on neutral ground such as a local coffee shop
or fast-food restaurant may be the best strategy (Powell, 2013). Talking in a less formal
setting over a cup of coffee, parents and teachers may be more relaxed and able to work
out solutions to difficult problems.
Early childhood education is most effective when there is regular two-way commu-
nication between families and teachers. Truly effective programs go beyond communica-
tion to active engagement of families in their children’s education, a topic addressed in
the next section.
when families of all income and education levels and of diverse cultural backgrounds
support their children’s learning at home (Cowan, Cowan, Pruett, Pruett, & Wong, 2009;
Halgunseth, Peterson, Stark, & Moodie, 2009).
Family involvement in school has the greatest benefit for children at risk of school
failure (Dearing, Kreider, Simpkins, & Weiss, 2007). When low-income families become
more involved in school from kindergarten to fifth grade, children’s literacy performance
increases significantly (Dearing et al., 2007). Typically there is an achievement gap in
literacy performance between children of more- and less-educated mothers, but this gap
is nonexistent when family involvement levels are high (Dearing et al., 2007). However,
white, middle-class families are more likely to be involved in school and to be better
informed about how to help their children at home (Swick, Head-Reeves, & Barbarin,
2006). Therefore, schools need to make extra effort to involve all families because this
would be an effective way to address the achievement gap between children of color
growing up in poverty and their more affluent, white peers.
Sources: Based on The Head Start Parent, Family, and Community Engagement Framework: Promoting Family Engagement and School
Readiness from Prenatal to Age 8, by Office of Head Start, 2011, Washington, DC; and PTA National Standards for Family-School Partnerships:
An Implementation Guide, by National Parent Teacher Association, 2009, Alexandria, VA.
Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 229
What Works
Father-Friendly Practices
Fathers play a critical role in the healthy development of young older siblings, foster fathers, or
children. When fathers are involved in their children’s education, mother’s boyfriends.
children of all ages perform better academically, demonstrate • Create a father-friendly school environment.
more empathy, and exhibit healthier behavior. Although moth- Greet fathers with a sign, “Dads Welcome Here!” Post
ers as well as fathers have close emotional bonds with their chil- pictures of positive images of diverse men engaged in various
dren, in general fathers tend to interact physically, and mothers occupations and activities with and without children.
are more verbally soothing. For example, fathers are more likely • Invite fathers explicitly and personally to participate in school
to engage children in risk-taking and rough-and-tumble play. so they know they are welcome and expected. Often fathers
Perhaps this is why research finds that children who have involved don’t feel that invitations to “parents” apply to them.
fathers demonstrate greater curiosity, problem-solving ability, so- • Provide opportunities related to fathers’ interests and skills such
cial skills, and confidence. Regrettably, fathers, especially those as sports or afterschool tutoring in science or math. Draw on
from low-income backgrounds, are much less likely to be involved fathers’ real interests—such as woodworking or motorcycles—
in schools than are mothers and therefore need more targeted even if the activity may seem to reflect a stereotype of male
encouragement. abilities.
A main barrier to fathers’ involvement is time and work • Provide fathers-only events (such as discussion groups) or
schedules that conflict with school hours. But subtle barriers can father–child experiences such as a Father’s Breakfast or play-
be even more powerful. Fathers may perceive that involvement in ground repair day—not only on Father’s Day.
school is not part of their role, but rather the mothers’ job. They • Be sensitive to fathers’ literacy levels. For example, provide
may feel awkward and unwelcome entering a female-dominated wordless picture books so fathers who do not feel comfortable
environment. Female teachers may hesitate to encourage father reading can talk about the pictures with children.
participation for fear their actions will be misinterpreted. Because • Be responsive to cultural values. For example, Hispanic groups
a large number of children do not live with their fathers, programs value familismo (relationships and distinct gender roles) and
are often hesitant to promote father involvement for fear of harm- respeto (respect for elders and extended family).
ing children’s self-esteem or offending single mothers and lesbian • Be flexible and schedule events around fathers’ schedules as
mothers. In addition, programs may be legitimately concerned much as possible.
about perpetuating gender stereotyping or disrespecting cultur- • Provide bigger chairs!
al groups for whom the machismo role of fathers is particularly
Most important is to focus on fathers’ strengths. Too often, fa-
important.
thers are portrayed in a negative light as absent or irresponsible.
Although these barriers are justifiable, they need not be in-
Every father has unique strengths and abilities. Engaged fathers
surmountable. Research shows that the following father-friendly
are likely to be major contributors to the well-being of all children,
practices not only increase father involvement in schools but also
schools, and communities.
improve family functioning and relationships and outcomes for
children:
• Make father involvement a priority by designating a male Sources: Based on “Fathering, Schools, and Schooling: What Fathers Con-
teacher, administrator, community leader, or parent volunteer tribute and Why It Is Important” by C. B. Hennon, G. Palm, and G. Olsen,
2012, in Home and School Relations: Teachers and Parents Working
to organize a father initiative. Fathers are more likely to partici-
Together, 4th edition, edited by G. Olsen and M. L. Fuller, pp. 284–323,
pate when they see other men doing so. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson; and Dad Stats, by National Responsible
• Be clear that your definition of “father” includes non-resident Fatherhood Clearinghouse, retrieved January 4, 2011, from http://fatherhood
fathers as well as father figures such as grandfathers, uncles, .gov/library/dad-stats#Research.
230 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
Community Partnerships
As we see in Table 7.3, one effective form of family engagement is community collabora-
tion. Just as partnerships between teachers and families contribute to positive outcomes
for children, early childhood programs and schools function most effectively when they
build reciprocal partnerships in the broader community (NAEYC, 2008c). For example,
a Head Start program, with its comprehensive services for families, may serve as a focal
point for positive change in a poverty-stricken community. Likewise, a community
organization might adopt a neighborhood school, clean up and equip its playground, or
provide literacy volunteers and other services that improve school performance.
Teachers, especially beginning teachers, may feel overwhelmed by the idea of build-
ing partnerships with communities in addition to carrying out their other responsibilities.
However, community linkages can enhance their work and make it more effective. All
communities have unique individuals with talents to share. A local orchestra might have
musicians who are willing to visit and perform for the children. Artists of all kinds can
enrich children’s experiences with demonstrations and skill instruction. Doctors, nurses,
dentists, or hygienists can demonstrate healthy practices for children. One preschool has
an annual Truck Touch as a community experience and fund-raiser in which the nearby
International Harvester company lends giant tractor trailers for the children to see and
explore under careful supervision. The Truck Touch is open to all children in the com-
munity for free, and an accompanying snack bar raises funds for the preschool’s library.
Schools can also inform families about child-related events or activities in the com-
munity such as concerts, puppet shows, museum exhibits, storytelling, and the like. Con-
necting families, including siblings, through such community events can help create a
network of family support, which is especially helpful for single or teen parents. Such
a network can serve as a protective factor for families in communities at risk (Bryant,
Maxwell, & Burchinal, 1999).
In addition, teachers can use knowledge of the community in planning curriculum.
For example, a town has an ongoing project to clean up the environment around a creek
area that was once a beaver dam. Each class in the local primary school takes on an aspect
of the project and expands its study of ecology over several years. When early child-
hood programs fully integrate into the community by inviting participation and by taking
advantage of what the community has to offer, positive outcomes result for everyone
involved.
Throughout this chapter, we have discussed the importance of relationships with
families. In the next section, we provide a conceptual framework—a “how to” guide—for
building partnerships with families and describe specific skills for negotiating conflicts.
Communicate Preferences
The next step in building partnerships is communicating with families about preferences.
In situations such as Denyce’s where a difference of opinion exists, clear and honest com-
munication is vital. Denyce needs to begin by listening to parents’ preferences for hold-
ing a graduation ceremony. She does this by organizing a meeting to which she invites
232 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
the disgruntled families. Rather than beginning with her viewpoint, Denyce encourages
parents to air their concerns:
“We’ve always had graduations here. My two older kids have their diplomas and I
want this for Dedra, too,” says one mother.
“We want to have this big party so we can let the kids know how proud we are,”
says one of the fathers.
After several parents express their feelings, a grandmother sighs and says, “This
may be the only graduation I get to go to. My other grandkids dropped out of school.”
Having listened carefully and respectfully to each one’s concerns, Denyce states her
interpretation of what the parents have said. “I think you want me to understand how
much you value your children’s accomplishments in Head Start, and how important this
experience has been for the children and for you. I can tell from your comments that
you really value education, and it sounds like you think it’s a really important thing to
celebrate.” Several parents nod, and agree that Denyce’s summary reflects their feelings.
Denyce then explains her own concerns about the graduation. “I value learning,
too, but I am concerned that spending time getting ready for the ceremony will take
away time that the children could be learning skills they’ll need in kindergarten. I also
think that the money we spend could be used for classroom supplies such as books
that would last longer.”
This opportunity to communicate identifies differences in the parents’ and Denyce’s
perspectives. If Denyce continues to insist she is right, the parents will probably feel
disrespected and lose power in the relationship. The children will see their parents’ anger
at the teacher. If the parents “win” and the director forces Denyce to hold graduation,
she will do so begrudgingly and the children will sense her lack of commitment. In both
cases, whether teachers win and parents lose or parents win and teachers lose, the real
losers are the children. The next step to build and maintain a partnership is to negotiate
the conflict toward a win-win solution (Fisher, Ury, & Patton, 2011).
Negotiate Successfully
Collaborating and sharing power with families requires negotiation skills. There are certain
characteristics of power relationships that determine successful or unsuccessful negotia-
tions. Figure 7.3 illustrates these characteristics and shows that neither exercising power
unilaterally nor avoiding a power struggle results in a positive outcome. Shared power
requires win-win negotiation.
FIGURE 7.4 Five-Step Negotiation Process This 5-step negotiation process is designed to ensure a
win-win resolution to the inevitable conflicts that arise between teachers and families.
234 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
or quantity. For example, the time designated for preparing for graduation and for the
performance are negotiable areas. In addition, the amount of money available and how it
is used are areas that could be flexibly negotiated. The parents’ expectations of the cer-
emony could also be negotiable.
Step 4: Brainstorm wins for all. Having identified areas of flexibility, Denyce and the
parents can brainstorm possible solutions that would be agreeable to all concerned. One
possible solution is having a party for everyone, during which the children sing some of
the songs and recite some of the poems they have learned this year. Other possibilities
include using the money that would have been spent on caps and gowns to buy books
for the center and creating “diplomas” on the computer rather than buying them. Other
suggestions are that parents provide refreshments and that all of the children wear white
shirts during the party.
Step 5: Try for a while and then reevaluate if necessary. Negotiated solutions
should be tried and evaluated to make sure that all parties are satisfied. During and
after the “graduation” party, Denyce talked with the parents to get their reactions.
Some of the parents still missed the caps and gowns, but they were pleased when
the children took such interest and pride in the new books. Several parents thought
the program was actually more fun because it was less rehearsed and funnier than in
previous years. One parent pointed out that he was glad that there weren’t any stars of
the show and all the children performed the same thing. Perhaps because the program
was only 15 minutes long, none of the children misbehaved and all seemed to enjoy
themselves, including Denyce. Because some parents didn’t like the white shirts and
wanted their children to dress up in their best clothes, Denyce agreed to try that idea
next year.
The final building block of successful partnerships is the willingness to learn and
change, described next.
7 Chapter Summary
• Families are diverse in many ways: composition, environment; informal conversation; sharing important
culture, religion, economic status, work, mobility, and information on a daily and/or weekly basis, depending
sexual orientation. on the age of the child; using an assertive communica-
• Along with reciprocal relationships and partnerships tion style, especially when discussing delicate issues;
between teachers and families, family-centered prac- conferencing; home visiting; and using technology.
tice is characterized by several key principles: mutual • More than 40 years of research confirms that family
respect and trust; regular, frequent two-way com- engagement in schools and early childhood programs
munication; collaboration, shared decision making, has a positive impact on children’s success in school
and shared power; and negotiation of conflicts toward and life.
win-win situations. • Effective partnerships with families involve four key
• Effective two-way communication is the basis for strategies: clarity about preferences, ability to commu-
positive relationships with families. Communication nicate, ability to negotiate, and willingness to change
strategies include teachers’ creating a welcoming and learn.
236 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
Key Terms
■■ aggressive ■■ family-centered practice ■■ home-based programs ■■ reciprocal relationships
communication ■■ family systems theory ■■ home visiting ■■ slippery egg messages
■■ assertive communication ■■ funds of knowledge ■■ passive communication ■■ tennis ball messages
Harvard Family Research Project National Black Child Development Institute (NBCDI)
This website has information and strategies for involving Among a variety of helpful resources for engaging with
families in children’s learning and development. families of color, the NBCDI website offers a Classroom
Family Engagement Rubric that teachers can use to iden-
National Center on Parent, Family, and Community tify their strengths and needs related to engaging families
Engagement around children’s learning and development.
A center of Office of Head Start, the NCPFCE website
Common Sense Education
has many resources for engaging families in their chil-
dren’s learning, engaging fathers, safety and health, and On this website, Common Sense Media offers “Early
learning games. Connections: A Parent Education Toolkit for Early
Childhood Providers.” Teachers can share materials with
National Coalition for Parent Involvement in families to build partnerships and support family activi-
Education ties around children’s learning.
This website offers resources and guidance for develop-
ing partnerships with families and offers resources for
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8
Creating a Caring
Community of Learners:
Guiding Young Children
Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
8.1 Explain the value of a caring community of learners and how the Teaching
Pyramid model helps teachers create such a classroom community.
8.2 Review ways teachers can build positive relationships with young children.
8.3 Discuss how teachers can organize daily routines and experiences to support
children’s positive behavior and learning, and prevent behavior problems.
8.4 Outline strategies for how teachers can effectively guide children’s behavior
toward the goal of promoting positive social-emotional development in each
child.
8.5 Describe individualized interventions that can be used with children who
exhibit persistent challenging behaviors.
8.6 Apply the Teaching Pyramid model to specific situations such as teaching
boys, addressing biting and alleviating bullying.
© Jamie Grill/Getty Images
Case Study
T
oday is the first day of school for Sue Brady, a teacher of 20 four-year-
olds in a child care center. She and her co-teacher, Elly Donahue, are
both inexperienced teachers responsible for a group of children for the
first time. Sue and Elly spent the last week preparing their classroom. They are a little worried that there are not
enough toys to keep children’s interest and have requested more from the director. The room has a sink, but it is
located in the pathway from the front door to the closet so it is not possible to put the paint easels near it. There
is no book rack, and the books are stacked on an open shelf near the blocks. There is one large open area with a
rug that they plan to use for group time and block building next to a table for toys. Tables are lined up along the
far side of the room.
As soon as the children begin to arrive, things go wrong. Playtime becomes disorganized and the children
dump materials all over the floor rather than use them constructively. The teachers give so much attention to the
children who are out of control that they neglect the others who are behaving well, such as Edie, who is absorbed
in her painting. Over the course of the day, the teachers’ voices become louder as they try to restore order while
the noise level in the room becomes almost unbearable. No one cooperates during cleanup time.
At lunch, Ricky blows milk at his friends through his straw and the others soon emulate his skill. Sue
asks Paula and Aimee, “Would you like to go outside now?” and they simply say,
“No,” leaving her unsure about what to do since she can’t leave them alone inside.
On the playground, Booth punches Elijah hard in the stomach, seemingly for no
reason. Furious but feeling totally incompetent, Sue grabs Booth by
the arms and repeatedly says, “Say you’re sorry!” while Booth just
smirks and Elijah cries loudly. Both teachers can’t wait for naptime, but
when they turn out the lights, the ensuing chaos becomes
overwhelming. Children refuse to stay on their cots, grab toys
off the shelves, talk loudly, and make it impossible for even
the most exhausted to sleep. Sue will remember
this day vividly because it is one of the longest
days of her life, and unfortunately the next day
will be all too similar. ■
T
his glimpse into Sue’s classroom is not a fictional account. It is actually what hap-
pened to me on my first day of teaching many years ago. I learned very quickly that
teaching young children is hard work. I also discovered that there was a lot more
that I needed to know to become an effective teacher.
The goal of this chapter is to help ensure that you and the children you teach do
not experience days like the one described above. This chapter describes research-based
practices—ways of creating a caring community of learners—that make teaching young
children more effective and enjoyable. To help you learn how to promote children’s social
competence and address challenging behaviors, we will describe a conceptual frame-
work—the Teaching Pyramid (Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations of Early
Learning, n.d.; Fox, Carta, Strain, Dunlap, & Hemmeter, 2009). Applying this framework
will help you create a caring community of learners in which young children thrive. Using
these research-based, positive guidance strategies will not prevent all of the challenges
you face as a teacher, but it will help you become more effective in your work with
all children.
239
240 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
behavior. This process begins early as babies learn to regulate their sleeping, crying, and
other behavior patterns, and expands during the preschool years to more complex self-
regulation. During these years children develop the ability to control emotions, to learn to
delay gratification, and to build relationships with other people—all key factors essential
for healthy development (Riley, San Juan, Klinkner, & Ramminger, 2008).
Children’s ability to regulate their emotional responses is associated with successful
learning and social relationships (Zins, Bloodworth, Weissberg & Walberg, 2007). Chil-
dren who regulate their emotions can work collaboratively, play with others, seek help,
and offer help to others. Children who have difficulty regulating their emotions exhibit
more frustration in school and often have trouble focusing their attention, completing
tasks and working with other children (Raver, Garner, & Smith-Donald, 2007). Because
learning to regulate one’s emotions involves acquiring a complex set of skills, children
need support from adults in order to be successful.
Other important goals of the early years are the development of self-concept and
self-esteem. Self-concept, which forms rapidly during the preschool years, refers to chil- self-concept Children’s stable
dren’s stable perceptions about themselves despite variations in their behavior. Children’s perceptions about themselves
self-esteem, or perception of their own worth, is also in its formative stages during these despite variations in their
behavior.
years and can be fragile. Similarly, children gradually acquire a sense of efficacy, a belief
in their own ability to accomplish what they set out to do. Positive self-concept, self- self-esteem Children’s percep-
esteem, and feelings of efficacy don’t develop by people telling children how special and tion of their own worth.
talented they are, but rather as children take initiative and master challenges with a lot of efficacy Children’s belief in
adult encouragement (Galinsky, 2010). their own ability to accomplish
what they set out to do.
their help the most. With systematic support and intentional teaching, teachers can pro-
mote children’s development of social competence.
If children’s problems are ignored or set aside because teachers hope “they’ll grow
out of it,” the problems only get worse as children get older. Teachers can instead adopt a
proactive approach, such as this one:
Preschool teacher Karen Hagey observed that every time 3½-year-old Marcus tried to
push his way into the block corner, the other children shouted, “Get out, Marcus! You
can’t play.” She thought about forcing the children to accept Marcus, but realized that
they would resent him and he would be humiliated by her interference. Instead, Karen
quietly coached Marcus on strategies for entering play: “Let’s sit next to Jason and
see if you and I can build a tall tower.” Marcus’s tower soon eclipsed that of his peers,
who started to pay attention to his skill. After a few days of this kind of assistance
from Karen, Marcus entered the play area more calmly and Jason said, “Hey, Marcus,
help me make my building as tall as me.”
ent-
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FIGURE 8.1 Teaching Pyramid Model for Promoting Children’s Social and Emotional
Competence The Teaching Pyramid is a research-based, effective framework to help teachers support
children’s social-emotional learning and reduce challenging behaviors in the classroom.
Source: From Promoting Social and Emotional Competence in Infants and Young Children. The Center on the
Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning, http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu. Reprinted by permission.
Positive Relationships
with Children
A key premise of the Teaching Pyramid is that the most fundamental way to promote
healthy development and learning in young children is for teachers to build and sustain
positive relationships with children.
care. Mothers or other caregivers may be depressed, ill, or stressed by economic or other
conditions that lead them to be neglectful, punitive, or hostile to their young children.
Some children grow up in very difficult circumstances in which they may have been
abused, neglected, or exposed to drugs and violence. Children growing up in such an
environment may be unable to trust caregivers to keep them safe, and as a result, they insecure-avoidant
develop poor social skills. Such insecurely attached children may often have difficulty attachment Rejection and
insensitivity from adult caregiv-
developing positive social relationships and may exhibit disruptive behavior in child care
ers that causes children to turn
centers or schools (Ainsworth et al., 1978). away from or avoid adults and
Various patterns of insecure attachment exist, depending on children’s experienc- not seek their comfort.
es, which are related to different patterns of behavior (Ainsworth et al., 1978; Bowl-
insecure-ambivalent/resistant
by, 1969/2000). Children who have experienced rejection and insensitivity from adult attachment Children’s inabil-
caregivers may demonstrate insecure-avoidant attachment. These children tend to turn ity to trust adults to keep them
away from or avoid adults and do not seek their comfort; in fact, they may become hostile safe due to neglect, abuse, or
in order to avoid rejection before it occurs. other difficult circumstances
Other insecurely attached children who have experienced confusing and inconsistent that results in a lack of social
nurturing from adults are said to be experiencing insecure-ambivalent/resistant attach- competence.
ment. Because they are unsure whether adults will be there for them, these children may disorganized/disoriented
appear to seek comfort but then reject it when it is offered. They may be irritable and attachment Seen in children
fussy, easily frustrated, and difficult to manage in a group. who lack secure attachments
In more extreme circumstances, when children have experienced neglect, abuse, or with adults due to having
experienced neglect, abuse,
violence in the home, they may exhibit disorganized/disoriented attachment (Main &
or violence in the home, who
Solomon, 1990). Because their past experiences with adults have left them without secure have not developed useful
attachments, they have not developed useful strategies for seeking comfort or attention or strategies for seeking comfort
for handling difficulties. Their behavior can be very unpredictable and confusing to teach- or attention or handling
ers and negatively affect the children’s ability to learn. difficulties.
246 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
Relationships with Other Children Across the age span of birth through age 8,
teachers create a caring community by promoting positive interactions among young chil-
dren (National Association for the Education of Young Children [NAEYC], 2008c, 2009).
Such a community is essential not only for social-emotional development but for learning
in every area. Teaching that supports children’s peer relationships depends, in part, on the
age of the children served.
Infants and Toddlers Building relationships with babies and toddlers takes time, sensi-
tive touch, talking, and playful learning experiences (Raikes & Edwards, 2009). Teachers
create a climate of respect by listening and responding to babies’ verbal and nonverbal
cues, such as their cries or coos, their facial expressions, and body movements. These
behaviors send signals about the baby’s wants and needs, such as “I’m hungry” or “I’m
bored and want to do something else.” When adults respond appropriately to their cues,
babies begin to develop a sense of trust and efficacy.
Teachers also model the kind of warmth and caring that they want children to de-
velop. Even very young infants and toddlers demonstrate empathic behaviors toward
their peers (Raikes & Edwards, 2009). Teachers can promote empathy by labeling
children’s feelings and helping them comfort one another—for instance, “Claudia is
crying because she dropped her binky. Let’s help her.” Finally, teachers can engage in
conversations with infants and toddlers that focus on discussions of their peers. They
Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 247
can point out to Felix that Anna chose the same color for her painting, and that Amir
is waiting for them to f inish painting for his turn. To Amir, the teacher can say, “Look,
Felix and Anna are painting with green, I wonder what color you will choose when it
is your turn.”
Preschoolers and School-Age Children As children get older, their understanding of
relationships and need of friendship increases. Teachers set the tone for a harmonious
classroom by organizing cooperative learning experiences so that children can play and
work together on projects or in small groups. In preschool and even more so in the prima-
ry grades, achieving a harmonious classroom involves the entire group working together
(Durlak et al., 2011). To foster such harmony, encouraging children to talk about potential
or actual social problems, offer solutions, and reflect on the outcomes during class meet-
ings can be effective (Vance, 2013). In the Promoting Play: All Can Play feature, learn
how Tasha creates a context for children to build a strong community.
Promoting Play
All Can Play
Tasha teaches in a combined kindergarten–first Can’t Say You Can’t Play (1992). In Paley’s book,
grade classroom in a diverse, urban school. Her stu- she describes her journey with kindergarten and
dents enjoy periods of intensive learning balanced elementary-school children in learning how to create
with rambunctious dramatic play over the course a classroom community that espouses inclusion.
of their daily routines and lessons. An intentional Using stories and daily group discussion, Paley leads
teacher, Tasha has mindfully prepared the classroom the children to view inclusion as social justice, and
and schedule to meet children’s group and individu- exclusion as unacceptable. Like Paley, Tasha begins
al needs. She includes the children in planning and to use morning meeting as a time to teach children
enforcing class rules, and teaches emotional literacy about inclusion and differences, and supports ex-
and social skills as part of her curriculum. So Tasha cluded children to advocate for themselves. Children
is surprised when she realizes that a group of older bring daily stories of their playground interactions
children—mostly first graders—has created a sort of to the group, and no child (even the excluders) is
“members-only club” in the class. They have rules shamed for their perspective. Because Tasha has de-
for participation and dictate who can play and who veloped positive relationships with all children in her
cannot. They give out-of-school privileges to their group, the children feel safe sharing their stories.
“members” such as play and party invitations.
Eventually, Tasha’s group reaches the same decision
Because the “club” children (who call themselves as Paley’s children did: “You can’t say you can’t
the Dinosaur Kings) are not visibly mean to other play” becomes a classroom rule. To support this
children, Tasha initially just observes their interac- rule, Tasha is available to help children join group
tions. Eventually, however, she notices that their activities, and to provide ideas for how play and co-
exclusion of peers has been somewhat systematic. operative activities can go well, even if one or more
In addition to excluding younger children from their children struggle. Before children head to the free
activities, they have prohibited membership to sev- choice activities each day, Tasha has the children
eral other first graders: Thu, a recent immigrant who proactively plan for how their chosen activities can
speaks little English; Alphonse, a boy with intellec- be expanded to include peers. Her perspective is,
tual disabilities; and Rita, a shy child who wears the “not IF, but HOW” when she thinks about including
same clothing almost every day. children who want to play.
Tasha shares her concerns with a colleague, who Reference: You Can’t Say You Can’t Play, by V. Paley,
recommends reading Vivian Paley’s classic book, You 1992, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
248 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
Beyond focusing on children’s social “skills,” teachers also need to promote positive
interactions among children and be attentive to supporting children’s close, reciprocal
friendships (Gallagher, 2013). Teachers can identify potential friends for children, and
arrange for them to work together on a project or be placed at the same table. Teachers
can make cooperative games part of their learning centers, and assign classroom duties to
pairs of children. They can include families in their planning, and suggest play dates or
shared activities after school. Teachers can make a point of communicating with parents
about relationships among children as they emerge, and share photos or stories of children
sharing each other’s company.
Children need to share space and activities with all of the children in their group;
however, only a few of the children may actually be chosen as friends. Friends are a type
of relationship that is special and intimate—and chosen by the child. There is a current
trend in early childhood to refer to all children in a group as “friends” and to call and refer
to children as “friends” (as when a teacher says, “Your friend is waiting for her turn.”
However, teachers should be mindful of the use of the word “friend.” While all children
can play, only children can choose with whom to be friends.
Teachers play an important role in children’s relationship development at all ages,
and they can play an essential role in making sure that children develop friendships (Gal-
lagher, 2013; Gallagher & Sylvester, 2009). Friendships are a specific and complex type
of relationship and are important for lifelong health and well-being. When children are
mutual friends, they share interests and affection for each other. When teachers learn
how important friendships are for children’s well-being, they can use the Teaching Pyra-
mid to organize classroom environments, routines, and experiences to support children’s
friendship development (Gallagher, 2013). A teacher can pair preschoolers with similar
interests. She can teach them how to enter group activities by observing and commenting
on the play. Elementary-school teachers can use board games (with some adult guidance)
and playing games that require teamwork. American classrooms often emphasize the im-
portance of independence, but children fare much better, socially and academically, when
we shift our attention to relationships and interdependence in the classroom.
Effective teachers develop warm, responsive, positive relationships with each child. From infancy through
primary grades, the quality of teacher–child relationships is related to positive learning and developmental
outcomes for children.
Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 249
challenging behavior. In fact, “the time spent building a strong relationship is probably
less than the time required to implement more elaborate and time-consuming strategies”
to address challenging behaviors (Fox et al., 2003, p. 49).
A sage piece of advice comes from Kaiser and Rasminsky (2017): “Start fresh every
day.” This seems simple, but sometimes teachers find themselves storing up grievances
against children for past transgressions, creating resentment in both parties. One proven
effective strategy is called “banking time” (Driscoll & Pianta, 2010). Just as saving money
for unexpected expenses helps in an emergency, taking 5 to 15 minutes a week to focus in-
dividually on each child—playing with them or talking about something interesting unre-
lated to academics or the child’s behavior—can pay dividends in building a r elationship.
An important but often overlooked aspect of creating a caring community of learners
is the health and well-being of the leaders of the classroom—the teachers. Just as healthy
parents raise healthy children, well teachers create and support a high-quality social-
emotional climate. Teachers who experience more work stress have more conflict in their
relationships with children (Whitaker et al., 2014). In order to calmly and effectively
respond to the demands and stresses of working daily and intensively with young children
and their families, effective early childhood teachers find it necessary to practice self-
care. Teachers can do this by taking care of their physical health (eating well, s leeping,
and exercising) as well as making sure to stay socially connected. Friendships are
important for teachers, too. Some teachers find that practicing mindfulness, or noticing mindfulness The practice
present moments without judgment, helps them to regulate their emotions and respond to of purposefully and nonjudg-
stressful situations more effectively (Jennings, 2014). mentally noticing sensations
(bodily, mentally, emotionally)
That said, the effectiveness of any strategy will vary with individual children. For
in the present moment.
this reason, it is important for teachers to have a large repertoire of strategies to use as
they build relationships with each child. Table 8.1 describes a caring community from the
points of view of both of the children and the teachers.
Human relationships are complex, two-way interactions, and children’s behavior in-
fluences adults’ reactions and behaviors just as much as adults influence children. There-
fore, it is important for teachers to spend time reflecting on the basis for their expectations
and judgments about children’s behavior.
Culture Lens
Helping Each Child Adapt to School
Children from diverse cultural backgrounds may face He knew that looking into the teacher’s eyes would be
challenges adapting to unfamiliar environments, and disrespectful, and he was unsure of how to say his name
school can be the most daunting. On the first morning in English. On his first day of school, differing cultural
of kindergarten, Miguel Hernandez sets in motion a plan expectations clashed and he was caught in the middle.
to build a sense of community among the children. His
Fortunately for the children in Miguel’s class, he knows
class includes children from many different countries
not to make assumptions and is sensitive to their needs.
and cultural backgrounds. Miguel greets the children,
He will continue to work toward his goal—to create a car-
most of whom arrived by bus, at the door. He hasn’t had
ing community of learners—but he also knows that to
a chance to meet their families.
achieve it, he will have to learn as much as possible about
He begins the day with a morning meeting and wants the the children’s families, their values, and their behavioral
children to introduce themselves. Quickly, however, he repertoires. Although it would have been better for this
changes his plan. In gathering the group and observing to happen before the first day, he will find ways to talk
them, he realizes how uncomfortable and awkward many with families to discover areas where school and home
of the children would feel if he asked them to speak up in expectations might differ. Once these are revealed, he will
the group. Instead, he introduces himself and reassures be able to propose some options to make things easier
them by talking briefly about what will happen today and for each child and to offer a chance to talk about the dif-
what they can expect. ferences. For example, “At home you remove your shoes
before entering the house. At school we keep shoes on.”
Even though Miguel has lived and worked in many dif-
ferent contexts in his life, he remembers vividly his first Teachers can use the same principle when problems
day of kindergarten. His mother had given him some last- arise over differing expectations about appropriate be-
minute instructions so that he would be successful in havior, which may be more sensitive to discuss with par-
school. She told him to do three things: stand tall, show ents, such as the use of profanity. Children may hear and
respect to his teacher, and speak only in English. When use language at home that is prohibited at school. Help-
he arrived at school, the teacher said, “Look at me. Now ing children adapt to the expectations of school without
what’s your name?” He was nervous and confused then criticizing their family or community can be a tricky bal-
because he wanted to do what the teacher had told him, ancing act for teachers, but is likely to be in the child’s
but he also wanted to follow his mother’s instructions. best interest.
Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 251
High-Quality Supportive
Environments
The quality of the learning environment is also very important in creating a caring com-
munity of learners and enabling children to do their best. Teachers’ work begins before
they meet the children in their group. The physical environment, the schedule including
252 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
Use Engaging Routines The early childhood day is governed by routines of daily
living, which, if planned well, can provide children with excellent learning experiences.
A large-scale study of 652 prekindergartens in 11 states found that, on average, children
spent more than one-third of their time in routines and transitions, but during 87% of that
time they were waiting idly and/or uninvolved in any learning activity (Early et al., 2010).
These regular, informal moments of the day provide valuable learning opportunities that
should not be wasted.
Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 253
Routines—snacks and mealtimes, cleaning up, washing hands, dressing for out-
doors—all provide opportunities for children to practice newly acquired skills and to
engage in conversation essential for developing language. In addition, teachers can use
routines as times for individual interactions such as sitting and talking with children dur-
ing snacks and meals.
Teachers should establish routines that allow children to do as much as possible for
themselves. When adults do things for children that they can already do themselves, they
rob children of important learning experiences. Routines such as dressing or cleaning up
also provide many chances for children to practice fine motor skills as well as cognitive
abilities such as categorization (for example, the long blocks go together and the short
blocks go together).
Ignore When Appropriate Behaviors that are not reinforced will be extinguished
or eliminated. If the reinforcement that children are seeking is the teacher’s attention—
and they are behaving inappropriately to receive that attention—then ignoring the inap-
propriate behavior can be an effective way of extinguishing it. When teachers react to
these behaviors, they continue.
Consider, for example, 3½-year-old Curt, who has daily temper tantrums and lies
on the floor kicking and screaming. His teacher, Janine, knows that he is too old for this
254 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
behavior and believes that it is a cry for her attention. She decides to ignore the tantrums
by physically removing herself to the other side of the room, but as soon as Curt tires from
his explosion and quiets, she returns and invites him to sit by her and read a story. It takes
several days during which she has to remind the other children not to pay attention to Curt
during these episodes, but gradually Curt’s tantrums disappear.
To be effective, teachers must be careful to give more attention to children’s positive
behaviors than to their negative ones. Teachers can identify a select few negative behav-
iors to ignore and also identify prosocial or positive behaviors to acknowledge that are the
opposite of the ones they are trying to ignore. It may also be necessary to teach the other
children to ignore a peer’s undesirable behavior since the child may desire the attention
of his or her peers as well as the teacher’s.
Let’s think about how a teacher might use all of these ways of supporting children
to do their best when confronted with a challenging situation. Andy picks his nose and it
definitely irritates his teacher. She finds this behavior disgusting, but realizes after reflec-
tion that she overreacts every time he does it, and the frequency of the behavior is actually
increasing, especially during snack times. She decides to encourage more appropriate
behavior by giving him his own box of tissues and reminding him in advance how to use
them. At first, Andy’s nose picking increases, but his teacher decides to ignore it. Instead,
when he does anything with the tissue box, even if he simply picks it up, she gives him at-
tention and encouragement. She also gives him positive attention unrelated to the negative
behavior: “Andy, thanks for helping me bring the tricycles inside.” Over time, his teacher
finds much to enjoy in Andy and the nose picking becomes a rare event.
As we have seen, there are many effective strategies teachers can use to support chil-
dren to do their best and prevent problem behaviors. In addition to preventing negative
behaviors, however, adults have key roles to play in teaching children appropriate behav-
ior, which we examine next.
Teaching Social-Emotional
Competence and Guiding Behavior
Children aren’t born with the ability to get along well with other people and regulate
their own strong emotions. These social and emotional skills are learned gradually
over the first years of life, and they are among the most important accomplishments of
children’s lives.
Guiding children to function well in a caring community of learners, however, de-
pends on three key aspects of teaching practice: fostering emotional literacy, teaching
social skills, and teaching conflict negotiation. Before addressing each of these dimen-
sions of teaching practice, it is important to clarify the distinction between guidance and
punishment.
What Works
Teaching Emotional Literacy
Teaching emotional literacy is a proven strategy for promoting chil- • Model caring, positive regard for
dren’s self-regulation and social skills and preventing challenging others. When a child is sick, have
behavior. Here are some research-based ways teachers can help children make cards or send e-mails.
children become more emotionally literate.
Emotional literacy helps children calm down when they are
• Express your own feelings. “I’m frustrated because this is the feeling very strong emotions. Teachers can use an emotion ther-
third time I tried to open the paint jar and it’s stuck. I’m going mometer to help children monitor their own feelings. The children
to take a deep breath and then try again.” decorate the thermometer with pictures of feeling faces from “hap-
• Label children’s feelings and your own emotions. “You look py” and “relaxed” in the blue, cool section of the thermometer all
disappointed that Micah didn’t come to school today. I miss the way up to “angry” or “stressed out” in the red, hot section of the
him, too.” thermometer. The teacher then asks children to describe a recent
• Help children talk about their own and others’ emotions and conflict and together they retrace the steps that led to the angry
discuss acceptable ways of expressing strong feelings. “I think outburst. Then the teacher discusses with the child the thoughts,
you and Rashid are angry because you both want to paint. Can actions, and words that the child can use to reduce her anger.
you ask how much longer it will be before you can have a turn As the teacher retraces the steps of the angry outburst, the
at the easel?” children identify the time or situation that began the episode. This
• Use or adapt songs and rhymes, games, and stories that intro- is marked as the “Danger Point” on the thermometer. Once chil-
duce and expand feeling words. “If you’re happy and you know dren have established their danger points, they name the zone,
it, clap your hands. If you’re excited and you know it, jump up such as “Think Calm Thoughts,” “Cool Down,” or “Code Red.”
high. If you’re frustrated and you know it, take a breath.” Then, the teacher and children can use this code word as a signal
• Narrate and describe ongoing interactions to help children de- that anger or stress has reached the threshold. This in turn can
velop vocabulary related to prosocial behaviors. “Gregory and trigger the use of a calming strategy such as taking three deep
Keisha, you are working so well together at the computer. You breaths or visualizing happy and calming places.
look pleased and proud of the book you’ve created.”
• Draw children’s attention to the feelings or experiences of oth- Sources: Based on Fostering Emotional Literacy in Young Children: Label-
ers, at times using pictures or photos of people’s faces. “Look ing Emotions (What Works Brief 21), by G. Joseph, P. Strain, and M. M. Os-
trosky, 2006, Urbana-Champaign, IL: Center on the Social and Emotional
at this face. Can you tell how this person feels?”
Foundations for Early Learning; and Fostering Social and Emotional Com-
• Help children develop empathy by reminding them of their own petence: Implementing Dina Dinosaur’s Social Skills and Problem Solving
similar feelings or experiences. “You know what it feels like Curriculum in Inclusive Early Childhood Programs, by G. E. Joseph, C.
when someone says you can’t play.” Webster-Stratton, and M. Reid, 2006.
Conflict Resolution
Organizing the environment and routines, and establishing classroom expec-
tations and structure around respect will prevent much classroom conflict.
However, conflict is an inevitable part of social interaction, especially with
young children who are just developing their ability to get along with other
people. In fact, episodes of conflict should be considered learning opportuni-
ties. Teaching children specific steps in conflict resolution before problems
occur and trusting them to solve their own problems are important steps in
children’s social-emotional development. Classroom Connection
During conflicts between students, when teachers remain calm and in Young children often need guid-
control of their own emotions, children feel assured and safe. It is important ance and support to learn how to
to acknowledge children’s strong feelings and help them learn to describe get along with other people. What
their feelings and perceptions of the conflict to each other. Rather than asking are some of the strategies the
a question that children will not be able to answer such as “How do you think teacher in this video uses to help
that made him feel?” ask the child, “What happened? How do you feel?” the children resolve their conflict
Like adults, children experiencing strong negative emotions are less able to and avoid future conflicts?
“use their words” or use perspective-taking to think about how other children
258 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
CRISIS
feel. Think about the last time you were very angry, and how effectively you were able
to describe your feelings or consider the other person’s perspective. By giving each child
the opportunity to offer solutions to the conflict and by offering their own only if needed,
teachers help children become better negotiators and communicators. Table 8.2 describes
strategies for teaching conflict resolution.
Helping children learn conflict negotiation skills takes time and practice. Sometimes a
conflict does not warrant a full-scale negotiation because one child is not as vested in the
Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 259
issue. But equipping all children with conflict negotiation skills helps ensure that rules are
fairly and equitably applied and that the classroom is truly a caring community of learners.
Applying the first three parts of the Teaching Pyramid—establishing positive relation-
ships, organizing high-quality supportive environments, and teaching social and emotional
skills and positively guiding behavior—will go a long way toward creating a caring com-
munity of learners. Nevertheless, a few children will require more individualized interven-
tions to successfully navigate the classroom and learn optimally, as we discuss next.
Intensive Individualized
Interventions individualized intervention
A systematically planned and
In most classrooms, it is likely that there will be a few children who demonstrate persis- implemented set of actions
tent challenging behaviors. To effectively reach these students, it may be necessary to use designed to alter the course
individualized intervention, which is a systematically planned and implemented set of of a child’s development or
actions designed to alter the course of a child’s development or learning. learning.
260 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
Understand Challenging
Behaviors
A formal definition of challenging behaviors is “behav-
Conflicts are inevitable when iors that are dangerous, disruptive, or disgusting; cause
children are together in group injury to the child or others; damage the physical environment; interfere with learning; or
situations. Effective teachers cause the child to be isolated from peers” (Neilsen, Olive, Donovan, & McEvoy, 1999).
do not solve problems for chil- However, each of us defines challenging behaviors according to our own values, experi-
dren. They teach children the
ences, and cultural perspectives. Strain and Hemmeter (1999) take a more pragmatic view
skills they need to resolve their
own conflicts.
in their definition: “Challenging behavior is any behavior that is disturbing to you and you
wish to see stopped”(p. 17).
positive behavior support Strain and Hemmeter (1999) also offer some practical advice for anyone working
(PBS) A method of identifying with children with challenging behaviors (and that’s everyone who works with children!).
the causes and functions of They advise early childhood professionals to become more “comfortable” with challeng-
problem behaviors in order to
ing behavior; they emphasize how important it is to recognize that when stressed, em-
develop support strategies that
prevent challenging behaviors
barrassed, disturbed, or feeling hopeless, it is difficult to be effective. They suggest that
and teach new, more appropri- teachers need to acknowledge these feelings and serve as mutual support for each other.
ate skills. Then, if a child loses control and a teacher begins to feel herself losing control as a result,
she can seek help from a colleague. These researchers (Strain & Hemmeter, 1999) also
suggest that teachers avoid blaming parents or other uncontrollable events, and focus on
small successes. For example, instead of lamenting that Andy picks his nose, celebrate
that he picked his nose only once today instead of 10 times.
Positive behavior support involves several steps. The first, and perhaps most impor-
tant, is determining the function of the child’s behavior.
• B = Behavior. During this step, teachers systematically document what the b ehavior
is and how frequently it occurs.
• C = Consequences. During the third step, the teacher or child care provider at-
tempts to determine the function the behavior serves; that is, what does the child
get, avoid, and/or change as a result of the behavior?
Document Behavior The next step is documenting the behavior (B). In using func-
tional assessment, it is important to carefully define and count the frequency (how often)
of the behavior to be changed. For example, in the midst of working with a particularly
disturbing behavior such as spitting or biting, sometimes teachers lament, “He spits con-
stantly,” or “He bites all the time.” In fact, a child could not spit or bite “all the time”; even
the most avid spitter or biter must come up for air occasionally. Systematic observation
and recording of the actual number of unacceptable behaviors is required for successful
intervention. In doing so, Andy’s teacher finds that he picks his nose 10 times a day and
sets out to intervene to decrease this behavior.
10:30 The teacher announces Duncan falls to the floor The teacher says, Avoids cleanup
Clean-up that it is time to clean and starts crying. “Duncan, why don’t you time and gets
up for lunch. help me set the table.” to set the table,
which he enjoys.
11:00 The teacher tells the Duncan starts crying The teacher says, Avoids meeting
Circle children it is time for and says, “No! I don’t “Duncan, everyone has time and
time class meeting. The want to!” to sit down for meeting looks out the
teacher walks toward time. Go to time-out.” window at the
Duncan. Duncan sits in a chair construction
away from the rest of going on.
the children.
FIGURE 8.2 Functional Assessment for 4-Year-Old Duncan A form such as this is useful in con-
ducting a functional assessment of a child’s behavior—the first step in implementing a positive behavior
support plan.
Source: Based on Challenging Behavior in Young Children: Understanding, Preventing, and Responding Effec-
tively, 3rd edition, by B. Kaiser and J. S. Rasminsky, 2017, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Although it can be difficult to get some parents involved, intervention is more likely
to be successful if family members are engaged. Understanding how children behave at
home and communicating to parents how their children behave in school is an essential
part of the process.
Creating and implementing individualized intervention plans require the expertise
of professionals beyond classroom teachers. Early childhood special educators, mental
health professionals, social workers, and therapists play key roles in developing the plan.
Every state has such resources available to families and child care programs through its
public school system and is required by law to provide this assistance to children with
disabilities and special needs.
The last stage of the behavior plan is to carefully monitor and document the child’s
progress and make adjustments as needed. Teachers should not become discouraged if
results are not immediately positive. The fact is that when interventions are first initiated,
children’s behavior often gets worse before it improves. As a result, teachers or parents
often abandon the intervention too soon. Teachers and team members must continue to
observe children’s behavior over time and change strategies that are not successful.
Working with children with challenging behaviors can be a humbling experience, but
the ultimate result can be tremendously rewarding for everyone involved, particularly the
child. In the following sections, we demonstrate how to apply the Teaching Pyramid in
specific circumstances that teachers are likely to encounter in practice.
While prekindergarten teachers are likely to describe African American and Latino boys
as socially competent as white boys, by the time they reach second grade, teachers de-
scribe them as less socially and academically competent. Do boys’ social-emotional skills
decrease during this time? Not likely, but the contexts of early elementary classrooms and
expectations may be a poor match for the strengths of boys of color (Barbarin et al., 2013).
In the sections that follow, we discuss strategies from the Teaching Pyramid model to
build positive, encouraging relationships with boys; rethink the environment and routines to
prevent boys’ challenging behaviors; and adapt teaching and intervention strategies for boys.
are less likely to be bored and uninvolved and, thus, less disruptive. The next two levels
of the Teaching Pyramid—teaching social and emotional skills, and individualized inter-
ventions—should also be adapted to ensure successful experiences for boys.
Darlene also finds the boys are interested in playing ambulance, so she trans-
forms the grocery store into a hospital, which the girls enjoy as well. Instead of read-
ing to the whole group, which invites the boys to act up, Darlene, in smaller groups
of eight, reads more books with male characters to actively involve all of the children
in talking about the story or acting it out.
Having applied the Teaching Pyramid to working with boys, in the next section we
demonstrate its applicability to one of the most common but challenging behaviors teach-
ers confront that cuts across gender lines—biting.
Prevent Biting Applying the levels of the Teaching Pyramid to biting begins with
making sure that toddlers feel nurtured, loved, and cared for. Having close relationships
with very young children and their families enables caregivers to be aware of situations
that may contribute to biting, such as the stress of a new baby or divorce, or a develop-
mental transition such as beginning to eat solid food. Children tend to treat others the
way they are treated. Therefore, it is important for caregivers to speak softly and be
gentle and kind.
One theory relates biting to children’s sensory and oral development (Ramming,
Kyger, & Thompson, 2006). During the earliest years of life, “the mouth is the quickest
route for providing sensory information to the brain” and children are literally hungry to
experience and make sense of their world (Ramming et al., 2006, p. 21). The hypothesis
is that biting may occur because the foods children are offered do not meet their needs for
tactile stimulation and do not sufficiently stimulate their senses.
To prevent this type of biting, researchers recommend that caregivers offer toddlers
foods with a variety of textures, tastes, and temperatures to suck, gum, munch, or crunch
and chew (Ramming et al., 2006). Of course, caregivers must supervise children while
the children are eating and make sure foods are the right size to prevent choking. Varying
the textures and types of foods, as well as when children are fed, is found to be effective
in reducing biting in child care settings (Ramming et al., 2006).
Most biting is preventable if children are closely supervised. When child care groups
are too large (as happens when licensing standards are weak), or classrooms are very
small, it is more difficult to prevent biting. In such cases, teachers should separate the
large group into smaller groups as much as possible, especially if there is a second adult.
In a smaller group, a child is less likely to bite when a peer invades his space. The teacher
also has more opportunity to play and talk with children and redirect those who frequently
have conflicts.
Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 267
One of the best ways to prevent biting is to minimize frustration. Programs need to
provide enough developmentally appropriate toys so children do not fight over them and
do not become frustrated if the toy requires skills they do not yet have. For example, large
cardboard blocks are lightweight and easily moved by toddlers, whereas smaller toys may
be too difficult to manipulate.
Teach Alternatives to Biting Because most children who bite are under the
age of 3 and have not yet developed language, biting is often used as a powerful form
of communication. The biter may be saying, “You are too close to me,” “I want that
toy,” or “I’m tired.” Biting may occur as a self-defense mechanism by the child who
feels threatened.
Biting may occur more frequently when children are feeling stress due to changes in
their development or the environment, or lack of attention from caregivers ( Greenman
et al., 2007). When children are undergoing periods of rapid development, such as
when they first learn to walk or talk, they can easily become frustrated if their emerg-
ing skills do not match their desires for locomotion or communication (Greenman et
al., 2007). Some toddlers begin to bite when their family (often at the recommendation
of the pediatrician) weans them from their pacifier. Others begin biting after the birth
of a sibling. It is common to see biting among children who develop language more
slowly than their peers; it must be very frustrating to want to communicate, but unable
to generate the words. Initially, biting may relieve the stress or enable the child to get
what she wants.
An important dimension of responding to biting is to teach children how to express
their feelings and desires. In working with very young children who are just learning
language, it is important to give them the words, or use signs or visual images to support
their communication. Teachers should model specific language: “Say ‘I want it,’” rather
than an unhelpful phrase, such as “Use your words.”
It is very important that teachers and families respond to this biting in ways that do
not escalate the biting behavior. This is difficult, because biting is seen as a dangerous
behavior; a bite that breaks the skin of the victim can have serious health consequences.
But biting needs only a little reinforcement to become a big problem. When a bite occurs,
the victim should quietly and quickly be attended to and comforted. The biter should be
quickly and quietly redirected to an activity. Remembering that there often was a per-
ceived offense that preceded the bite (“You’re too close to me” or “You took my toy”),
direct the offender to another activity (not the toy he was trying to get) with a reminder
such as “We need to be gentle.” When a teacher or parent exclaims, “No, we don’t bite
our friends” or placing the child in a time-out, it is practically guaranteeing a repeat of
the behavior.
Teachers can be very helpful in sharing this information and strategy with parents.
Once a child has bit another, it is a good idea to increase the level of prevention. Teachers
should observe when and under what circumstances the toddler tends to bite, and increase
teacher presence during those times. Many teachers find it helpful to use books with chil-
dren about biting (and hitting)—but not close to the time the biting has occurred.
Prevent Bullying Bullying is a learned behavior, and can be minimized and pre-
vented (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017). As with other, less volatile aspects of challenging
behavior, solutions to bullying can be found in the framework of the Teaching Pyramid,
beginning with the foundation level of relationships.
Research suggests that programs using a whole-school awareness approach that in-
volves teachers, administrators, children, counselors, and families, have the most impact
in reducing bullying and its effects in school settings (Lawner & Terzian, 2013). The goal
is to prevent bullying by restructuring the environment so that there are fewer opportu-
nities for bullying to occur, more reinforcement of positive behavior, and assurance of
protection for all children.
Children who need intensive, individualized intervention for persistent, challenging behaviors benefit from
a team approach. In these situations, it is essential to involve not only teachers and other professionals
but family members as well.
Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 269
earlier. Among the most important and effective tools teachers, families, and schools can
use are (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017):
• A school-wide commitment to Positive Behavior Support
• Integrating anti-bullying content into the curriculum, including the important roles
that bystanders play
• Sensitive, responsive, and involved relationships with children
• Clear rules about unacceptable behavior
• Close monitoring and supervision, including secluded areas where bullying is like-
ly to occur
• Modeling the positive use of power and problem-solving techniques
• A cooperative classroom climate—what we call a caring community of learners
Regular class meetings are an effective strategy to involve children in setting limits and
establishing clear rules: Don’t bully other children, help children who are bullied,
and include children who are left out (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017). Children can discuss
and analyze complex topics such as empathy, peer pressure, courage, and the difference
between teasing and bullying.
Children also need to learn the difference between tattling, the purpose of which is
to get someone in trouble, and telling to get someone out of trouble, which is necessary
when bullying is observed or experienced. Useful strategies include helping children re-
port where they don’t feel safe and, in primary grades, providing a box for anonymous
reporting of bullying. Meeting times can then be used to discuss prosocial skills such as
cooperation and to practice responses.
In this chapter, we discussed the importance of creating a caring community of learn-
ers, as well as strategies for positively guiding children’s behavior and promoting their
social and emotional development. With this information in mind, we return to Sue and
Elly’s classroom, where we began this chapter.
morning to talk with children about the class routines and making choices during Center Time, and the
children are playing more productively.
Sue and Elly also remember to use calm and quiet voices themselves at all times; when they re-
ally want to be heard, they whisper. The noise level is now much more tolerable. When it’s time to go
outside, they offer Aimee and Paula the choice of what they’d like to carry. The teachers focus a lot
of attention on transitions, such as preparing for naptime and cleanup because these are times when
children have struggled in the past. They now give warnings before transitions and assign children dif-
ferent responsibilities at cleanup time. At naptime, they play soothing music, turn out the lights, and
rub the backs of children who are slow to relax. These changes to the environment and adult–child
interactions have made a world of difference for the teachers and children because they are preventing
many problems and helping children to do their best (level 2).
Sue and Elly also teach social skills and emotional self-regulation to all the children. For those children
who need extra help, however, they use more individualized instruction. For example, Ricky so wants to
have friends that he will do anything to get the children’s attention. Sue and Elly coach him in acceptable
ways to play with others and strategies for joining in a group. Ricky likes Aimee, and she has a calming effect
on him, so the teachers encourage the two of them to play together. They also suggest to his mother that he
bring something interesting from home to gain attention from the other children in a positive way (level 3).
Having attended to the first three levels of the Teaching Pyramid, Sue and Elly have solved almost all
of their behavior challenges. However, Booth’s physical aggression and unprovoked attacks continue to be
a serious problem. The director is aware of the federally funded early intervention services provided by the
state. She contacts the school district, which coordinates mental health consultation to child care centers.
The director and Sue initiate a meeting with a consultant and Booth’s family to develop an individualized in-
tervention plan (level 4). Sue and Elly are pleased to see that the consultant uses strategies that include the
Teaching Pyramid ones that they have become familiar with. The consultant helps them to organize their
interactions to support Booth. Sue and Elly now realize that although there are no quick fixes to children’s
challenging behavior, there are many effective ways to create a caring community of learners. ■
8 Chapter Summary
• A caring community of learners is a group or class- children learn best when they experience warm, posi-
room in which children and adults engage in warm, tive, responsive relationships with adults—parents,
positive relationships; treat each other with respect; teachers, and caregivers.
and learn from and with each other. • Level 2 of the pyramid describes high-quality
• Teachers have a significant role to play in promoting supportive environments that help promote posi-
children’s social competence, helping them acquire tive outcomes for children and prevent challeng-
emotional and cognitive self-regulation and preventing ing behaviors, including the physical space and
later difficulties. organizing routines and schedules. A critical aspect
• The Teaching Pyramid is a research-based framework of high-quality supportive environments is how
for promoting social competence and addressing chil- teachers support children’s engagement in play and
dren’s challenging behaviors. learning.
• The foundation level of the Teaching Pyramid is • Level 3 of the pyramid describes positive ways to
teachers’ positive relationships with children. Young guide children’s behavior and effective strategies
Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 271
such as teaching emotional literacy, social skills, and a behavior plan that includes teaching replacement
conflict negotiation. skills.
• Level 4 describes intensive individualized interven- • The Teaching Pyramid can be applied to more
tions to address persistent, severe, challenging behav- effectively teach in many diverse situations including
iors. Intervention includes functional assessment, a teaching boys, addressing biting, and alleviating
team approach involving families and specialists, and bullying.
Key Terms
■■ attachment theory ■■ efficacy ■■ insecure-avoidant ■■ secure attachment
■■ behavior intervention ■■ emotional literacy attachment relationship
plan ■■ functional assessment or ■■ learning centers ■■ secure base
■■ bullying functional analysis ■■ mindfulness ■■ self-concept
■■ caring community of ■■ guidance ■■ mistaken behavior ■■ self-esteem
learners ■■ individualized ■■ positive behavior ■■ time-out
■■ challenging behavior intervention support (PBS) ■■ transitions
■■ disorganized/disoriented ■■ insecure-ambivalent/ ■■ redirection
attachment resistant attachment ■■ replacement behaviors
S
ally Hanson is a kindergarten teacher in a large, urban school district.
Her class of 23 children includes several children whose home language
is not English and two children with IEPs. Some of the children have been
in child care since they were infants, but five did not attend any early childhood program before entering school.
The children’s skills and abilities are at different levels. In short, Sally’s class is typical, with a wide range of
individual variation in the children’s development and learning and in their preparedness to tackle the demands
of the curriculum.
Sally’s school district uses the Common Core English language arts standards. Among the goals for kindergartners
are: “with prompting and support, ask and answer questions about key features in a text; retell familiar stories;
and identify characters, settings, and major events.” Children also need to “know all upper- and lowercase letters,
and use a combination of drawing, dictating, and writing to express an opinion about a topic or a book they are
reading, e.g., My favorite book is . . . ” (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2011a).
Sally has been teaching for many years and was concerned at first that the Common Core standards were not
developmentally appropriate for kindergarten. As she began working with the standards, she found that most of
the children were capable of achieving the standards through a combination of her integrated curriculum and
diverse teaching strategies.
When the children arrive each morning, they immediately go to the library area and choose a book to look at or
read, depending on their skills. Children often choose to revisit books that Sally has read previously to the group.
Elena has only recently arrived from Guatemala and speaks little English. Sally kneels next to her and offers an
e-book that has print and audio versions of the same story in both Spanish and English. Soon they are joined by
the other children whose home language is Spanish. Sally then encourages Lucy, who has Down syndrome, to
find the book that Sally made for her with photos and words about her family. Sally says, “Lucy, I see you found
the L in your name.”
Logan’s reading skills are advanced. He picks up a book that he hasn’t seen before and begins to decode it
himself along with his friend Gabe. When they finish, Sally asks, “Logan, why did you pick this book?” Logan
explains, “It’s about pirates and the story was scary.” She turns to Gabe and says, “I haven’t read this book yet,
can you tell me what happened in the story?”
Marguerite is still working on identifying letters. She has a long name, struggles to remember the order of
the letters, and usually forgets the E in the middle. Sally gives her a name card with the middle E written in
red to draw her attention to the correct order of the letters. With this assistance and
reminder, Marguerite spells her name correctly. Some children are not interested in
reading, so Sally directs them to their journals to begin drawing and writing about the
books they read yesterday. A few children need more direct instruction
and practice in writing letters. “Tommy, when you write your T, make a
straight line down. That’s right.” Pointing to the left side of the paper,
Sally says, “Now begin on the left and draw a shorter line
across the top.” Because Amanda needs practice on letters
but is easily distracted, Sally suggests several
letter-learning apps on the tablet. Sally sits with
the children, offering assistance as needed and
using strategies adapted to each child’s skill
level. ■
273
274 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
A
s we see in Sally’s interactions with each child in her classroom, the early child-
hood teacher’s role is complex. Engaging in developmentally appropriate practice
involves knowing the learner, knowing what to teach, and knowing how to teach.
Teachers are always teaching something to someone. In this chapter, we focus on knowing
how to teach to help children reach challenging and achievable learning goals. Becoming
an intentional teacher requires an understanding of the range of effective teaching strate-
gies and how and when they are most useful (Ritchie & Willer, 2008c; NAEYC, 2009).
Armed with this knowledge, teachers can intentionally choose the strategies that work
best with each learner or group of learners in a given situation.
Because many teaching behaviors in early childhood classrooms are subtle or take
place in the context of play or child-initiated learning, the novice may be uncertain of
what “effective teaching” entails and how to do it. Without knowledge of research-based
teaching practices, inexperienced or ill-informed teachers may be too passive and miss
important opportunities to promote children’s learning. On the other hand, they may err in
assuming that the only time they are “teaching” is when they are talking. The fact is that
good teaching is a complex interplay of both science and art.
Intentional teachers use research-based teaching strategies, and they get to know each child to provide
just the right kind and amount of assistance.
Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 275
Scientific Research Research is used to answer two sets of questions: (1) What
skills and abilities predict children’s later outcomes in important areas like reading, writ-
ing, and mathematics? and (2) What teaching behaviors, curriculum, and other educa-
tional interventions contribute to or inhibit gains in children’s skills and abilities in these
areas? Reviews of research by experts, such as the National Reading Panel (National
Institute of Child Health and Human Development [NICHD], 2000), the National Early
Literacy Panel (2008), and the National Committee on Early Childhood Mathematics
(National Research Council [NRC], 2009) have been particularly influential.
that they are generally positive, supportive environments for children. However, research-
ers also found poor-quality instructional climates in the early childhood classrooms stud-
ied, with an average score of about 2 on the 7-point scale. Teachers in these classrooms
either provided very little instruction at all or tended to rely on worksheets or whole-
group repetitive lessons.
The study also examined how children spend their time in prekindergarten. Almost
30% of children’s time is spent in free choice and about 37% engaged with a teacher-
assigned activity (Early et al., 2010). However, observers found that no specific learning
activity occurred during 19% of free choice time, 23% of teacher-assigned time, and
87% of meal and routine time (Early et al., 2010). Therefore, almost half of preschool
children’s day did not involve experiences to promote their social or academic learning.
The researchers concluded that most of these classrooms were pleasant places in which
there were many missed opportunities for learning. Moreover, classrooms with higher
percentages of Latino and African American children were less educationally stimulating.
In recent years, Head Start has used the CLASS to improve the quality of teaching
and evaluate the effectiveness of its programs. In 2013, the national average scores were:
5.99 for Emotional Climate, 5.63 for Classroom Organization, and 2.72 for Instructional
Climate. Despite the fact that Instructional Climate scores continue to trail the other di-
mensions of quality, Head Start’s scores are higher than most typical early childhood
programs.
These studies provide a window through which we can assess the quality of teaching
practices occurring in early childhood classrooms today. Similar results were found for
primary-grade classrooms as well (Hamre & Pianta, 2010). In Chapter 8, we described
how you as a teacher can provide a positive emotional climate in your classroom. The
goal of this chapter is to prepare you to create an effective instructional climate to help all
children achieve their learning potential.
The Limits of Research Early childhood education has a large and growing re-
search base to guide practice. Where research evidence is strong, teachers have a profes-
sional responsibility to adhere to its guidance. However, research on effective teaching is
an evolving science. Although a great deal of work has been done, we still need answers
to questions about which practices work best with which learners.
With classrooms increasingly serving children with diverse language and cultural
backgrounds, teachers need to adapt for individual variation of all kinds. Consequently,
valid research is not always available to guide practice. In these instances, teachers need
to supplement the evidence base with practical wisdom and information obtained from
families (Buysse & Wesley, 2006). Even when research is available, applying evidence-
based practice in unique classroom situations with diverse groups of children requires
considerable skill. Teachers need to respond to situations as they happen, which often
requires creativity—more art than science.
✓ Check Your Understanding 9.1: Teaching: Both an Art and a Science Effective teaching is both an
art and a science. Intentional
teachers ensure that children’s
experiences in the classroom
Teaching Strategies
The most effective teachers have a large repertoire of teaching strategies that they use as
situations present themselves. Teachers must first become familiar with the many options.
In practice, there is no one teaching strategy that will address all situations.
Children’s development and learning are complex processes. Therefore, the more
strategies teachers know how to use, the more ways they will be able to meet the needs
of diverse learners. Throughout your career as a teacher, you will continue to add to and
refine your repertoire of effective teaching tools.
Strategies as Tools Education is often plagued by either/or debates that pit one
practice against another, or that dichotomize complex decisions into either/or choices,
such as “Which is better, direct instruction or active learning?” As teaching becomes
more scientific, we realize that these are the wrong questions. Asking which teaching
technique is best is like asking whether a hammer is better than pliers. The answer, of
course, depends on what the carpenter needs to do. In teaching, as in carpentry, the selec-
tion of tools depends on what the teacher is trying to accomplish and with which child;
there is no one best teaching practice (NRC, 2000).
The Right Tools You may have heard the statement—in fact, I’ve written it myself—
that young children are not miniature adults and do not think and learn the way adults or
278 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
older children do. Although this statement is essentially true, it is equally true that some
practices that are inappropriate for young children, such as listening in a whole group for
an extended period of time, are not effective for older students, either (Dean, Hubbell,
Pitler, & Stone, 2012; NAEYC, 2009).
In fact, many of the most effective teaching practices for young children—such as
connecting new learning to what students already know and can do—are also effective
with college students. The particular strategies teachers use to help children build on
prior learning will vary with the age and ability of the learner (that is, if the strategies are
developmentally appropriate). All of these strategies can be used in the context of teacher-
initiated or child-initiated experiences, which we discuss next.
Modeling Teachers are especially powerful models for children with whom they have
modeling Showing children built positive relationships. Modeling is a technique teachers use to show children a skill
a skill or desirable way of or desirable way of behaving or speaking.
behaving or speaking. Language modeling is among the most effective instructional strategies teach-
ers can use. A large body of research demonstrates that teacher’s language model-
ing strongly predicts children’s achievement in all areas of learning and development
(Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2013; Neuman & Wright, 2013). Effective language
modeling includes:
• Engaging children in frequent, extended one-on-one conversations—called “serve
and return” as in a tennis game, where teachers and children take turns speaking in
response to what the other has said
• Listening carefully, waiting for a response, minimizing questions, and gauging
comments to children’s remarks
Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 281
Demonstrating An effective strategy for teaching skills that require performing par-
ticular steps in a certain order is demonstrating. When teachers show the correct way demonstrating Showing the
to perform a skill or procedure, children are able to observe the outcome. Similar to correct way to perform a skill
modeling, demonstrating is more formal and directive, with the adult drawing children’s or procedure while children
observe the outcome.
attention to the correct steps necessary to complete a task, as in the following examples:
Irene demonstrates for her 3-year-olds how to wash their hands thoroughly to prevent
the spread of infection. As she washes her own hands, she says, “See? Now I’m dry-
ing my hands with the paper towel. Before I throw the towel away, I use it to turn off
the faucet. That way, my hands stay really clean. Now you try it.”
In the art area, kindergarten teacher Max introduces potter’s clay to the group. As he
demonstrates, he says, “Watch how I pinch off a little piece of clay and use a small
amount of water to make the little piece stick to the bigger piece.”
Children often learn by observing not only adults but also more accomplished peers
performing tasks. Such learning has been called apprenticeship, and researchers have apprenticeship The process of
observed it across cultural groups (Rogoff, 1990, 2003). When young children watch children learning by observing
others perform basic skills of living such as dressing, feeding, or tying shoes, they gradu- adults and more accomplished
peers performing tasks and by
ally learn how to accomplish these skills themselves. For demonstrating to be effective,
practicing the skills themselves
children’s observations must be followed by opportunities for them to practice the skills with adult guidance and
themselves with adult guidance and support. support.
Giving Cues, Hints, and Assistance Giving cues or hints are ways of remind-
ing children what they already know and helping them use that knowledge to build new
skills. For example, when a child is reading and is stuck on a word, the teacher may say,
“That word has ‘ch’ at the beginning like another one you know.” In this case, the teacher
facilitating Providing short-
is cueing the beginning reader to compare the new word to one she already knows. term, temporary assistance to
Other common teaching strategies fall in the general category of facilitating or help a child achieve the next
supporting learning. When teachers facilitate, they provide short-term, temporary as- level of functioning.
sistance to help a child achieve the next level of functioning, such as when the teacher supporting Providing assistance
gently holds a preschooler’s hand as he walks across the balance beam. When teachers that helps the child to accom-
support learning, they provide a more fixed-form of assistance such as providing a word plish a difficult task by making
wall (displaying frequently used words) for kindergartners to refer to as they work in their it easier.
282 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
questioning Eliciting different Questioning One of the most frequently used teaching strategies, questioning is
types of responses and promot- used to elicit different types of responses and to promote different types of thinking. Re-
ing different types of thinking. search on questioning finds that higher-level, open-ended questions—those that require
open-ended questions Ques- children to analyze information in some way—are more effective learning tools than
tions that require children to lower-level questions are (Gonzalez et al., 2014; Meacham et al., 2014). Lower-level or
analyze information in some closed questions have one right answer, usually requiring children to recall information
way and that have many pos- or facts. Closed questions, which are often the type used on tests, may reveal what a child
sible answers. knows, but they do not propel further learning. Open-ended questions, on the other hand,
closed questions Lower-level have many possible answers. Indeed, a truly open-ended question is one for which the
questions that have one right teacher does not have an answer in mind.
answer and usually require To understand how different types of questions elicit different types of responses,
children to recall information
compare the following two questions, asked after a reading of Beatrix Potter’s The Tale
or facts.
of Peter Rabbit:
Question 1: Where did Peter Rabbit get lost?
Question 2: How would you feel if you were lost like Peter?
Question 1 has one right answer—Mr. McGregor’s garden. This question offers little
opportunity to generate further conversation. Conversely, question 2 would most like-
ly evoke many different responses from children with various adjectives describing
feelings—scared, nervous, afraid, unhappy, sad, tired, or hungry—as well as opportu-
nities for follow-up questions that would extend the conversation. For example, “What
would you do?” or “How could you get help?” would elicit a host of responses. Even
more beneficial, the open-ended questions would enable children to connect the story to
their own experience beyond the classroom, making the reading even more meaningful.
Questions That Promote Problem Solving Teachers often use questions as ways to
cue or prompt children to take the next step in solving a problem or performing a skill.
In addition, they may use questions to remind children of what they already know before
introducing new information, as well as to focus their attention and thinking in advance.
Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 283
In the following example, before reading Caps for Sale, by E. Slobodkina, to a group
of preschoolers, Carol holds up the book cover and begins a conversation with a question:
Teacher: What do you see in this picture?
Mark: A man with lotsa hats on his head.
Tory: He looks funny. The hats are all different colors.
Teacher: So you think this will be a funny story, Tory?
Tory: I don’t know. How can those hats stay on his head? I bet they fall off.
Teacher: Let’s read the story and find out.
By asking questions before she reads the book to the children, Carol engages their inter-
est. As soon as Carol begins reading, the children are observing and analyzing the pictures
and making predictions about the story. After the story, Carol and the children will discuss
whether their predictions were correct.
Wait Time An important aspect of questioning is wait time, the length of time that a teacher wait time The length of time
waits for a response after asking a question. Research reveals that when teachers pause or that a teacher waits for a re-
wait briefly—about 5 seconds—for responses from children, it increases the frequency and sponse after asking a question
depth of children’s responses (Cohrssen, Church, & Tayler, 2014; Tharp & Entz, 2012;). or responding to a comment.
© KidStock/Blend Images/Getty Images
As you see in this situation, activities such as a digital table provide rich opportunities for children and
teachers to talk and think together—what is called co-construction.
284 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
Wait time is especially valuable for young children who are just beginning to master verbal
communication and also for children who are learning a second language (Espinosa, 2010c).
Wait time also helps extend conversations with children and among groups of chil-
dren. Sometimes, when children do not immediately respond to adult questions or com-
ments, adults might impatiently talk for them or over them. For teachers who are patient
and recognize the beauty of wait time, however, it becomes a highly useful strategy to add
to their repertoire.
direct instruction Explicitly Giving Direct or Explicit Instruction Direct instruction occurs when a teacher
giving directions for complet- gives explicit directions for completing a task; provides facts, verbal labels, or other spe-
ing a task; providing facts, cific information; or provides instructions for a child’s action or behavior. Direct or explicit
verbal labels, or other specific
instruction is used for transmitting knowledge that can be learned only from one person
information; or providing in-
structions for a child’s action or
telling another the culturally agreed-on labels for objects, events, and experiences, which is
behavior. called social-conventional knowledge. For example, the days of the week, letters, or punc-
tuation symbols have conventionally agreed-on names that children learn more easily and
efficiently through direct instruction. Writing a question mark on chart paper, first-grade
teacher Lydia uses direct instruction when she points out, “This is a question mark, and we
write it at the end of a sentence that is asking a question or making a request.”
Teachers also use direct instruction during child-initiated activities and when work-
ing with small groups. For example, when working with a group of 4-year-olds building
with blocks, the teacher points to a block and says, “This rounded block is called a cylin-
der. You used four cylinder blocks to hold up your bridge.”
Uses and Misuses of Direct Instruction Direct instruction can be the most efficient
and effective way of conveying information and introducing new concepts, procedures, or
vocabulary. Like every other strategy, however, it should not be overused. Studies of chil-
dren’s experiences in the primary grades have found that direct instruction in the whole
Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 285
group is the most frequently used teaching strategy (NICHD E arly Child
Care Research Network, 2002, 2003). In addition, whole-group, direct teach-
ing is used much more often in kindergarten than in preschool (Hamre &
Pianta, 2007; Oertwig & Holland, 2014).
Direct instruction is the easiest and most efficient way to present new
knowledge, such as agreed-on names for tools, and some skills, such as
tying shoes. However, this type of instruction is only one part of help-
ing children learn concepts. For example, children can learn aspects of Classroom Connection
mathematical computation through direct instruction, but they need many This video shows teachers using
additional experiences to understand the complex concepts of number and a variety of strategies to guide
operations. children’s learning about differ-
Although the list of teaching strategies presented so far is not exhaustive, ent kinds of birds. How do these
it provides a basic overview of options teachers can use to become inten- intentional teachers artfully scaf-
tional, effective teachers. Next, we turn to a particularly effective teaching fold children’s learning?
strategy, scaffolding, that draws on the strengths of several different strate-
gies at once.
What Is Scaffolding? Scaffolding is a metaphor for a series of teacher behaviors scaffolding Using a variety of
that support children’s ability to accomplish learning tasks or solve a problem that they strategies to support children’s
could not otherwise accomplish independently (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976). This strat- ability to accomplish learning
tasks that they could not other-
egy not only allows children to progress toward challenging goals but also gives them
wise accomplish independently.
the skills to eventually achieve the same task on their own. Scaffolding may be such an
effective teaching practice because it actually draws on the strengths of many of the other
teaching strategies all at once.
Literally, scaffolding is a temporary structure, usually an elevated platform, that
builders or painters stand on to reach otherwise inaccessible parts of a building. Like the
painter’s platform, the scaffold used in the classroom is the right amount of teacher sup-
port for the learner to achieve a task or accomplish an objective that would be beyond his
or her reach without the assistance.
Scaffolding assists a child to work in his or her zone of proximal development—the
area just beyond a child’s current level of understanding or ability to achieve (Vygotsky,
1978). What makes scaffolding effective is that it presents learners with just the right
amount of challenge—enough so they don’t give up or fail, but not so much that they
aren’t solving the problem themselves (Clark & Graves, 2005). Scaffolding also gives
children the opportunity to practice skills they couldn’t do on their own. Despite the dem-
onstrated effectiveness of scaffolding as a teaching strategy, it is used all too seldom. In
the NCEDL prekindergarten study, teachers supported children’s learning by scaffolding
less than 10% of the time (Early et al., 2010).
The Teacher’s Role The process of scaffolding, which is depicted in Figure 9.1,
begins with the teacher having responsibility for the learning and gradually releasing
more and more of it to the learner until the child is capable of assuming full responsi-
bility for the task. At that point, a new zone of proximal development is created, and
a new challenge can be presented, starting the process once again. Alternatively, scaf-
folding may occur in a situation where a child is close to mastering a task and therefore
the teacher provides just a little assistance. For example, 7-year-old Barry loves jigsaw
puzzles but he is working on a very difficult one. He has completed the outside border
286 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
De
e cre
im as
rt es
ve ov
eso er
eas tim
cr e
In
Low level of
Child responsibility teacher support for
for learning child’s learning
FIGURE 9.1 Scaffolding in Action Scaffolding involves using multiple teaching strategies to assist
children to move from learning with assistance to learning on their own.
but he is struggling with the middle. His family child care provider suggests that he put
all the pieces that are the same color together and match the colors first, and then try
to match the shapes. He finds this suggestion works well and is able to complete the
puzzle on his own.
The process of scaffolding comes to life in the following example, in which Ms. Ri-
ley, a kindergarten teacher, gradually releases responsibility for learning to the students
as she teaches writing and social studies content.
During morning meeting, after a visit to the classroom by a local dentist, Ms. Riley
leads a discussion of what the children learned. Ms. Riley writes their ideas on chart
paper as they watch. Then she suggests that the children write thank-you notes and
models for them how to begin a letter. “Dear Dr. Martinez,” she writes, pointing out
how she uses capital letters for the dentist’s name and a period after “Dr.” During
choice time, children visit the writing center and work on writing their thank-you
letters. Ms. Riley sits down with a small group. She prompts their memories about the
visit. They were impressed by the big brush and set of teeth and the kinds of food, such
as apples, that help clean teeth. Ms. Riley places the chart the children dictated where
they can see it for reference. With Ms. Riley’s help, the children take turns copying
some of the words on the chart. She is available as they use their own invented spelling
to sound out the words they want to write. Occasionally she draws attention to the cor-
rect spelling of Dr. Martinez’s name. Gradually, the children take more responsibility,
creating drawings to include in their letters. On their own, some children make a chart
with pictures and words of how to brush teeth, which they post in the bathroom.
Intentional teachers use scaffolding and the other teaching strategies described previ-
ously to teach all children. However, additional specific adaptations and modifications
may be necessary to help children with disabilities make progress toward their individu-
alized learning goals. The Including All Children feature provides examples of research-
based strategies for teaching children with autism spectrum disorders. These adaptations
are helpful for working with children with other disabilities, any child who is not making
expected progress, and for dual language learners as well.
In the previous sections, we described an array of research-based effective strategies.
In the following section, we illustrate how intentional teachers apply these strategies in
practice to help individual children reach developmentally appropriate goals.
Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 287
Advance Organizers Another way teachers help children build on their background
knowledge to engage new learning is to use advance organizers. Advance organizers are advance organizers Ways of
used before introducing new information and serve as a bridge between what the student introducing new information
already knows and the new learning (Ausubel, 1978; Dean et al., 2012). A widely used ad- that serve as a bridge between
what the student already knows
vance organizer strategy is known as K-W-L (Ogle, 1986), an example of which appears as
and the new learning.
Figure 9.2. In using K-W-L, teachers first ask children what they already know (K) about the
topic of study. Then they ask children what they want (W) to know or what questions they K-W-L An advance organizer
have about the topic. One early childhood educator uses the “W” to stand for “What I wonder strategy in which teachers ask
children what they already
about . . .” (McDermott, 2012). After the study is complete, these responses are compared
know (K) about the topic of
to the answers children provide to the third question, “What did you learn (L)”? Sometimes study, what they want (W)
teachers use a K-W-H-L chart, with H standing for “How will I find information?” In other to know, and then what they
words, which resources, web pages, books, observations, or people will I consult? learned (L).
K-W-L is a useful strategy to build reading comprehension or to organize learning
about a science or social studies topic. Consider the following example:
In his second-grade classroom, Mr. Ivey uses K-W-L to launch a study on wolves
with a small group of children:
Mr. Ivey: Today we’re going to read a book about wolves. What do you already
know (K) about wolves?
Children’s responses include these: They live in the forest. They kill other animals.
They are scary.
Mr. Ivey: What do you want to find out about wolves? (W)
The children raise many questions: What do they eat? Where do they sleep? Do
they sleep all winter like bears? How big do they grow? How do they take care of their
babies? Mr. Ivey writes each question on chart paper.
290 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
K W L
What do I know What do I want to find our? What did I learn?
FIGURE 9.2 Example of K-W-L Chart This K-W-L chart from an egg-hatching project reminds children
of their prior knowledge and encourages them to reflect on what they have learned.
Mr. Ivey: Let’s read this book and afterward we’ll write down what we’ve learned.
Following the reading, the children have learned many facts about wolves, but they
still don’t know if they hibernate.
Mr. Ivey: How could you find out if wolves hibernate?
Melinda: We could Google it or we could e-mail the zookeeper.
This process of building on prior knowledge is easier when teachers and children
share a common language and similar cultural background. When children’s prior knowl-
edge is acquired in a language and/or cultural context that is different from that of the
teacher, the task of building on the children’s prior knowledge becomes more difficult but
no less important. Teachers of dual language learners must become aware of children’s
abilities and how to build on them.
Cueing, questioning, and using advance organizers are all effective approaches to
activate children’s prior knowledge, which, in turn, enhances their understanding and re-
tention of what they learn (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). Next, we identify some
strategies for building concept development.
Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 291
pipes or tubes going up from the ground to the sky to convey the water. Thus, when asked
to represent her theory, the child had to further elaborate on it. By engaging children in
graphic representation of their theories, the teacher got a much clearer picture of Sim-
one’s understanding—somewhat different from her seemingly accurate verbal representa-
tion. Additionally, other children might challenge her theory—“Look outside, I don’t see
any pipes”—causing her to reflect on and probably rethink her ideas.
Planning and Reflection Many early childhood programs offer children choices
planning Requires children to during center time, but planning is more than making choices. Planning requires children
make intentional choices and to make intentional choices and encourages them to identify their goals, consider the op-
encourages them to identify tions for achieving them, make predictions, and anticipate consequences (Epstein, 2012).
their goals, consider the op-
Reflection is remembering with analysis, which is more than just memory and re-
tions for achieving them, make
predictions, and anticipate
call of events (Epstein, 2012). Teachers help children go beyond remembering what they
consequences; helps build did to becoming aware of what they learned, what was interesting, how they felt about
children’s higher-level thinking the experience, and what they can do to build on and extend the experience. Planning and
and problem solving. reflection promote intentionality and metacognition among teachers as well as children.
reflection Teaching strategy in
which teachers help children Reciprocal Teaching One of the best-researched strategies available to primary
go beyond remembering what grade teachers is reciprocal teaching (Palincsar & Brown, 1984). Reciprocal teaching in-
they did to becoming aware of volves teachers working with groups of children to enhance their reading comprehension
what they learned, what was (Oczkus, 2010). The learning strategies that children develop make them better readers
interesting, how they felt about but can also be applied to other areas of the curriculum such as social studies or science.
the experience, and what they
For an example of this effective practice in action, read the feature titled What Works:
can do to build on and extend
the experience.
Reciprocal Teaching.
reciprocal teaching A strategy
that promotes’ children’s read-
Generate and Test Hypotheses Tisha, a second grader, stares up at the sky for a
ing comprehension and higher-
long time and announces, “I think we’re going to have a bad storm. It was hot but now it’s
order thinking by engaging cold, and see those cumulus clouds.” Impressed, her grandma asks her where she learned
them in summarizing, question- all that. “We’re studying weather all year in my class. We go outside every day.”
ing, clarifying, and predicting. At least once a week, Tisha’s class looks at the weather map online, discusses what
has been happening during the last 24 hours, and then goes outside and observes the sky
in the morning and again in the afternoon. The children make predictions about what
they think will happen before the next school day, explaining the reasoning behind their
predictions. The next morning, they discuss their hypotheses and the extent to which they
were correct. If their predictions were accurate, they identify the observations that were
the most helpful. If their predictions were not accurate, they try to figure out what they
missed or misunderstood (adapted from Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001, p. 103).
In the above scenario, Tisha’s teacher uses a strategy that draws on children’s meta-
hypothesis generating and cognitive abilities. Hypothesis generating and testing is the strategy of applying previ-
testing Applying previously ously acquired knowledge to a new situation by making a prediction and then observing
acquired knowledge to a new and reflecting on the outcome. Using this strategy, learners activate prior knowledge,
situation by making a predic-
gather new information, and expand and deepen their understanding of concepts. The
tion and then observing and
greatest benefit of hypothesis testing comes when learners explain their thinking, which
reflecting on the outcome.
deepens understanding (Dean et al., 2012).
Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 293
What Works
Reciprocal Teaching
Reciprocal teaching engages children in summarizing, question- Christopher asks, “Were those guys
ing, clarifying, and predicting—all metacognitive strategies and really tailors?” The other children try
higher-level thinking skills. Reciprocal teaching is also a good to answer the question based on their recollec-
example of scaffolding because, at first, the teacher models the tion of what they read.
use of effective strategies, such as summarizing a passage that is Clarifying Then, the student leader tries to clarify confusing
read and asking questions, and then she gradually turns over those parts in the passage or asks the other children for clarification.
tasks to individual children, as seen in the example that follows. “How did the tailors trick the emperor?” Ermalinda answers,
Ms. Leon, a second-grade teacher, works with five children as “They weren’t really tailors, and they just pretended to sew new
they read the tale The Emperor’s New Clothes. Having pre- clothes to cheat the emperor.”
viously modeled the strategies of summarizing, questioning,
Predicting The student leader asks the other children to
clarifying, and predicting, Ms. Leon chooses a student leader
redict what will happen in the next section, “What do you
p
to take on these tasks with the group.
think will happen when the emperor walks down the street in his
Summarizing After the children silently read a short passage, underwear?”
she asks Christopher, acting as the student leader, to summarize From this brief example, we see that reciprocal teaching
what they read. Christopher says, “The emperor is like the king of engages children in assuming the role of teacher and involves
the country. He’s kind of ugly but he always wants to look good them in higher-level thinking processes and metacognitive
by getting new clothes.” Ms. Leon gives cues to help Christopher strategies.
elaborate on the story, “What did the emperor do to get new
clothes?” “Oh, yeah, he hired some tailors,” Christopher says. Source: Based on Reciprocal Teaching at Work: Powerful Strategies and
Lessons for Improving Reading Comprehension (2nd ed.), by L. D. Oczkus,
Questioning Next, the student leader asks the other children
2010, Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
some questions to identify important information in the passage.
to engage them in higher-level thinking. To be an effective teacher, you will need to have
all of these strategies in your repertoire and know when and how to use them.
✓ Check Your Understanding 9.3: Connecting Teaching Strategies and Learning Goals
Grouping as an Instructional
Approach
In Chapter 8, we described how the environment influences children’s behavior and helps
teachers create caring communities. At the same time, the environment provides a pow-
erful context for learning. Environments communicate messages to children about what
kind of learning is valued and what their role is in the process. For example, a classroom
with rows of individual desks and the teacher’s desk in the front sends the message that
children work only as individuals and teachers control the dissemination of knowledge.
On the other hand, a classroom with tables that encourage groups of children to work
together, an open space for class meetings and discussions, and learning centers for chil-
dren to choose where they will work and play sends an entirely different message. In
the latter environment, the expectation is clear that the teacher and children will work
together in various learning contexts.
Learning in the Whole Group Whole group, which is also called circle time or
class meeting time, provides a valuable context for class discussions, music and move-
ment, planning for the day or for special experiences such as visitors or field trips, and for
children to share their experiences and ideas. Whole group is a time to build a sense of
community and shared purpose.
Children benefit most from whole group time when a teacher uses it to orient them to
upcoming activity that will occur during center time or projects. One research study found
that, although rarely done, when preschool teachers model or demonstrate an activity in
advance and explain the rationale for it, children’s general knowledge, mathematics, liter-
acy, vocabulary, and self-regulation significantly improved (Cameron & Morrison, 2011).
Research with preschoolers demonstrates that during large-group times, teachers’ ex-
planations and use of challenging vocabulary is related to improving learning outcomes
for children (Dickinson, 2001), as in this example:
Prior to a visit by a local police officer, Margo gathers her whole class of preschoolers
on the rug. She explains, “Officer Gardner is coming tomorrow. She will be wearing
her uniform and her badge that identify her to everyone as a police officer. She wants
to tell you some ways to stay safe because keeping people safe is the main job of
the police. I’ll write on our chart some questions you want to ask her.” During this
brief introduction, Margo provided the children with a concise explanation of what to
expect. She also clarified the meanings of the vocabulary she used, such as uniform,
badge, and identify.
Teachers may also engage the whole group in discussion, using questions to prompt
and sustain the interaction. For example, a teacher might have her third-grade children
Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 295
Sources: Based on “Teaching in the Kindergarten Year,” by C. Heroman and C. Copple, 2006, in K Today: Teaching and Learning in the Kindergarten
Year, edited by D. F. Gullo, Washington, DC: NAEYC; and The Right Stuff for Children Birth through Age 8: Selecting Play Materials to Support
Development, by M. B. Bronson, 1995, Washington, DC: NAEYC.
working in small groups on an investigation of batteries and electricity. Each Classroom Connection
group will share their theories about how electricity works with the rest of
the class. Watch this video to see how a
In general, the younger the child, the shorter the length of time she or he first-grade teacher effectively uses
should spend in whole-group experience. Young children are easily distracted, grouping and various instructional
and the context is less effective if overused (Montie, Xiang, & S chweinhart, strategies to teach important
content and skills. What do you
2006). Nevertheless, if children are actively engaged in a large group, mentally
observe about the children’s en-
and/or physically, this setting can be an effective learning context where chil-
gagement in each context? What
dren have the opportunity to express themselves, to hear the opinions of others,
are the benefits for children’s
and to feel part of the larger learning community. The important caveat is that learning of using different ways of
teachers need to take their cue from the children. If interest wanes during whole grouping for instruction?
group, it is best to bring the group time to a close and move on to another activ-
ity setting or actively engage all the children in singing or movement. http://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.
com/_blue-top_640x360_ccv2/ab/
Learning in Small Groups Small groups, usually composed of four streaming/myeducationlab/WSO_
to six children, are especially valuable learning contexts for two reasons. First, Vignettes/G1_Dana-Surveys.mp4
they provide the opportunity for more focused attention and individualized
296 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
instruction from the teacher. Teachers can give children immediate, high-quality feedback
and also evaluate their performance more accurately (Abou-Sayed, 2011). Second, small
groups give children the opportunity to interact with and learn from peers and also engage
in hands-on experiences (Wasik, 2008). Teachers also use small groups for a focused
learning experience such as introducing a new skill or concept.
Small groups are highly effective for learning vocabulary, literacy, and mathemat-
ics (Dickinson & Smith, 1993; Morrow & Smith, 1990; NRC, 2009). Reading a story
to a small group makes it easier for teachers to engage children in conversation before,
during, and after reading, which has been found to be especially beneficial for build-
ing vocabulary and other literacy skills (Gonzalez et al., 2014; Whitehurst & Lonigan,
1998). Despite a great deal of research supporting the positive effects of small group
instruction, only 6% of preschoolers’ day is spent in small group interaction (Early
et al., 2005).
One of the greatest benefits of small-group interaction is the back-and-forth ex-
changes among children, which can scaffold children’s learning just as teacher inter-
actions can. Small groups also provide the opportunity for active engagement in the
learning experience. Without such active involvement, the benefit of small groups goes
unrealized. Children should have the opportunity to participate in more than one small
group each day, depending on the instructional goals, and should work with peers of
varying ability levels (Bates, 2013). For an example of grouping as an instructional
strategy, read the feature titled Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Working in Small
Groups.
Language Lens
Teachable Moments with Dual Language Learners
For children who are learning English, every moment in • Use small groups of children with the same home lan-
the classroom is a teaching and learning opportunity. guage to introduce new concepts in the home language
They may be wearing winter clothes for the first time, first.
riding a school bus, and meeting people who do not look • Vary the composition of groups, at times bringing to-
or sound like them. Learning a new language takes time, gether learners who speak the same language and,
effort, and intentional teaching. Teachers need to take at other times, children from two or more language
advantage of every teachable moment. Here are some groups.
points for teachers to keep in mind: • Provide a visually rich environment with pictures and
words in multiple languages.
• As a role model of the language, speak slowly but • Organize centers with language learning in mind, in-
not loudly, simplifying your vocabulary and sentence cluding spaces for individuals such as a listening
structure as you might for a younger child. Over time, center with tapes in the home language, tablets or
work toward more challenging vocabulary, sentences, smartphones with translation apps, or a computer with
and short conversation. programs in both languages.
• Use your body and facial expressions to communicate. • Provide private, quiet spaces for children to de-stress—
For instance, to emphasize words like under, through, being surrounded by an unfamiliar language for long
around, or on top, play with children around a table periods of time can be overwhelming for anyone.
to physically demonstrate these words and concepts. • Outdoor playtime is a great venue for children to learn
• Use repetition. Be as clear as possible in pronuncia- new English words for physical actions and social in-
tion and diction, which may mean opening the mouth teractions. Create games that repeat words like run,
wider because children look for facial clues. kick, walk, jump, throw over, or throw under. Making
• Use large-group time to engage children in the joy of friends and playing together motivate children to learn
group movement and exercise, singing and choral rep- a new language.
etition, preparing children in advance for upcoming • Give special attention to particular sounds that may
activities. not exist in the child’s home language. For some
• Use small-group time, which is especially effective for Spanish-speaking children, it may be the /ch/ or /sh/ or
dual language learners because it allows for active par- /w/ pronunciations; for some Asian children, it may be
ticipation, individual attention, and experiences with the /r/ or /th/ sounds.
objects. For example, if children are learning about • Encourage children’s efforts at speaking the new lan-
vegetables, have real broccoli, carrots, and squash for guage; avoid correcting children by simply rephrasing
them to see, touch, and taste. and repeating.
298 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
e xcellent opportunity for teachers to observe and assess children’s developing capabilities
in various contexts.
All of the grouping approaches described previously—the arrangement of the learn-
ing environment and materials, centers, large group, small groups, and individual ac-
tivities—provide excellent opportunities for teachers to support dual language learners.
Read the Language Lens: Teachable Moments with Dual Language Learners feature for
suggested strategies.
In the previous sections, we described the various contexts commonly found in
early childhood classrooms: whole group, small group, and learning centers. Center
time is an excellent opportunity for children to engage in their favorite activity—play
(Wiltz & Klein, 2001). Play is also a highly effective context for learning and teaching, as
described next.
Minimum Maximum
Effective facilitative roles
involvement involvement
Director
Uninvolved Onlooker Stage manager Co-player Play leader
Re-Director
FIGURE 9.3 Continuum of Teacher Roles in Play Teachers can use various strategies to support
children’s play—from minimal to maximum involvement—as depicted on this continuum.
Source: From Johnson, James E.; Christie, James F.; Wardle, Francis. Play, Development and Early Education,
1st Ed., © 2005. Reprinted and electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey.
Onlooker In the onlooker role, teachers act as the audience for children’s play. They onlooker Teachers act as the
position themselves nearby, acknowledging and encouraging children’s play by nodding, audience for children’s play.
smiling, or making positive comments. The onlooker role lets children know that play is
valued and important, and encourages them to persist. In the onlooker role, teachers ob-
serve and assess children’s competencies exhibited during their play interactions. Based
on these observations, the teacher intentionally decides whether and how to become more
involved in the play (Jones & Reynolds, 2011).
Stage Manager As the name implies, stage managers do not actively enter the play; stage manager Teachers set
they instead set the stage by providing the props and theme. They are also available to the stage for children’s play by
respond to children’s requests for materials or assistance. In the grocery store play de- providing the props and theme
and being available to respond
scribed previously, Marita acted as a stage manager, having prepared the setting, which
to children’s requests.
encouraged children’s involvement. Stage managers scaffold children’s learning, as when
Marita helped LaToya with her shopping list. Teachers as stage managers also make sug-
gestions to help extend the play. For example, if LaToya began to lose interest, Marita
might ask, “What else do you need for your dinner tonight?”
co-player Teachers actually
Co-Player As co-players, teachers actually join in and take an active role in the join in and take an active role
play. Co-players are equal play partners with children, but it is best if teachers take the in children’s play.
300 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
Play is a valuable context for children’s learning. But children don’t automatically play productively. How
can teachers support play to benefit children without taking over?
s ubordinate role in the drama, such as the patient in the doctor’s office or the passenger
on the airplane, leaving the prime roles of doctor or pilot for the children. As a co-
player, the teacher is careful to let the children take the lead. This role provides ample
opportunity, however, for the teacher to model play skills, including pretending with
objects and roles, turn-taking, ways to enter an ongoing scene, and vocabulary (Johnson
et al., 2005, p. 272). Consider how the teacher accomplishes all of these goals in the
following play situation:
In Sascha Britt’s preschool classroom, the children are playing pet store as part of their
study of domestic animals. Sascha arrives cradling a stuffed dog and says, “I just got
a brand new puppy. I don’t know what I’m going to need to take care of him. Can you
help me?” The children scramble about looking for supplies on the shelves of their
store. Martha says, “He’ll be hungry. Here’s some dog food.” Dominic chimes in, “He
has to take walks. You better get him a leash.” “I think he needs a nice soft bed,” says
Emory, who looks around but can’t find anything to fit the bill. Instead, he picks up the
pillow off the doll bed and hands it to his teacher. Sascha replies, “I’m glad I came to
this store. You have lots of supplies. How much will this cost?”
Play Leader This role involves teachers’ direct participation in children’s play, but
play leader Teachers exerts more influence than the co-player’s role. As the play leader, the teacher deliber-
articipate in children’s
p ately attempts to enrich and extend the play episode, suggesting a theme and introducing
play; includes making new props or plot elements. Teachers become play leaders when children have difficulty
deliberate attempts to enrich
beginning sociodramatic play or when play breaks down:
and extend the play episode.
After several days playing in the grocery store, the children’s play becomes repetitive
and fewer children choose to play there. To spark some interest, Marita puts herself
in the role of store manager.
Marita: This store is losing business. I think it needs some new attractions for shop-
pers. What if we reduce the prices on everything and have a sale?
Josh: We’ll have to change all the signs.
Marita: What else could we do to get more customers?
Toby: We could put in a McDonald’s like they have at the mall.
Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 301
The children quickly embrace Toby’s idea. Josh starts to draw a big “M” for the
McDonald’s sign, while other children start gathering props for the food. Toby’s sug-
gestion leads to many changes in the dramatic play episode with new roles such as
cook that extend the play over several days.
Because sociodramatic play is such an effective learning context, teach-
ers need to be aware of and use the full range of roles and strategies available
to them in supporting children’s make-believe play. Although some educators
believe that pretend play comes naturally to children and that adults are not
needed, this is a misperception. In fact, children who are skilled “players”
during preschool most likely had parents or caregivers who played with them
beginning as babies and toddlers (Elias & Berk, 2002).
Today’s teachers report that many children, often children from low-in- Classroom Connection
come backgrounds but also their middle-class peers, are unskilled at pre- The children in this video are pre-
tend play when they come to early childhood programs. Their play tends tending to run a restaurant. What
to be repetitive and immature. In situations such as these, teachers in the roles does the teacher play in the
role of stage manager can coach children from the sidelines to improve restaurant scenario? How does
play behaviors or, as c o-players or leaders, they can model and scaffold she support children’s engage-
appropriate play behavior. ment in sociodramatic play?
Research demonstrates that participation in sociodramatic play has posi-
tive effects on children’s language, social, and cognitive development (Barnett
et al., 2008; Bodrova & Leong, 2007; Diamond, 2012). To be effective, however, teachers
must be intentional in their role in children’s play. Play has a long tradition in early child-
hood programs as well as a thorough, although sometimes contradictory, research base.
In the next section, we discuss a more recent educational phenomenon, digital media in
schools and child care centers.
Although we know that young children spend a considerable amount of time using
mobile devices, research on the effects on their development is relatively slim. One study
examined preschoolers’ use of iPads and three types of apps—gaming apps that children
often enjoy and master quickly, creating apps with which children can build or draw
something, and e-books (Cohen Group, 2011). The researchers found that children em-
braced the apps that share characteristics with all effective early childhood experiences:
learning by doing, building on interests and prior skills, self-pacing, and offering “a
no-fail environment and endless possibilities and outcomes” (Cohen Group, 2011, p. 2).
Although research on the effects and benefits of mobile digital media is limited, stud-
ies on the use of desktop computers demonstrate that they can be highly effective in pro-
moting children’s learning as long as software is developmentally appropriate and children
are in control (NRC, 2009; Sarama & Clements, 2002, 2004). Unlike adults, who tend to
work at computers in isolation, preschool and primary-grade children willingly seek peer
involvement and conversation if the software is engaging and interactive. Placing two seats
in front of a computer or having two or more children share a tablet encourages interaction.
Using technology in early childhood programs is not without controversy. Much of
the criticism focuses on the negative effects of passive television viewing; promotion of
violence, sexuality, and commercialism; and the importance of limiting children’s screen
time for their physical health and overall development (Levin, 2013). The debate becomes
complicated, however, because all “screens” are not equal (Kleeman, 2010; Lerner &
Barr, 2014). Television often becomes background noise that harms language develop-
ment and social interaction (Lerner & Barr, 2014). The quality of television content also
matters. Nevertheless, decades of evidence exists demonstrating the educational bene-
fits of programs such as Sesame Street and Super Why! (Linebarger, McMenamin, &
Wainwright, n.d.; Wainwright, 2006).
• Devices should be sturdy, and easy for children to operate and manipulate; for ex-
ample, tablets can be adapted and help develop fine-motor skills.
• Digital media should promote active experiences rather than sedentary activity.
Mobile devices have the potential advantage of being incorporated into children’s ac-
tive play. Read the feature Promoting Play: Teaching and Learning through Transmedia
Play for some examples.
Promoting Play
Teaching and Learning through Transmedia Play
Early childhood professionals sometimes view objects go together). Another English language
technology and play as an either/or choice. They are development theme is Grow It! which teaches target
concerned that mobile digital devices take valuable vocabulary and science concepts related to plants
time away from children’s self-initiated, social play. and food.
One solution that addresses both children’s need to
The Playgrounds are transmedia because they
learn through play and their motivation to engage
combine interactive games, songs, and bilingual
with the newest technologies is transmedia play.
story books in engaging instructional applications.
Transmedia simply means “across media.” Thinking
Both native English speakers and dual language
creatively across digital media tools and applica-
learners enjoy playing and learning with Pocoyo
tions and how they can be integrated in a play-rich
and acting out Pocoyo’s adventures. The Early
curriculum leads to exciting, new possibilities, as in
Learning Collaborative also distributes education-
the following example.
al materials to parents, teachers, and other adults
With funding from the U.S. Department of Educa- to interact with the child around the PlaySet
tion’s Ready to Learn initiative, the Early Learning content.
Collaborative of the Hispanic Information Televi-
Transmedia initiatives for primary-grade children
sion Network (HITN) launched an initiative for 3- to
often build off storytelling applications. These go
5-year-old children to help prepare them for success
beyond traditional reading experiences in the early
in school and later life. The Collaborative developed
grades to creating stories using various forms of
research-based digital media applications, known as
digital media and engaging children in writing and
the Pocoyo® PlaySet™, in collaboration with Zinkia
telling their own stories.
Entertainment. Pocoyo is a delightful little character
who, along with his friends, teaches English lan- Playing with interactive media is now a major activ-
guage vocabulary while having fun adventures. Each ity in the lives of young children. What’s impor-
PlaySet is presented as a playground with lots of tant is to ensure that such experiences maintain
options for playful engagement, organized around a the benefits of open-ended play while achieving
theme to help children learn concepts as well as tar- the potential of the latest technologies to expand
get vocabulary words. PlaySets are designed to meet children’s worlds and their learning.
Head Start Learning Outcomes and Common Core
Sources: T is for Transmedia: Learning through
State Standards. They focus on English language Transmedia Play, by B. Herr-Stephenson, M. Alper, E.
development, early literacy, and math skills in an Reilly, and H. Jenkins, 2013, Los Angeles and New
integrated curriculum approach. York: USC Annenberg Innovation Lab and The Joan
Ganz Cooney Center at Sesame Workshop, retrieved
One English language development theme, Things October 1, 2014, from http://www.annenberglab.com/
That Go, teaches vocabulary related to transpor- viewresearch/46; “Initiative,” by HITN Early Learning
tation and also positional words to describe ob- Collaborative, 2014, retrieved November 15, 2014, from
jects (above, under, behind). Children also learn http://earlylearningcollaborative.org/products/.
to compare and sort objects by attributes (which
304 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
Assistive technology incorporates a wide range of options designed for many differ-
ent purposes, offering various benefits to children with special needs. Technology can be
essential for successful inclusion by not only ensuring children access to a setting, but
facilitating their participation and providing the supports they need (DEC & NAEYC,
2009).
For example, a child with cerebral palsy can use a device that supports him to stand at
an easel or another device to help him grip a pencil. A girl with attention deficit disorder
can use headphones at a computer to decrease distractions from the classroom. Assis-
tive technologies such as these help children to function independently and support their
inclusion in classrooms with their peers (Hooper & Umansky, 2010). Such technology is
valuable for children without disabilities as well.
Many assistive technology devices are available, ranging from low-tech toys to com-
plex communication systems (Heward, 2013). Children who lack the physical ability to
write can use voice-activated computer software to express their ideas and feelings. Chil-
dren who cannot speak can use communication boards that they touch with a hand, foot,
or other body part to activate a voice that speaks for them. The options are considerable,
depending on the creativity of individuals and the resources available.
If appropriate, the use of assistive technology will be part of a child’s individual
education plan (IEP). Teachers working in inclusive settings need to be prepared to use
whatever technology is required to successfully include children with disabilities and
special needs and help them achieve individualized learning goals.
9 Chapter Summary
• Effective teaching is a science, informed and guided • An intellectually engaging learning environment pro-
by research. Teaching, however, is also an art because vides various contexts that offer different opportunities
it requires vision, creativity, and decision making. for learning and types of teacher–child interactions:
• The most effective teachers have a large repertoire of individual interactions, whole-group meetings, small
research-based teaching strategies, including acknowl- groups, center choice time, and opportunities for play.
edging and encouraging, giving quality feedback, • Teachers use play as a teaching strategy by taking on
modeling, demonstrating, giving cues and hints, add- various roles—onlooker, stage manager, co-player, and
ing challenge, questioning, co-constructing learning, play leader—to help children get involved and stay
giving direct instruction, and scaffolding. engaged in play situations.
• Children learn best when teaching strategies build on • Digital media can be effective in supporting all children’s
their prior knowledge (make learning meaningful), learning and development. Assistive technology can en-
build conceptual understanding, and promote higher- able children with and without disabilities to participate
order thinking and problem solving. more fully and successfully in inclusive classrooms.
Key Terms
■ acknowledging ■ co-player ■ K-W-L ■ reciprocal teaching
■ advance organizers ■ demonstrating ■ learning strategy ■ reflection
■ apprenticeship ■ direct instruction ■ metacognitive activities ■ scaffolding
■ assistive technology ■ encouragement ■ modeling ■ scientific method
■ child-initiated ■ effective teaching ■ onlooker ■ stage manager
experiences ■ facilitating ■ open-ended questions ■ supporting
■ classification systems ■ feedback loop ■ pedagogy ■ teacher-initiated
■ closed questions ■ graphic representation ■ planning experiences
■ co-construction ■ hypothesis generating ■ play leader ■ teaching strategy
■ conceptual frameworks and testing ■ questioning ■ wait time
Common Sense Media tices, Webinars, written resources, and a library of visual
Go to this website and click on “Best Apps and Games” supports and classroom activity suggestions based on the
for up-to-date reviews of apps by age group. The criteria latest research.
these experts use to rate apps are useful lenses for teachers TEC Center at Erikson Institute
to use in selecting apps on their own. The organization also
On Erikson’s Technology in Early Childhood website,
conducts and disseminates research on educational media.
you will find videos, webinars, and other resources on the
National Center for Quality Teaching and Learning most effective, current practices for using technology to
Sponsored by the Office of Head Star, this Center’s teach young children.
website provides videos of effective instructional prac-
10 Planning Effective
Curriculum
Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
10.1 Define curriculum.
10.2 Describe the components of an effective curriculum.
10.3 Explain how standards influence curriculum planning.
10.4 Evaluate how various approaches to curriculum planning engage children’s
interest and promote their learning.
10.5 Compare the focus and goals of various comprehensive curriculum models.
10.6 Apply content standards and child development knowledge to planning
effective curriculum.
E
ven the most uninformed visitor to this school could not fail to observe the content
of the curriculum during this brief visit. Clearly, the curriculum is focused on a
social studies topic—the career awareness study—into which other subjects are
integrated. But the curriculum also incorporates state learning standards related to char-
acter development, communication, collaboration, and making connections. The children
are speaking and listening, and reading and writing about a topic of interest and learning
309
310 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
Highly
Individualized
Teaching and Learning
Research-Based Ongoing
Curricula and Child
Teaching Assessment
Practices
FIGURE 10.2 Framework for Effective Practice Choosing and implementing a strong curriculum is
one of the four pillars of effective practice—depicted as a house in this model developed by The National
Center on Quality Teaching and Learning.
Source: National Center on Quality Teaching and Learning, 2011, U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Head Start. http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc.
Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 311
everyday practice that foster children’s learning and development, depicted as a house
(National Center on Quality Teaching and Learning [NCQTL], 2011). The foundation of
the building is engaging interactions with children that build positive relationships and
create a caring community. The two pillars that support the structure are (1) choosing
and implementing a strong curriculum, and (2) using regular assessment of children’s
skills. Each of these pillars supports the roof—individualized teaching strategies that
ensure each child’s progress.
Although in reality these structural components of practice are integrally c onnected,
in this book we address each in a separate chapter. In Chapter 8, we describe the foundation
of a caring community; Chapter 9 presents evidence-based teaching strategies; C hapter 11
discusses ongoing assessment of child progress; and in this chapter we d escribe curricu-
lum content and planning.
What Is Curriculum?
Curriculum is a written plan that describes the goals for children’s learning and develop- curriculum A written plan that
ment and the learning experiences, materials, and teaching strategies that are used to help describes the goals for chil-
children achieve those goals (NCQTL, 2011). The goals include the knowledge, skills, and dren’s learning and develop-
ment, and the learning experi-
dispositions (or attitudes and approaches toward learning) that we want children to achieve.
ences, materials, and teaching
Curriculum content—what children are learning about—is vitally important. strategies that are used to help
One of the strongest predictors of preschool children’s later academic success is their children achieve those goals.
general understanding of the world—what’s happening in nature and what people do
and say (Grissmer, Grimm, Aiyer, Murrah, & Steele, 2010). The achievement gap in
our schools is now widely understood to be a knowledge gap that must be addressed
if all children are to reach their full potential (Christodoulou, 2014). Moreover, young
children want to learn. They are curious about their world and everyone and everything
in it. As 4-year-old Ryan said when asked what he likes about preschool, “I learn stuff!”
The word curriculum is often used in relation to various models, approaches, or
frameworks. Because these general terms are sometimes used interchangeably, we pro-
vide definitions and examples of each in the next sections.
Locally Developed Plans In other cases, an agency such as a child care program
Curriculum for very young
or a school district develops a written plan. In these situations, a curriculum special-
children is often developed by
teachers. Even for toddlers, ist or team of teachers develops a plan that is designed to achieve the program’s goals
having a curriculum plan helps for children. For example, Frankie Sanders’s job is education leader for a chain of
teachers prepare engaging employer-supported child care centers. To ensure consistency across the 10 centers in
learning opportunities. the agency and meet the parents’ goal that their
children will be prepared for kindergarten, she
develops, with input from the teachers, the
curriculum based on the state early learning
standards. The teachers will use the plan flex-
ibly, but its existence helps keep them focused
on important goals for children and prevents
missed opportunities for learning.
Research shows that no curriculum is teacher proof, and that teachers’ qualifica-
tions as well as how they teach content matter (National Center for Children in Poverty
[NCCP], 2007). Teacher-proof curriculum is the concept that curriculum can be designed
to control for variations in teacher behaviors and professional preparation. The concept
is talked about a lot, but it is a myth. There is no such thing as teacher-proof curriculum.
Teachers matter, regardless of the type of curriculum they are given.
Rather than dichotomize curriculum as either completely teacher-planned and emerg-
ing from children’s interests or commercially published and scripted, consider a more
complex range of curriculum options. Table 10.1 describes a continuum of types of curri-
cula available and the impact on the teacher’s role. The primary-grade examples illustrate
various approaches to teaching reading (Commeyras, 2007).
In Table 10.1, we suggest a way of conceptualizing curriculum plans while at the
same time thinking about the teacher’s role in relation to those plans. Two basic points
should be clear: (1) in some cases, curriculum is developed very close to the classroom
and is highly open-ended, flexible, and responsive to individual children. Teachers plan
instruction to fit the needs of individual children and the class as a whole, responding
and adapting to children’s interests, motivation, and understanding. (2) In other cases,
curriculum is developed at a distance from the classroom and is highly prescribed.
Teachers pace instruction to ensure the curriculum scope and sequence is covered so that
children are exposed to and learn concepts that prepare them for formal assessment and
learning goals and expectations. In reality, curriculum is usually somewhere in between
these two extremes.
The complexity of the roles of teachers is only alluded to in Table 10.1. Nevertheless, even
this cursory description reveals the relationship of curriculum and teaching. At one extreme,
teachers have huge responsibilities and are expected to create almost everything while at the
same time ensuring that children achieve important learning outcomes. At the other extreme,
teachers’ expertise is underestimated and undervalued, especially if principals or supervisors
do not permit them to deviate from a prescribed script, a growing concern of early educators.
Regardless of the type of curriculum used by a program or school, teachers need to ap-
ply their professional expertise. For this reason, all along the continuum, we acknowledge
that teachers must observe and assess children and adapt their teaching to help individuals
make progress. That adaptation may take many forms, such as adjusting student groupings,
daily schedules, the nature of teacher-child interactions, or the amount and kind of scaf-
folding provided. The feature Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Shaping Curriculum to
Connect with Children’s Needs and Interests describes one teacher’s thinking as she uses
the curriculum as a springboard to adapt plans for individual children. In general, curricu-
lum should be selected or developed using the criteria that we describe in the next section.
Components of Effective
Curriculum
Now that we have established a common vocabulary with which to discuss curriculum,
we turn to a discussion of indicators of effective curriculum. According to the posi-
tion statement on curriculum, assessment, and program evaluation of NAEYC and the
316 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
Source: Based on Preschool Curriculum Consumer Report, by National Center on Quality Teaching and Learning, 2014, Washington, DC: U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services, Office of Head Start, retrieved January 8, 2015, from http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/teaching/practice/
docs/curriculum-consumer-report.pdf.
Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 317
Language Lens
Curriculum Approaches for Dual Language Learners
Schools today serve increasing numbers of dual language What will she be learning? How successful will she be in
learners, with most speaking Spanish as a home lan- mastering curriculum content? The school district’s cur-
guage. Many of these children are growing up in homes riculum approach for dual language learners like Antonia
below the poverty level and need excellent educational is likely to have a significant impact on her later success
experiences to help close the achievement gap (Reardon, in school and life, depending on the type of approach
2011). The following are brief descriptions of commonly used. For example, in an English immersion situation,
used approaches for educating dual language learners: she is likely to struggle both emotionally and academi-
cally despite her competence and knowledge in her home
• English immersion. All the instruction is in English language. In fact, research finds that English immersion
throughout the child’s school career. Students may is not an effective approach. An English-Plus-Spanish
receive assistance from specialists in English as a sec- program would be much more likely to build her confi-
ond language, but the classroom teacher uses English dence, competence, and English proficiency.
only.
• English-Plus-Spanish. Programs use English and By contrast, consider what Antonia’s experience might be
Spanish in a wide range of formal and informal teach- like in a two-way dual language program:
ing and learning experiences. For example, instruction In the morning, Ms. Cafritz does all of the teaching in
might be English, but teachers use Spanish to explain, English, and in the afternoon, Mr. Jimenez teaches in
clarify, or ask questions to assess children’s under- Spanish, or vice versa. All of Antonia’s friends at school
standing. Teacher–child conversations occur in both are learning both English and Spanish. Her new best
English and Spanish. Sometimes children are taught friend, Joy, speaks English at home and has trouble with
academic subjects in Spanish until their English is some of the sounds in Spanish, so Antonia helps her
sufficiently developed. when they are on the playground. They laugh together
• Two-way dual immersion approach. In these programs, about how funny each other sounds. During Spanish in-
half of the instruction takes place in English and the struction time, Antonia knows most of the answers to the
other half occurs in the second language, usually teacher’s questions and often speaks up, while Joy lis-
Spanish, but perhaps a Native American language or tens more. After several months, Antonia becomes more
other language such as Mandarin. The goal is for all confident in English, mixing languages on the playground
the children to become bilingual and biliterate and with her friends but trying to answer the teacher’s ques-
achieve academic standards. tions in English. Her parents are proud when she begins
Consider each of these approaches and how they might to read in English as well as Spanish. They are impressed
affect Antonia Zapeda, who is starting kindergarten: that she is learning so many new Spanish words while
also learning English.
Antonia’s family came to the United States from M exico
In your career as a teacher, you are likely to work in situ-
1 year ago and want very much for their children to suc-
ations with different policies regarding dual language
ceed in school, but they are struggling to learn English
learners. As you do, remember Antonia. Be intentional in
themselves. Antonia’s language development in Spanish
your approach, considering children’s best interests and
is advanced; however, she tends to be shy in new situ-
respecting the languages and cultures of the families.
ations, relying on her brothers to pave the way for her.
Source: Based on Challenging Common Myths about Young
Put yourself in Antonia’s shoes as she encounters school English Language Learners: An Update to the Seminal 2008
for the first time. What would her experience be like? Report, by L. Espinosa, 2013, New York: Foundation for Child
How would she feel about her home language and family? Development.
approaches are used to accommodate dual language learners (Espinosa, 2013). Read the
Language Lens: Curriculum Approaches for Dual Language Learners feature and con-
sider the potential strengths and weaknesses of each approach.
This brief examination of indicators of effective curriculum demonstrates the role of
standards on current thinking about curriculum. The connections between learning stan-
dards and curriculum are becoming increasingly important and powerful in education, as
we discuss in the next section.
learning standards Expecta-
tions for student learning. What Are Standards?
content standards Describe Every state has standards for K–12 schools, 49 states have developed early learning stan-
what students should know dards for preschool, and many even have infant/toddler standards (Barnett, 2010). To
and/or be able to do within a understand the relevance and impact of the standards movement, it is important to under-
particular discipline such as stand the language of standards.
math or science.
• Learning standards are expectations for student learning.
performance standards • Content standards describe what students should know and/or be able to do with-
Describe the knowledge or skill in a particular discipline such as math or science.
that students should acquire • Performance standards, or benchmarks, describe the knowledge or skill that stu-
by a particular point in their
dents should acquire by a particular point in their schooling, usually tied to grade
schooling, usually tied to grade
or age level; also known as
or age level.
benchmarks.
5-year-olds addresses the development of the whole child, including physical well-being
and motor development, social and emotional development, approaches to learning such
as curiosity and persistence, language development, and cognition and general knowledge
(NAEYC & NAECS/SDE, 2003). At the same time, the curriculum builds knowledge and
skill in literacy, mathematics, science, social studies, and the visual and performing arts.
In preschool, integration across subject-matter areas is the primary planning strategy,
although at times the curriculum will focus on one area such as math or early literacy
(NAEYC, 2009). Play and projects are particularly valuable ways of bringing curriculum
content to this age group. In fact, research shows that in content-rich classrooms with
engaging social studies and science, children play in more complex and high-level ways
(Nayfeld, Brenneman, & Gelman, 2009).
320 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
FIGURE 10.3 Example of Early Learning Guideline for Infants and Toddlers—Pre-Writing
Many states now have early learning guidelines for babies and toddlers which can be helpful if they are
developmentally appropriate.
Source: From Oklahoma Early Learning Guidelines for Infants, Toddlers, and Twos: Ages 0 through 36 Months,
no date, by Oklahoma Department of Human Services and Oklahoma Child Care Services, retrieved January 13,
2015, from http://www.okdhs.org/nr/rdonlyres/dcbc98d7-48b3-42c3-befe-c4abe6f486ac/0/1023_oklahomaear
lylearningguide_occs036mo_04012011.pdf.
Almost every state has early learning standards for preschoolers, and most of these are
based on the Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework (Head Start,
2010a), which is depicted in Figure 10.4. In addition to all the areas of development and
learning listed the figure, the Head Start framework addresses English language develop-
ment for dual language learners.
Each of the broad goals in the Head Start framework include examples of
benchmarks that describe widely held expectations for children’s development
and learning. For example, a curriculum designed to help children achieve the
early literacy goals would provide materials, time, and opportunities to engage
in writing. For example, a preschool science curriculum about eggs hatching
provides ample opportunities for children to draw and write in their journals
about their observations of an incubator and chicks. An egg-hatching project
Classroom Connection
also addresses one of the science standards: “Observes, describes, and discuss-
This video shows a first-grade es living things and natural processes” (Head Start, 2010a, p. 18). These are a
classroom completing lessons from few examples of how curriculum is designed to help children meet learning
the English Language Arts cur- standards and how standards guide curriculum development.
riculum. As you watch, think about
what teachers do during the plan-
ning phase to present a coherent, Curriculum in Kindergarten and the Primary Grades In
organized curriculum. Consider primary school, the curriculum focus shifts to knowledge and skills in the
the impact that standards have on subject-matter areas. These include language, literacy, mathematics, science,
the curriculum and other aspects social studies, health, physical education, and the visual and performing arts.
of their teaching and children’s Goals should continue to address the importance of social-emotional devel-
learning experiences. opment and approaches to learning including motivation, curiosity, creativ-
ity, and initiative. Other essential non-content goals include self-regulation
Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 321
an
and Practice
pr
d
Environment Gross Motor Skills
Ex
Em
Fine Motor Skills
ts
ot
Ar
ion
ve
al
ati
Music
De
Social Relationships
Cre
Creative Movement
vel
Self-Concept and
and Dance
opm
Self-Efficacy
Art Self-Regulation
ent
Drama Emotional and
Behavioral Health
lls
Knowledge and Ski
Approache o Learning
Scientific Skills and Method
Conceptual Knowledge Initiative and Curiosity
of the Natural and Physical World Persistence and
st
Attentiveness
Cooperation
Science
Comparison
ing
Book Appreciation
s Kn
on
Phonological
ow
as
Awareness
Re
led
Alphabet Knowledge
d
ge
an
Print Concepts and Receptive
an
ic
Sk Conventions
og
d
ills Language L
Early Writing Expressive
Language
Lit
era
cy
Kno nt
wle me
dge
and S evelop
eD
kills Languag
FIGURE 10.4 Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework The development
and learning goals articulated in the Head Start Framework are congruent with preschool learning
standards in many states.
Source: Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework: Promoting Positive Outcomes in Early
Childhood Programs Serving Children 3–5 Years Old, Head Start, 2010, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services.
322 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
FIGURE 10.5 Example of Common Core English Language Arts Standard Common Core State
Standards are not a curriculum. They are designed to promote consistent, high learning standards across
states and alignment across grade levels.
Source: Common Core Standards for English Language Arts, by Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2011,
Washington, DC: Council for Chief State School Officers and National Governors Association, retrieved January 13,
2015, from http://www.commoncorestandards.org. © Copyright 2010. National Governors Association Center for
Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers. All rights reserved.
and executive function abilities such as problem solving, planning, focused attention, and
persistence.
Challenging and engaging curriculum for this age group helps children develop and
use oral and written language, mathematical and scientific thinking, and investigation
skills across the disciplines. Curriculum in the primary grades should help children de-
velop a sense of their own competence and confidence—Erikson’s notion of mastery. The
overarching goal of the primary grades, however, is learning to read. As described previ-
ously, many states now use the Common Core standards. Figure 10.5 is a Common Core
writing standard for kindergarten through second grade. Consider how this standard is
designed to promote alignment of curriculum across grade levels and how these standards
build on the infant/toddler and preschool standards presented in Figures 10.3 and 10.4.
During your career as a teacher, you will confront many decisions about curriculum
that will be related to standards. Having discussed indicators of effective curriculum and
the role of standards, we now turn to a discussion of general approaches to planning cur-
riculum. These approaches share the goal of making curriculum meaningful and interest-
ing to children and, therefore, more effective.
Emergent Curriculum
Early childhood education has a strong tradition of emergent curriculum. According to
this perspective, the focus should be on children, not on curriculum. Emergent curricu-
lum is “what happens in an educational environment, not what is rationally planned to
Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 323
Integrated Curriculum
A curriculum can be focused on one subject area such as mathematics
or science, or it can be comprehensive, addressing all learning goals
for a specified age or grade level. It may also focus on various devel-
opmental domains such as cognitive, physical, language, and social-
emotional. Integrated curriculum addresses learning goals across
multiple areas of curriculum at the same time (Fantuzzo, Gadsden, &
McDermott, 2010). For example, it might address literacy and social-
emotional goals within a single experience or lesson, such as when
a preschool teacher reads books about feelings or making friends. A
third-grade reading curriculum can include biographies of histori-
cal figures such as Harriet Tubman or Abraham Lincoln. In this way,
children acquire knowledge of both history and literacy in the same
experience.
Integrated curriculum is useful for several reasons. First, it helps
address the challenge of covering many learning goals in a limited pe-
riod of instructional time. Recall our visit to Ross Elementary School
in the opening vignette of this chapter. The school-wide project inte-
FIGURE 10.6 First-grader’s grated various subject areas such as social studies and literacy. The
Career Awareness Poster children engaged in reading and writing about a topic of interest—what they want to
This first-grader’s career aware- be when they grow up. At the same time, the children learned concepts about the world
ness poster illustrates how of work and the relevance of education, symbolic representation, and technological
the project addressed several
skills. Figure 10.6 shows how a first grader’s career awareness poster demonstrates her
learning standards at the same
time, including social studies,
achievement of these goals.
literacy, and art. Integrated curriculum helps children make connections between skills and knowl-
edge in various domains and decreases wasted time when no learning occurs. Integrated
curriculum is usually organized around a topic of study or theme, which we discuss next.
integrated curriculum
Addresses learning goals across Thematic Curriculum
multiple areas of curriculum at
Another advantage of integrated curriculum is that curriculum can be organized
the same time.
around topics (also called units) that children find interesting or engaging. This type
thematic curriculum Way of of integrated curriculum is called a thematic curriculum, in which a broad topic of
integrating curriculum in which
interest or a “big idea” provides the basis for m aking connections across learning
a broad topic of interest or a
“big idea” provides the basis
goals. The life cycle of birds, for e xample, can be the organizing structure for several
for making connections across weeks or longer.
learning goals. Thematic curriculum not only motivates children but also builds deeper concep-
tual understanding (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). For example, a predictable
interest of preschool children—building with blocks—provides a basis for integrating
curriculum around the theme of construction. Children’s interest in building structures
becomes a vehicle for teaching concepts of physical science, such as how buildings
stand up or how roofs are constructed to make enclosed spaces (Chalufour & Worth,
2004). A construction study helps children understand math concepts such as counting,
measuring, and classification, which they will need when they decide how to balance
a skyscraper. Children also learn vocabulary words related to building. Books, such
as Alphabet under Construction by D. Fleming (2006), can bring in literacy skills.
A neighborhood walk to see architecture, historical structures, or civic buildings ad-
dresses social studies standards.
For thematic curriculum to be effective, however, it is important that teachers se-
lect truly “big” ideas—concepts that are rich enough to be studied in depth and lead to
new learning. Consider the difference between a unit on teddy bears and one on living
bears—there is no comparison in terms of the concepts that can be explored. Yet children
love teddy bears, so a teacher might be tempted to pursue that interest despite its shallow
nature. How then do teachers decide whether a topic is sufficiently rich to pursue? One
strategy is to use webbing, discussed next.
Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 325
Webbing
In Chapter 9, we discussed teaching strategies that build children’s understanding.
These included using advance organizers and graphic representations such as K-W-L.
Webbing is another example of a graphic organizer and also an effective planning webbing A planning tool that
tool that teachers use to organize curriculum content. For an example of a planning teachers and children create
web based on a concept that children are learning, see the photo on page 338. Web- together to organize curriculum
content.
bing serves many valuable functions in early childhood curriculum. It helps teachers
organize their planning and acts as a conceptual organizer for children’s thinking and
learning. Webbing graphically represents the connections children make among facts
and larger concepts.
Webbing is a useful tool for all of the ways of organizing curriculum discussed thus
far: emergent, integrated, and thematic. But it is particularly valuable as a core component
of the project approach, a topic to which we turn next.
Benefits of Projects The project approach is not a curriculum; rather it is a way project approach Strategy for
of engaging children’s minds with curriculum content and processes (Helm & Katz, conceptually organizing cur-
2010). In the project approach, teachers guide children through in-depth studies of real- riculum by engaging children
in in-depth investigation of
world topics of interest to children. When teachers implement the project approach well,
a topic, focused on finding
children can be highly motivated, feel actively involved in their own learning, and pro- answers to questions posed by
duce high-quality work (Helm, Beneke, & Steinheimer, 2007). the children, the teacher, or
Well-planned and implemented projects engage children’s interests and eagerness to the teacher working with the
learn, focus their attention, and are lots of fun. More important than simple enjoyment children.
is the fact that projects or investigations are effective ways of integrating curriculum
content and promoting children’s understanding and thinking. Consider the following
example of a project that integrates social studies and other areas of the curriculum,
shared by Gail Joseph:
One morning at the Active Learning Center, the organic milk delivery service mistak-
enly left chocolate milk. Before she notices, the teacher, Diane, asks Lamont and Sara
to bring it to the kitchen because they have the “milk deliverer” job today. Lamont
and Sara shriek as they carefully lift a glass bottle filled with chocolate milk out of the
box. They head for the classroom to find Diane, but along the way they tell each child
in the class about the yummy mistake, “We got chocolate. It’s brown!”
By the time they reach Diane, there is a line of children asking if they can have
the chocolate milk with their snack. After Diane agrees, a more dedicated line of
inquiry ensues. “Who left this for us?” “How do they make it brown?” “Does it cost
more money?” “Can we have it again?” Diane sees that the milk mistake has the po-
tential for an interesting project.
At group time, Diane asks the children to list what they know about chocolate
milk and what else they want to find out. She records their ideas on chart paper.
During the next 2 weeks, the children learn a lot about chocolate milk. They write
stories about the “chocolate mistake” in the writing center. They write letters to the
milkman, thanking him for the mistake. They examine the price list to compare the
cost of chocolate and plain milk. They make chocolate milk and graph how many
children like chocolate versus plain milk (a skewed distribution for sure!).
326 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
© Fatihhoca/E+/Getty Images
The project approach is an excellent way to engage children’s interest while meeting learning goals. Proj-
ects have three phases: cultivating children’s interest, preparing for and conducting the investigation, and
a culminating event.
The milk investigation goes into greater depth when the children take a field
trip to the dairy and learn about “organic” milk, and why people might prefer it to
nonorganic. They observe dairy cows and see milking machines. The children also
learn how the milk is transported to the customers and why they use glass bottles.
On the trip, they discover that the empty bottles are recycled, which prompts one of
the children to propose a “recycler” job in the classroom. The children learn that not
all people drink milk and the reasons why. They learn why regular milk is healthier
than chocolate.
During the last week, the children decide to have a “chocolate milk celebration”
with their families. They make invitations, propose and vote on the menu, and help
develop displays documenting their field trip and what they’ve learned. They also
offer a book signing for the class book they title The Chocolate Mistake.
At the end of the project, Diane revisits the chart created a few weeks ago and
asks the children what they have learned. It is clear that they thoroughly enjoyed the
project and learned a lot about chocolate milk. But they learned much more about
social studies, including concepts about culture, health, community, the environment,
diverse beliefs, production of goods and services, and economics, and they also en-
gaged in reading, writing, mathematics, and science.
and to follow it. The next step is to develop a web of children’s thoughts and ques-
tions about the topic.
• Phase 2: Developing a project. In this phase, children begin to think about and en-
gage in an investigation of the topic. The questions children want answered should
be broad enough to allow for substantive research. They might take a field trip as
Diane’s class did when they went to the dairy, hear from visiting experts to learn
more about the topic, or conduct experiments.
• Phase 3: A culminating event. An event can be arranged that involves com-
municating, sharing, and presenting the work of the project to others. Diane’s
class held a chocolate milk celebration to share with their families all they had
learned.
The project approach draws on and cultivates children’s interests as it builds their
motivation to learn. But more important, it engages children in thinking and problem
solving, finding answers to their questions, and building content knowledge and skills.
Research on the project approach finds that although it is challenging to implement, it is
most effective when teachers have content knowledge themselves (David, 2008).
In previous sections, we described several well-known approaches to organizing cur-
riculum content in early childhood settings. Next, we turn to a different approach, orga-
nizing curriculum sequentially.
Research-Based Early
Childhood Curricula
Effective early childhood curriculum focuses on both the process of teaching and the
content of what children are learning. Two types of early childhood curricula exist: (1)
comprehensive models that address the whole child, and (2) focused curricula that target
a content area such as science or a developmental domain such as social-emotional.
Comprehensive Curriculum
Several research-based comprehensive curriculum models are widely used—HighScope,
Creative Curriculum, Core Knowledge, and Tools of the Mind. HighScope and Creative
are the most widely used curriculum models in Head Start and public prekindergarten
programs (Zill, Sorongon, Kim, Clark, & Woolverton, 2006). In this section, we discuss
the key components of each of these models.
Promoting Play
Involving Children in Planning Their Play
When children engage in planning, they use their Encourage Children to Elaborate on Their Plans For inex-
minds actively. As they work out what they will do, perienced planners, try simple follow-up questions:
children become initiators, problem solvers, and art- “What will you need to do that?” Sometimes a
ists who make things happen and create meaning comment about what the child is doing elicits more
for themselves and others. To help children develop details than a question would. When the teacher
the ability to plan, consider the following strategies. observed 4-year-old Mitch’s behavior, she said,
“You’re barking like a dog,” to which Mitch replied,
Make Planning a Regular Part of the Day If tasks that
“I’m a lost dog and I want you to find me.”
require planning become a routine classroom activ-
ity, children are more likely to improve their plan- In your eagerness to assist younger children, don’t
ning skills. To encourage children to plan tasks and overlook opportunities to promote older children’s
events, it is useful to have a designated planning progress as planners as well. Encourage them
time, such as just before center time. You can plan to give specifics about where they will work, the
with children in small groups, pairs, or individually, materials they intend to use, the sequence of
making sure each child gets to express his or her their activities, and the outcomes they expect to
intentions. Children benefit from planning in small achieve. When Rachel announces she is going to
groups because the thoughts and elaborations of draw the family dog, her teacher says, “I wonder
others often spark their own ideas. For example, how you’re going to show the puppies growing
notice how the teacher is talking with a group of inside Daisy.” This comment encourages Rachel to
4- and 5-year-olds about what they will do during consider such issues as size and spatial relation-
center time: ships as she plans her drawing.
Jason: I’m going to make a race track in the block Write Down Children’s Plans Written plans communi-
area. cate that children’s ideas are valuable. Take dicta-
Teacher: You made a track yesterday that tion when children describe what they will do and
stretched all the way to the bookshelf. how they will go about it. Encourage older 4-year-
Mike: Me and him made it together. Today we’re olds and kindergarten children to begin writing their
gonna make a longer one. own ideas. Documenting children’s work through
Teacher: It sounds like Jason and Mike are plan- writing, drawing, and photography—which children
ning to work together today. and teachers can be involved in—helps young
Darya: I’m going to work together, too. learners become more conscious of the process
Teacher: Who are you planning to work with? and value of planning. Children can also look back
Darya: With Mei Lin. to their documented plans as they reflect on their
Mei Lin: Let’s fill all the jars with water and make experiences and compare their intentions with the
them sing. actual outcomes.
Darya: First let’s make the water orange. I’ll mix
the watercolors while you get the jars. Source: Based on “How Planning and Reflection
Teacher: Let me know when the jars are ready to Develop Young Children’s Thinking Skills,” by A. S.
sing. I want to hear them. Epstein, 2003, Young Children, 58(5), pp. 28–36.
Tools of the Mind Based on Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of learning, the Tools
of the Mind curriculum is designed for preschool through second grade (Bodrova &
Leong, 2007). The comprehensive curriculum provides teachers with ideas and strategies
to support children’s development of executive function, self-regulation, and academic
skills. The curriculum emphasizes the teacher’s role in scaffolding children’s learning
along with child-directed experiences and teacher-supported socio-dramatic play. Teach-
ers engage in ongoing assessment of children’s development to provide individualized
scaffolding in which they increase or decrease their level of support depending on the
degree to which children independently perform specific skills (Blair & Raver, 2014). The
curriculum is designed to achieve two main, interrelated goals:
1. Development of foundational cognitive abilities that include self-regulation of be-
havior, emotions, and cognition; memory; and focused attention (Blair & Raver,
2014; Diamond & Lee, 2011).
2. Learning academic skills aligned with the Common Core standards, such as lit-
eracy, mathematics, and science (Blair & Raver, 2014).
The central element of Tools of the Mind is using high-level, mature socio-dramatic
play to develop children’s self-regulation. Such mature play includes a theme, roles
with rules, language, and symbolic props such as using a rhythm stick standing for a
magic wand.
To make play a more effective learning experience, teachers engage children in play
planning before and even during the play. Children produce their own play plans, which
include written and graphic descriptions of what the child intends to do during the play.
By writing and/or drawing their plans, the children’s writing abilities improve over time,
a process called scaffolded writing. Children state their plans verbally, and the teacher
draws lines on the paper for each spoken word. This serves as a short-term memory scaf-
fold as children write and draw their plans. Over time, teachers help children make more
complex plans, encouraging two or more children to plan together to build friendships
and collaborative learning.
To enhance the quality of the play, teachers also provide children with relevant expe-
riences that will inform their play. For example, a trip to the firehouse helps children learn
about the roles and scenarios that occur there. But teachers do not leave the learning to
chance. They ask the firefighters and other workers to demonstrate for children what they
actually say before and after the fire bell goes off. Such experiences expand children’s
vocabulary and use of complex language, which they then practice during play.
One of the key aspects of Tools of the Mind is that it is based on the assumption
that if children lack underlying cognitive skills such as self-regulation, trying to teach
them academic skills is more difficult and inefficient. As a result, activities in Tools
of the Mind promote these abilities simultaneously. Teachers organize the classroom
routines to eliminate or minimize situations that tend to interfere with the development
of self-regulation, such as long periods of whole-group instruction or lengthy waits for
a turn.
Teachers embed self-regulation practice in all activities. For example, a preschool
teacher might use props to scaffold children’s practice of conversation turn-taking. After
the teacher explains what to do with the props, Kesharia holds a cardboard ear to prompt
her to listen, while Ashanti holds a cardboard mouth assigning him the role of speaker.
Then, they switch roles.
Considerable research has been conducted on the effectiveness of Tools of the Mind.
Read the What Works: Using Tools of the Mind to Close the Achievement Gap feature to
learn the results of a rigorous evaluation of the curriculum and its lasting impact on kin-
dergarten children’s self-regulation and academic skills.
332 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
What Works
Using Tools of the Mind to Close the Achievement Gap
The Tools of the Mind curriculum is based on the premise that de- interaction and teacher scaffolding to
veloping young children’s executive functions—flexible thinking, support higher-order thinking and pro-
focused attention, and working memory—and self-regulation of mote social competence and intrinsic motiva-
emotions and behavior is the key to their later academic success tion. Children talk with teachers, question, and reflect on their
and social competence. Neuroscientists and child development own understanding. Mistakes become learning opportunities.
researchers are finding strong support for the effectiveness of the The study found that children in Tools of the Mind classrooms
curriculum in achieving this objective. performed better on neurologically based executive function tasks
A well-designed evaluation study involving 29 schools, 79 such as focusing attention, ignoring distractions, and working mem-
kindergarten classrooms, and 759 children compared the im- ory. Children’s reading, vocabulary, and mathematics also improved
pact of Tools of the Mind to the traditional curriculum. What was at the end of kindergarten and even better reading and vocabulary
unique about this study was that it not only assessed children’s results were achieved in first grade. Significantly, these differences
executive function abilities and academic skills, but it also tested were greater in schools serving children in poverty.
saliva samples to compare children’s stress levels. One of the most encouraging aspects of the study is the neu-
At every grade level, Tools of the Mind has the same overarch- robiological findings. Children in the Tools of the Mind kindergar-
ing goals, but the teaching strategies and learning activities vary by tens demonstrated lower levels of stress. Given the heightened
age group. At the kindergarten level, children meet with teachers to academic demands of kindergarten resulting in increased stress
create and implement weekly learning goals and plans. Instead of for all children coupled with the toxic stress associated with pov-
the strong emphasis on sociodramatic play that occurs in preschool, erty, lowering stress is essential. Children cannot learn effectively
Tools of the Mind kindergartens use dramatization. Children “play if they are anxious, worried, or unable to focus. This study demon-
out” the stories that they are learning to read, beginning with fairy strates that through teacher-scaffolded support of executive func-
tales and moving to chapter books, rather than pretending about ev- tion and self-regulation, Tools of the Mind can benefit children
eryday experiences. This intentional pretend play develops language, in high-poverty schools academically, physically, and emotionally,
vocabulary, reading, and creativity. By contrast, the traditional, aca- and has the potential to close the achievement gap.
demically focused kindergarten classrooms typically allow only 10 to
Source: “Closing the Achievement Gap through Modification of Neurocog-
15 minutes of play during free choice time and have no materials to
nitive and Neuroendocrine Function: Results from a Cluster Randomized
support pretend play or connect it to literacy learning. Controlled Trial of an Innovative Approach to the Education of Children
Another major difference between Tools of the Mind class- in Kindergarten,” by C. Blair and C. C. Raver, 2014, PLoS ONE, 9(11),
rooms and the traditional kindergartens is the emphasis on peer e112393, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0112393.
Focused Curriculum
The four curricula described previously are comprehensive, addressing the learning and
development of the “whole child.” Historically, in early childhood education, compre-
hensive curriculum has been essentially the only approach. Recently, however, there has
been an explosion in curriculum development among researchers as well as publishers,
much of which focuses on a single area such as literacy, mathematics, or social-emotional
development. Perhaps because these curricula are targeted to relatively specific goals,
several have been found to be more effective in improving children’s outcomes than com-
prehensive approaches (Yoshikawa et al., 2013).
For example, in an effort to improve the quality and consistency of preschool class-
rooms, one large urban school district implemented a literacy curriculum, Opening the
World of Learning (OWL) (Schickedanz & Dickinson, 2012), and a mathematics cur-
riculum, Building Blocks (Clements & Sarama, 2007a), system-wide. An evaluation of
the program found significant positive effects on children’s literacy, language, early math,
and executive function abilities (Weiland & Yoshikawa, 2011). The researchers concluded
that using a uniform curriculum and intentional teaching strategies with professional de-
velopment for teachers made the difference. The effects on executive function were espe-
cially important because these abilities are vital for later success.
Similarly, one study (Wilson, Dickinson, & Rowe, 2013) found that the OWL cur-
riculum produced large improvements in literacy and language outcomes for all children
Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 333
but especially for dual language learners. These children performed nearly as well or
better than native speakers at kindergarten entry, and reached national norms on standard-
ized tests. Dual language learners in OWL classrooms performed better on expressive and
receptive vocabulary than those who did not experience the curriculum.
The Schools of Reggio Emilia, Italy The city-run preschools and infant/tod-
dler centers serving children from birth through age 6 originated as a movement among
parents following World War II. Founder Loris Malaguzzi was inspired by the parents
and committed himself to the continued evolution of the schools until his death in 1994.
Malaguzzi used the metaphor “the hundred languages of children” to connote the
complex elements of the approach. First and foremost, the metaphor communicates the
inherent genius of every child. Secondly, the “hundred languages” stand for the processes
of children’s learning as well as how they demonstrate it. In addition, “languages” are
various forms of media—drawing, sculpting, writing, photography, video, music, dance,
words, numbers, and so on—that are used to promote and display children’s understand-
ing of the world. By focusing attention on what children are capable of doing, the Reggio
approach has made young children’s amazing competence visible to the world.
The Reggio Emilia approach is not a curriculum, nor is it a model. It draws on several
theories in an integrated fashion, but also goes beyond them. For example, a visitor to the
schools would see evidence of Vygotskian sociocultural theory in the collaborative proj-
ect work among small groups of children and also in the co-construction of knowledge
between teachers and children. In addition, teachers and peers place themselves in zones
of proximal development, continually scaffolding each other’s learning. Teachers often
act as provocateurs for children, deliberately creating what Piaget termed disequilibrium,
The Reggio Emilia approach
to drive children’s learning.
has inspired schools in the
United States to rethink the
Principles and Values of the Reggio Emilia Approach The Reggio Emilia environment and children’s
approach is based on a set of core values and principles (Gandini, 2008). However, the representational ability. What
complexity and uniqueness of the approach cannot be reduced to a list of principles. Anyone does this Reggio-inspired learn-
attempting to implement a Reggio-inspired program should devote considerable study to ing environment communicate
the intricacies of its cultural origins and theoretical about and to children?
underpinnings (Rinaldi, 2006; Vecchi, 2010). A brief
summary of its core components follows.
The Image of the Child The foundation of the
Reggio Emilia approach is the image of the child as
rich in potential, strong, and powerful with rights as
a citizen and contributing member of the commu-
nity. In Reggio, children with special rights (what
© Erika Landorf-Kelly/Pearson Education
The Role of Parents Malaguzzi often said that the school has three protagonists with-
out which schools do not exist: children, teachers, and parents. The active participation
of parents is essential to the operation of the schools; parents are deeply involved in the
learning activities of the children.
The Role of Space: An Amiable School The environments convey the message that
“this is a place where adults have thought about the quality and the instructive power
of space” (Gandini, 2008, p. 25). Americans are struck by the aesthetic beauty of the
schools, but each element is designed for a purpose, such as to promote small-group in-
teraction or display evidence of the process of children’s learning.
The Many Languages of Children Each school has a special teacher, called an atelieri-
sta, who is knowledgeable about the visual arts and works closely with the other teachers
and children. Each preschool has an atelier, a specially equipped studio that contains a
wide range of materials and resources that are used by children to represent their ideas
and thinking and in projects.
In the United States, the Reggio Emilia approach is sometimes described as an art
program. However, the Italians see the children’s work as symbolic representation that
is an integral part of learning. When children represent the same concept using different
media, their understanding deepens. For example, drawing a horse in two dimensions
conveys a partial concept of the animal. Constructing a three-dimensional model of a
horse in clay requires thinking about how the horse stands up and how it runs.
Learning through Projects Short- and long-term projects are a major teaching and
learning strategy in Reggio schools. Facilitated by teachers, children work in small groups
on a topic or a problem of interest to them. Ideas for projects, great and small, grow out
of children’s experiences or chance encounters. An invitation from the town to design a
theater curtain for the opera house led to a lengthy project that included generating artistic
designs, making computer models, painting large murals, and exploring cloth production.
The project culminated in a celebratory unveiling (Vecchi, 2002).
The Power of Documentation The growth in children’s thinking that occurs through
project work is captured in one of the most compelling and unique aspects of the ap-
proach: documentation. As a project proceeds, teachers and the atelierista carefully ar-
range and display transcripts of children’s discussions, photographs of them at work, and
representations of their thinking and learning in various media (drawings, sculptures,
and constructions). These documentations can be interpreted as assessments, but they are
more like records of the processes of learning and problem solving in groups of children.
What goes on in children’s minds cannot be seen, but documentation makes learning vis-
ible (Reggio Children & Project Zero, 2001). Documentation powerfully communicates
the competence of children to parents, community members, and policy makers. Teachers
use documentation to help children revisit their experiences, remember and analyze their
thinking, and deepen their understanding.
Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 335
Conceptual
organizers
(Projects,
topics of study)
Socio-cultural context
Child Continuum of
development development
knowledge and learning
Discipline
based
knowledge
(Science, social
studies)
FIGURE 10.7 Child-Centered Curriculum Planning Model This model depicts the major sources
of knowledge that must be considered in planning an effective, child-centered curriculum.
Source: Based on “Reaching Individual Potentials through Transformational Curriculum,” by T. Rosegrant and
S. Bredekamp, 1992, pp. 66–73, in Reaching Potentials: Appropriate Curriculum and Assessment for Young
Children, Vol. 1, edited by S. Bredekamp and T. Rosegrant, Washington, DC: NAEYC. Reprinted with permission
from the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). www.naeyc.org
1995; Rosegrant & Bredekamp, 1992). In the sections that follow, we briefly describe
the sources of knowledge that are brought together in a coherent curriculum, and then
we provide examples of applying the planning model in action. All good early childhood
curriculum needs to focus first on children, as we discuss next.
Sources of Curriculum
As illustrated in Figure 10.7, curriculum planning draws on four sources:
1. The content of the disciplines. Much of the curriculum comes directly from the
subject-matter disciplines: what children need to know and be able to do in sci-
ence, mathematics, language arts, health, social studies, and the arts. Such con-
tent gives curriculum intellectual integrity; that is, it teaches accurate information
about how the world works and how to obtain new knowledge. However, the con-
tent of the disciplines can be abstract and removed from children’s direct experi-
ences. Therefore, early childhood curriculum needs to be conceptually organized.
2. Conceptual organizers. We have already discussed several approaches to concep-
tually organizing curriculum. Conceptual organizers make content knowledge conceptual organizer Ways
more meaningful, interesting, and understandable for young children. For exam- of organizing curriculum, such
ple, children can learn key scientific concepts by planting a garden or studying the as the project approach, that
make content knowledge more
effects of light on shadows.
meaningful, interesting, and
3. Child development knowledge. Knowledge of how young children develop and
understandable for children.
learn is critical in planning curriculum that will reach all children. Research on
children’s cognitive, language, social, emotional, and physical development al-
lows teachers to anticipate whether curriculum goals will be achievable and chal-
lenging (that is, developmentally appropriate).
4. Developmental/learning continuum. A developmental continuum is a predict- developmental continuum A
able, but not rigid, sequence of typical developmental accomplishments within age predictable but not rigid se-
ranges (McAfee & Leong, 2011). A learning continuum (also called a learning quence of typical developmen-
tal accomplishments within age
trajectory or learning path) is similar to a developmental continuum but focuses
ranges.
on sequences of knowledge or skill in a content area such as mathematics or physi-
cal education, with each level more sophisticated than the last (Clements & Sarama, learning continuum, learn-
2009; Sarama & Clements, 2009). (The terms developmental continuum and learn- ing trajectory, or learning
ing trajectory are often used interchangeably.) Research-based developmental and path Similar to a developmen-
tal continuum, but focuses on
learning continua are the basis for planning the scope and sequence of a curriculum.
sequences of knowledge or skill
Teachers use a continuum of development and learning in a curriculum area to in a content area.
determine when, where, and how to provide individual instruction and scaffolding.
This model illustrates how both content knowledge and child development knowl-
edge must be considered in planning effective early childhood curriculum. If state learn-
ing standards are well done, they should play a role in guiding discipline content and
the developmental/learning continua. The goal of this curriculum planning model is for
early childhood programs from birth through age 8 to teach the whole child—the think-
ing, feeling, moving, expressing, creating, problem-solving, interacting human being.
warm.
Angelique: No, they won’t. Gloves are better. I’ll look
online.
verhearing their conversation, Kathleen raises the ques-
O
tion at group time—which is warmer, gloves or mittens?
The children vote and make a graph of their answers. Most
choose gloves. They begin an experiment to see which is
actually warmer and explore the larger question of how
Intentional teachers can use chil- people stay warm.
dren’s interests to plan curriculum In large group, the children also enjoy fingerplays and songs such as “Where Is
that meets many learning goals.
Thumbkin?” and “I Have a Family in My Hand.” At small group time, Cheryl reads
One child’s use of American Sign
Language can lead to a project
The Mitten to four children. Kathleen plays a math game with several others, chal-
about hands as evident in this lenging them to find everything in the classroom that comes in pairs like hands. After
preschool concept web. looking everywhere and feeling stumped, Ross shouts with glee, “Ear lobes!”
Over time, the study expands to investigate the type of jobs that require working
with hands, some requiring strength and others finesse, such as musicians, painters,
computer scientists, and many others.
This glimpse into Kathleen and Cheryl’s classroom finds happy children, laughing
and playing together. What is not immediately apparent, however, is the planning that has
gone into the curriculum. To begin, the teachers identified the topic of hands as a con-
ceptual organizer for several reasons. They had observed how much interest the children
showed in Jamie’s capacity to communicate with his hands and how they could do it, too.
Thus, Jamie became a leader in the study. Also the teachers could predict that preschool-
ers are generally interested in their own bodies and mastering new skills, in this case zip-
ping, tying, or keyboarding.
Next, the teachers considered how well the topic promotes child development. They
agreed that it would provide opportunities to build cognitive processes such as matching,
describing, organizing, and categorizing by size, color, and function (dress-up, carpentry,
inclement weather). The topic promotes physical development such as practicing fine-motor
skills and eye-hand coordination. The clothing store and other activities such as modelling
with clay encourage social interaction and turn-taking as well as language development.
As for content knowledge, the study supported children’s learning in every discipline
area listed below.
Mathematics: counting by ones and twos; ordering by size (hands are different sizes);
learning about patterns and relationships (clothing designs are in patterns; hands
have similarities and differences)
Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 339
Science: learning technology about tools and materials we use with our
hands; physical properties (some gloves are water repellant, others
are not); learning about body warmth
Language and literacy: vocabulary (nouns such as fist, tight, loose, and
verbs such as transfer, squeeze, grab, pinch); books, songs, and fin-
gerplays; nonverbal communication using gestures, body language,
and signing
Social studies: economics of buying and selling clothing; cultural dif- Classroom Connection
ferences related to when and what kind of clothing to wear or what As you observe this preschool
jobs people do classroom in Hawaii, note how
Health: gloves and clothing for protecting hands from injury and weather all the elements of the child-
The final element of the curriculum model is that teachers need to know centered curriculum planning
the continuum of development and learning in each area so they can adapt model are used during their
the curriculum to accommodate individual differences in children. Although in-depth study of birds.
we raise this issue at the end of the chapter, it is the most important aspect of
implementing an effective curriculum.
Teachers must take into account that children vary enormously on practically every
dimension of development and learning. These differences are manifest in rates of devel-
opment; prior experiences, which greatly influence learning; diverse cultural and linguis-
tic backgrounds; and the existence of specific abilities and disabilities.
Understanding students’ diverse needs is critical in implementing curriculum and
adapting for individual variation. Regardless of the type of curriculum used, teachers need
to apply their professional expertise. Adaptation may take many forms, such as adjusting
the groupings, the time schedule, the nature of teacher-child interactions, or the amount
and kind of scaffolding provided.
10 Chapter Summary
• Curriculum is a written plan that describes the goals • Effective approaches to planning early childhood
for children’s learning and development, and the learn- curriculum include emergent curriculum, integrated
ing experiences, materials, and teaching strategies that curriculum, thematic curriculum, webbing, the project
are used to help children achieve those goals. approach, and scope and sequence.
• Scientifically based curriculum derives from research • Curriculum models are idealized versions of what and
evidence about what kinds of learning outcomes how teaching and learning should occur. Frequently used
relate to later achievement and what types of teaching early childhood curriculum models include HighScope,
and learning experiences help children acquire those Creative Curriculum, Core Knowledge, and Tools of the
outcomes. Scientifically based curriculum has been Mind. The Reggio Emilia Approach is a comprehensive
evaluated, and it has demonstrated its effectiveness. approach to early childhood education and curriculum
• Effective curriculum is thoughtfully planned; chal- that has inspired programs throughout the world.
lenging, engaging, and developmentally appropriate; • A child-centered model of curriculum planning draws on
culturally and linguistically responsive; comprehen- content knowledge, conceptual organizers, knowledge
sive; and likely to promote positive outcomes for all of child development, and developmental and learning
young children. continua. All four dimensions of the model are influ-
• Learning standards define what is to be taught and enced by sociocultural contexts.
what kind of performance is expected. Standards pro-
vide guidance to curriculum developers and teachers
about what and when to teach particular content.
Key Terms
■ alignment ■ curriculum model ■ learning continuum, ■ scientifically based
■ conceptual organizers ■ developmental learning trajectory, or curriculum
continuum learning path ■ scope
■ content standards
■ emergent curriculum ■ learning standards ■ sequence
■ curriculum
■ fidelity ■ performance standards ■ thematic curriculum
■ curriculum approach
■ integrated curriculum ■ project ■ validated curriculum
■ curriculum framework
■ project approach ■ webbing
345
346 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
B
onnie’s school is in their second year using the Common Core to guide instruction.
This means making sure that all her first graders meet literacy standards for read-
ing, writing, and language. Sometimes the work related to tracking and addressing
the standards can seem overwhelming. However, Bonnie also finds that the structure helps
her to ensure that she is addressing all of the important literacy needs of first graders.
Accurate assessment of children’s learning and development is a vital component
of effective practice in early childhood education. The profession has a long history of
studying children, and observation of young children is essential to providing develop-
mentally appropriate practice (Reifel, 2011). To a large extent, early childhood educa-
tion has grown because research based on assessments of children’s learning has found
that high-quality programs have positive, lasting effects on children’s development. The
closely related field of early intervention is steeped in the necessity for and value of as-
sessment for educating children with special needs. Recently, the school accountability
movement and federal policies have placed considerable emphasis on testing in the early
years of school to ensure that all children achieve reading and mathematics skills.
The goal of this chapter is to prepare you to achieve the most important purpose of
assessment: to improve children’s learning and development. If children are to b enefit
fully from early childhood programs, intentional teachers must know why, what, and
how to assess. Like many other areas of education, assessment has its own—sometimes
bewildering—vocabulary and jargon. We begin by helping you learn the language of
assessment. Then we discuss four fundamental purposes of assessment and connect
these to various tools and procedures. We present indicators of effective assessment. The
chapter concludes with a discussion of appropriate and inappropriate uses of standardized
tests and of program evaluation and accountability.
In a college English course, for example, the instructor’s feedback on student essays is informal assessment
formative assessment, whereas the final exam is summative. Similarly, in a preschool or Gathering information for
teacher’s use to make everyday
primary classroom, s ummative assessment may occur at the end of the year, when teach-
classroom decisions or adjust-
ers compare their observations of children’s progress to those they conducted when the
ments to teaching.
school year began.
Performance Assessment
Performance assessment, also known as authentic assessment,
© Monashee Frantz/OJO Images/Getty Images
play-based assessment to them read aloud rather than giving them a multiple-choice test. Assessments such as
Similar to curriculum- this, which call for a child to produce a response rather than select from a list of possible
embedded assessment, but
responses, are also called alternative assessments (Gullo, 2006).
the context for observing and
interacting with children is the
children’s play.
Dynamic Assessment
performance assessment
Based on Vygotsky’s concept of the zone of proximal development, dynamic assess-
or authentic assessment
Determines what children ment analyzes a child’s performance not just in terms of what the child can do inde-
know and can do from their pendently, as most assessment procedures require, but what the child can do with the
demonstration of a skill or their assistance of a teacher or peer (McAfee et al., 2015). A teacher may provide prompts,
creation of a product. cues, hints, or questions that elicit a child’s response. Analyzing the
amount and kind of assistance the child needs to perform a task provides
information about the child’s current level of understanding and skill and
Classroom Connection
also guides the next steps in teaching (McAfee et al., 2015).
Observe how this teacher uses
formative assessment while
teaching literacy. What are some Standardized Testing
examples you observe in which
Many people hear the word assessment and automatically think of testing.
the teacher uses the curriculum
Standardized assessment refers to the assessment of all children, using the
to assess and her assessment to
same procedures and performing the same task under the same conditions.
inform curriculum? What other
The thought behind standardizing procedures is that it leads to less biased
forms of assessment is she using?
and more objective results.
https://www.youtube.com/ Although assessment is sometimes used as a synonym for testing, test-
watch?v=dxAXJEK--qk ing is only one part of the larger concept of assessment. Testing is a sys-
tematic procedure for evaluating a child’s behavior and knowledge, which
alternative assessments results in the assignment of a score (McAfee et al., 2015). Therefore, a test is a snapshot
Assessments that call for a
of a child’s performance or knowledge that is administered to an individual or group
child to produce a response
rather than select from a list of
under controlled conditions. Some tests are teacher developed, whereas others are de-
possible responses. veloped by test publishing companies. Some, but not all, commercially published tests
are standardized.
dynamic assessment Standardized testing uses prescribed methods for administering and scoring and
Analyzes a child’s performance needs to meet technical standards for educational and psychological testing (American
not just in terms of what the
Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association & National
child can do independently, but
what the child can do with the
Council on Measurement in Education, 2014). These standards are designed to ensure
assistance of a teacher or peer. that tests have high levels of reliability and validity.
standardized assessment
Reliability Reliability is the extent to which the results obtained from a test are
Assessment of all children
using the same procedures and
a ccurate and consistent over time. A test is said to be reliable if the tool is likely to get the
performing the same task under same or similar results when used by different people or on different days. To understand
the same conditions. the concept of reliability, consider an example unrelated to education: measuring cooking
ingredients. If a recipe calls for 1 cup of flour, even a beginning cook would reach for
testing A systematic procedure a standard, 8-ounce measuring cup. If one cook used a demitasse cup, another chose a
for evaluating a child’s behavior
giant-size coffee mug, and another filled a tea cup half full, the final results would vary
and knowledge that is then as-
signed a score.
considerably. The standard measuring cup, therefore, is reliable, whereas the other cup
selections are not.
standardized testing Uses
prescribed methods for admin-
istering and scoring.
Validity Validity means that the instrument measures what it purports to measure. For
example, a test designed to measure children’s physical skills should not depend on chil-
reliability The extent to which dren’s ability to understand verbal directions; in such a case, the test is really a measure
the results obtained from a test of the children’s language.
are accurate and consistent In revisiting our cooking example, suppose we are trying to measure volume.
over time. There are a number of ways to measure volume, such as using a liquid measuring cup
validity The degree to which or an 8-ounce standard cup, which would yield an equally accurate amount of flour
an instrument measures what it for a recipe. However, if we tried to measure flour with a yardstick, which is for mea-
purports to measure. suring length, the results would be not only messy but also inaccurate and, therefore,
Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development 349
lacking validity. If a standardized test lacks reliability or validity, the results it yields
are meaningless.
or other areas; a few children receive highly individualized interventions (National Center
on Response to Intervention, 2010).
Teachers are the primary assessors as well as the primary audiences for classroom
assessment. In early childhood, much classroom assessment is informal and performance
based, relying heavily on teacher observations. Because everyday decisions are not high
stakes, and easily corrected, classroom assessment does not need to meet technical stan-
dards for reliability and validity. For instance, if participation in the small group doesn’t
help Jamal’s rhyming, David begins working with him one-on-one and also gives his
mother some ideas to try at home.
Nevertheless, teacher observations and judgments can be unreliable, invalid, or bi-
ased. This is why teachers need to use many sources of information. They should ob-
serve children in different situations over time, rather than base their conclusions about
children’s ability on one encounter. Intentional teaching depends on accurate assessment
tools, which we discuss later in this chapter.
Screening Screening tests, also called developmental screening, are administered to screening tests Tests admin-
all children, usually in preschool or kindergarten, as the first step in a process to deter- istered to all children, usually
mine which children are at risk of a possible disability or learning problem. Teachers or in preschool or kindergarten,
as the first step in a process to
other professionals administer these brief tests, which include general items on motor
determine which children are
development, perception, language, and cognitive development. A screening test is like at risk of a possible disability
the toy screen used in a sandbox; most of the grains of sand will pass through readily, or learning problem; also called
but a few will be left for closer inspection. In many preschools and child care programs, developmental screening.
screening is a well-established rite of fall.
The process is not foolproof, and some children may have problems that go unde-
tected. Therefore, teachers and families play a critical role in contributing information
to the screening and identification process. Information on a child’s functioning should
be drawn from multiple sources, and include family members in the screening process
(DEC, 2014). As teachers assess children’s progress on a daily basis, they may obtain
information that raises concerns that formal screening may confirm or deny. Those few
children who do not pass the initial screening may or may not have a more serious condi-
tion; to make this determination, diagnostic testing is required (DEC, 2014).
diagnostic tests Tests
Diagnostic Testing Diagnostic tests are designed to gather information to identify esigned to identify the
d
specific learning or develop-
the specific learning or developmental delays a child may have and to plan educational
mental problems a child has
interventions. The second part of the two-step process is a complete diagnostic evalua- and to plan interventions; must
tion designed to identify the child’s areas of need and strength, to prepare individualized be administered by specially
goals, and to plan activities and supports. Multiple sources of information are used, such trained professionals.
352 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
Source: Adapted from “Reaching Potentials through Appropriate Assessment,” by T. W. Hills, 1992, pp. 43–63, in Reaching Potentials: A
ppropriate
Curriculum and Assessment for Young Children, Vol. 1, edited by S. Bredekamp and T. Rosegrant, Washington, DC: NAEYC. Reprinted with
permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children.
Source: Early Childhood Curriculum, Assessment, and Program Evaluation: Building an Effective, Accountable System in Programs for Children
Birth through Age 8. Joint Position Statement, by National Association for the Education of Young Children and National Association of Early
Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education, 2003, Washington, DC: NAEYC. Reprinted with permission from the National Association
for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). www.naeyc.org.
a ssessment practices, teachers need to understand the implications for assessing very
young children, English language learners, and children with special needs, discussed in
the sections that follow.
are not interested in being assessed. They may be removed from the usual activity set-
ting, and their movement, talk, and expression of feelings may be restricted (Hills, 1992).
As children get older, they can reflect more on their performance and competence
and can be encouraged to do their best in an assessment situation (Hills, 1992). For some
children, demonstrating their competence will become intrinsically motivating. In gen-
eral, however, assessment results will be more accurate if children’s interests are taken
into consideration. For example, second-grader Laticia loves stories about horses and
reads these stories with more expression than she does other books.
A final developmental constraint on assessment is children’s ability to perform the
tasks required. Group-administered, paper-and-pencil tests are especially challenging for
children before third grade (NAEYC & NAECS/SDE, 2003). They may not be able to
follow the directions and may not understand why the teacher can’t help today. Some
children may not have the fine-motor skill to fill in the bubble carefully or may generally
operate at a slower pace than the others.
Accurate assessment of
children whose home language
is not English is difficult. Stan-
Culturally and Linguistically Responsive
dardized tests are often not
reliable. How can teachers get
Assessment
accurate information about the Developmentally appropriate assessment must be culturally and linguistically responsive
abilities of English language (Ritchie & Willer, 2008a). One of the biggest challenges is serving the needs of dual
learners? language learners because, to some extent, all as-
sessments of children are fundamentally measures
of language ability (Espinosa, 2010a). Children’s
ability to demonstrate their learning depends a great
© John Lund/Marc Romanelli/Blend Images/Getty Images
including English, have dialects, so translations do not always solve the problem. A
child from Mexico and one from Peru may not understand the same Spanish transla-
tion of a test. Nonetheless, children should be assessed in their dominant language
(usually home language for young children) and in other languages they are learning,
Often their language competence is found in the combination of their capacity in each
language (Atkins-Burnett, Bandel, & Aikens, 2012; DEC, 2014).
Determining whether a child is sufficiently proficient in English for accurate test-
ing is also difficult. Academic language used in schools is quite different from the
conversational language children use on a daily basis. Linguists estimate that it takes
4 to 7 years to acquire proficiency in academic English (Garcia, 2005). A child may
speak English well on the playground or in casual conversation, yet struggle with the
language of an assessment. Because of this, it is especially important to include fami-
lies in assessment of dual language learners. Some research suggests that parents are
often more reliable reporters of their children’s vocabulary learning than are teachers
(Vagh, Pan, & Marcella-Martinez, 2009). The importance of linguistically appropriate
assessment is illustrated in the Language Lens: Involving Parents in Assessment of Dual
Language Learners feature.
Language Lens
Involving Parents in Assessment of Dual Language Learners
The only way to obtain an accurate, meaningful assess- but understands the general idea of what is
ment of dual language learners’ competence is to draw on being said.
many different sources of information. Teachers’ obser- (3) My child has good proficiency in _________ with
vations and conversations with children are invaluable, some grammatical errors, has some social and
but information gleaned from families is essential in school vocabulary, and understands most of what
determining dual language learners’ proficiency in each is said.
language. (4) My child has native-like proficiency in ________
with few grammatical errors, has good vocabulary,
Most parents are good judges of their children’s language
and understands most of what is said.
ability, but many teachers are unsure of how to efficiently
4. How much does your child use each language?
obtain the needed information. Following are interview
(0) Never speaks (e.g., Spanish, Tagalog, English,
questions for teachers to ask of parents to effectively in-
etc.), never hears it.
volve parents in assessing their child’s language. The in-
(1) Never speaks __________, hears it very little.
terview would need to be conducted in the parents’ home
(2) Speaks __________ a little, hears it sometimes.
language or translated for them. Here are some of the
(3) Speaks __________ sometimes, hears it most of
important questions to include:
the time.
1. What name do you use for your child? How did you (4) Speaks __________ all of the time, hears it all of
decide to give your child this name? Does this name the time.
have a particular meaning or translation?
Of course, there is much more teachers need to learn from
2. What language(s) do you use to talk to your child?
parents about their children, such as their interests, rou-
Who else does your child spend time with and what
tines, cultural preferences, and much more. But conducting
language do they use?
an interview such as one described here, whether during a
3. Tell me your opinion about how well your child speaks
home visit before the school year begins or in writing, is an
each language. (The same questions would be asked
essential first step in getting to know a child who is learn-
about the home language and English.)
ing more than one language and becoming the best possible
(0) My child cannot speak (e.g., Spanish, Tagalog,
teacher for that child.
etc.), has a few words or phrases, but cannot pro-
duce sentences (e.g., “I want cookies”). My child Source: Based on “How Can Teachers and Parents Help
understands only a few words. Young Children Become (and Stay) Bilingual” by P. O. Tabors
(1) My child cannot speak ____________, has a few and L. M. López, 2005, pp. 14–16, and “Assessment of
words or phrases, but understands the general English Language Learners: Challenges and Strategies” by
V. F. Gutiérrez-Clellen, 2005, pp. 47–51, both in Head Start
idea of what is being said.
Bulletin: English Language Learners, Vol. 78, Washington,
(2) My child has limited proficiency in __________ DC: Head Start Bureau, Administration on Children, Youth and
with grammatical errors, has limited vocabulary, Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
358 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
Promoting Play
Play as an Assessment Context
Adele understands that schools have increased their garden progress. Children compare how carrots
expectations of kindergarteners’ academic perfor- grow in soil that is fed different ways. They have
mance over the years. But her professional educa- conversations about the weather, pretending to be
tion convinced her that much of young children’s farmers, and consult a website called “Old Farmer’s
learning happens in the context of play. Adele uses Almanac for Kids.”
intentional, short periods of direct instruction, and
includes longer periods of supported and free play Everywhere in Adele’s classroom, children are
for children to learn and practice. However, Adele engaged, exploring, and producing products that
also knows that play is where children’s learning provide evidence of powerful learning. For each
and development is demonstrated, and she takes project, children create vocabulary lists that they
full advantage of play as an assessment context. use in their writing, and they work together to pro-
Because she often uses the project approach, Adele duce a class book. The book becomes part of their
engages children in the assessment process as well. classroom library.
All of Adele’s centers are stocked with reading and Adele uses video, audiotape, photographs, and
writing materials and appropriate learning equip- paper products to document children’s learning.
ment. Children are encouraged to experiment and After collecting artifacts, she consults her online
imagine. Problem solving and socio-dramatic play assessment tool, identifies the area of evidence,
are valued equally. As part of their “Food” study, and rates the products according to proficiency. She
children play and demonstrate learning in a grocery meets with each child every two weeks for portfolio
store center. Food items are sorted and priced, and review, and helps children to set learning goals for
children add and subtract pennies to spend their the upcoming weeks. Children’s learning goals are
grocery money and fulfill their planned grocery lists. posted on the online assessment tool, which parents
At the garden center, children plant different seeds can access. Using play as a context for learning
and nurture their growth. They compare different and assessment keeps Adele focused on children’s
types of plants as they grow, writing descriptions development, while also addressing learning stan-
and recording plant growth. They use a classroom dards. All the while, children are motivated to learn
iPad to take photos and record oral descriptions of and to take responsibility for their learning.
Learn to Observe Systematic observation means that teachers focus their attention
on individual children or groups, watch what children do as they work and play together,
and listen carefully as they speak. Table 11.3 lists the important skills of systematic ob-
servation that every effective teacher needs and why.
At times, teachers stand back and observe children as they engage in the ongoing life
of the classroom or on the playground. Who does Marcus play with and for how long?
Does he play alone or with a friend? At other times, teachers arrange specific tasks or
activities and observe children’s performance. First-grade teacher Ms. Victor adds fre-
quently used words to the “word wall” each week and observes which children refer
to them as they are writing. In most situations, teachers are participant-observers who
converse with children, listen carefully, and assess while they teach individuals as well as
small and large groups.
Observation is most effective if teachers think in advance about what they want to
observe while remaining flexible to observe events as they proceed. Janice planned to
observe the babies in her care during feeding time to see how their fine-motor skills
362 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
were developing. She observed that two of the 13-month-olds, Josie and Ana,
could pick up the cereal on the highchair tray. However, 15-month-old Tania
became frustrated and started to cry. Janice watched to see whether and how
soon Tania would calm herself before she had to intervene. In this case, an
observation of fine-motor skill turned into an observation of emotional self-
regulation, an example of the kind of shift that occurs constantly in early
childhood programs.
Classroom Connection
The teacher in this video uses
observation regularly and in- Elicit Responses from Children Aspects of children’s learning
tentionally to learn about the and development that cannot be directly observed, such as their concep-
children in her class. How might tual understanding or reasoning, can be elicited from children through
her observations influence her questioning, conversation, or other informal teacher–child interactions.
assessments of the children’s Eliciting children’s responses—drawing out their ideas or reflections—is
learning progress and her plan- an efficient way of gathering information; this way, teachers do not have
ning for future instruction? to wait for behaviors or responses to occur spontaneously (McAfee et al.,
2015).
Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development 363
Source: Based on Assessing and Guiding Young Children’s Development and Learning 6th edition, by O. McAfee , D. Leong, and E. Bodrova, 2015,
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson; and Observing Development of the Young Child, 8th edition, by J. J. Beaty, 2013, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
be accurate and useful, they need to be as objective and nonbiased as possible. Various
methods of documenting assessment are designed to increase the likelihood of gathering
reliable and valid information. We turn now to a description of the most commonly used
methods of documentation. These methods include descriptive records, frequency counts,
checklists, rating scales and rubrics, and portfolios.
Descriptive Records Narratives are stories in which the narrator stands outside the
experience and describes the people, situation, and events that occur. The same is true of
narrative records Teachers’ narrative approaches to observation. Narrative records are teachers’ attempts to record
attempts to record detailed detailed descriptions of children in a situation or event that is the focus of the observa-
descriptions of children in a tion (McAfee et al., 2015). It is important for narrative records to focus on the observed
situation or event that is the behavior rather than implying judgment. “Kery kicked over Stan’s building, threw the
focus of the observation.
sand toys on the floor, and pushed Mimi down” is much more informative and useful later
than “Kery was disruptive at school today.”
Teachers use various methods of collecting anecdotal records for later reflection and
analysis. They may take brief notes while observing children in action or as soon as pos-
sible, adding more detail later. After documenting their observations, teachers reflect on
Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development 365
and interpret their records and plan how to improve teaching and learning. Anecdotal
records should include the date and time of observation, names of children observed, lo-
cation of the incident such as lunch table or hallway, and what the children said and actu-
ally did (Mindes & Jung, 2015). Figure 11.2 presents contrasting examples of anecdotal
records about the same situation. A teacher would have difficulty interpreting the first
example because it is too general and judgmental to be helpful. By contrast, the second
example lends itself to deeper reflection and more effective intervention.
Here are some types of narrative records:
• A running record is a chronological record, much like a diary, of an individu- running record A chronologi-
al child’s behavior that helps teachers better understand that behavior (Wortham cal record, like a diary, of an
& Hardin, 2015). The diary format allows the teacher to compare and analyze a individual child’s behavior that
helps teachers better under-
child’s behavior and development over time. Ms. Dollan worries about Jennifer’s
stand that behavior.
shyness and is concerned that it is interfering with her ability to become involved
and learn in kindergarten. She keeps a running record for 1 week, noting as many of
Jennifer’s social interactions as she can observe. At the end of the week, Ms. Dollan
is surprised to find that Jennifer engages much more than she thought; Jennifer just
tends to wait and observe before she gets involved.
• Anecdotal records are short descriptions of incidents, or anecdotes, involving one or anecdotal records Short
more children (McAfee et al., 2015). “Monday 5/8—When I read Hansel and Gretel descriptions written by teachers
to 5 children, Sam (a child with special needs) sat up front and counted the pebbles on and based on observations of
incidents, or anecdotes, involv-
the page. He kept his eyes glued to the story for 15 minutes. He frowned when the chil-
ing one or more children.
dren were lost and smiled at the ending. He picked up the book on his own afterward.”
When his teacher, Joanne, reflects on her anecdotal record about Sam, she realizes that
previously she underestimated Sam’s attention span. Sam’s attention during whole
366 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
Example 1 Example 2
Child’s Name: Ledo Child’s Name:
Date: Date:
Setting: Setting:
Activity: Activity: −
−
−
−
−
-
FIGURE 11.2 Contrasting Examples of Anecdotal Records Compare these examples of anecdotal
records. Which one provides more useful information for the teacher?
group wanders, but she had never assessed it in the small-group context before. Joanne
is looking forward to sharing this newly found strength with Sam’s dad.
• Videotapes, audiotapes, and digital photography are tools for capturing ongoing
streams of behavior or performances that are difficult to document in writing. Do-
reen videotaped a small group of 5-year-olds as they discussed how they would
build a replica of the zoo’s panda house in their classroom. When she played back
the tape with the children, she discovered that the group really listened to each
other’s ideas, abandoned some, and agreed on others, which she later helped them
implement.
The benefits of such detailed observations are that they are open-ended and flexible
and provide a wealth of information. Children can be assessed in the context of regular
frequency counts Method classroom routines and activities so their behavior is most natural and authentic. The
used by teachers to keep track primary disadvantage of narrative records, on the other hand, is that they are time con-
of how often a behavior occurs. suming to both record and interpret. However, using technology can increase the ease
of collecting and evaluating narrative data. Other assessment tools and methods are
available that essentially count or tally what
is observed.
Child’s Name: Avery Lucas
Date: 10/1 to 10/4 Frequency Counts In some cases,
Time: 9.00 to 10:30 teachers need to know how often a behavior
Setting: Classroom occurs—the frequency—and/or how long it
Behavior: Crying lasts—the duration. For example, to intervene
with a child who hits, teachers begin by keep-
Date Frequency Day Total ing track of how often the negative behavior
9/21 //// / 6 occurs. Then, once an intervention plan is in
place, they can use a frequency count to evalu-
9/22 /// 3
ate its effectiveness.
9/23 //// 5
Teachers use frequency counts, also
9/24 //// 5 called event sampling, to tally each time a
Total 19 specific behavior occurs. The teacher sim-
ply makes a mark whenever a child demon-
strates a behavior or participates in an activ-
FIGURE 11.3 Sample Frequency Count Chart ity, as shown in Figure 11.3. For example, the
A frequency count chart such as this is simple to use and can provide teachers
teacher was concerned about Avery’s contin-
with helpful information about children’s behavior.
Source: McAfee, Oralie; Leong, Deborah J.; and Bodrova, Assessing and Guiding
ued crying after several weeks of school, but
Young Children’s Development and Learning, 8th ed., © 2015. Reprinted and her mother dismissed it as a phase. Based on
electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle the frequency count, the teacher decided to
River, New Jersey. keep more detailed narrative records of the
Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development 367
child’s behavior and convinced Avery’s mother to work with her to ease her adjustment
to school.
Frequency counts serve a valuable but limited function. They are easy to use and help
teachers quickly gather general information about children’s participation and experi-
ence. However, they do not provide contextual information about what occurs before and
after a specific behavior. For that evidence, teachers need to supplement frequency tallies
with narrative records or checklists, addressed next.
Checklists One of the most commonly used recording methods, checklists, are practi- checklists Practical and
cal and versatile tools for gathering assessment information about almost any aspect of versatile tools for gathering
children’s behavior, skills, or attitudes (McAfee et al., 2015). They can be based on learning assessment information about
children’s behavior, skills, or
standards in literacy or mathematics, or on sequences of development such as physical or
attitudes.
social skills. Some checklists are designed by teachers; others are commercially published.
Some checklists require marking only “yes” or “no” as to whether a child engages in
a behavior (such as “Follows two directions”). Other, more open-ended checklists require
the teacher to make a judgment of the degree to which a child has mastered a skill. Teach-
ers may make notes while observing children and then use those notes to complete the
checklist at a later time. One of the strengths of checklists is that they focus teachers’ ob-
servations; in effect, checklists tell teachers what to look for and which skills are impor-
tant. Checklists can provide data that can be analyzed and compared over time and also
aggregated for a group of children. Their limitation is that no checklist can adequately
capture the complexity of an individual child’s competence.
Rating Scales and Rubrics Rating scales and rubrics record teachers’ judg-
ments about how a child’s performance compares to that of peers or to a predetermined
standard (McAfee et al., 2015). Ratings should be based on sound assessment evidence
collected over time. Rating scales require the assessor to evaluate an individual on a rating scales Method of
characteristic and then rank the individual’s ability on a continuum from low to high recording teacher’s judgments
frequency or quality (McAfee et al., 2015). For example, a frequency scale might rate about how a child’s perfor-
mance compares to that of
whether a child performs a skill “usually,” “sometimes,” “seldom,” or “never.” A scale
peers or to a predetermined
designed to rate the quality of a child’s performance might be “exceeds standard,” “meets
standard.
standard,” or “making progress toward standard.”
Rubrics are descriptive rating scales that include clear descriptions of each point rubrics Descriptive rating
on the scale or guidelines for making judgments about a rating (McAfee et al., 2015). scales that detail the qualities
Figure 11.4 shows a sample rubric of the geometry item from COR-Advantage, the related to each rank on the
scale; includes clear descrip-
revised Child Observation Record, developed by the HighScope Educational Re-
tions of each point on the scale
search Foundation (Epstein, Marshall, & Gainsley, 2014). COR-Advantage articulates or guidelines for making judg-
8 levels of development or learning because it is designed for children from infancy ments about a rating.
through age 5. Note that in this instrument, all 8 levels of the rubric are described.
This specificity helps teachers make more accurate ratings and increases reliability
between teachers. The tool also includes additional descriptions of what behaviors
to observe as well as examples of anecdotal observations that would lead teachers to
make their ratings.
Rating scales and rubrics are relatively quick and systematic ways of keeping track of
children’s progress, and they assist teachers by focusing their observations and evidence
collections. Rubrics are more reliable than rating scales because the guidelines for rating
are explicit, which helps teachers make more accurate judgments. Rating scales and ru-
brics also help teachers identify where children are in relation to program objectives, and
help guide curriculum planning and teaching. Some commercially published authentic
assessment tools that use rating scales and/or rubrics have been validated (i.e., they meet
standards for reliability and validity).
portfolios Systematic and
organized collections of chil-
Portfolios Portfolios are systematic and organized collections of children’s work dren’s work and demonstrations
and demonstrations of their progress relevant to the goals of the curriculum (Mindes of their progress relevant to the
& Jung, 2015). Portfolios have several benefits. They focus on how individual children goals of the curriculum.
368 Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
FIGURE 11.4 Rubric Example from COR-Advantage Rubrics are valuable assessment tools
because having specific descriptions for each point on the scale helps teachers make more accurate and
reliable ratings.
Source: “Geometry: Shapes and Spatial Relations” by A. S. Epstein, B. Marshall, and S. Gainsley,
© 2014, in COR Advantage 1.5 Scoring Guide, Ypsilanti, MI: HighScope Press, pp. 50–51. Used with
permission.
change over time, rather than comparing children to each other. Teachers create portfo-
lios to document how well children are learning the content of the curriculum. In addi-
tion, portfolios provide concrete and meaningful information about children’s progress
to share with parents, other teachers, administrators, specialists, and even the general
public (Gullo, 2006).
The materials contained in a portfolio provide teachers and children with the oppor-
tunity to reflect together on children’s progress, as evident in Figure 11.5. Most teachers
involve children in selecting work to be included in a portfolio. This requires children to
think about which of their products are worth keeping and evaluate the quality of their
own performances.
The contents of portfolios can vary, but they need to be consistent among children
in a group. Generally, portfolios include dated samples of children’s work represent-
FIGURE 11.5 Sample ing at least the beginning, middle, and end of a school year. These samples should
Contents of a Second- include teacher notes about context or children’s verbal comments made about the
Grade Child’s Portfolio The work. A portfolio may also include anecdotal or other narrative records plus obser-
contents of a child’s portfolio vational checklists related to curriculum goals. One widely used, validated portfolio
serve as important evidence of assessment system that includes all these elements
children’s learning over time. is the Work Sampling System, designed for children
from preschool to grade 6 (Meisels, Marsden, Jablon,
Your Child’s Portfolio & Dichtelmiller, 2013).
In your child’s Portfolio, you will find . . .
Documentation as Dynamic Assessment
Best read book orally recorded with written Earlier in this chapter, we defined documenting as the
reflection (child selected)
process of collecting and recording evidence about chil-
Writing piece with written reflection (child selected)
dren’s learning and development. The word documenta-
Math piece with written reflection (child selected) tion is often used to refer to the recorded evidence that
Sample of best handwriting is then analyzed and interpreted. However, the influence
Strengths and goals (teacher and child selected) of the Reggio Emilia approach on early childhood prac-
Math reflection tice (Edwards, Gandini, & Forman, 2011) created a new,
School, family, and friends reflection expanded definition of documentation.
Field trip reflection Teachers can assess children’s learning by document-
ing a project or activity through note-taking, p hotography,
Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development 369
Sources: Based on Assessing and Guiding Young Children’s Development and Learning, 6th edition, by O. McAfee, D. J. Leong, and E. Bodrova,
2015, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson; and Observing Development of the Young Child, 8th edition, by J. J. Beaty, 2013, Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Pearson.
Learning standards set curriculum goals for what a child should know and be able to
do. They also guide the development of assessments. Effective teachers interpret and use
the assessment information they have gathered and recorded in relation to learning stan-
dards. For instance, Micah observes that at the midpoint of the year, most of the children
in his preschool class can recognize the first letter in their names and maybe one other
letter. Is this good or bad? Unless Micah is familiar with early learning standards in the
area of literacy, he can’t make a judgment about whether his children are achieving at an
acceptable rate. Similarly, four of the children in Micah’s class do not speak in complete
Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development 371
What Works
Using Technology to Assess Learning
Teachers can be overwhelmed at the prospect of recording their access teaching strategies connected
observations, keeping track of all the data they collect about to the items they assess.
children’s progress, and compiling portfolios of children’s work. Wireless Generation is an educational
Fortunately, technology including smartphones, digital cameras, technology company that is best known for innovative use of
tablets, and laptops is now available that can minimize these dis- handheld devices to assess children’s learning during classroom
advantages and support teachers to reliably assess and document interactions. Its mCLASS: Circle assessment for 3- to 5-year-olds
children’s learning. includes note-taking tools and observational checklists to moni-
One such example is the 36-item online COR-Advantage, an tor social and emotional development. The system also provides
authentic assessment tool for evaluating the development and brief tasks to measure critical skills for early literacy, such as
learning of children from birth through age 5, developed by the phonological awareness and letter knowledge as well as math-
HighScope Educational Research Foundation (Epstein, Marshall, ematics. The data is synced to the Web and provides analysis and
& Gainsley, 2014). This system enables teachers to use the In- reports to help teachers identify areas of concern or strength for
ternet and a smartphone or tablet to record and store anecdotal each child. For K–3 and up, the company offers similar software
records and to generate scores, charts, and graphs of children’s on handheld devices that assess children’s literacy and math
progress, and narrative reports for individuals and for the group. skills.
The data can be aggregated to meet reporting requirements of Many educational software companies provide electronic
school districts or Head Start. Children’s files can be easily updat- portfolios that can be used to create, preserve, and store chil-
ed with new information. Scanned artwork, photographs, sample dren’s work using digital technology. With smartphones and tab-
writing, or video clips may also be included. Families can access lets that allow teachers to photograph, scan, and record video
their child’s online community, view uploaded attachments, and and audio products, the possibilities for storing work samples
participate in the assessment process. and performances are almost endless. The long-term storage
Similarly, the Creative Curriculum System for birth through capabilities make it possible to continue to track children’s
kindergarten includes an authentic observation assessment that is progress across grades and to produce a permanent record for
also available online, Teaching Strategies GOLD. Teachers observe children’s families.
and document children’s learning and development and upload These and other technology-based assessment systems
evidence to an online portfolio. Using this evidence, they rate chil- help teachers assess and are designed to be closely connected
dren’s progress on a continuum of 38 objectives for learning and to curriculum. They provide suggestions for individual and group
development. Children’s individual portfolios can be shared with learning experiences and intentional teaching strategies. Thus,
families, and with therapists and school districts for children who technology not only lightens the time-consuming demands of
receive special educational services (with the family’s permission, gathering assessment information but also links results to improv-
of course). The online system also offers a process to ensure that ing teaching and curriculum planning. With the speed of technol-
results are reliable among different observers. Teaching Strategies ogy advancement, we can hardly imagine what solutions lay in
GOLD is aligned with the Creative Curriculum, allowing teachers to the future.
Standardized Testing
of Young Children
Anyone who has attended school in the United States in the past half century is intimately
familiar with the regular rituals of standardized testing. We have all taken some form
of state-mandated achievement test at some time in our educational careers. Most of us
took the SAT or ACT to get into college. In many states, passing standardized tests is
required to become a certified teacher. Despite educators’ concerns and increasing doubts
expressed by the general public, standardized testing is inescapable in today’s political
climate. Therefore, teachers must be more knowledgeable than ever about the content
that will be tested as well as the appropriate and inappropriate uses of standardized tests.
achievement tests Tests Achievement Tests One of the most familiar types of standardized tests are achieve-
designed to measure what chil- ment tests such as the SAT, the Iowa Test of Basic Skills, or the California Achievement
dren have learned in general Test. Achievement tests are designed to measure what children have learned in general
or in a content area such as
or in a content area such as reading or mathematics. The test items are a sample of the
reading or mathematics.
curriculum content, and children’s responses are an indication of what they have learned.
Recent examples of achievement tests are those administered to meet federal require-
ments or state learning standards.
readiness tests Achievement Readiness Tests School readiness tests are typically administered before entrance
tests administered to children to kindergarten (Snow, 2011). Some norm-referenced readiness tests are considered apti-
at entry to kindergarten. tude tests because they purport to predict whether children are sufficiently developed to
benefit from kindergarten instruction. These tests are especially problematic because the
younger the child, the more difficult it is to obtain an accurate assessment of what she or
he has learned, much less what the child is capable of learning in the future (NAEYC &
NAECS-SDE, 2003).
The fact is that children’s scores on readiness tests actually reflect their past experi-
ences and opportunities to learn and, hence, are more accurately categorized as achieve-
ment tests (Snow, 2011). The use of readiness tests to keep children out of kindergarten
is considered inappropriate by NAEYC and other early childhood professional organiza-
tions because it denies children what they need most: the opportunity to attend school
(Snow, 2011).
aptitude tests Tests designed Aptitude or Ability Tests Aptitude tests are presumably designed to measure
to measure children’s potential not what children have already learned, but their potential for learning in the future
for learning in the future. (McAfee et al., 2015). Consequently, scores on aptitude tests are intended to predict
future performance. As such, they are sometimes used to identify children for gifted and
talented programs. One example is a career aptitude test used to determine if an indi-
vidual’s abilities are a good match to learn the skills required of a job, such as piloting
an airplane.
In education, intelligence or IQ tests such as the Stanford-Binet or the McCarthy
Scales of Children’s Abilities are aptitude tests. Such tests are controversial because
Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development 373
Appropriate Uses of
Standardized Testing
Standardized tests are not inherently good or evil.
Although some published tests do not meet techni-
cal requirements for reliability and validity, many Portfolios are a valuable
alternative to standardized
others are technically sound. As described earlier in this chapter, standardized tests have
testing for evaluating children’s
particular characteristics and specific purposes for which they have been developed. When learning. Parents can see
used for these purposes, they can have utility; that is, they can be used to benefit children. authentic evidence of chil-
The most positive uses of standardized tests are: (1) to help identify and diagnose chil- dren’s progress, and children
dren with special needs, (2) to serve as a source of information for assessing children for themselves can feel proud of
instruction, and (3) to provide information for program evaluation and accountability. their accomplishments.
Tests are also used for research purposes.
Standardized testing has appropriate uses as long as the instruments are technically utility Used to benefit c hildren.
sound, used for the purposes for which they were designed, used to benefit children,
and used in conjunction with other sources for decision making. Throughout your career
as a teacher, you will face decisions about using standardized tests. Although there are
appropriate uses for standardized testing, there are controversies and concerns that sur-
round their use, which we discuss next.
needed for early childhood programs and for teachers in planning the kindergarten cur-
riculum and adapting for individual children.
Despite the challenges and controversies surrounding testing of young children,
accurate assessment of young children’s development and learning is an essential com-
ponent of developmentally appropriate practice. Intentional teachers use the effective
assessment strategies described in this chapter to meet children where they are in order
to plan curriculum and adapt their teaching to help children achieve challenging goals.
✓ Check Your Understanding 11.5: Standardized Testing of Young Children
and individually appropriate for all children, including • Benefits of standardized tests include: (1) they help
children with special needs. to identify and diagnose children with special needs,
• The most effective methods for collecting evidence to (2) they serve as a source of information for assess-
improve learning and development are observing chil- ing children for instruction, and (3) they are one
dren’s behavior and performance, eliciting responses source of information for program evaluation and
from children, collecting work products, and gathering accountability.
information from family members. • High-stakes accountability testing can have adverse
• Accurate interpretation and effective use of assessment consequences for teaching practices in primary grades
evidence depend on teachers’ knowing what and when that trickle down into kindergarten and preschool,
children should be accomplishing certain developmen- including biased results and negative effects on cur-
tal tasks and learning skills. riculum and teaching.
Key Terms
■ accommodations ■ developmental ■ informal assessment
continuum ■ readiness tests
■ accountability ■ interviews
■ reliability
■ achievement tests ■ diagnostic tests ■ modifications
■ rubrics
■ alternative assessments ■ dynamic assessment ■ narrative records
■ running record
■ anecdotal records ■ evaluation ■ normal curve
■ screening tests
■ aptitude tests ■ evidence ■ norm-referenced tests
■ standardized assessment
■ assessment ■ formal assessment ■ performance assessment
■ standardized testing
■ authentic assessment ■ formative assessment ■ play-based assessment
■ summative assessment
■ checklists ■ frequency counts ■ portfolios
■ testing
■ criterion-referenced tests ■ functional skills ■ program evaluation
■ utility
■ curriculum-embedded ■ high-stakes testing ■ rating scales
assessment ■ validity
379
380 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
I
n this chapter, we address fundamental areas of the early childhood curriculum: language
and literacy development. Speaking and understanding, reading, and writing are the foun-
dation of all other learning in school and essential for success in life. Also in this chapter,
we address the arts, a content area that, in contrast to literacy, is often seen as expendable.
Today’s emphasis on reading and test scores now drives the curriculum to a large extent. Some
schools have eliminated the arts altogether; others use them only as a reward for good behav-
ior. This chapter views the arts as an essential means of communication for young children
and demonstrates their connection to other areas of communication: language and reading.
Although we focus on the integration of the arts, we also believe in art for art’s sake, especially
for young children for whom art experiences contribute to development in so many ways.
First, we address the all-important area of language development—how both first and
second language develops and ways teachers can scaffold children’s language learning.
Next, we discuss the foundations of literacy from birth through age 5, as well as the key
components of reading instruction in the primary grades. We then turn to the creative arts,
describing goals for art education and teaching strategies to enhance children’s enjoyment
and engagement in the arts.
Children’s Language
Development
After 3 months of separation, 4-year-old Liam is excited to see his Nana. He talks and
talks as she tries to quiet him for bedtime. Finally, in exasperation, he says to her, “But
I have so many words for you, and they never get tired.”
Seeing their language skills blossom is one of the most delightful aspects of teaching
young children. Perhaps the most important task of the first 5 years of life is development of
language because it supports learning in so many other areas. Language is a strong predictor
of later success in learning to read and write (National Institute of Child Health and Hu-
man Development [NICHD], 2000; Neuman & Wright, 2013). Likewise, children who are
skilled communicators demonstrate better social competence and emotional self-regulation.
Types of Language
receptive language The ability There are basically two types of language: receptive and expressive. Receptive language
to understand what is being said. is the ability to understand what is being said. Expressive language is the ability to com-
municate through use and knowledge of spoken language. Receptive language skills—
expressive language The abil- listening and understanding—develop earlier than the expressive abilities of speaking
ity to communicate; use and and communicating. At any point in time, children understand more words and more
knowledge of spoken language. advanced sentence structures than they use.
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 381
parents of different income levels and their children from infancy to age 3. The study
found that, over the course of a year, children of parents who were professionals were ex-
posed to more than 11 million words. In contrast, children whose families were receiving
public assistance were exposed to only 3 million words.
Researchers estimated that during the first 4 years of a child’s life, an average child in
a professional family would have accumulated experience with almost 50 million words,
whereas an average child living in poverty would have been exposed to 13 million words
(Hart & Risley, 1995). Consequently, children’s vocabulary growth reflected their experi-
ence. By age 4, children from more affluent homes had vocabularies approximately three
times as large as those of children living in poverty.
It is important to note that Hart and Risley (1995) found economic advantage to be
the only factor related to language differences. Race/ethnicity, gender, or birth order of
the child made no difference. The researchers also cautioned about negatively judging the
parents, who are coping with the many stresses of poverty:
Particularly striking among the welfare parents was their resilience and persistence in
the face of repeated defeats and humiliations, their joy in playing with their children,
and their desire that their children do well in school. They could spend an hour on a
bus holding a feverish child and wait longer than that in a public health clinic. But
these parents did not talk to their children very much. (Hart & Risley, 1995, pp. 69–70)
The large vocabulary difference between income groups has come to be called “The
30 million word gap” (Hart & Risley, 2003). Public recognition of this disparity helped
propel the White House to convene a summit called “Bridging the Word Gap” in 2014 and
to propose increased investments in early education.
Recently, concerns have been raised about the interpretation of these findings. Re-
searchers at the White House summit emphasized that just increasing the number of
words children hear is not enough; more important is the complexity and variety of words
that children learn (Quenqua, 2014). Additionally, the Hart and Risley study involved a
small number of families. SES may no longer be as influential a factor because many
of today’s economically advantaged parents spend more time on handheld devices than
in conversation with their children. Nevertheless, an achievement gap persists, and chil-
dren’s language capacity is a contributing factor.
To address this gap in children’s language development, teachers must first under-
stand how language typically develops. Teachers must also be aware that many types of
disability affect communication; some individual children will need access to assistive
technology—called augmented communication devices and/or sign language.
Developmental Continuum
Oral Language
Age of Child Developmental Expectations
Birth to about • Communicate through behaviors rather than words; signal distress by crying. Caregivers
8 months need to interpret babies’ sounds and gestures.
• Smile or vocalize if they want someone to pay attention or play.
• Begin vocalizing vowel sounds called cooing. Soon after, they begin to babble, producing
consonant/vowel sounds such as “ba.”
• Continue to babble using all kinds of sounds and will play with sounds when alone.
• Begin to understand familiar names such as those of siblings or pets.
• Laugh and appear to listen to conversations.
Between 8 and • Become more purposeful in their communications.
18 months • Use facial expressions, gestures, and sounds to get their needs met. (If a bottle falls from
a high chair tray, instead of just crying, the 14-month-old may grunt and wave at the floor.)
• Understand many more words than they can say.
• Speak in long, babbled sentences that mirror the cadence of conventional speech.
• Soon start to shake their head “no” and begin to use the word me.
• Usually crack the language code and begin to use their first words between 12 and
18 months.
From 18 to • Experience a burst in vocabulary and begin to combine words into two-word utterances
24 months called telegraphic speech. Like old-fashioned telegrams, they waste no words in commu-
nicating their message: “No nap.”
Ages 2 to 3 • Progress from using two-word combinations (my truck) to three- and four-word sentences
with words in the correct order more often (Where’s my truck?).
• Speaking vocabulary may reach 200 words.
• Use adjectives and adverbs. (Give me my blue truck now.)
• Most children’s speech becomes more understandable. Constantly ask, “Wassat?” as
they seem to want to name everything.
Ages 3 to 6 • Have a vocabulary of about 1,000 words.
• Although some may still have difficulty, most are better able to articulate some of the
more difficult sounds, like s, th, z, r, and l.
• Can initiate and engage in more complex conversations.
• Use 1,500 to 2,000 words as vocabulary expands rapidly during kindergarten.
• Usually speak clearly and are lively conversation partners with adults and other children.
The primary grades • Language development continues at a rapid pace.
• During these years, children need a large vocabulary to learn to read and to comprehend
what they read. Explicit teaching of vocabulary needs to be an instructional goal.
• At the same time, the more children read, the more words they learn because the lan-
guage of books is more elaborate than everyday conversation. Some researchers estimate
that children need to learn 3,000 words a year throughout the elementary school years.
Sources: Based on Assessing and Guiding Young Children’s Development and Learning, 6th
edition, by O. McAfee, D. Leong, and E. Bodrova, 2015, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson;
Learning Language and Loving It: A Guide to Promoting Children’s Social, Language,
and Literacy Development in Early Childhood Settings, 2nd edition, by E. Weitzman and
J. Greenberg, 2002, Toronto: The Hanen Centre.
384 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
cooing Vocalizing vowel challenging. For example, kindergartners need to have back-and-forth conversations; first
sounds. graders’ conversations need to build on what the other person says through questions and
babble Producing consonant/ comments; and second graders need to have multiple exchanges that link what they say
vowel sounds such as “ba ba.” to the other person’s comments. Obviously, these standards directly affect how teachers
teach. Teachers have to move beyond “yes or no” questions to provoking more intellectu-
telegraphic speech Combining
ally engaging, stimulating conversations among children.
words into two-word utterances.
In the previous sections, we described the critically important role of early experi-
ence to language development and expectations across the period from birth to age 8.
Next, we describe what adults can do to help develop children’s communication skills.
Scaffolding Children’s
Language Development
Public reports about the “30 million word gap” have garnered considerable media atten-
tion that can lead to inaccurate information about how to help children develop language.
As we’ve seen, it isn’t just the quantity of words that children hear, it is the quality and
complexity of their language experience. Children learn language and expand their vo-
cabulary from their interactions with more competent speakers. However, effective teach-
ing strategies differ based on the age of the children. Next we discuss developmentally
appropriate ways of promoting language in each age group.
Classroom Connection
Supporting Language Development
Watch this video and listen to the in Babies and Toddlers
teacher as she takes time to have Depicting language development as a progression may imply that it happens
a conversation with a toddler automatically. Although very young children learn to talk without formal in-
during play to develop a warm struction, adults play a critical role in supporting that process.
relationship with the child and
expand his language. Talk to Babies and Toddlers The role of conversational partner is
especially important for teachers working with babies and toddlers because
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v the first 3 years of life are prime time for developing language. Neverthe-
=ZUajb1Ll2qQ&list=PLoYCO2fw less, some teachers and parents of very young children persist in the view
BJJpPrIy7mLNSWnOPoSKdMk-R that there is no reason to talk to children who can’t talk back. The opposite
is true. From the earliest moments of life, babies are trying to communicate.
Teachers need to talk as if the child can talk back and respond to almost any
attempt to communicate.
If you are like most adults, your interaction with a baby may sound like a high-
pitched voice saying this: “Hi, baby. How are you this morning, baby, baby?” You pause.
The infant moves his mouth, waves his arms, or just looks at you intently. And now you
say, “Oh, you had a good sleep, did you? Are you ready to have some fun today?” When
the baby gurgles, you say, “You are ready, aren’t you? Jesse’s ready, ready to play!”
Adults (and even older children) talk to babies differently than they do to each other.
The high-pitched tone of voice that adults tend to use naturally with babies is called
parentese The high-pitched parentese or motherese, and researchers have observed its use around the world (Rivera-
tone of voice adults and even Gaxiola, Silva-Pereyra, & Kuhl, 2008). What’s more, they know that babies like it. Infants
children tend to use naturally consistently prefer hearing parentese to adult conversation. In laboratory studies, they
with babies; also called
show this preference by turning their heads one way to trigger a tape of parentese more
motherese.
often than they turn it the other way to hear a tape of adult-to-adult conversation.
Effective communication begins as babies pay attention and respond. When the child
initiates, teachers need to respond enthusiastically and then wait for a response. They
interpret what babies are trying to communicate and expand on the message with words.
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 385
Using empty praise or phrases Teacher: “That’s nice, Jack.” “Good boy.”
Time-passing remarks Jack: “Can we drive the truck?” Teacher: “We’ll be going pretty soon.”
Focusing on safety and rules Jack: “Look, I found a caterpillar.” Teacher: “You’ll have to wash your hands now.”
INCREASE Conversation Stretchers—Types of Teacher Talk That Extend One-to-One Conversation and
Contribute to More Turn-Taking
Conversation Stretchers Examples
Focusing on and adding details “The firefighter’s boots are tall. Let’s see how big they are compared to your
shoes, Jack. They’re gigantic. Why do you think they have these handles?”
Expanding and asking questions “It sounds like you want to build a firehouse out of your blocks with a pole. What
materials will you need?”
Repeating important words “Here’s the fire extinguisher. We have a fire extinguisher like this at school. Who
remembers where we keep the extinguisher?”
Sharing own experiences “When I was on my way to school, I heard an ambulance siren. It startled me.”
Explaining terms “A false alarm. False means it is not real. So a false alarm means there isn’t a
real fire.”
Wondering aloud “I wonder what it would be like to work in a fire station. . . .”
Using wait time Give plenty of time (5 to 10 seconds) for children to respond, especially less ver-
bal children. The other children and you will learn that waiting for a less verbal
child can sometimes yield keen insights.
Source: Based on Oral Language and Early Literacy in Preschool: Talking, Reading, and Writing, 2nd edition, by K. A. Roskos, P. O. Tabors, &
L. A. Lenhart, 2009, Newark, DE: International Reading Association; Learning Language and Loving It: A Guide to Promoting Children’s Social,
Language, and Literacy Development in Early Childhood Settings, 2nd edition, by E. Weitzman and J. Greenberg, 2002, Toronto: The Hanen Centre.
listen to a story on tape in their home language. Ms. Abell sets up a treasure hunt where
children must listen and follow a series of directions to find the surprise.
Use Decontextualized Speech One of the most effective ways to expand chil-
dren’s language is to use decontextualized speech. This is talk about events, experiences, decontextualized speech Talk
or people that are beyond the here and now or that inhabit children’s imaginations. Such about events, experiences, or
interaction requires children and adults to use more complex and varied vocabulary in people that are beyond the
explanations, descriptions, dialogue, and pretend talk. here and now or that inhabit
children’s imaginations.
Decontextualized speech can be complicated because the speaker and the listener
can’t rely on cues from the context to understand the communication. When children talk
about the here and now, the context permits using words like this, that, there, here, and it.
These are words that children already know. Such conversation doesn’t require or chal-
lenge them to use more descriptive language to be understood.
Furthermore, decontextualized speech is valuable preparation for reading (Snow et
al., 1998). In spoken communication, lots of cues such as gestures, facial expressions,
physical space, and objects are available. If someone says, “Take your seat,” the listener
388 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
quickly understands that he is being told to sit down. But if the same sentence appears
in writing, the reader would have to figure out whether it means sit in a chair or pick up
a cushion. This is just one example of the important connection between speaking and
reading.
Teach New and Rare Words Four-year-old Liam has a new baby brother named
Ryan. Liam decides that the baby should be named Nathan, after his best friend at pre-
school. The first few days after Ryan comes home from the hospital, Liam persists in
calling him Nathan. His parents don’t correct him, but they keep calling the baby Ryan.
Sitting next to his mom and Ryan on the couch one day, Liam thoughtfully says, “We can
call him Rynathan. That will be a compromise.”
Liam’s advanced vocabulary, which also includes words such as actually, amazing,
entertaining, and nocturnal, did not develop by chance. His parents and teachers talk with
him, use these words regularly, and explain and show what they mean.
Learning new words occurs through repeated exposure to the words in a context
where the meaning becomes clear. Liam’s parents undoubtedly negotiate with him rather
than get into power struggles. For example, if he wants to watch TV and his mother wants
him to go outside, she might say, “Let’s compromise. You can go outside while it’s still
light, and we’ll tape the program so you can watch it later.” After hearing and using this
word several times, Liam begins to use it himself.
Teachers need to use explicit instruction to expand children’s vocabulary, and should
rare words Multisyllable words intentionally introduce new and rare words—multisyllable, sophisticated words that are
that are not typically part of a not typically part of a child’s vocabulary (Collins, 2012; Neuman & Wright, 2013). For
young child’s vocabulary. example, in The Tale of Peter Rabbit, Peter’s coat gets caught in the fence and the birds
implore him to exert himself. Before reading the book, the teacher introduces these words
with simple definitions, “Implore means to ask someone to do something you really want
them to do” and “Exert means to try really hard.” During the reading, she pauses at the
sentence to ask the children what it means. Then later she reinforces the learning by using
the new words repeatedly, sometimes jokingly, “I implore you to get your coats on,” and
encouraging children to use them.
Effective teachers read to Use Interactive Book Reading One of the most effective ways to promote chil-
children in small groups. In a dren’s language and increase their vocabulary is to engage in interactive book reading
group of five or six, children (McGee, 2013). In many classrooms, storybook reading is the favorite activity of teachers as
can see the pictures, ask ques-
well as children. However, teachers usually read books only to the whole group (Dickinson,
tions, and talk about the story
before, during, and after the
2011). At times, reading is seen as entertainment only; at other times, teachers use it as a tran-
reading. sition activity, with children taking turns to go wash their hands while the teacher reads. These
practices are missed opportunities
for learning. Instead, interactive book
reading can serve many valuable pur-
poses for individual children, as we see
in the following example (based on
Connect Module 1—Embedded Inter-
ventions, http://www.community.fpg
.unc.edu/connect-modules/learners
/module-1):
Four-year-old Tristan eagerly joins
a group of friends in his Head Start
© Dean Mitchell/Vetta/Getty Images
help meet Tristan’s speech therapy goals and also build all the children’s language de-
velopment. As she reads a book specially made by Tristan’s therapist to a small group
of five children, all the children respond to the language prompts. The children love it
when Ms. Freedman passes around a mirror and they see how to put their lips together to
make the /M/, /B/, /P/ sounds. In this inclusive classroom, Tristan receives peer support to
improve his speech articulation, and the other children serve as language models for him. dialogic reading Interactive,
shared picture book reading
Reading in Small Groups Research shows that book reading is most effective during which the adult and the
child gradually switch roles so
when it occurs in groups of four to six children (Karweit & Wasik, 1996; Morrow, 1988).
that the child learns to become
The power of reading is not in the book alone, but in the conversation about the book the storyteller with the as-
among teachers and children before, during, and after reading (Gonzalez et al., 2014). sistance of the adult, who plays
This type of interaction is more likely to occur in a small group than in the whole group the role of active listener and
or even in a one-on-one reading situation (Bates, 2013; McGee, 2013). Reading in small questioner.
What Works
Dialogic Reading
Dialogic Reading is interactive, shared picture book reading that Prompts the child to say something
enhances children’s language and literacy skills, according to the about the book.
What Works Clearinghouse at the U.S. Department of Education. Evaluates (listens to) the child’s response
During the shared reading practice, the adult and child gradually to decide how to respond.
switch roles so that the child learns to become the storyteller with Expands the child’s response.
the assistance of the adult, who plays the role of active listener Repeats the prompt.
and questioner. As the child becomes increasingly familiar with a book, the
Teachers can use dialogic reading with children individu- adult reads less, listens more, and gradually uses more high-level
ally or in small groups. While reading books with the children, prompts to encourage the child to go beyond naming objects in the
the teacher uses five types of prompts or questioning strategies pictures to thinking about what is happening in the pictures and
to stimulate children’s language interaction. A handy mnemonic how this relates to the child’s own experiences.
device to remember the prompts is the word CROWD. The table Research on dialogic reading demonstrates that it enhances the
below lists the prompts with examples of questions from a reading language skills of children from middle- and upper-income families
of The Tale of Peter Rabbit, by Beatrix Potter. more than typical picture book reading alone. More important, stud-
The CROWD prompts are used by the adult in a reading tech- ies conducted with children from low-income families found sub-
nique called PEER: stantial positive changes in the development of children’s language.
completion prompt A prompt groups and rereading the same book are especially effective strategies for dual language
that requires the child to learners and children from low-income families (McGee, 2013; Schickedanz & Collins
verbally complete the end of a
2013).
sentence.
Small groups make it possible for each child to see the pictures, follow the print,
recall questions Questions participate in a discussion, and comprehend the story better. Small-group reading makes
asked by the teacher about it more feasible for teachers to interact with children before, during, and after reading.
a book to see what children
This is particularly valuable when the book has a complex narrative and rare words.
remember.
A narrative is a story with a beginning, middle, and end; characters; dialogue; and a plot
open-ended questions Ques- with a problem to solve or a dilemma to be resolved. Interactive, shared book reading is a
tions asked by the teacher that
highly effective strategy for expanding children’s language and listening comprehension.
encourage a child to tell what
is happening in a picture.
To learn more about this research-based practice, read the What Works: Dialogic Reading
feature.
Wh- questions Questions that
begin with “Why” or “What”
to get children thinking about Reading to the Whole Group The effectiveness of small-group reading does not
characters’ motives or feelings. mean that teachers should never read to the whole group. If the book is relatively short
and involves children’s active participation and predictable text, whole-group reading
distancing questions Ques-
tions that relate pictures and
may be the best choice. Predictable books use parallel text structures that become famil-
words in the book to children’s iar to children, such as those in Bill Martin’s Brown Bear, Brown Bear or Dr. Seuss’s Hop
own experiences beyond the on Pop. The whole group can chime in during Eric Carle’s The Very Hungry Caterpillar
book. with predictable text such as “But he was still hungry.”
narrative A story with a begin- Throughout the first five years of life, children develop language and early literacy
ning, middle, and end; charac- skills simultaneously, and the two are interrelated (Dickinson, 2011; Shanahan & Loni-
ters; dialogue; and a plot with a gan, 2013). Reading to children enhances their language because the structures and words
problem to solve or a dilemma used in books are more complex than those used in everyday speech. Knowing more
to be resolved. words, in turn, helps children make sense of print and find what they read more meaning-
predictable books Books with ful and interesting. Talking with children about what is read further boosts vocabulary and
controlled vocabulary using comprehension. But what about children who don’t speak the language of the classroom?
parallel text structures that Next, we discuss the timely topic of learning in two languages.
become familiar to children.
By contrast, many children, especially in the United States, are sequential sequential language learning
language learners. They learn a second language after their first language is relatively Learning a second language
well established (Espinosa, 2013). Learning two languages sequentially is a more com- after the first language is
relatively well established.
plicated, highly individual process that varies with children’s personality, experience,
and other factors but tends to follow a relatively predictable pattern, described in the
next section.
Developmental Continuum
Second Language Learning
Stage Description How Teachers Can Help
Stage 1: Home Language Even though other people are speak- Teachers provide cues to help children
Use The child speaks the ing English, children may not realize or make sense of words by pointing to and
home language only. understand that the two languages dif- labeling objects. At lunchtime, Rachel sits
fer. At first, they try to use their home with a group of Spanish-speaking 4-year-
language, but soon learn that this isn’t olds. As they eat, she labels the utensils
working. At some point, this becomes and food, speaking slowly and distinctly.
frustrating and they stop trying, leading “Spoon,” she says as she picks up her
to the second stage. own. “Here’s your spoon for your soup,” as
she guides Carlos to follow her directions.
Stage 2: Nonverbal, This period can last for a long time or Teachers should not force nonverbal chil-
Observational Period can be relatively brief, depending on dren to speak. Instead of talking, children
After children stop try- the individual. This stage is sometimes may try to communicate nonverbally to get
ing to speak in their first
called the silent period, but a better help from adults or other children. They
language, they enter a
period where they do not name is the nonverbal period. Silent may point to the object they want or smile
talk at all, but rather implies that no communication occurs. when their request is granted. Gradually,
listen and observe. Actually, during this period, children are they begin to rehearse the new language by
learning a lot about the new language by speaking some words quietly to themselves
listening and observing, but they are not or playing with the sounds. A child says,
verbal themselves. Children may not be “Paint paper” and the teacher interprets
talking, but that does not mean they are whether the child wants to paint or to take
not communicating. her picture home.
Stage 3: Telegraphic Children speak in one- or two-word utter- Teachers give simple choices that require
and Formulaic Speech ances and repeat routine phrases without “yes” or “no” or one-word responses,
Children have a small, understanding what they mean. At story such as “Do you want to play with blocks
working vocabulary in the
time, Carlos automatically says, “It’s or paint?” Children can also answer sim-
second language and be-
gin to use it out loud. circle time” because he has heard these ple who, what, or where questions.
words in this context many times.
Stage 4: Productive Listening comprehension improves as Rather than correcting “errors,” teachers
Language Children begin receptive language increases. Children strive for communication. Carlos might
producing the new use the social language of the classroom say, “I like my school big” rather than
language. This stage
or playground, such as “My turn now” or “I like my big school.” His teacher
can take 1 to 2 years,
during which children “Be my friend.” They begin to apply the responds, “I’m glad you like our big
gradually produce longer grammar rules of the new language, but school.” Teachers ask how and why
sentences. not consistently. Children are better able questions that require short responses:
to participate in academic learning. “How did your shoes get wet?”
Stage 5: Fluent Second- Children can understand what is said in Teachers use open-ended questions that
Language Production the classroom and begin to understand engage children in producing more com-
Moving from emergent written communications. plex sentences. Second language learn-
to fluent language pro-
ers will probably need extra help in the
duction can take 1 to
2 years. early grades, where the curriculum focus-
es on learning to read. Teaching reading
in the home language is most effective.
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 393
Culture Lens
Understanding and Responding to Code Switching
Code switching is the ability to understand and use both using the same strategies that promote language learning
the commonly accepted version of English and the home in all children: listening and responding in a meaningful
language or dialect. When children are learning a second way, using real objects and nonverbal cues, intentionally
language, they often code switch, usually beginning a teaching new words, and extending conversations with
sentence in one language and then switching to the other questions and ideas.
as in: “I drew a picture de mi madre” or “Mi mano es
Sometimes bilingual teachers think that they can sup-
dirty.” Code switching is not limited to children. In fact,
port dual language learning by alternating languages
bilingual people of all ages alternate between languages
themselves. Again, the opposite is true. Children’s brains
depending on the setting and the topic of conversation.
will automatically listen and respond to the language
Many bilingual individuals find that they can best ex-
they know best and tune out the other one. To promote
press their feelings and personal thoughts in their native
dual language development, bilingual teachers can read
language.
books in each language but should do so at separate
In the past, it was assumed that code switching meant times.
that children were confused or incompetent. But now we
Encouraging children to code switch and responding
know that the opposite is true: children are able to sepa-
positively honors the language system that they already
rate the languages in their brains and apply the differ-
possess and helps them adapt to different communica-
ent rules of grammar of each language. Code switching
tion requirements in different situations. And it also
is actually a sign of children’s growing communicative
respects and supports their cultural identity because
competence. They are using all they know to communi-
language and culture are inextricably linked. Teach-
cate as clearly as they can.
ers should always create a warm, positive classroom
So what should teachers do about code switching? First, climate in which children feel safe to express them-
they should expect code switching as a normal aspect selves. Capable code switchers acquire the ability to
of dual language learning. The most important thing is think about their own use of language, which serves
not to correct children when they mix languages. Cor- them well in other learning situations and has long-
recting children’s language attempts sends a signal that lasting positive effects on language, cognition, and so-
they’ve done something wrong. They may stop trying to cial development.
communicate in order to avoid making the “mistake” of
code switching. Source: Code Switching: Why It Matters and How to Respond, by
National Center on Cultural and Linguistic Responsiveness, no
Instead of focusing on children’s “errors,” teachers date, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human
should focus on understanding the child’s message. They Services, Office of Head Start. Retrieved January 26, 2015, from
should view code switching as a strength. As always, http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/cultural-linguistic
teachers should be good language models themselves, /fcp/docs/code-switching.pdf.
394 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
Language Lens
Teaching Dual Language Learners
Of 16 children in Pedro Cordero’s Head Start classroom, have behavior and learning problems and become easily
12 speak Spanish as their home language. Pedro inten- frustrated.
tionally uses both English and Spanish to support explicit
An important—and seemingly contradictory—finding was
goals for children in each language. During conversations
that the amount of Spanish spoken in the classroom was
with individual children, he often speaks Spanish, find-
not related to a child’s English proficiency. In the study,
ing that it helps him get to know the children and build
teachers spoke Spanish with Spanish-speaking children
positive relationships with them. During more formal
only 20% of the time. When speaking directly to Span-
gatherings such as story time or small-group activities,
ish-speaking children, teachers who spoke some Spanish
he often speaks English. But he connects new words to
still used English two-thirds of the time. When speaking
real objects or pictures, and he checks children’s under-
to a group, teachers tended to use English. When teach-
standing regularly. Pedro’s assistant teacher speaks only
ers spoke Spanish, however, they had more elaborate
English; she and the English-speaking children provide
conversations with children, a key finding considering
language models for the dual language learners.
the research on the value of extended conversations for
In many states in the United States today, the type of vocabulary development.
teaching Pedro does would be prohibited by law in K–12
The researchers concluded that English-only teaching of
public schools. In the belief that bilingual education pre-
young children may contribute to the achievement gap
vents learning English and hurts academic success, some
rather than help close it. Numerous other studies con-
states have adopted “English-only” laws.
firm that compared to children in bilingual programs,
But what does research say about English-only teaching children in English immersion programs are more likely
and children’s success in school? Many studies now sup- to have low reading and math achievement in fifth grade
port the long-term benefits of bilingualism. One large- and to eventually drop out of school. From the perspec-
scale study of 345 Spanish-speaking children in 161 tive of research, the Spanish-speaking children as well
prekindergarten programs found that when teachers as the English-speaking children in Pedro Cordero’s
spoke some Spanish, Spanish-speaking children demon- Head Start class should benefit from his approach to
strated better social skills than children whose teachers teaching.
spoke only English. In addition, children whose teach-
ers spoke some Spanish were less likely to be victims of Sources: Based on “Spanish Speaking Children’s Social and
aggression, bullying, or teasing, and their teachers were Language Development in Pre-Kindergarten Classrooms,” by
F. Chang, G. Crawford, D. Early, and D. Bryant, 2007, Journal
more likely to have a positive relationship with them. The
of Early Education and Development, 18(2), 243–269; “A
amount of Spanish that teachers spoke was significantly National Study of School Effectiveness for Language Minority
related to teachers’ ratings of children’s assertiveness, Students’ Long-Term Academic Achievement,” by W. P. Thomas
attention and task persistence, and ability to get along & V. P. Collier, no date, Center for Research on Education,
with other children. On the other hand, the more English Diversity, and Excellence, retrieved from http://www.usc.edu
interactions children had, the more likely they were to /dept/education/CMMR/CollierThomasExReport.pdf.
supporting their home language has distinct benefits for children, as discussed in the Lan-
guage Lens: Teaching Dual Language Learners feature.
In the previous sections, we described how children learn both their first and sec-
ond languages and ways to promote language development from birth through primary
grades. Next we turn to the related topic of how children become literate.
Developmental Continuum
Early Literacy
Age Range Widely Held Expectations
Most babies (about 6 to • Play with books, so books should be sturdy cardboard
12 months) • Put them in their mouths, chew them
• Open and close them
• Bang on them
• Look at the pictures briefly
• May look at the book with an adult for a short time
Most toddlers (about 12 to • Love to look at the same book again and again
24 months) • Point out pictures to the adult and label pictures with names
• Like to turn the pages (though not in order)
• Sit for a few minutes to look at a book
• Pretend to read by turning the pages and babbling
• Connect the pictures to real objects (point out a doll after seeing the picture
of a doll)
• Take books off the shelf
• Like books with textures or sounds
Most 3- and 4-year-olds • Enjoy listening to and talking about age-appropriate story books and informa-
tion books
• Understand that print carries a message
• Can follow the sequence of events in a story and answer questions that dem-
onstrate listening comprehension
• Pretend to read and attempt to write
• Recognize familiar labels and environmental print (signs for stores, street signs).
• Understand concepts of print and directionality (English is read left-to-right
and top-to-bottom)
• Attend to chunks of sound in spoken language, identify rhymes and allitera-
tion (silly Susie), clap syllables
• Recognize many letters, especially those in meaningful words
• Make some letter-sound matches (as when attempting to write words)
• Use known letters and letter-like symbols to represent written language
Sources: Based on Learning to Read and Write: Developmentally Appropriate Practices for
Young Children: A Joint Position Statement, by the International Reading Association and
National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1998, Washington, DC: NAEYC;
and Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children, edited by C. E. Snow, M. S. Burns,
and P. Griffin, 1998, Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 397
© Bob Ebbesen/Alamy
without these abilities upon entrance to
kindergarten, children are more likely
to encounter difficulties in learning to
read (Snow et al., 1998).
Research-based early literacy skills
include phonological awareness, alphabet knowledge, print awareness, and oral language Literacy-rich environments
(NELP, 2008). Other important skills that contribute to later reading include writing (spe- help children experience the
cifically, name writing), listening comprehension, and motivation to read. In the following pleasure and power of reading
sections, we define and describe each of these skills and effective ways teachers promote and writing. In classrooms such
children’s literacy learning. (In the previous sections, we described numerous strategies as this one, children use print
for building vocabulary.) for real purposes. What would
children learn about literacy in
this environment?
Phonological Awareness and Letter Knowledge Written language is a
symbol system—a code that children need to learn. This code may seem abstract and early literacy Skills and knowl-
edge that come before and lead
beyond young children’s capacity. However, children are constantly exposed to abstract
up to (forerunners) conven-
symbols, including walk/don’t walk symbols, computer icons, pictures to signify male tional reading and writing.
and female restrooms—the list is endless.
Precisely because written language is a complex symbol system, children need prac- predictors Set of early literacy
skills and knowledge that in-
tice playing with it over many years to become proficient users (Yopp & Yopp, 2009). At
crease the likelihood of later
preschool, the two important skills for learning the code are phonological awareness and success in learning to read and
learning the alphabet (Shanahan & Lonigan, 2013). write.
information. Concepts and abilities related to print awareness include (Schickedanz &
Collins, 2013):
• Understanding that print performs a variety of functions and purposes
• Recognizing print in the environment (such as in signs or labels)
• Knowing that print, not pictures, carries the message in the story
• Understanding the concept of word—that is, that specific clusters of letters on the
page with spaces between them represent the words said by the reader
• Realizing that print represents speech or thought that is written down
• Realizing that print in English is read left to right, top to bottom
concepts of print Beginning
The skills listed above—also called concepts of print or print conventions—are impor-
understandings about the
tant elements of literacy learning (Schickedanz & Collins, 2013). These developmentally forms and functions of written
appropriate outcomes are challenging but achievable for preschool children if they have language, such as that words
good teaching and planned learning experiences. carry messages.
400 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
Early Writing Encouraging young children to write is an effective way to help them
learn to read (Schickedanz & Collins, 2013). Research demonstrates that talking, reading,
and writing are developing simultaneously, and that progress in one area supports learn-
ing in the others (NELP, 2008; Snow et al., 1998).
Continuum of Early Writing As children try to write on their own, the writing process
promotes print awareness as well as many other early literacy skills (Schickedanz & Collins,
2013). Children’s writing is another area that tends to follow a developmental progression,
as described in the continuum on page 396 and depicted in the examples in Figure 12.1. At
first, they do not distinguish drawing and writing. But over time they learn the difference
and will label scribbles that are indistinguishable to adults as one or the other. Pointing to an
elongated scribble, 4-year-old Chris identifies it as his name (see Figure 12.1a).
Gradually children’s scribbles become more deliberate and controlled. Between the
ages of 3 and 4, children incorporate letter-like shapes or symbols (circles and straight lines)
and random strings of letters (see Figure 12.1b). Often children begin to identify sounds
within words, and 4-year-olds begin to use invented spelling, at least with initial consonants
in English. Spanish-speaking children tend to use vowels first (Snow et al., 1998). Typically,
the first recognizable word children produce is their name (see Figure 12.1c).
invented spelling Develop- Temporary invented spelling, also called developmental or phonetic spelling, rep-
mental or phonetic spelling resents children’s initial attempts to associate sounds with letters, as when a 4-year-old
that represents children’s writes “Mk” for “Mike.” This process of trying to figure out how to write words is an
initial attempts to associate
important step on the way to learning conventional spelling. Observing and talking with
sounds with letters.
children as they produce these spellings enables teachers to monitor children’s under-
standing of letter-sound relationships. For example, 6-year-old Katie writes: “Good mo-
raning. We are going to be bise [busy]. We are genu go to the postofs [post office].”
Using invented spelling does not interfere with learning conventional spelling. In fact,
the opposite is true. Invented spelling actually accelerates children’s later development
of phonemic awareness and conventional spelling when it is taught in the primary grades
(Snow et al., 1998). With practice and support, primary-grade children’s writing becomes
more conventional as in the example of a first grader’s writing and drawing in Figure 12.1d.
Teaching Early Writing Skills When children see adults writing, they want to write, too.
To encourage and scaffold writing, teachers need to reinforce children’s sense of compe-
tence (Graham & Harris, 2013). Curriculum should expose children to various types of
writing. A cooking project requires them to attend to a recipe. Science experiments require
data collection. Children’s desire to protect a block structure motivates them to write a sign.
It is important that teachers not focus too much attention on children’s handwrit-
ing because that approach is likely to be less meaningful and potentially frustrating for
children. Teachers and parents should not be alarmed when children reverse letters or
even write words as if in mirror-image. These “errors” are normal at this age (Schicke-
danz & Collins, 2013). If children persist in writing letters backwards, however, teachers
scaffold correct production. For example, 4½-year-old Franklin tends to write his name
backwards. Mr. Gandini notices that he starts writing on the right-hand side of the page
and usually runs out of room, so he continues toward the left. He simply says, “Franklin,
why don’t you start your name up here in the left-hand corner of your paper, the way
I write people’s names on their paintings. Then you have plenty of space.”
Book Appreciation and Motivation to Read Children who are motivated to read
show interest in books and reading, connect reading events to real life, and experience the plea-
sure and power of reading (Neuman et al., 2000). All children can come to appreciate books
and find that reading is enjoyable, especially if they are exposed to books at a very early age.
Reading with Babies and Toddlers Earlier in this chapter, we described how interactive
book reading facilitates language development. Reading aloud is especially valuable for
promoting children’s literacy skills and motivation to read. Like so many other aspects of
teaching, appropriate use of books varies with the age of the child.
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 401
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
FIGURE 12.1 Progression of Child’s Writing These figures illustrate the typical progression of
children’s writing skills—from scribbles, to letter-like forms, to recognizable letters and words, and then to
complete sentences.
(a) Scribble-writing
(b) Letter-like forms
(c) Prekindergarten name writing
(d) First grader drawing and writing
Babies and toddlers explore and “play” with books. This is why publishers sell board
books and cloth books that can stand up to the onslaught of a baby’s interest. Teachers
should sit with a child on their laps or close by a few children to feel an affectionate con-
nection. They shouldn’t expect children to sit still nor should they try to read a book word
402 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
for word or beginning to end. Instead they should describe what they’re doing—“I’m going
to open the book. Now let’s turn the page,” and use simple words to talk about the pictures:
“The fish is swimming. Splish, splash.” Exploring books with babies and toddlers builds
their interest and enjoyment, which is further developed during the preschool years.
Reading Aloud with Preschoolers One of the most important goals of all early literacy ex-
perience is to get children excited about books and eager to learn how to read. In fact, young
children who love books ask for them to be read over and over, memorize them, and proudly an-
nounce that they are reading. For a variety of reasons, however, not every child has these won-
derful early experiences with books. Therefore, preschool teachers must actively make reading
pleasurable and fun, and build children’s appreciation for books and motivation to become
literate. To build children’s motivation to read, effective teachers (based on Head Start, 2003):
• Hold children on their laps or snuggle with them in small groups so their children
can see and touch the book, helping to develop positive feelings about reading.
• Hold the book and turn the pages so children can always see the pictures.
• Read with expression and enthusiasm, using different voices for characters in the
story. Overdramatizing distracts children from attending to the book.
• Occasionally pause to build suspense, to ask children to predict what will happen next,
or to increase their interest (“Uh, oh. Here comes the big bad wolf!”). They pause brief-
ly to clarify the meaning of an unknown word if it is crucial to understanding the story.
• Make sure that books reflect children’s culture, home language, and identity.
• Plan times during the day when children select their own books to look at alone or
with a friend. They allow children to take books home or to receive books to keep.
• Read to children several times a day, every day, expressively and enthusiastically.
• Read favorite books repeatedly when requested. Talk with children about their
favorite books and authors, and encourage children to write or e-mail them and use
the Internet to get more information about authors’ lives and work.
For nearly every child, the process of learning to read becomes difficult at some point,
whether in first grade, when decoding becomes the focus of instruction, or in third grade,
when comprehension takes center stage (Snow et al., 1998). Children who are motivated
to read are more likely to persist when they encounter these challenges. Motivation is also
important because the more a child reads, the better reader he or she becomes (Snow et
al., 1998; Stanovich, 1986). Children who like reading and, therefore, choose to read are
almost always good readers.
Literacy and Background Knowledge Early literacy experiences are now a key
part of every good early childhood program but they should not become the whole curricu-
lum. Because the curriculum lends itself to integration, many teaching strategies are effec-
tive for multiple goals. For example, book reading promotes listening and understanding,
vocabulary development, phonological awareness, alphabet knowledge, print awareness,
knowledge in a subject area such as science, and even social problem-solving skills. Learn-
background knowledge ing curriculum content builds all-important background knowledge, concepts, and basic
Concepts and basic informa- information about how the world works (Neuman, Roskos, Wright, & Lenhart, 2007).
tion about how the world works Background knowledge is essential for reading comprehension. Information books are
that is essential for reading
especially valuable sources of such knowledge. As a result, the Common Core standards
comprehension.
call for a 50-50 balance between fiction and nonfiction reading in kindergarten. Information
books are more cognitively challenging than stories. However, teachers tend to talk less
when reading them, which is a missed opportunity to enhance their value (Price, Bradley,
& Smith, 2012). Exposure to information books and academic vocabulary in the early years
helps prepares children for the texts they will later encounter in elementary school.
Play and Literacy Children’s play provides an excellent and highly motivating con-
text to learn literacy and language. Various types of play can be employed to help children
develop these important skills. Read the feature Promoting Play: How Play Supports
Language and Literacy Development for some examples.
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 403
Promoting Play
How Play Supports Language and Literacy Development
Next year, Ms. Keegan’s preschoolers will attend kin- After a few days, Ms. Keegan invites a real pilot
dergartens in which the curriculum is designed to meet to visit. She explains her job and introduces new
Common Core standards. She knows how important it words. She also describes how pilots read and write
is to prepare them for the rigorous expectations. But every day. After the visit, children consult Google
she also understands the value of play for children’s maps and other geography apps to identify and
development and learning and provides various types of practice writing flight plans.
play to help meet her language and literacy goals.
One of the defining characteristics of sophisticated
To build children’s speaking and listening skills, she socio-dramatic play is the use of language. During
uses several strategies. She identifies a theme or proj- such play, children try to imitate adults, and their
ect that children are interested in and key vocabulary language becomes more complex and sophisticated.
words that are connected to the topic. She intention- Similarly, when children play out roles in pretend
ally teaches new words, frequently repeats them, and contexts, they adapt their speech style and employ
engages children in extended conversations using the the familiar scripts common to those settings. For
words. Much of this “instruction” happens during instance, the airport, office, and restaurant are differ-
their play, as we see in the following example. ent contexts, each with its own vocabulary and script.
After a visit to the local airport, Ms. Keegan’s pre- To stimulate language, teachers may need to take a
school class wants to take an airplane ride. She role in play to get it going or to extend it to include
helps them set up an airport and airplane that in- more language. For instance, Ms. Keegan might arrive
cludes lots of literacy opportunities: a computer to at the airport and say, “I almost missed the plane.
make plane reservations; paper and markers to write Can you tell me what to do in case of emergency?
tickets, baggage tags, and signs for departures and How does the oxygen mask work?” Play provides many
arrivals; and magazines and iPads to read on the opportunities to practice such verbal interaction with
plane. They organize chairs into the two aisles of other children and occasionally with adults.
the plane and choose roles. Two children are the pi- Ms. Keegan used play to support children’s use
lots, three are the flight attendants, one is the ticket of sophisticated language and extended conversa-
agent, another is the baggage handler, and the rest tions. The play also provided many opportunities for
are passengers. In preparation, one group writes the children to express their ideas and extend their
tickets while another sets up a beverage cart. knowledge of letter-sound relationships through
As the plane loads, Grayson, the flight attendant, writing.
greets each passenger with a “Welcome aboard” Sources: “Learning through Play,” by L. M. Morrow,
and tells the assembled group to fasten their seat S. B. Berkule, A. L. Mendelsohn, A. L. Healey, and
belts. The pilots announce that the plane is going to C. B. Cates, 2013, in D. R. Reutzel (Ed.), Handbook
of Research-Based Practice in Early Education,
Disneyland. Most children get deep into the scenar-
pp. 100–118, New York: Guilford Press; All about
io and stay with it for 20 minutes or more. The play Words: Increasing Vocabulary in the Common Core
is repeated for several days, with children exchang- Classroom, PreK–2, by S. B. Neuman and T. S. Wright,
ing roles and practicing the language of air travel. 2013, New York: Teachers College Press.
The predictors described in the previous sections are the forerunners of successful
reading and writing. We now turn to the topic of the formal teaching of reading in the
primary grades.
Developmental Continuum
Literacy in Kindergarten and
Primary Grades
Age/Grade Level Widely Held Expectations
Most kindergartners • Enjoy being read to, retell stories and what they’ve learned from information
books
• Experiment with and use early literacy skills
• Respond to open-ended questions that require inferences about a story and
connections to events beyond the story
• Begin to track print when listening to book
• Use language to describe and explain what is read
• Recognize and name all upper- and lowercase letters automatically and makes
most letter-sound matches
• Demonstrate phonemic awareness, blend and segment syllables in words, and
blend and segment onsets and rimes
• Write letters and high-frequency words
• Recognize some words by sight, including common ones (a, the, me, you, is)
• Use phonemic awareness and letter knowledge to write with invented spelling
• May read emergent literacy texts conventionally by the end of kindergarten
Most first graders • Make the transition from experimental to “real” or conventional reading
• Read aloud accurately and with reasonable fluency texts appropriate for beginning
grade 1
• Use letter-sound associations, word parts, and context to identify new words
• Use strategies when comprehension breaks down (picture and context clues,
rereading, predicting, questioning)
• Use reading and writing for various purposes on their own initiative (“I want to
write a Valentine for my mom.”)
• Sound out and represent all substantial sounds when spelling a word
• Identify an increasing number of words by sight, including common irregularly
spelled words, such as said, where, and two
• Write various kinds of texts about meaningful topics (journals, stories)
• Use some punctuations and capitalization correctly
Most second graders • Read more fluently and write various text forms using simple and more complex
sentences
• Use word identification strategies to figure out unknown words
• Use strategies to aid comprehension more efficiently, such as rereading, question-
ing, using context
• Read with greater fluency
• Identify an increasing number of words by sight
• Write about a range of topics for different audiences
• Use common letter patterns to spell words
• Punctuate basic sentences correctly and proofread their writing
• Read daily and use reading to get information on topics of study
(Continued)
406 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
Sources: Based on Learning to Read and Write: Developmentally Appropriate Practices for
Young Children: A Joint Position Statement, by the International Reading Association and
National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1998, Washington, DC: NAEYC;
Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children, edited by C. E. Snow, M. S. Burns, and P.
Griffin, 1998, Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
phonics A system of teaching Phonics Phonics is a system of teaching the correspondences between letters or
the correspondences between groups of letters and the sounds they represent. Although the use of phonics to teach
letters or groups of letters and reading has been hotly debated, the value of phonics has long been established as a
the sounds they represent.
necessary component in an effective, research-based program (Chall, 1967; Strickland,
2011). The major issue concerning phonics instruction is not whether to teach phonics
and other skills such as spelling, but how to teach them in engaging ways that support
children’s continued reading development as well as their motivation to read. Whereas
some children need extensive help with phonics, other children do not (Strickland,
2011).
fluency Rapid, efficient, and Fluency Fluency refers to rapid, efficient, and accurate word recognition skills that
accurate word recognition skills permit the reader to comprehend the meaning of text (Rasinski, 2009). Fluency is first
that permit the reader to com- apparent when children are able to read out loud quickly, accurately, and with appro-
prehend the meaning of text.
priate expression. This ability then leads to their ability to comprehend what they read
silently.
Fluency is like the bridge between phonics and comprehension (Rasinski, 2009). If
children’s decoding skills are inadequate, they must slowly sound out and stumble over
each word. By the time they’ve reached the end of the sentence, they’ve forgotten the
words they’ve read and, as a result, the sentence doesn’t make sense. Fluency requires
practice and careful matching of texts to children’s approximate reading ability.
How do children become fluent readers? One way is for teachers to read aloud to
children, modeling the elements of fluent reading (Pikulski & Chard, 2005). Fluency
requires practice. Another way is for children to read short passages to each other in
pairs. Even after children in the primary grades become fairly competent readers, teach-
ers should continue to read to them, using more sophisticated chapter books than students
can read independently.
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 407
Digital Literacy
In 2015, the International Reading Association officially changed its name to the Inter-
national Literacy Association (ILA) to reflect the fact that reading is only part of literacy
today. Children of every age must learn to use technology and digital media to enhance
all their communication skills—reading, writing, speaking, and listening. Across the
curriculum, they need to seek information online and connect that knowledge with what
they learn offline. Children also need to learn the strengths and limitations of various
technological tools and media, and choose those that are suited to their communication
goals.
Life in our technological society, requires more than reading; it requires digital digital literacy The ability
literacy, the ability to locate, understand, interpret, and evaluate information from mul- to obtain, use, interpret, and
timedia, digital sources (Labbo & Nogueron-Liu, 2013). One of the biggest challenges evaluate information available
through multimedia, digital
teachers face, however, is deciding among the vast number of educational apps and
sources.
games that purport to teach children to read. A survey (Guernsey, Levine, Chiong, &
Severns, 2012) of the most popular ones found that despite lofty claims, more than
half focused on very basic skills—letters, sounds, phonics, and word identification.
Only about 10% addressed higher-level abilities such as vocabulary, comprehension,
and storytelling.
408 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
Impact of the
Common Core
State Standards
In the past, reading instruction
in kindergarten and the primary
grades focused on such basic skills
as phonics and word identification.
Concerns about uneven, low edu-
cational standards and poor aca-
demic achievement in many states
© Hero Images/Getty Images
pictures using various media such as tempera paint, watercolors, colored pencils, and
chalk. Then, the children examine and critique each other’s pictures:
Engage Every Child All areas of the arts can involve and engage diverse groups of
children. It is always important to adapt materials and experiences to ensure that children
with disabilities can fully engage in the creative arts.
Art, music, and movement are areas where dual language learners can be included
without needing to rely on their English language skills. All children can enjoy learning
a song in either English or another language. In addition, when singing, there is a clear-
er distinction between each word than in speaking. With her 3-year-olds, Derry sings,
“Head, shoulders, knees, and toes . . . and eyes, and ears, and a mouth and nose,” touching
each body part as she sings. Such a rhyme or song helps dual language learners by con-
necting physical movements with words.
Every cultural group has its tradition of artistic expression. Consider origami in Asian
cultures or African masks. Teachers can involve families by inviting them to share creative
art from their own culture and families. Exploring children’s cultural diversity should not
be limited to examining such artifacts, but including them is important.
Even at an early age, some children will say, “I can’t draw.” They’ve already learned
that the broader culture values particular ways of representing the world. Digital media
is a great way to motivate reluctant artists as well as those who happily embrace their
creative selves. Engaging art production apps abound, such as MoMA Art Lab from New
York’s Museum of Modern Art.
In the following discussion, we describe and give examples of effective teaching
strategies in each area—visual arts, music, movement, dance, and drama.
412 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
Visual Arts
visual arts Creative processes The visual arts are creative processes and products that involve drawing, painting, sculpt-
and products that involve ing with clay, or making models of objects using a variety of materials. Art experiences
drawing, painting, sculpting allow children to convey their ideas, feelings, and knowledge in visual forms. Individually
with clay, or making models
and in groups, children use materials such as crayons, markers, paint, playdough, clay,
of objects using a variety of
materials.
wire, found objects, glue, tape, and paper, along with tools such as scissors, brushes, roll-
ing pins, and cookie cutters. Developing an appreciation for and an aesthetic awareness
of art is another important element. Including art forms, materials, and techniques from
children’s home cultures can increase their motivation and interest in art.
Scaffold Artistic Development and Learning Many people think that cre-
ativity is inborn. Actually, children’s ability to be creative depends in large part on their
skills in producing art. Children who lack the skills to model with clay, for instance, may
continue to roll clay into balls or make “snakes,” but they won’t advance to sculpting
objects. Soon they may lose interest in working with clay altogether.
When teachers provide adequate materials, time, instruction in specific techniques,
and assistance when needed, children’s skills continue to develop (Thompson, 2013). For
example, after observing the art center in her kindergarten, Lara Mann sees that Duane
has a tendency to use too much water, sopping the paper that he inevitably wads up and
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 413
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
FIGURE 12.2 Progression of Child’s Drawing These figures illustrate the typical progression of
children’s drawing from scribbles to stick figures, to more detailed and recognizable representations.
(a) Family drawing scribble
(b) Stick figure family
(c) 5-year-old’s drawing “Mommy and me”
(d) Second grader’s drawing
tosses away. With a little instruction in how to use watercolors effectively, Duane pro-
duces a painting he wants to take home.
Specific art skills that can be taught can be as simple as tapping the paint on the side
of the can to get a more controlled stroke, as complex as using potter’s clay to make elabo-
rate and durable sculptures. Effective teachers encourage children by making positive,
specific comments rather than by giving compliments. Instead of saying, “What a beauti-
ful picture,” they say, “I see you’ve made a pattern—two red stripes, two blue stripes, two
red stripes, two blue stripes.” The following example illustrates how important teacher
scaffolding can be to maintaining children’s enjoyment of art:
414 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
Three-year-old Emily, budding artist, loves to paint. She often spends long periods of
time at the easel, layering colors of thick paint until her paper is wet through. After
weeks of this activity, she tells her teacher, Lelia, that she doesn’t want to paint any-
more. When Lelia asks why, Emily says, “It always comes out brown.” At this point,
Emily’s teacher has a choice. She can smile and ignore Emily’s problem, or she can
see the situation as a teachable moment.
Lelia begins by asking: Emily, let’s think about why your pictures turn brown. What
color do you put on first?
Emily: I like red best. And I like blue and yellow, too.
Lelia: Those are all pretty colors. Let’s mix them together and see what color
we get.
As Lelia and Emily mix the colors, Emily’s eyes get very wide.
Emily: It makes brown! Let’s try it again.
After they mix the color brown over and over, Lelia asks, “What could you do next
time you paint a picture so it won’t come out brown?” With such minimal assis-
tance, Lelia supports Emily to find the solution of separating colors on her paper
instead of continually painting over the same spot and renews Emily’s enthusiasm
for painting.
To effectively support children’s artistic development and creativity, teachers need
to organize the environment to provide sufficient space and materials for messy activity,
cleanup, and storage of children’s work and work-in-progress. Also critically important
is for teachers to treat children’s work with respect. To do so, teachers display children’s
work with their permission. They can also mat or frame selected works for each child to
display and keep. Teachers encourage children to take art home to share with families.
In preschool and in kindergarten and the primary grades, children can evaluate their own
visual literacy Ability to cre- artwork and decide which products they judge worthy of keeping. Digital cameras and
ate visual messages and to
scanning extend the life of children’s creations.
interpret messages contained
in visual communications.
Promote Visual Literacy All of the experiences described previously contribute
to the development of children’s visual literacy. Visual literacy is the “ability to create
Intentional teachers use the
visual arts to promote creativ-
visual messages and to ‘read’ messages contained in visual communications; to perceive,
ity, symbolic representation, understand, interpret, and evaluate the visual environment” (Johnson, 2008, p. 74). To
visual literacy, and much more. build children’s visual literacy experiences, teachers engage them in talking about art,
Creative arts should be an inte- extending their thinking about art, and reflecting on art (Johnson, 2008). These processes
gral part of the early childhood are similar to the connections that exist among speaking, reading, and writing.
curriculum. Teachers engage children in talking
about their art by commenting on colors,
textures, techniques, and patterns. They
also lead children through thinking and
problem solving by asking open-ended
questions such as “What materials did
you use to make this flower sculpture?”
and “How can you make a door in your
house structure? What will you need?
What could you do first?”
As in the case study that opened this
© Jules Selmes/Pearson Education
the Mondrian painting.” “Look very closely. Can you see how the people in this picture
by Seurat are painted with tiny dots of color?” “See how the Romare Bearden picture is a
collage like we make.” To bring art closer to children’s firsthand experience, local artists
can share and discuss a work-in-progress or display their work in the classroom.
Drama
Pretend play and dramatization involve creative production and demonstration. We have
already discussed the benefits of socio-dramatic play for language and early literacy
skills. Dramatization, however, is more closely tied to a specific story or script. Children
in primary grades are more likely to engage in dramatization than younger children, al-
though preschoolers do act out favorite stories. Children can also dramatize traditional
stories from their own cultures.
Teachers can structure a drama session to promote literacy skills in story sequence,
character development, and plot. Many dramatizations, both child initiated and teacher
guided, involve retelling familiar stories. After reading Three Billy Goats Gruff to her
class of 4-year-olds, Marissa Reese helps them act it out. First, she encourages their recall
and story sequencing skills by asking them to tell what happened: “How did the story
start?” “What happened next?” She helps them identify emotions or problems that surface
in the dialogue: “How did the little billy goat feel?” As the children practice acting out the
different roles, they get an opportunity to play with dialogue, changing their tone of voice
and expression to fit the character of each goat or the troll.
Scaffolding dramatization requires providing different kinds and the right amount of
support for different children (Davidson, 1996). Providing props of varying realism can
meet the needs of inexperienced as well as capable players. Some will need realistic props
to get into character, such as a variety of dress-up clothes or the actual props used by
characters in a story. For example, after reading The Little Old Lady Who Was Not Afraid
of Anything (Williams, 1988), a kindergarten teacher gives children props to act out the
story—shoes, pants, shirts, and a hat—and create a scarecrow at the end. Other children
can take on a creative role with more open-ended objects such as cardboard tubes, unit
blocks, or pieces of cloth. Videotaping the production and sharing it on a class website or
on YouTube encourages children to do their best work.
today have less opportunity to experience the arts. However, all forms of art offer new
ways in which children can build language and literacy skills, learn about their own and
other cultures, and develop cognitive and social skills (Brown et al., 2010). Each of the
creative arts can enhance development and learning in other areas. For example, children
might count musical beats, draw or construct a model of the earth, analyze the message in
a painting, or write dialogue for a drama.
A large body of research on the effects of early arts experiences finds a positive
relationship with improved academic performance (Ruppert, 2006). Research in the arts
also demonstrates that when creativity is developed at an early age, its results transfer to
many intellectual tasks (Isenberg & Jalongo, 2013; Thompson, 2013). Given the power of
the creative arts to promote children’s learning and enrich their lives, teachers can use all
forms of art in their teaching to keep students engaged and excited about learning.
Today, state standards and program goals for early childhood education always in-
clude language and literacy. Reading proficiency has become the overarching purpose of
primary grades. Teachers who know and love young children, however, never lose sight of
the long-term goal: learning to communicate creatively in all forms of the arts.
12 Chapter Summary
• Children gradually learn language over many years • Research-based vocabulary-building strategies
from verbal interaction with adults and other children. include one-to-one and extended conversations,
Language development follows a relatively predictable listening, decontextualized speech, intentional
sequence, but there is a wide range of individual varia- teaching of new and rare words, interactive book
tion that is well within the range of normal. reading, and play.
418 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
• The developmental sequence of second language and acquire meaning from text in what is called a
acquisition is similar but not identical to first language balanced approach. Components of an evidence-based
learning. To help children acquire English while also reading program include phonemic awareness, pho-
maintaining their home language, teachers must work nics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. Motiva-
effectively with parents and use proven classroom tion is key to reading achievement.
strategies, including play. • Common Core English Language Arts Standards
• Literacy is the result of many cumulative, interrelated emphasize students’ developing higher-order thinking
experiences beginning at birth. Research demonstrates skills by reading complex texts with academic vocabu-
that there is a specific set of early literacy skills and lary, analyzing evidence, and gaining content knowl-
knowledge that predict later success in learning to read edge from information books.
and write: phonological awareness, alphabet knowl- • Children learn to communicate through the creative
edge, print awareness, and vocabulary. Other important arts: visual arts, music, movement, dance, drama,
skills that contribute to later reading ability include and media arts. The arts promote the development
early writing, listening comprehension, motivation to of symbolic representation, creativity, and visual
read, and background knowledge. literacy. Children’s enjoyment and accomplishment
• Conventional reading is the ability to gain meaning in the creative arts depends on teachers providing
from unfamiliar text. The most effective reading in- adequate materials, time, and instruction in specific
struction helps children master the alphabetic principle artistic skills.
Key Terms
■■ academic discourse ■■ decontextualized speech ■■ open-ended questions ■■ rhyme
■■ alliteration ■■ dialogic reading ■■ parentese ■■ script language
■■ alphabetic principle ■■ digital literacy ■■ phonemes ■■ sequential language
■■ babble ■■ distancing questions ■■ phonemic awareness learning
■■ background knowledge ■■ dual language learning ■■ phonics ■■ simultaneous acquisition
■■ balanced approach ■■ early literacy ■■ phonological awareness ■■ symbolic representation
■■ code switch ■■ encode ■■ play-by-play language ■■ syntax
■■ completion prompt ■■ expressive language ■■ predictable books ■■ telegraphic speech
■■ comprehension ■■ extended discourse ■■ predictors ■■ visual arts
■■ concepts of print ■■ fluency ■■ print awareness ■■ visual literacy
■■ conventional reading ■■ invented spelling ■■ rare words ■■ vocabulary
■■ cooing ■■ listening ■■ recall questions ■■ Wh- questions
■■ decode ■■ narrative ■■ receptive language ■■ word identification
FPG Child Development Institute CONNECT The Hanen Centre—Helping You Help Children
Module 6—Dialogic Reading Practices Communicate
This website provides a step-by-step teacher’s guide and The Hanen Centre offers practical resources for early
series of 11 how-to videos demonstrating dialogic read- educators and parents to support young children’s
ing, one of the most effective language and literacy teach- language, social, and early literacy development as well
ing strategies. as information for working with children with autism or
language delays.
International Literacy Association (ILA)
Previously the International Reading Association, this Tap, Click, Read
organization’s website offers a wealth of resources for Visit this new website for the most up-to-date information
teaching language and literacy from pre-K through third and resources to appropriately and effectively use digital
grade. tools to build children’s literacy.
National Core Arts Standards
On this website you will find the most recent, compre-
hensive set of national learning standards for dance,
music, theatre, visual arts, and media arts.
13
Teaching Children to
Investigate and Solve
Problems: Mathematics,
Science, and Technology
Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
13.1 Explain why learning mathematics and science is important in the early
years.
13.2 Describe the continuum of cognitive development and how it relates to
learning mathematics and science.
13.3 Apply effective teaching strategies and curricula that help children learn
mathematics.
13.4 Apply effective teaching strategies and curricula that help children learn
science.
13.5 Describe what children need to know about technology and how it can be
used to teach effectively.
© KidStock/Blend Images/Getty Images
Case Study
D
arrell Burns and Sofia Moreno co-teach in a state-funded
prekindergarten program that is operated in a local child care center.
The school district has just introduced a new preschool curriculum to
align with the K–3 math curriculum. At first, Darrell and Sofia are skeptical about their children’s ability to learn the
content, and they feel somewhat anxious about tackling mathematics education themselves. “Math was always
my worst subject,” Darrell admits. “I majored in early childhood education rather than elementary because I didn’t
want to teach math.” Sofia nods. “I know how you feel. I kind of memorized stuff for the test and never really
understood it.”
After several weeks, however, the teachers’ attitudes change. The curriculum plan helps them understand the
number and geometry concepts they are teaching as well as the important sequences of mathematics learning.
Much to their surprise, the children are capable of learning sophisticated math concepts and truly enjoy the
activities in which they participate.
Darrell and Sofia find that opportunities for learning math abound in their classroom. During center time, Sofia
works with a small group of children on basic counting principles, using 1-inch cubes. Four-year-old Tori points at
the blocks as she says, “One, two, three, five, seven, eight.” “No, no,” says her friend Parker, “You skipped four! I’ll
show you.” Parker proceeds to say all the numbers in the correct order, but touches some blocks twice. Instead of
counting six blocks, he comes up with eight. Sofia notes that Tori has yet to master the number word list, so she’ll
engage Tori in verbal counting more often. As for Parker, Sofia simply says, “Slow down a little, and touch each block
as you say the word.” After two more tries, Parker successfully counts six blocks.
Darrell oversees four children playing a board game with a number on each square. Two girls are working on a
digital tablet, moving shapes to complete puzzles. Several children are building with unit blocks on the floor. Darrell
observes them and adds math words to their play: “Dante, you’ve made a rectangle space
with these cylinder blocks. Can someone else figure out how to make a rectangle?”
As the children become more interested in math, they start counting everything in
sight and looking for shapes in the classroom and on the playground.
They figure out ways to create new shapes, such as putting six triangle
blocks together to form a hexagon. The children especially like taking
digital photos of three-dimensional shapes such as spheres
and cones, which they use to make a book on shapes. Sofia
and Darrell help them make connections between what they
are learning about math and their physical
science study of the characteristics of light. The
children look forward every day to measuring and
comparing their shadows on the playground. ■
T
he teachers in this classroom, like many early childhood teachers, were initially in-
timidated by the thought of teaching mathematics. But with knowledge and a well-
designed curriculum plan, they realized what capable learners young children can be.
This chapter addresses three separate but interrelated aspects of the curriculum:
mathematics, science, and technology. First, we present the continuum of cognitive
development that underlies these curriculum areas and applies across all aspects of
learning. Then we discuss effective early childhood mathematics curriculum and teaching
strategies that lay the foundation for later school mathematics. Next, we describe the
421
422 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
science curriculum and how teachers can engage children in the scientific process.
Throughout the chapter, we describe ways to use technology in teaching and learning
math and science. A key goal is to raise awareness of the importance of math and science
for all children. We particularly focus on the need to narrow the persistent achievement
gap in mathematics between children from low-income families and their more affluent
peers.
2007). By contrast, early literacy skills were related only to later reading. Apparently, the
cognitive abilities employed in mastering mathematics apply broadly to other curriculum
content areas.
Children who struggle with math are much less likely to graduate from high school
and attend college (Szekely, 2014). Mathematics is a cumulative topic of study. Later
understanding not only builds on earlier concepts but depends on them. Many adults
who disliked math in school did not have a firm foundation on which to build. As a
result, in later grades, more complex math didn’t make sense and they began to feel
less competent. Early education can narrow the gap. Research in the United States and
other countries demonstrates that using a math-focused curriculum can significantly
improve math achievement for all children (Clements & Sarama, 2007a, 2008; Griffin,
2004; Preschool Curriculum Evaluation Research Consortium [PCERC], 2008; Starkey,
Klein, & Wakeley, 2004).
Executive Function
Perhaps the most significant cognitive achievement of childhood and adolescence is the
executive function The development of executive function. Executive function has been called the brain’s “air
processes that control cognitive traffic control system” (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2011).
functioning such as thinking Imagine the coordination it takes to ensure that hundreds of airplanes fly to the right
before acting, cognitive
places at the right times and don’t collide with one another during takeoff and landing.
flexibility, and memory.
Similar to the job of the air traffic controller, executive function coordinates essential
abilities that make all other learning possible (Diamond, 2012). These include at least
three key abilities: working memory, cognitive self-control, and cognitive flexibility
(Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2011).
These executive functions are vital for all learning. Memory is essential for new
learning to take place and for previous learning to be retrieved when it is needed.
working memory The ability Working memory is the ability to hold information in our heads for a short period
to retain information for a short of time, such as a phone number or where we laid down a sock. Working memory is
period of time, which enables necessary for c hildren to follow multistep directions such as “go to the writing center,
transfer to long-term memory.
choose paper and markers, and draw a picture of yourself.” Inhibitory control (also
inhibitory control or cognitive called cognitive self-control) is the ability to think before we act, which is very dif-
self-control The ability to ficult for young children to do. In school, many tasks require mental self-control, such
think before we act and to as waiting to be called on. S elf-control requires focusing attention on what is necessary,
focus attention on what is
such as the reading lesson, and ignoring irrelevant information, such as the fly on the
necessary.
wall. Cognitive (mental) f lexibility involves finding new solutions or revising plans in
cognitive (mental) response to changing circumstances.
flexibility The ability to find
Consider how children practice these executive functions when they engage in an
new solutions or revise plans
in response to changing
activity such as socio-dramatic play. If a group of preschoolers play airport, they have to
circumstances. remember their role (pilot, passenger, or flight attendant), inhibit their actions (not jump
out of the seat while the plane is flying), and think flexibly (adapt to the twists and turns
of the plot, such as the plane being delayed).
Just as the air traffic control system integrates many complex parts working simulta-
neously, executive functions are interrelated. These abilities, which develop over time, are
particularly important for reasoning and problem solving in mathematics and experiment-
ing in science (Klahr, Zimmerman, & Jirout, 2011).
Children’s Thinking
Three-year-old Levi was walking with his mother when he asked why she wasn’t talk-
ing to him (N. Karp, 2011, personal communication). His mom, Gail, replied, “I’m
thinking about the work I have to do.” Levi got all excited and replied, “I’m think-
ing, too! I’m thinking about numbers. I love numbers. I love the way they look, I like
the shapes, I like the names, and I love to count. I just like to think about numbers!”
Like Levi, most young children have a natural interest in mathematical and scientific
ideas, spontaneously count, and love big numbers (Ginsburg et al., 2008; Greenes,
Ginsburg, & Balfanz, 2004).
In the past, educators assumed that young children had little capacity to learn math-
ematics or think scientifically; therefore, teachers often considered it developmentally
inappropriate to teach math (Ginsburg et al., 2008). Researchers today believe children
are more competent than previously thought and capable of learning sophisticated math
ideas (Gelman & Gallistel, 1978; NRC, 2009).
Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 425
Developmental Continuum
Cognitive Development
Approximate Age Widely Held Expectations
Birth to about 9 months • Learn through their senses (especially taste, touch)
• Gain increasing control over their bodies
• Increasingly able to remember people, objects, and favorite toys
• Focus attention for short time
• Gradually learn about cause and effect (3-month-old turns to noise; 6-month-
old bangs toy to make noise)
• Intentionally act on objects (kicks to move the mobile)
• Enjoy solving simple problems, such as taking objects in and out of containers,
and discovering consequences of actions
• Develop object permanence (remembers that out-of-sight objects are still there)
About 9 to 18 months • Increasing memory for games, toys, and people from previous days
• Enjoy doing things over and over such as carrying and dumping
• Use trial and error to solve problems
• Observe and imitate others’ actions
• Begin to understand symbols (M for McDonald’s)
• Play with objects
6- to 9-year-olds • Can symbolically represent thoughts and ideas in many ways (drawing, writing,
speaking, modeling)
• Memory capacity increases considerably
• Can take multiple perspectives (teachers, book authors)
• Aware of patterns and part-whole relationships
• Can make accurate predictions
• Thinking and problem solving become more flexible
• Can categorize and think conceptually
• Play more complex games with rules, understand fairness
• Solve concrete problems easier than abstract problems
426 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
Conceptions and Misconceptions Children are actively thinking all the time
as they try to make sense of their world. Some of these conceptions are accurate, such as
Francine’s computation of the five bears, while others are not. For example, a common
“mistake” young children make is to assume that a “skinny,” elongated triangle cannot be
a triangle; they think that true triangles can only be equilateral triangles—ones with three
equal sides (Clements & Sarama, 2007a). Children also form their own hypotheses about
events, some of which seem like magical thinking. They may assume that the sun goes to
bed because they do, not the other way around. Even primary-grade children think that a
coat provides its own warmth rather than heat coming from inside their bodies.
Most misconceptions are actually partial hypotheses, or early theories, about how
the world works. For example, 5- to 7-year-olds can readily state that the earth is round
because they have been taught this fact. However, when asked to draw a picture of the earth
and where the people live, their representations reveal their understanding (Hannust &
Kikas, 2007). They may actually think the earth is a flattened sphere with the people liv-
ing on top or that the earth is hollow and the people live inside. These partial hypotheses
are gradually replaced by more accurate ones because, as children get older, their thinking
becomes more abstract, and experience challenges their earlier ideas.
Some misconceptions can be prevented by broadening children’s experiences. For
example, unless children are helped to understand the common properties that make a
Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 427
shape a triangle, they will persist in thinking that “skinny” versions are not really tri-
angles. It is normal for preschool children to make “errors” as they learn counting and
other math and science concepts. Therefore, teachers should be cautious about correcting
“errors”; they should encourage children’s enthusiasm instead of making them hesitant to
voice their own ideas (NRC, 2009).
The Language of Science Science, too, has its own vocabulary and exposes
children to a vast array of words—both nouns and verbs—that they might not otherwise
encounter. Children are eager to and capable of learning “big” words, such as hypothesis,
prediction, experiment, observe, reflect, and decide. They also learn the vocabulary at-
tached to scientific information—words like incline, magnifier, or telescope.
428 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
Mathematical Language
and the Achievement Gap
Evidence suggests that the mathematics achievement gap exists
because low-income children do not have sufficient opportu-
Young children’s play is rich nity to learn the language of mathematics (Ginsburg, 2006; Ginsburg & Pappas, 2004).
in “everyday mathematics.” How do we know this? Observations of lower- and middle-income preschoolers find little
This informal knowledge difference in the everyday mathematics they spontaneously demonstrate during free play
provides a foundation for later
(Ginsburg, 2006). Both groups exhibit a good deal of mathematical competence on which
mathematics learning when
intentional teachers introduce
to build.
the language of math—words
that describe quantity and Informal, Everyday Mathematics One of the first words babies utter is more—
relationships. evidence of their intuitive understanding of quantity. As they grow, they pay consider-
able attention to who is bigger and when something is “All gone.” Well before school
entry, children of all socioeconomic groups demonstrate considerable informal math
knowledge.
Informal knowledge about math, including basic ideas about quantity (more and less),
everyday mathematics size, shape, and pattern, is also called everyday mathematics (Ginsburg et al., 2008).
Informal, intuitive knowledge Research demonstrates that by age 5, everyday mathematical knowledge is a universal
about math, including basic aspect of cognitive development (NRC, 2009). Even babies and toddlers demonstrate
ideas about quantity (more and
basic understandings about some math and science concepts. When they reach out to
less), size, shape, and pattern.
make a toy move or repeat a sound, they begin to understand the idea of cause and effect
(Gelman & Brenneman, 2004). These intuitive ideas about mathematics and science are
prior knowledge on which teachers can build.
Children’s play is full of mathematical and scientific ideas. They order blocks by size,
create and extend interesting patterns, and conduct their own experiments, such as seeing
if a ball rolls faster down a steeper incline (Seefeldt, Galper, & Stevenson-Garcia, 2012;
Seo & Ginsburg, 2004). The main difference is that children living in poverty are generally
provided less support and opportunity to learn the language that connects their informal,
basic math knowledge to later, more abstract school mathematics. To do so, teachers
must help children mathematize their everyday experiences, a critically i mportant process
described next.
he takes two cars from Eugene, he is adding, while Eugene experiences subtraction (take
away). If Corky gets two more cars from the shelf, Eugene’s pile stays the same. Corky
then has to figure out whether either solution gives him more than Eugene has. Unless he
knows how many they both started with, he can’t be sure whether either of his solutions
worked. His teacher could step in and simply prevent a squabble by dividing the cars
herself or telling Corky he has to share. Or she could engage them in a conversation about
how to create two equal sets of cars or one set that is two cars larger.
4-year-olds • Understand cardinality—the last number said represents the total number of objects
• Write numbers 1 to 10 (not always legibly)
• Count objects accurately to 10 and beyond (about 30)
• Solve simple number word problems
• Count backwards
• Use mental subitizing of up to 5 objects to solve problems up to 10 (automatically know that
adding 2 crackers to 4 is 6)
• Recognize and describe attributes of 2- and 3-dimensional shapes
7-year-olds • Consistently conserve number (i.e., knows quantity remains the same despite rearrangement of
objects)
• Skip count forward and backward, with meaning
• Represent and solve problems involving addition and subtraction (i.e., measuring length)
• Understand and use place value to add and subtract
• Work with equal groups of objects to gain foundations for multiplication
• Work with time and money
Sources: Based on Common Core Standards for Mathematics, by Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2011, Washington, DC: Council for Chief
State School Officers and National Governor’s Association; Mathematics Learning in Early Childhood: Paths toward Excellence and Equity, by National
Research Council, 2009, Washington, DC: National Academies Press; Learning and Teaching Early Math, by D. Clements and J. Sarama, 2009,
New York: Routledge.
432 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
Culture Lens
Finger Counting in Cultural Context
Finger counting plays an important role in young The most common way—used frequently in Latin
children’s early mathematics learning. Some people
American countries—is to raise the thumb first and then
even speculate that the base ten number system evolved the fingers across to the smallest one. In the United
because humans have 10 fingers. But like every other States, the most common method is to raise the index
aspect of development and learning, finger counting has finger first, then the other fingers in order (holding down
a cultural element, as we see in the following example. unused fingers with the thumb), and then lastly the
thumb—as Kenny did. Another way, also used in some
Located in a downtown office building in a large city,
Latin American countries, is to begin with the little finger
West Street Early Learning Center is an employer-
and move across to the thumb.
sponsored child care center that serves a diverse group
of children and families from all over the world. Today Other methods are less frequently used, such as Mizuki’s,
is the first day of class for the 3-year-olds. Ella, a new where fingers are raised and then lowered. Mizuki wasn’t
teacher, is just getting to know the children. To draw out just waving her fingers, she was raising and lowering three
one of the shy little boys, she stoops down in front of fingers to show her age. In India, children may count by
him and asks, “How old are you, Kenny?” “Free,” he touching the lines of the fingers with the thumb.
replies, and counts off his middle three fingers. Turning
Given that many programs in the United States serve
to Mizuki, whose family is Japanese, Ella asks the same
children from throughout the world, teachers may
question. Mizuki doesn’t say anything and appears to
encounter some of these different finger-counting
wave her fingers. Ella is confused. Certainly, she thinks,
methods. Fingers are a very important tool for young
Mizuki knows how old she is.
children to solve numerical problems, not just to show
Just like most 3-year-olds, Mizuki does know her age. their age. Therefore, teachers should recognize that there
However, her way of communicating this knowledge to are different ways of counting on fingers and not try to
Ella reflects her cultural background. Most countries change what’s working for a child.
around the world actually use one of three ways of rais- Source: Based on Mathematics Learning in Early Childhood:
ing fingers to show numbers. In early childhood programs Paths toward Excellence and Equity, by National Research
that serve children from different parts of world, teachers Council Committee on Early Childhood Mathematics, 2009,
are likely to see these different methods. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
connections Refers to Making Connections In mathematical terms, making connections refers to un-
understanding links between derstanding links between different areas of math as well as connecting math concepts to
different areas of math and real-world problems. For example, measurement can be connected to number because it
connecting math concepts to
involves counting units of measurement (i.e., inches), or it could be used to figure out if
real-world problems.
a shoe fits.
Unitizing Finding or creating a mathematical unit, unitizing, is important in learning unitizing Finding or creating a
number, geometry, and spatial relations (Sophian, 2013). When children count, they have mathematical unit.
to use or create a unit of what they are going to count. For example, they can count people,
or couples, or people’s hands. When they measure length, they use a unit, whether it is their
feet, their body, or a yardstick. When they count by 2s, 5s, or 10s, the units are 2, 5, and 10.
Mathematics is based on understanding and applying the concept of a unit. For
example, to understand the base ten place value system, children must be able to recognize
that 10 ones can form a single unit of 10. For this reason, the concept of unit should be
a core idea in the early childhood math curriculum (Sophian, 2013). Of course, children
learn this abstract idea through many meaningful, concrete experiences such as making
patterns or counting.
436 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
Effective Mathematics
Curriculum
Responding to children’s natural interest in math and
problem solving and taking advantage of the teachable
moments during children’s play and routines are valuable
ways to promote math learning, but they are not enough
As you can see, even very
(Schoenfeld & Stipek, 2011). An effective curriculum is more than a collection of activi-
young children experiment with
basic mathematics and science
ties; it must be coherent, focused on important mathematics, and well articulated across
concepts—such as sorting and the grades (CCSS Initiative, 2015b).
classifying. Very little time is devoted to mathematics in early childhood classrooms despite the fact
that the amount of focused time on math instruction strongly predicts children’s o utcomes
(Farran, Lipsey, & Wilson, 2011). Most programs do not include experiences in which
mathematics is the primary goal. Instead, they address math as part of an integrated cur-
riculum in which mathematics is a secondary goal; as a result, math teaching occurs only
occasionally and rarely in depth (PCERC, 2008). In one study, researchers observed only 58
seconds of math teaching during an entire preschool day (Farran, Lipsey, Watson, & Hurley,
2007). In general, studies have found that integrated math instruction is less effective than
learning activities in which mathematics is the primary goal (NRC, 2009; PCERC, 2008).
A focused mathematics curriculum not only improves children’s math skills but also
increases their interest in math (Arnold, Fischer, Doctoroff, & Dobbs, 2002). Teachers,
too, report that they increase their knowledge and enjoyment in implementing math ac-
tivities. Studies on the effects of mathematics curricula indicate that more intentional
teaching of math leads to better math outcomes for children, especially dual language
learners and children from low-income families (Schoenfeld & Stipek, 2011).
An effective curriculum involves children actively in “doing mathematics.” With a
coherent curriculum, such as Building Blocks—Foundations for Mathematical Thinking
(Clements & Sarama, 2007b), children encounter math experiences in small and large
groups, and in everyday experiences with blocks, art, puzzles, dramatic play, and music.
They learn math by using specially designed software that makes the most of digital me-
dia’s capacities for supporting learning. Building Blocks has been found to significantly
improve not only children’s math outcomes but also their oral language and general rea-
soning (Sarama, Lange, Clements, & Wolfe, 2012).
Technology is an essential component. For example, young children are limited in their
ability to mentally manipulate shapes—to imagine the shapes turned or flipped. Once chil-
dren accumulate experiences in sliding, rotating, and flipping objects—whether with physi-
cal objects or a computer tool—they will be able to develop skills of mental imagery and
understand the possibilities for manipulating shapes. Digital environments, in which children
need to think abstractly and give concrete and precise commands, can be particularly help-
ful in getting a feel for such transformations and for other aspects of mathematical thinking.
Other focused mathematics curricula include Number Worlds (Griffin, 2004), Big
Math for Little Kids (Greenes et al., 2004), and Numbers Plus © Preschool Mathematics
Curriculum (HighScope, 2007).
Math Talk Tamara’s kindergarten is well stocked with board games that the chil-
dren enjoy playing. But Tamara observes that some children rarely use them. One day,
she invites four of the reluctant players to join her. Tamara introduces the activity: “For
this game, we need to roll the dice. Look carefully at this cube. What do you observe
about the dots?” As the children examine the dice and count the dots on each side,
Tamara extends the math talk: “What’s the largest number you can get when you roll
one die?” After turning the dice around, the children agree on “six.” As the conversa-
tion continues, Tamara introduces math talk such as “What do you observe about the
number of dots on each side of the cube? How are they different? Do you see a pat-
tern? The dice is shaped like a cube. What do the dots tell you about cubes?” After the
children have mastered the game using one die, Tamara brings out a second one and
further extends the math learning, “You rolled a four and a five, so how many spaces
can you move?”
This scene from Tamara’s classroom demonstrates how even a simple board game
provides a great opportunity for math talk. Given the critical role of language in learning math talk Using the language
math, it is not surprising that one of the most effective teaching strategies is what is and vocabulary of mathematics.
simply called math talk. Teachers should also point out that in these situations children
are “doing” math.
The amount of math-related talk children experience is positively related to their
mathematical knowledge (Klibanoff, Levine, Huttenlocher, Vasilyeva, & Hedges, 2006).
However, there is an enormous amount of variation in the amount of math talk that chil-
dren experience. One study found that in a 1-hour observation of 26 preschool classrooms,
teachers’ math talk ranged from 1 to 104 math-related words (Klibanoff et al., 2006).
An even greater difference occurs in parent-child interactions. A longitudinal study
that recorded math talk between parents and their children, between the ages of 14 and
30 months, found that over 7½ hours of observation, some parents spoke as few as
4 math words with their children while others produced 287 (Levine, Suriyakham, Roe,
Huttenlocher, & Gunderson, 2010). The researchers interpreted this finding to mean that
over the first 2½ years of life, some children heard 600 times as many number words as
other children.
Given the importance of math talk to children’s mathematical understanding, the
question arises, what if the children don’t speak the same language as their teachers?
Teaching math to dual language learners requires adapting curriculum and individualizing
instruction.
438 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
EXAMPLE 1: The teacher showed curiosity about and enthusiasm for math ideas and connec-
tions to other ideas or real-world situations.
• commented on or discussed mathematical ideas in reading a story
• showed interest in the mathematics that emerged in children’s play, construction, or discussions
Situation
The children are building with blocks. The teacher says, “What are you making?”
Children respond that it’s a skyscraper.
FIGURE 13.2 Examples of High- and Low-Quality Mathematics Teaching This figure compares
and contrasts examples of high-quality effective math teaching strategies with ineffective practices.
Source: From Manual for Classroom Observation of Early Mathematics—Environment & Teaching (COEMET)
version 3. J. Sarama, Author: D. H. Clements, © 2007 Reprinted with permission.
Grouping for Instruction Alice’s preschool children love it when she brings out
the plastic attribute blocks, which vary by color, shape, size, and thickness. She introduces
the activity by saying, “There are so many ways these blocks are the same, but they are
also different. Yesterday, we sorted them into groups by two attributes: color and shape.
Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 439
© EVAfotografie/E+/Getty Images
find the shape. Alfredo, can you find the big, fat,
blue pentagon?”
Small-group activities for four to six children are espe-
cially useful for teaching mathematics, and the skills
children acquire during small-group instruction can
transfer to knowledge and abilities that have not been
taught (Clements & Sarama, 2007). Effective teachers use
Although whole-group time can also be used to teach mathematics, to be effective, it various ways of grouping
should be only one component of instruction, along with small groups, individual activity, for instruction, including
and technology (Clements & Sarama, 2007b, 2008). The most effective whole-group individual activity, whole group,
interactions include a combination of teacher-led brief discussions, problem solving small groups, and technology.
with a partner (another child or an adult), and physical activities such as marching while
counting or doing a shape hunt (Clements & Sarama, 2007b, 2008).
Block Building As we have seen, block play provides valuable opportunities for
children to explore and engage in mathematical activity on their own (Pollman, 2010).
Children enjoy building with blocks and they naturally engage in mathematical play with
them (Seo & Ginsburg, 2004).
However, block building during free play alone doesn’t automatically
result in math learning. When teachers discuss mathematical ideas with
children during block play, their learning is enhanced (Tepylo, Moss, &
Stephenson, 2015). Teachers can introduce new words such as unit or equal,
and raise problems, such as “How can you make your bridge high enough for
the biggest boat to go under?” When teachers provide this kind of s upport, it
enhances children’s learning at the time, but is also valuable because children
incorporate these new ideas when they play on their own. Block b uilding
contributes to children’s knowledge of geometry and spatial relations,
especially three-dimensional shapes.
Table Toys One of the most effective ways for children to learn math is to use
manipulatives Small-sized c oncrete materials such as puzzles, matching games, and manipulatives. Manipulatives
blocks, cubes, pattern blocks,are small-sized blocks, cubes, pattern blocks, beads, pegs, and the like that are designed
beads, pegs, and the like thatfor children’s play and learning.
are designed for children’s play
Puzzles and manipulatives can enhance math knowledge, especially geometric and
and learning.
spatial thinking, in preschool as well as elementary-age children (Clements & Sarama,
2007a, 2007b). Up to about age 5½, children need concrete objects to learn counting and to
solve larger number problems using addition and subtraction (Levine, Jordan,
Classroom Connection & Huttenlocher, 1992). Manipulatives make abstract tasks meaningful.
As you watch this video of However, simply providing manipulatives and concrete materials does
preschool children playing shoe not ensure learning. Rather, teachers need to scaffold children’s use of
store, reflect on the mathematics m
anipulatives if they get stuck using the materials in the same way over and
content that they are learning. over. Six-year-old Martha loves to play with Unifix cubes, and for several
Observe how the teacher uses days she creates one row of 10 cubes. Her teacher says, “Martha, you seem
effective strategies and math talk to like counting to ten. What if we make two rows of ten? How many cubes
in the context of play. do you think we’ll need altogether?”
http://www.youtube.com/ Book Reading Books have great potential for teaching mathematics and
watch?v=DekMNAFpsqs are often used to integrate math into other areas of the curriculum, e specially
literacy (B. Casey, 2004; M. B. Casey, Erkut, Ceder, & Young, 2008;
Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 441
alive?” This last question draws laughs, but then some other queries. Grason says,
“Well, trees are alive and apples grow on trees. So they could be alive, too.” Grason’s
comment sparks a debate about what the word living means. This topic will be further
explored throughout the month as children explore the characteristics of living and
nonliving things.
At the orchard, children write down the farmer’s answers to their questions and
take photos to document their visit. Hunter wants his picture taken next to a tree as
a way to measure it. Later in the year, the class will return and compare their photos
of the fruit-bearing trees to the flowering trees in spring. Their documentation will
pique memories. Hunter thinks his photo will show how much the tree grows.
At the farm, each child picks 10 apples (counting by ones), and back at school
they group the apples by tens. The children come up with several ways to figure
out that the total number they picked is 210! They also organize the apples by size,
and choose the smallest to cook and the larger ones to eat. Because they picked
so many apples, Ebony suggests that they donate some to the food bank. When
the children cut the apples, they work with halves and quarters. They also bake
apples and make applesauce, all the while predicting and observing the changes
that take place.
In the previous example, life science is the main curriculum focus. Children learn s cience
facts and concepts while doing science—asking questions, predicting, observing, and
drawing conclusions. But other curriculum areas are well integrated. Children represent
their learning in many ways—drawing pictures, taking photos, and writing about the apple
orchard. Mathematics learning includes number and operations (counting, adding, us-
ing the base ten system, and dividing); classifying; creating and analyzing data (graph-
ing); and measurement. Language and literacy are also involved, with children reading
information books and learning new vocabulary (Gelman, Brenneman, MacDonald, &
Román, 2010).
Science Content
A coalition of scientists and science educators agree on the goals of the K–12 science
curriculum, which are articulated in the Next Generation Science Standards (Achieve,
Inc., 2013). The content of early childhood science is directly related to young children’s
natural interest and curiosity about how the world works, living things, their bodies, the
earth, insects and animals, and other topics they find fascinating (Seefeldt, Galper, &
Jones, 2012).
As in mathematics, both content and process are not only essential, but also integrally
connected. Children can’t do a science experiment that isn’t connected to science knowl-
edge and concepts, nor can they make sense of discrete facts and concepts presented apart
from meaningful context. In short, children can’t learn science from a book alone; they
have to do science.
what happens. At times they act to get a desired effect—rolling, pushing, and dropping
objects. To extend learning, teachers can ask children what will happen if they squeeze
an object or challenge them to blow on a spool to make it move. Often children explore
and manipulate effects without knowing how they achieved the results; when teachers ask
children how or why they think something happened, an everyday experience is turned
into a scientific event (Seefeldt, Galper, & Jones, 2012).
Life Science Life science is the study of the characteristics, life cycles, and life science The study of the
environments of organisms. Children identify features of plants and animals, their c haracteristics, life cycles, and
habitats, and needs (food and water). They learn about living and nonliving things, environments of organisms.
and how living things grow and change. They also learn parts of the human body, how
they function, what people need to stay healthy, and how human beings are alike and
different.
Earth and Space Science This topic involves studying properties of earth materials,
changes on the earth, and patterns of movement and changes of the sun and moon. Once
thought to be a topic beyond their understanding, many young children today are fasci-
nated and knowledgeable about space as demonstrated by the kindergartner’s drawing in
Figure 13.3. The learning goals of earth and space science include: earth and space science
Studying properties of earth
• Recognizing repeating patterns in nature (day and night; seasons)
materials, changes on the
• Observing weather changes earth, patterns of movement,
• Understanding the effect of people on the environment and changes of the sun and
• Learning about geographic features of the earth (mountains, oceans) and the move- moon.
ment of objects in the sky
Key Scientific Concepts Across the three content areas of science are several
key concepts or big ideas that create a strong foundation for later science learning. These
concepts include understanding change and cause-and-effect relationships. Another con-
cept that is revisited through school is the idea of a system—that a whole is composed of
related parts that affect each other. For example, the human body is a system; there are
weather systems and, of course, there is the vast solar system.
These complex concepts are vital to the work of all scientists. Preschoolers can
grasp such concepts at a basic level when teachers draw attention to them in planned and
spontaneous learning experiences. For example, when Jonah asks why insects and birds
fly but fish that also have wings don’t fly, his teacher poses the question to the class. FIGURE 13.3 Kindergar-
A lively discussion ensues about the differences between wings and fins and how some ten Child’s Representation
birds, like ducks, both swim and fly. of the Solar System This
kindergartner’s drawing of the
Children’s conceptual understanding deepens when they have a variety of expe-
solar system reveals both his
riences related to the same concept (French & Woodring, 2013). For example, chil- scientific understanding and
dren deepen their understanding of the concept of life cycles by planting and tending a his representation skills.
garden, observing a class pet, and studying how humans
grow.
Change can be continually observed in the natural
world. Some changes occur too rapidly to be observed
without special tools such as microscopes, whereas oth-
ers occur too slowly for children to fully comprehend,
such as the changing seasons. On the other hand, some
changes can be readily observed and investigated by any
age child. Teachers can encourage children to look for
all sorts of changes:
• What happens to the plant when it is left in the dark?
• What happens to your shadow at different times of
the day? Is your shadow there every day?
• What changes can be reversed? Can water be turned
into ice and back into water?
444 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
dual language learners (Albert Shanker Institute, 2009). These children will need lots of
cues, gestures, and repetition to learn these words in meaningful context. Read the feature
What Works: Teaching STEM to Dual Language Learners to learn more on page 449.
Gender Differences During a visit to the nature center, first-grade teacher Trula Mann
is startled when the naturalist brings out a snake for the children’s inspection. She hates
snakes and cringes at the thought of touching it. She sees that the boys eagerly gather
around the snake while most of the girls look frightened and withdraw. Trula swallows
her anxiety and reaches out to touch the snake. She is surprised to find that it is not at all
slimy. The naturalist asks, “How can a snake find food or defend itself since it doesn’t
have arms or legs?” At the end of the discussion, the children conclude that they would
bite, too, if they were a snake who was threatened.
In overcoming her trepidation, Trula served as a valuable model for the children, es-
pecially some of the girls. Such modeling behavior is important for girls in both science
and mathematics. One study found that first- and second-grade girls whose female teach-
ers had math anxiety were likely to be anxious about math themselves (Beiland, Gunder-
son, Ramirez, & Levine, 2010). By the end of the school year, the girls came to believe
that boys are good at math and girls are good at reading. Most important, the young girls’
anxiety negatively affected their math achievement.
Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 447
Sources: Based on Benchmarks for Science Literacy, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2009, Washington, DC: Author,
retrieved September 15, 2009, from http://www.project2061.org/publications/bsl/default.htm; Using the Scientific Method by National Center
on Quality Teaching and Learning, 2013, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Head Start.
Such gender differences are apparent as early as preschool. For example, one study
found that boys demonstrated more curiosity, spontaneity, and extensive knowledge about
nature and vertebrate and invertebrate (worms, snakes) animals than did girls (Desouza &
Czerniak, 2002). On the other hand, girls, although more fearful, were also more concerned
about the welfare of animals. Boys and girls also differed in their play preferences, with
boys more active and more likely than girls to bring into their play the science concepts
that were introduced at group time the day before.
Because the science and engineering professions have been traditionally dominated
by white males, particular efforts need to be made to address stereotypes and open the
448 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
fields early on to girls and to children from diverse linguistic and cultural groups. Given
that gender, racial, and cultural differences in STEM begin early and persist, it is never
too early to introduce powerful role models such as female, African American, and Latino
astronauts, inventors, or architects via real-life examples, books, toys, and materials.
Teaching about
and with Technology
technology Tools used to Whereas science is the study of the natural world, the goal of technology is to change
change or modify the natural or modify the natural world to meet human needs (NRC, 2012). Technology, in its many
world to meet human needs. forms, is a tool for all kinds of learning throughout life. It can be as simple as a handheld
magnifying glass or as complex as the Hubble space telescope exploring the origins of the
universe. Both of these tools make it possible for people to see things beyond the capabil-
ity of the human eye.
Technology in itself is neither good nor bad; the same tool—such as a computer—
can be used productively or destructively. Today, a major curriculum goal is to improve
Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 449
What Works
Teaching STEM to Dual Language Learners
Considerable attention is paid to research on how dual language graders used to interpret their graphs
learners acquire English and learn to read. At times, there is an as- in Figure 13.1.
sumption that because mathematics is about numbers and quan- Problem solving is playing a larger role
tity, language is less of a barrier. However, mathematics itself is in today’s curriculum due to the Common Core
a language, and as we have seen, math talk is what makes its ab- standards, but word problems complicate the challenge of math
stract concepts comprehensible for children. Other areas of STEM instruction for dual language learners. Teachers should avoid
have their own vocabulary and involve academic language that tricky word problems that create confusion, such as: “Jonas has 2
children do not encounter in everyday interactions. In short, STEM cars and 3 trucks; how many vehicles does he have?” Such a ques-
learning presents unique challenges for dual language learners. tion poses a language test rather than a math problem. A related
Many of the same strategies for teaching dual language challenge presented by word problems is the culturally implicit
learners in general are effective in teaching STEM. For example, knowledge they often require. Solving a problem usually requires
gestures such as a circling motion are useful in helping young that a child understand the situation in which it occurs, whether
children understand basic concepts such as the whole amount or it’s purchasing groceries or driving a car at a certain speed.
putting together and taking apart. Children readily count or form Manipulatives are hailed as an excellent tool to teach STEM,
shapes with their fingers. Teachers can set up an obstacle course and yet many children cannot relate to these toys. Few such toys
for children to use their whole bodies to learn position words such reflect the racial, cultural, and gender diversity of our classrooms.
as above, below, between, and through. A strategy for older chil- For example, Lego® has introduced some plastic figures portray-
dren is to create a math, science, or technology dictionary of rel- ing people of color as doctors, scientists, architects, and other
evant terms. Such a resource engages children in using different STEM occupations. However, most STEM toys still promote ste-
ways of representing a concept—in this case, words that can be reotypes of only white males in these roles.
referred to later. What works most effectively are the practices that are de-
Another effective strategy is having children talk to one another velopmentally appropriate for all children—hands-on, meaning-
in pairs or small groups. When children are learning a new lan- ful experiences coupled with teacher scaffolding, as opposed
guage, it is important not to put them on the spot. They shouldn’t to worksheets that test what children should have already
be expected to respond in front of the whole class. In a small group, learned. Dual language learners need to actively “do” science,
it is easier to practice concepts and “errors” are more likely to be technology, and engineering tasks—as teachers and other chil-
viewed as part of the learning process. This is especially important dren supply the words. And most important of all, teachers need
with a topic like math that may have only one correct answer. to have high expectations that all children can learn challenging
Introducing a math or science concept to the whole class can STEM content.
be done effectively using an interactive whiteboard. Then chil- Sources: Based on “6 Tips When Discussing Math with the English L
anguage
dren can be prompted to respond to questions chorally as a whole Learner,” by B. Austin, 2014, Chicago, Erikson Early Math Collabora-
group. Not every child will answer correctly, and no one child’s tive, retrieved March 17, 2015, from http://earlymath.erikson.edu/6-tips-
response will be singled out. discussing-math-english-language-learner; “It’s Time for More Racial
Diversity in STEM Toys” by M. Weinstock, 2015, Scientific American,
Another proven strategy when introducing a math or science
Voices: Exploring and Celebrating Diversity in Science, retrieved March
concept is to explicitly teach it by modeling, supplying the spe- 8, 2015, from http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/voices/2015/02/23/
cific name, and having children repeat the word. Also helpful is its-time-for-more-racial-diversity-in-stem-toys/?WT.mc_id=SA_sharetool_
introducing and using a consistent sentence such as the one first Twitter.
STEM skills and understanding, with T standing for technology. In other words, children
need to think critically about how technology is used to solve problems as well as learn
how to use technological tools in intentional and creative ways.
Ensure Access for All Children Technology raises the issue of equity because
some children have considerable access to technology at home while others do not. In
addition, when digital media devices are available, boys tend to choose them more often
than girls and to work on them longer.
Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 451
Promoting Play
Digital Play and Traditional Play
Young children learn through play in all kinds of other children. One frequent criticism of digital tools
ways. Every type of play—building blocks, playing is that they interfere with this opportunity. However,
games, manipulating table toys, pretending with some popular apps are designed to promote social
other children, physically engaging their whole interaction in several ways. For example, Toca Boca
bodies outdoors—has its own intrinsic rewards as provides a large selection of apps that promote play
well as benefits. Children also play with digital and creativity on a range of topics such as nature,
tablets and smart phones virtually every day. Early construction, and transportation, and in settings
childhood educators often ask themselves, “Is this such as hair salon or pet doctor. Toca Tea Party
a good or bad thing?” enables a child to create an imaginary tea table
and serve a meal to a favorite stuffed animal or toy
Like the answer to most questions about
figure. Research shows that children often share a
developmentally appropriate practice, “It depends.”
tablet, taking turns touching the screen, and talking.
An important consideration is how much time
With Toca Tea Party or the other Toca apps, a child
children spend engaged with digital devices, but
can also pretend with another child or an adult.
the more important criterion is the quality of the
Some shared apps enable children to interact with
experience. If the game or app is not high quality,
one another via the Internet. Or they can interact
then it deserves no time. On the other hand, if
with the animated characters on the screen, an ap-
children’s minds are truly engaged, their own
plication that will be enhanced as speech recogni-
initiative and curiosity may be the best guide.
tion technology improves.
In making decisions about using technology,
None of these examples of digital play should replace
teachers may be wise to consider what the experi-
traditional play. But digital media have the advantage
ence has in common with traditional play. One
of being portable and almost endless in the variety of
reason children love to play is because they are
social situations they can present. Engaging children
in control. When playing, children will often stay
who don’t nap with playful, creative media is a far
engaged for long periods of time, until they have
better alternative than requiring them to be quiet so
mastered a task to their own satisfaction, repeating
their peers can sleep. Having touch tablets avail-
an activity such as putting together a puzzle or play-
able as one option during choice time can promote
ing a matching game. These facts about play have
imaginative play in children whose prior experience
important implications for choosing appropriate soft-
with pretend play is limited. The app can model how
ware for digital tools. Many apps emphasize extrinsic
to play with real objects, props, and other children.
rewards like bells, gold stars, or flashing lights; but
In the end, teachers determine whether digital play is
apps that engage children’s intrinsic motivation to
a good or bad for children.
create, invent, think, and solve problems are more
likely to promote imaginative play and its benefits. Source: Based on “Digital Play and Traditional Play Have More in
Common Than You May Think” by J. Gray, 2015, Sparking Kids’
Traditional play also provides a vital context for chil- Imagination with Digital Toys, retrieved from http://tocaboca.com/
dren to develop social skills as they interact with magazine/sparking-imagination/.
13 Chapter Summary
• A
math achievement gap among lower-SES and everyday experiences as well as by planning specific,
higher-SES groups of children is present at the time math-focused curriculum.
of kindergarten entry and tends to widen as children • B
road consensus exists among mathematics experts that
progress through school. This knowledge gap exists to from age 3 to grade 3, content goals should focus on
some extent because children living in poverty do not these topics: number and operations and geometry, spatial
have sufficient opportunity to learn the language of relations, and measurement. Mathematics process goals
mathematics that connects their informal, basic math include problem solving, reasoning, communicating,
knowledge to later, more abstract school mathematics. connecting, and designing and analyzing representations.
• C
hildren’s cognitive development and abilities, such as • E
arly childhood science curriculum includes
their thinking, reasoning, and problem solving, develop knowledge and concepts of life science, physical
over time as their experience increases and becomes science, earth and space science, and the process of
more complex, and their brains mature. Executive scientific inquiry—questioning, predicting, observing,
function, which includes working memory, cognitive investigating, and documenting.
flexibility, and mental self-control, is strongly related to
• I ntentional teachers promote science learning by
how children learn mathematics and science.
organizing the environment, providing focused
• Y
oung children are capable of learning sophisticated experiences, intentional teaching, and integrating
mathematics, and they are interested in learning it. science in play and routines.
Teachers can contribute to narrowing the achievement
• I nteractive digital media are effective tools for teaching
gap and improving the math learning of all chil-
young children curriculum content and for expanding
dren by helping children mathematize their play and
their thinking and communication skills.
Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 453
Key Terms
■ abstraction ■ everyday mathematics ■ measurement ■ scientific inquiry
■ base ten place value ■ executive function ■ one-to-one ■ spatial relations
system ■ geometry c orrespondence ■ stable order principle
■ cardinality ■ inhibitory control ■ operations ■ subitizing
■ cognitive (mental) (cognitive self-control) ■ order irrelevance ■ technology
f lexibility ■ learning trajectory principle
■ unitizing
■ composing/decomposing ■ life science ■ physical science
■ working memory
■ connections ■ manipulatives ■ reasoning
■ earth and space science ■ math talk ■ representing
■ enumeration ■ mathematize ■ science
I
n this chapter, we discuss how social-emotional learning and the social studies
curriculum prepare children for life in a democracy and in a global society. Social- social-emotional learning
emotional learning (also called social competence) is children’s ability to recognize Children’s ability to recognize
and regulate their emotions, establish and maintain positive relationships, make respon- and regulate their emotions,
establish and maintain positive
sible decisions, and solve social problems constructively (Epstein, 2009). Social studies,
relationships, make responsi-
the integrated study of history, geography, economics, political science, and other related ble decisions, and solve social
subjects, contribute to the development of competent citizens (National Council for the problems constructively. Also
Social Studies [NCSS], 2010). During early childhood, social studies and social-emotional called social competence.
learning are inextricably connected. Learning to live in a democratic society—the
social studies The integrated
overarching goal of social studies—is predicated on social-emotional competence.
study of the history, geography,
In this chapter, we focus on how the social studies prepare children to be engaged economics, political science,
citizens—change agents in their schools, communities, and eventually the world. As we and other related aspects of
saw in Mr. Bell’s class, he extends his class’s learning beyond the local community and societies of the past, present,
helps children learn economics and geography while working to make the world a better and future.
455
456 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
engaged citizens Children place. In Ms. Hans’ kindergarten, she lays the foundation for engaged citizenry by focus-
as change agents in schools, ing on social-emotional learning and beginning democracy through voting.
communities, and eventually in
We begin with a discussion of how social-emotional development lays the foun-
the world.
dation for all learning. Next, we present an overview of the continuum of social and
emotional development from birth through age 8 and ways teachers can foster children’s
social-emotional learning. Then we discuss social studies content and effective teaching
strategies and curriculum approaches.
Social-Emotional Foundations
of Early Learning
Research demonstrates the critical importance of social-emotional learning for success
in school and life (Landy, 2009; Thompson & Goodman, 2009). Development in the so-
cial and emotional domains is inextricably linked; consequently, they are often referred
to as one concept, social-emotional development. When children establish warm and
responsive relationships with adults—the foundation of social development—they are
more likely to develop important emotional skills such as identifying feelings and learn-
ing to regulate their emotions and express them appropriately. In turn, these emotional
skills pave the way for the development of interpersonal problem solving, an essential
social skill. The following example illustrates the interaction of social and emotional
development.
Louise was overjoyed the day her daughter Kate was born. Louise’s friends tease her
that she never puts Kate down for a moment. Indeed, Louise often holds and gazes
at her baby. She imitates her expressions and, at first, picks her up whenever she
cries. As a newborn baby, Kate is beginning to trust Louise to meet her needs. Kate
generalizes this trust to other adults in her life. In the context of these relationships,
Kate is also learning key emotion words that eventually will help her to regulate
her emotions and, in turn, to solve interpersonal problems. Ever since Kate was a
tiny baby, her parents have labeled her various states with feeling words, “You are
sad. . . . Katie is frustrated. . . . Katie loves her mommy. . . . Katie is happy to see
her grandma. . . .” When Kate begins to talk, her sentences are often peppered with
feeling words that help her parents, teachers, and peers understand what she needs
and how to help.
This snapshot of Kate’s daily life reveals how early interactions contribute to the de-
velopment of essential social-emotional foundations of learning. These include the ability
to express feelings, establish positive relationships, and the overarching construct called
self-regulation.
Emotional Development
emotional development Emotional development begins at birth, and continues through the lifespan. Over time,
Acquisition of important children’s emotional development is shown in their ability to identify their own and
emotional skills such as iden- others’ emotions, to express emotions in a healthy way, and to regulate their feelings
tifying feelings and learning to
(Epstein, 2009). Emotional literacy refers to recognizing emotions in self and others,
regulate emotions and express
them appropriately.
having words to express feelings, and knowing how emotional expression affects others.
Emotional literacy helps children express their emotions appropriately, in personal situ-
emotional literacy Children’s ations, such as when they become frustrated or discouraged, and in social contexts, such
ability to identify their own
as when their feelings are hurt.
and others’ emotions, having
words to express emotions in
Teachers must understand that emotions play a significant role in early learning.
a healthy way, and to self- For example, some children are especially sensitive to criticism. Working on a dropout
regulate their feelings. prevention project for African American and Latino boys in pre-K through third grade,
Ritchie (2011) found that if teachers ignored or embarrassed them in any way, the boys
were likely to disengage mentally or physically from the task at hand and not re-engage
Chapter 14 Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies 457
Self-Regulation
Social Development
Social development refers to the process by which children learn to form and sustain social development Young
positive relationships with adults and other children. Like other domains, social learning children’s ability to form and
occurs along a developmental continuum, which we describe later in this chapter. Skills sustain positive relationships
with adults and other children.
become more complex as children are placed in more demanding social situations such
as early childhood programs, schools, after-school programs, and special interest clubs
and classes.
458 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
teachers and schools to help understand and support children and families who experi-
ence traumatic stress. Given the prevalence of stress in the lives of children and the power
of early experiences to mitigate it, positive relationships between teachers and children
become more important than ever. Next we turn to a description of the continuum of
typical social-emotional development and how teachers can support children’s social and
emotional competence.
may think that changing clothes changes their gender. They also begin to test
limits and strive for independence. They notice when others are looking at
them, and they often exaggerate movements or act silly when they are being
watched.
Developmental Continuum
Social-Emotional Development in
Infants and Toddlers
Widely Held Expectations How Teachers Can Help
Bonds and forms attachment with parents and other Encourage and support parent-child relationships
special people in life (such as enabling mothers’ breast-feeding),
Enjoys when familiar adult cuddles and talks with them. Hold, cuddle, hug, smile, and laugh with the child.
Exhibits separation anxiety by crying when familiar Provide environment with consistent, small number of
caregiver leaves. trustworthy adults.
Establishes an attachment with a consistent adult Respond to child’s emotional and physical needs,
other than the primary caregiver. verbal and nonverbal communications.
Explores the environment, but checks in with Encourage exploration, and reassure child that you are
caregiver. still present. Reassure child when you leave the setting,
“I’ll be back,” and when you return, “See, I’m back.”
Smiles spontaneously at other children and shows Provide opportunities for children to play and interact
interest in other children by watching them and with other children; carefully supervise so that children
tracking their behavior. don’t hurt each other.
Seeks adult assistance with challenges. Respond positively to child’s questions and calls for
assistance.
Plays side by side with other children at times. Provide enough toys of the same kind so children can
play side by side but don’t have to share.
With adult support, waits for turns during play Play turn-taking games like pat-a-cake with babies.
(usually 2-year-olds). Help children learning turn-taking skills: “It’s Curtis’s
turn to sit on my lap. You’re next, Cassie.”
May frustrate easily when unable to achieve a desired Observe child for emerging frustration, and offer sup-
goal (e.g., building tower of blocks). port when needed (but not too soon).
Toddlers follow social routines with reminders (e.g., Encourage independence and reinforce learning of so-
put your coat in your cubby). cial routines (“Thank you for putting your coat away!”).
Sources: Based on North Carolina Foundations for Early Learning and Development,
by North Carolina Foundations Task Force, 2013, Raleigh, NC: Author; Washington
State Early Learning and Development Benchmarks, by State of Washington, 2012,
retrieved February 22, 2015, from http://www.del.wa.gov/publications/development/docs/
guidelines.pdf.
Preschoolers can give reasons for a position, such as “I don’t want to play right now
because I am tired.” By the end of preschool, children can understand the effects of their
actions on others, as in “I took the marker away from her and now she is crying.” This
accomplishment is essential to interpersonal problem-solving. Read the Developmental
Continuum feature for a description of social-emotional learning in 3- through 5-year-old
children and effective teaching strategies to promote it.
462 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
Developmental Continuum
Social-Emotional Learning in
3- through 5-Year-Olds
Widely Held Expectations How Teachers Can Help
Demonstrates affection and comfort with significant Warmly welcome and return appropriate affection.
adults.
Begins to self-regulate attention, feelings, and Model calmness and patience. Teach children words to
behavior, and sometimes needs adult support. use to express emotions, and help them practice these
skills in real-life situations.
Seeks adult support for emotional, physical and social Support and validate child’s feelings and efforts
support, including solving problems and approval. at cooperation, and reinforce the child’s positive
problem-solving skills.
Enjoys learning and enthusiastically plays with other Provide opportunities for child to engage in a variety
children. of play activities with other children (e.g., dramatic
play, art projects, free play outside, and dance and
movement).
Makes and maintains a friendship with one or more Provide opportunities for children to choose activities
children. that interest them, the time to pursue these activities,
and the freedom to interact with preferred playmates
who share similar interests.
Give ample time for children to be silly and enjoy each
other’s company.
Read stories about friendship and discuss the behav-
iors that made the character in the story a good friend.
Demonstrates understanding of social rules in interac- Acknowledge cooperation when child plays with other
tions with children; shares materials and toys during children and provide opportunities for children to share
play, increasingly cooperative. materials.
Demonstrates awareness that their behavior can affect Provide opportunities for dramatic play so that child
others’ feelings. can practice taking another’s role or perspective
(“Pretend you’re Gera and can’t have a turn. How do
you feel?”).
Describes reasons for feelings, and uses strategies for Name and discuss feelings throughout the day (e.g.,
managing strong emotions. “You’re disappointed because . . . ”).
Uses social skills such as sharing, taking turns, and When there is a conflict between two children,
resolving conflicts in interactions with other children. demonstrate empathy for both children.
Demonstrates awareness of group membership (“I’m Provide opportunities for children to describe and
a boy”) and acknowledges own abilities (“I’m good at see positive images of their own cultural and physical
soccer”). characteristics.
Sources: Based on North Carolina Foundations for Early Learning and Development, by
North Carolina Foundations Task Force, 2013; Washington State Early Learning and
Development Benchmarks, State of Washington, 2012, retrieved February 22, 2015,
from http://www.del.wa.gov/publications/development/docs/guidelines.pdf.
Chapter 14 Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies 463
Cultural Diversity The values and practices of each child’s family and community
shape the feelings, knowledge, and expectations that influence social and emotional de-
velopment (Hanson & SooHoo, 2007). For example, in China, where children are encour-
aged to “fit in” socially, shy behavior is seen as desirable, whereas in the United States,
where “standing out” is acceptable, shyness is often associated with negative qualities
such as anxiety or social isolation. Similarly, Waylon’s enthusiasm for being the “Big
Cheese” might not be shared by a child from another cultural group.
Children need to develop respect for people with ideas and experiences that are both
similar to and different from their own. Lulu’s best friend in preschool is Bethel. When
Lulu invites Bethel to her birthday party and Bethel doesn’t come, Lulu’s feelings are hurt.
Angela, the girls’ teacher, notices that Lulu doesn’t want to play with Bethel anymore.
Angela explains to Lulu that Bethel’s family does not celebrate birthdays or holidays. Her
not attending Lulu’s party doesn’t mean that Bethel doesn’t like Lulu. Angela draws a par-
allel to Lulu’s family being vegetarian. When this is explained to Lulu, she understands
and readily seeks out Bethel as a playmate again.
464 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
Developmental Continuum
Social-Emotional Learning in the
Primary Grades
Widely Held Expectations How Teachers Can Help
Describes their emotions and the situations Have children discuss situations that trigger strong emotions
that cause them and demonstrates construc- and role-play strategies to cope with them.
tive ways to deal with emotions.
Identifies own likes and dislikes. Describes Help children to make accurate, realistic assessments of their
things they do well and not well. own competence (“It’s true that this math lesson is hard, but I
can see how hard you’re working and how much you’ve learned
since last week.”).
Understands expectations and responsibility Help children feel comfortable in coming to you with ques-
to promote a safe and productive environ- tions and assistance, but also encourage them to try to solve
ment. Demonstrates understanding of when problems independently.
to bring issues to adult attention. Model cross-cultural communication and provide strategies for
child to address bias.
Actively address bullying or children’s attempts to exclude others.
Shows loyalty to friends; prefers same-sex Provide opportunities for children to play and work with friends
peers. in self-selected groups. At times, organize mixed-gender or other
diverse groups to ensure that children do not limit their interac-
tions or consistently exclude others.
Follows suggestions given by a friend about Provide opportunities for children to be part of group activities
how to proceed in their play. (e.g., games, cultural events).
Works with other children to overcome Discuss and demonstrate how different things can be achieved
challenges. when children work together (dramatizing a story or building a
model).
Children can read (or be read to) and write stories about actual
people who have overcome challenges, such as Jackie Robinson.
Model and promote respect for diversity in all its forms.
Uses multiple strategies to resolve social Guide children through conflict resolution.
conflicts. Support children’s attempts to solve social problems.
Feels empathy for other people and describes Read or help children read chapter books, such as Charlotte’s Web,
how own actions make others feel and behave. that depict emotionally challenging events or social situations.
Recognizes that others may have different Demonstrate and provide opportunities for children to take
perspectives or feelings than own. another’s perspective before making decisions (e.g., “What would
Recognize words and actions that hurt others. Ella think if you gave her your book?”).
Participates cooperatively in large- and Provide opportunities for small-group projects (creating a map,
small-group activities, play, and games. planning and carrying out an experiment).
Encourage participation in group games, allowing children to
make or modify rules.
Communicates about others’ feelings. Provide opportunities for children to share and discuss feelings.
Discuss why a character reacts as he or she did in a story,
taking cultural differences into consideration.
Source: Based on Assessing and Guiding Young Children’s Development and Learning,
Enhanced e-text, 6th edition, by O. McAfee, D. J. Leong, and E. Bodrova, 2015, Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Chapter 14 Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies 465
Play and Fears During the preschool years and as children’s cognitive development
progresses, they acquire a well-developed imagination. Along with this new flexibility
in thinking comes an increase in their fears. Three-, 4-, and 5-year-olds may be afraid of
animals, the dark, monsters, or whatever they can conjure up. Given the dangers in today’s
world—strangers, violence, and abuse—their fears may be real as well as imaginary.
Consider this example:
Four-year-old Taylor is afraid of dogs, especially the big boxer that just moved in
next door. He cries every time he leaves home and doesn’t want to go to school any-
more. After talking to Taylor’s mother, Ms. Jerome purchases a set of plastic dogs
for the classroom and sets up a pretend dog training school. Taylor gradually begins
to play with the plastic dogs and Ms. Jerome overhears him saying to the boxer,
“Bad dog. Don’t jump. Stay in your yard. No barking.” After a few days, Taylor
takes over the dog training school, and tells the stuffed dogs that they better be
good or he will tell their mommies. Taylor’s mother also talks to the neighbor about
controlling the dog, but his play experiences at school help Taylor work through
his fear.
In play, children like Taylor can pretend to be mighty and strong and conquer their fears.
They fantasize that they are the giant animal or the monster, thus giving themselves power
over the feared creature.
Source: Based on “Social Participation among Preschool Children,” by M. Parten, 1933, Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 27, 243–269.
468 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
solitary play Children play Although most play researchers still agree that children engage in these different
alone, usually with toys or types of social play, they do not agree about the order or the ages at which children
objects.
progress in their play (Johnson et al., 2005). For example, parallel play, where children
associative play Children play play side by side but do not interact, is now considered the least mature form of play,
and share with each other, rather than solitary play. Older children continue to engage in solitary play and, at
usually one other child. times, switch back and forth between cooperative and solitary play. Solitary play can
cooperative play Children involve toys/objects or make-believe. For example, Toya enjoys the cooperative sce-
assume different roles and nario of taking the trip, but afterward she sits by herself and pretends to drive the bus.
share a purpose for the play. Even after children develop more socially complex play abilities, they will use all types
of play at times. Imelda may share her stethoscope with Lora, who also
wants a turn—associative play—without cooperating in the shared goal of
running a hospital.
In fact, solitary play may be evidence of a personality trait; some people
are just more social than others. But if children never play with others, they
miss the valuable learning opportunities that play affords. Additionally, if
children do not move beyond solitary play, this may signal a difficulty in
children’s social development (Johnson et al., 2005). Children with disabil-
ities, such as autism, can also benefit from teachers’ support in developing
Classroom Connection play skills (Wong, 2013). Teachers need to be aware of children’s play pat-
The children in this video are terns and intervene if necessary; for example, if children watch others play
working together to build a house. and appear to want to join in but don’t know how or are rejected by their
As you watch, consider the ways peers, teachers need to model the words to say or suggest other strategies
in which play can enhance young to use.
children’s social-emotional skills.
What could an effective teacher ✓ Check Your Understanding 14.3: The Role of Play in Social-
do to help the boys who don’t Emotional Learning
actively participate?
Effective Social-Emotional
Curriculum and Teaching
Teachers and children interact constantly in early childhood programs, so social-emotional
development is naturally and almost invisibly interwoven into the day. Because of this,
some people don’t think it necessary to include social and emotional development in
a planned curriculum. However, the increase in challenging behaviors and emotional
difficulties among very young children has led to the need for a more intentional approach
Intentional teachers help to social-emotional curriculum.
children learn many alterna-
tive strategies to solve social
problems among themselves.
Social and Emotional
Curriculum Goals
As discussed earlier, the main goal of a social-emotional
curriculum is to promote children’s social competence and
self-regulation. Widely-used comprehensive curriculum
models such as HighScope (Epstein & Hohmann, 2012)
and Tools of the Mind (Bodrova & Leong, 2007) integrate
these goals throughout. In recent years, more focused ev-
© 2xSamara.com/Shutterstock
2005). Research finds that these curricula are effective in improving children’s knowledge
and understanding about emotions, their social problem-solving skills, and their social
behavior (Morris et al., 2014).
next?” Three questions can guide a child’s decision to determine if the consequences
would be good or bad (Webster-Stratton, 1999):
• Will this solution keep our bodies, feelings, and things safe?
• Is the solution fair?
• How will everyone feel?
Once again, teachers can use role-play to help children learn these strategies. Feeling
satisfied with the number of diverse solutions the children generated, Miss Trina helps
them evaluate the consequences of solutions, using a puppet to introduce
the three criteria for evaluating solutions. For example, the puppet demon-
Classroom Connection strates their solution of taking turns, and then asks the children, “Is it
safe?” Aaron and Javier shout, “Yes!” The puppet congratulates them on
In this video, you observe a
good thinking and then demonstrates another solution, grabbing toys. The
well-established, research-based
puppet asks, “Is it safe?” When the children respond, “No,” the puppet
social-emotional curriculum, The
Incredible Years, in action. What
asks, “Why not?”
do you think are the benefits of Step 4: Give the solution a try! At this step, children are taught to act
using a focused curriculum such on the best solution that they generated and what to do if a solution does not
as this in addition to promoting work. When a prosocial solution does not work, children can draw on the oth-
skills through play and other daily er solutions they generated in Step 2 that might have positive consequences.
interactions? When teachers focus on building problem-solving skills, children are likely
to begin supporting and encouraging each other’s efforts.
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=Y3LwBiXWmIQ
Solve Problems in the Moment Many unanticipated social-emo-
tional problems occur throughout each day. Teachers need to assist children
with problem solving on a moment-to-moment basis. At times, it’s enough for teachers to
anticipate a problem and be nearby to prompt a child through the problem-solving steps.
For example, 6-year-old Oralie got off the bus this morning with a scowl on her face. Her
teacher keeps an eye on her, and when Oralie squabbles with Clancy over the computer,
her teacher is there to encourage them to think of and try various solutions.
Children need support from teachers to remember the problem-solving steps and to
stay in the situation. Those who are not skilled problem solvers may be prone to flee.
Others may lose control of their temper and have an emotional meltdown. Teachers need
to be equipped with strategies to support children through these difficult moments. Recent
research suggests that mindfulness-based practices are one such strategy that can be used
mindfulness Noticing one’s in classrooms. Mindfulness refers to noticing one’s sensations, thoughts, and feelings in
sensations, thoughts, and feel- the present moment, without judgment. When children are taught to notice their breathing
ings in the present moment, and bodily sensations and emotions—in the present moment—they may develop bet-
without judgment.
ter self-regulation (Zelazo & Lyons, 2012). They may even develop better cognitive and
social skills (Flook, Goldberg, Pinger, & Davidson, 2015). Another research-based strat-
egy that helps children respond to stressful situations, the Turtle Technique, is described
in the What Works feature.
Relationships with Peers Mr. Wilson’s kindergarten class meeting begins with a
question: “Do you know how to make a new friend?” Hands shoot up immediately and
children chant, “I do, I do.” Almost whispering, Mr. Wilson says, “We don’t need hands yet.
Now stop and think for a second.” The children know this routine by now. After a few sec-
onds, Mr. Wilson calls on children in turn and most of them say some variation of “play with
them.” So Mr. Wilson asks, “How would you invite a friend to play?” and he writes down
their ideas to post on the wall: What can we play? Want to go to the park? Do you like Clay
Boy? Want to play frog? and on and on as their ideas become more creative and detailed.
Mr. Wilson’s planned lesson is to help the children practice self-regulation and friend-
ship skills in advance. By asking the children to think before they answer, he encourages
impulse control. By posting their ideas, he provides a scaffold to revisit when children
need to work on friendship skills later.
Chapter 14 Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies 471
What Works
The Turtle Technique
Four-year-old Maxim has been in preschool for only a few weeks. 4. Come out of your “shell” when
It is his first group experience and, as an only child, he has not calm and think of some solutions
been around other children very often and has never had to share to the problem.
his toys. Maxim tends to play alone and will spend 20 minutes or
Teaching the Turtle Technique to young children can occur
more with playdough, which is his favorite activity. One day, Nate
during large- and small-group times. A turtle puppet is helpful
sits down beside Maxim and reaches for some playdough and plas-
and keeps children engaged during the lesson. The teacher can
tic molds. Maxim immediately pulls the toys out of Nate’s hands
begin by introducing the turtle to the class. After the children get
and pushes him away. When Nate resists, Maxim loses control
a chance to say hello and perhaps give a gentle pat, the teacher
entirely; he falls on the floor and wails that he wants to go home.
shares the turtle’s special trick for calming down. The turtle
He is inconsolable until snack time distracts him from his anger.
explains a time when he got upset (selecting an incident familiar
When Maxim’s mother comes to pick him up at the end of the
to the children is best). He demonstrates how he thinks to himself
day, the teacher, Ms. Gallo, tells her about the incident and his
“STOP,” then goes in his shell and takes three deep breaths. Then
mother worries that Maxim is too immature for preschool. Ms. Gallo,
he thinks to himself, “I can be calm and think of some solutions
who has taught preschool for many years, reassures her that pre-
to solve my problem.” When he is calm, he comes out of his shell
school is where Maxim needs to be to learn to regulate his emotions
and is ready to solve the problem peacefully with the teacher near-
and express them more constructively. She explains that in the
by for support.
future she will use a research-based strategy, the Turtle Technique.
Rather than singling out Maxim for instruction, the next day,
When a teacher notices a child getting agitated and upset she
Ms. Gallo uses the turtle puppet to teach the technique to all of
can cue the child to “calm down” by remembering the Turtle Tech-
the children. During center time, she reminds children to practice
nique. The Turtle Technique was originally developed to teach adults
the technique when they feel frustrated or angry. It takes several
anger management skills, and then was successfully adapted and
weeks for Maxim to successfully use the technique to calm him-
integrated into social skills curricula for school-age and preschool
self. But in the meantime, Nate is more successful in playing near
children. The basic steps of the Turtle Technique are as follows:
him, and soon they are best friends.
1. Recognize that you feel angry.
2. Think “STOP.” Source: Based on “The Turtle Technique: An Extended Case Study of
3. Go into your “shell” and take three deep breaths and think Self-Control in the Classroom,” by A. Robin, M. Schneider, & M. Dolnick,
calming, coping thoughts: “It was an accident. I can calm 1976, Psychology in the Schools, 13, 449–453.
e nergetic second graders. We now turn to the related area of the curriculum in which
children see these skills in action in themselves and other people—social studies.
Promoting Play
Learning to Get Along Using Board Games
Elena loves her class of 25 urban, diverse second from among them, or choose some alternative an-
graders. They are curious and energetic, and really swers provided on “solution” cards. For an answer to
enjoy problem solving. They become particularly be considered, it has to (1) be nonviolent, (2) respect
engaged within math problems, board games, and all parties, and (3) be one that all can “live with.”
passionate discussions. Recently, several of the
Elena introduces and explains the game during
children had disagreements on the school bus that
social studies, and puts it out for center time. She
ended in fights, and brought their disagreements
makes sure that it is available while children play.
into the classroom. Their disagreements focused on
She ensures that everyone has a chance to play the
fairness—who was first in line and who “budged”—
first week and holds a class discussion to name
and power—who was the strongest and should be
the game, adjust the rules, and add to the social
the “leader.” Their disagreements became louder
problems. She is a bit surprised to see how excited
and more passionate, and Elena realizes that she
the children are about the game, and how enthusi-
needs to intervene. While she knows social studies is
astically they add new cards to the social challeng-
the perfect context for some structured social-emo-
es. Every Friday, they discuss the “Do Right” game,
tional learning, she also knows that she would not
and often add new skills to the solution cards. For
be successful just telling this group of children rules
example, one Friday session leads to discussion of
about how others should be treated. She decides to
“I statements,” phrases used to help express how
combine this group’s love of board games and dis-
situations make people feel. During the next week,
cussion to create a playful social learning game.
she hears children using I statements in their game
Elena takes an old board game and repurposes it, play (“When you _____, I feel _____.”). Over the
creating a game to support discussions and prob- remainder of the school year, the children enjoy
lem solving around social challenges. Children can playing the game, and share many heated discus-
choose a “challenge” card that introduces a social sions over “right” ways to act toward others, and to
problem, such as, “Another kid gets in front of you in protect themselves. And their “play” practices begin
the bus line. You tell him he should go to the back, to show up in real-life social situations. The bus
and not budge, but he ignores you, and stays in driver reports fewer conflicts, and playground dis-
front of you. What might you do?” Children think of agreements are more often solved without help from
solutions, and then pitch them to the cardholder. The adults. Elena reflects happily on one more example
cardholder considers the answers and may choose of how play is an excellent context for learning.
Source: Based on National Curriculum Standards for Social Studies: A Framework for Teaching, Learning, and Assessment, by National Council for
the Social Studies, 2010, Silver Spring, MD: Author.
lthough the basic concept of widening horizons is still relevant, social studies should
A
not be limited to immediate, firsthand experiences. Children’s horizons are and can be
much wider today. Consider how the widening horizons approach is used in the following
example:
Lily Nguyen teaches in an inclusive preschool classroom. For a study about fami-
lies, she plans a project that families can work on together. Lily sends home colorful
construction paper, child-sized scissors, glue sticks, crayons, stickers, and directions
to trace one hand from each person in the family, decorate it, and then glue it to the
large piece of construction paper. When the hand pages come back, Lily is delighted.
The families are very creative and many note that they had great fun. After laminating
the pages and compiling them into a book, Lily shares the completed project with the
children, stopping after each page to count and discuss the members of each family.
The children then help graph the number of family members each child has.
476 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
Culture Lens
Learning about Cross-Cultural Similarities through the
Milestones Project
When teachers think about culture, the focus is almost Kay began by having the children visit the Milestones
always on differences. However, human beings from di- website in pairs. She asked them to record their respons-
verse cultural backgrounds are not only different, they es to what they saw. The children’s notes included state-
also share many similarities. The Milestones Project is ments like “Kids everywhere like to have friends.” “Boys
designed to focus more attention on the ways people always like boys best.” “Most kids lose a tooth when they
across cultures are alike. are in first grade.” “Everybody smiles the same.”
Deeply concerned over divisive world events such as The children became so excited looking at the photos
ethnic cleansing, religious hatred, and racism, Richard and reading other children’s stories that they wanted
and Michele Stickel launched the Milestones Project in to produce their own Milestones Project. Kay organized
1998. They believe that if more people could see how them into small groups to decide which milestones each
all humans are alike, people would be more accepting, group wanted to study. Some groups simply picked the
understanding, and respectful of each other. To achieve same ones they saw on the web. Others were more cre-
this goal, the Stickels travel the world, photographing ative. One group picked older people (their grandparents
children of various nationalities, races, religions, and or great-grandparents), choosing to document what they
cultures. They document the same milestones in devel- look like when their grandchildren visit or when they get
opment at about the same points in time. Milestones in- a present. Each group identified people—either their
clude such significant achievements and events as first own families or neighbors—representing various races,
step, first tooth, first day of school, and best friend. Pho- ethnicities, religions, and cultures. Then they used digi-
tos depict faces, hats, tongues, and other shared aspects tal cameras to capture faces and tape-recorded stories or
of the human experience. Subjects also write or dictate reactions from the participants.
stories about these life experiences. The Milestones web- As a culminating event, Kay’s class prepared a Power-
site makes the photos and stories available for anyone Point presentation and section of the school website
in the world to see. They have also published books, in- featuring quotes from the participants and beautiful
cluding an interactive workbook in English and Spanish color photos, which they shared with their families at a
coauthored with the Great Kids Head Start program in parent meeting. The other first-grade classrooms in the
Denver, Colorado. school also viewed the show and decided to do their own
Inspired by the Milestones Project, first-grade teacher Milestones Projects.
Kay Isaacs decided to do a similar project in her class- The Milestones Project is one example of how early child-
room. Her school is located near a large city in a neigh- hood teachers can support children’s identity and build
borhood that is sometimes called a mini-United Nations. respect for cultural diversity at the same time. For a com-
A local store contributed digital cameras to the school plete description of the project and to view the wonderful
and the project was launched. photographs, visit http://www.milestonesproject.com.
In this project, Lily has many opportunities to talk about and demonstrate respect for
diverse families. The children come from a variety of family structures, such as single
parents, gay and lesbian families, extended families, and foster families. An additional
subject emerges as Lily’s class discusses families. Some children talk about relatives
who are no longer living. This topic leads into another social studies theme and related
concepts—history and how people change over time.
Learn about the Past and the Concept of Time Social studies can equip
young children with knowledge and understanding of the past and how things, people,
and places change over time. Preschoolers begin learning concepts of time by experienc-
ing a predictable schedule. As children get older, they are increasingly able to mark the
passage of time and how things change over days, weeks, months, and seasons.
Children can also learn to use the methods used by historians, such as identifying
problems and questions, collecting information and artifacts, and observing and reaching
conclusions about the past. Elementary-age children learn about the past by engaging in
Chapter 14 Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies 477
“living history” projects in which they interview older members of their family or com-
munity. The Becoming an Intentional Teacher feature illustrates how one teacher engaged
children in a living history project to integrate social studies and other curriculum areas.
Source: Based on Geography for Life: National Geography Standards, 2nd edition, edited by S. Heffron, 2012, Washington, DC: National Council for
Geographic Education.
Source: Based on Active Experiences for Active Children: Social Studies, 2nd edition, by C. Seefeldt and A. Galper, 2006, Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Pearson.
480 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
meetings and help them understand the concepts of voting and majority. As children get
older, their u nderstanding of history and current events expands and they engage more
with American democratic experiences.
In previous sections, we presented some of the social studies curriculum themes rec-
ommended by the National Council for the Social Studies, the key concepts for children
to learn, and examples of teaching strategies. Next we discuss effective approaches for
planning and implementing social studies curriculum.
Play and Active Learning Experiences “Children are born into social stud-
ies. From birth, they begin exploring their world” (Mindes, 2006, p. 4). In good schools
for young children, social studies take place naturally (Seefeldt et al., 2013). Such schools
allow children to experience the curriculum firsthand through child-guided exploration
and play within a carefully planned environment. Children learn social studies when they
interact to solve problems such as how to produce a guidebook for school visitors.
Teachers can extend this learning by inviting guest speakers for children to meet and
interview. However, teachers should prepare guests in advance; people who have not had
experience with young children may have inappropriate expectations for their behavior,
such as expecting them to remain quiet for a lecture. A more successful approach is for
guests to bring hands-on materials such as antique tools from the history museum for the
children to see, touch, and talk about.
Field work is another active way to extend social studies learning, whether in the
form of an exploration of the school building, a visit to the florist, or a trip to the plan-
etarium. However, like all early childhood experiences, field trips must be planned and
structured carefully to be safe and support active student learning (Seefeldt et al., 2013).
It is important to have a clear purpose for a field trip that identifies specific learning goals.
In addition to following school procedures and policies related to field trips, teachers
should visit the field trip site in advance, noting parking facilities and safe walking paths,
and how children with disabilities might be accommodated. It is also important to prepare
the adults at the field trip site with information about the children in your group and their
learning goals for the trip.
Children should also be prepared for the field trip experience. In addition to preparing
the children regarding safety and expected behavior, it is helpful to provide background
content for the experience. This does not mean that field trips should necessarily come at
the end of learning units, and in fact, it is often useful to have a field trip at the beginning
of a unit to ground the children’s learning in real experiences. Either way, children should
learn about the field trip schedule and activities and have an opportunity to see photos or
videos and ask questions. Teachers should plan for children to document their experiences
Chapter 14 Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies 481
in some way. They can use a tablet, recorder, camera or other technology to record photos
and videos and interviews. Older children can take notes.
Children should be helped to document their experiences when they return to school.
They can discuss and record their memories in writing, drawing, painting, or through
other forms of creative expression. They can work their experiences into their play with
appropriate props; for example, they might create a pretend flower shop after a visit to
the florist. They also can extend learning by reading books and through technology such
as looking on the NASA website following a planetarium trip.
Field trips have the potential to expand children’s horizons in many ways. However,
trips can also be missed opportunities for learning if the experience is just a whirlwind
of unfocused activity. When asked what they remember from a trip to the nature center,
children might say “Tasha got sick” or “I jumped in the puddle of water.” While these
reports are undoubtedly factual, they should not be all the children bring back from the
experience.
Technology and Social Studies Children can also use global positioning sys-
tem (GPS) devices during field trips to learn about newer technologies related to geogra-
phy. To learn more about the world at large, children can explore other cultures and places
with Internet searches and electronic pen pals. Many schools, for example, Skype with or
send e-mails and photos of their drawings to children in other schools, particularly ones
in the hometowns or countries of children in the class.
482 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
Children can also produce and disseminate projects on the web. For example, young
elementary-age children might put together a web page about the topics they are studying.
Children could also prioritize a “wish list” that includes items to be used in the class; this
allows the class to explore economics learning.
Travel costs and supervision concerns often limit opportunities to take field trips.
virtual field trip Trip taken via However, virtual field trips allow children to use the Internet to go anywhere in the
the Internet in which children world. In this way, children can explore another community, state, or even country. They
can go anywhere in the world. also can interview experts online via e-mail or participate in live chats with other children
or workers in various jobs. The possibilities of using technology to teach social studies are
limited only by the technology available to children.
✓ Check Your Understanding 14.5: Effective Social Studies Curriculum and Teaching
14 Chapter Summary
• Social-emotional learning (also called social compe- behavior, and to know how and when to effectively
tence) is children’s ability to recognize and regulate promote social-emotional learning.
emotions, establish and maintain positive relationships, • Play is a vital context for children to develop positive
make responsible decisions, and solve social problems peer relationships and practice social skills. Play is
constructively. equally important for emotional development, pro-
• Teachers need to understand the developmental contin- viding a context for children to address their fears,
uum of significant social-emotional accomplishments develop coping skills and resilience, and feel in control
across the period from birth to third grade to have of their environment.
appropriate and realistic expectations for children’s
Chapter 14 Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies 483
• Effective social-emotional curricula include specific overarching goal of social studies—is predicated on
strategies for teaching social problem-solving skills, social-emotional learning.
friendship skills, and self-regulation. • Developmentally appropriate, effective approaches to
• Social studies—the integrated study of history, geog- teaching the social studies in early childhood programs
raphy, economics, political science, and other related include engaging children in play and active learning
subjects—contribute to the development of competent experiences, using an integrated approach to link social
citizens. During early childhood, social studies topics studies learning and other curriculum areas, and using
and social-emotional learning are inextricably con- technology to expand children’s worldviews.
nected. Learning to live in a democratic society—the
Key Terms
■■ associative play ■■ equity pedagogy
■■ separation anxiety ■■ solitary play
■■ cooperative play ■■ identity
■■ social development ■■ toxic stress
■■ emotional development ■■ mindfulness
■■ social-emotional ■■ virtual field trip
■■ emotional literacy ■■ parallel play learning ■■ widening horizons
■■ engaged citizens ■■ self-regulation ■■ social studies approach
A
s in any high-quality early childhood program, movement is an essential part of
living and learning in Ms. Perez’s classroom. From tiny babies to active second
graders, young children take on and embrace the world with their whole bodies.
Healthy children of all ages love physical activity and play, but more than fun is involved.
With the help of parents and teachers, children master critically important physical skills
and also establish habits related to fitness and health that can last a lifetime.
In this chapter, we address the critical health and fitness issues facing our nation’s
children today. We discuss the continuum of children’s motor development from birth
through age 8, and how intentional teachers promote optimal development through play
485
486 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
and focused teaching of physical skills. We also discuss curriculum and teaching practices
that promote children’s fitness, health, and nutrition, and those that prevent illness and
injury.
child care center where children might spend 8 to 10 hours a day, it is essential to provide
significant amounts of time for structured and unstructured physical activity. The chil-
dren may have limited time for active play once they leave the center. If children spend
3 or 4 hours in a program, teachers should plan at least 30, and preferably 45 minutes,
of gross-motor play, in one or two time periods. Family child care may provide greater
flexibility.
We know from research, however, that preschool children are not engaging in suffi-
cient amounts of physical activity. For example, one study (Brown et al., 2009) of 24 pre-
schools found that children spent less than 4% of the day engaged in moderate to vigorous
physical activity, mostly outdoors. Indoor activity was essentially sedentary, except for
rarely occurring teacher-initiated music and movement experiences. Given the benefits of
physical activity for young children, as well as the risks of poor levels of fitness, teach-
ers need to ensure that promoting physical development and health are core curriculum
goals and not simply add-ons. Movement is fun, and most children love it, but the many
benefits of physical activity for children’s health and well-being are a serious justification
for including it in the early childhood curriculum.
2. The sequence of muscle development begins with those closest to the center of the
body and progresses to those in the extremities—the hands and feet. Most children
learn to crawl before they can pick up objects using the thumb and forefinger,
called the pincer grasp. Thus, children refine their gross-motor movements, such pincer grasp Grasp used to
as those used to walk or throw a ball, before they can control the fine-motor skills pick up objects with the thumb
used to zip a jacket or turn the pages of a book. and forefinger.
3. The process of physical development is a result of experience—the opportunities
children have to explore, practice, refine, and increasingly coordinate those motor
movements that drive physical development.
As children learn to roll over, sit, stand, walk, and run, the impact of exploration
and practice is clear in gross-motor skill acquisition. In addition, adult guidance and,
sometimes, direct teaching stimulate physical development, as when children learn
to swim, balance on a beam, or throw a basketball through the hoop. The direction,
sequence, and process of physical development are not the same for all children, es-
pecially for those with disabilities. However, relatively predictable, though not rigid,
sequences exist in each of these areas of motor development, as we see in the next
section.
✓ Check Your Understanding 15.1: The Importance of Physical Fitness and Health
Source: Based on “Motor Development in Young Children,” by J. D. Goodway, J. C. Ozmun, and D. L. Gallahue, 2013, in Handbook of research
on the education of young children, 3rd edition, edited by O. N. Saracho and B. Spodek, pp. 80–101, New York: Routledge.
gross-motor manipulative • Gross-motor manipulative movements, through which the body gives or receives
movements Large muscle force from objects such as throwing, catching, or kicking.
movements involving giving or • Stability movements, in which the body remains in place but moves around its
receiving force from objects
horizontal or vertical axis, such as balancing, dodging, starting, and stopping.
such as throwing, catching, or
kicking. In the sections that follow, we present the typical expectations for gross-, fine-, and
stability movements
perceptual-motor development and explain how teachers can foster development in each
Movements in which the body area.
remains in place but moves
around its horizontal or vertical
axis; examples include balanc-
Gross-Motor Development
ing, dodging, starting, and Even though physical development is strongly influenced by biological growth, teachers need
stopping. to be intentional in promoting children’s physical development. The Developmental Con-
tinuum feature describes gross-motor skill acquisition for children from birth through age 8.
Developmental Continuum
Gross-Motor Skills from Birth
through Age 8
Approximate Age Widely Held Expectations
Infants • Gradually gain control over reflexes
(Birth to 12 months) • Excitedly wave arms and legs
• Lift head when on tummy
• Sit with support
• Roll over
• Sit without support
• Move around by crawling, scooting, or creeping.
• Stand with help
• Cruise by holding furniture
• By 1st birthday, stand without support and may start to walk
Preschoolers and • Gradually increase control and refinement of fundamental motor skills
Kindergartners (Age 3 to 6) • Walk up and down stairs alternating feet without support
• Balance on one foot for several seconds, walk on a balance beam
• Master fundamental motor skills including walking, running, hopping,
galloping
• Increasingly able to coordinate hands and arms to roll, throw, catch (traps
object against body), and kick a ball
Sources: Based on Assessing and Guiding Young Children’s Development and Learning,
by O. McAfee and D. J. Leong, 2011, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson; Basics of
Developmentally Appropriate Practice: An Introduction for Teachers of Infants and
Toddlers, by C. Copple and S. Bredekamp, with J. Gonzalez-Mena, 2011, Washington,
DC: NAEYC.
492 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
Culture Lens
Cultural Influences on Gross-Motor Movement
and Development
Children’s physical development is strongly influenced and misshape heads. Neither of these problems is evi-
by biology, and yet cultural experience plays a key role. dent at the Pikler Institute, even though babies are never
Consider two very different approaches to infant caregiv- on their tummies until they can turn over by themselves.
ing and their effects on babies’ motor development. Freedom of movement promotes gross-motor develop-
ment as well as a strong sense of competence within
The Pikler Institute is a residential nursery (previously
babies who find out that they can move and learn on
called an orphanage) located in Budapest, Hungary, that
their own without the assistance of an adult.
was founded after World War II to serve children left with-
out families. Dr. Emmi Pikler created a program for chil- Contrast the Pikler approach to the child-rearing practice
dren from birth through age 3 that focuses on freedom of the Au people of Papua, New Guinea. Anthropologist
of movement, which means that babies are never put in David Tracer has documented that during the first
positions that they cannot get into on their own. For ex- 12 months of life, Au babies are carried by their mothers
ample, they aren’t placed in restrictive devices such as or siblings 86% of the time. When they are put down,
infant seats, high chairs, jumpers, or walkers. They lie on they are usually placed in a sitting position, not on their
their backs, awake or asleep, until they are able to roll over stomachs. Instead of crawling, Au babies go through a
by themselves and move into different positions. The rule “scooting” phase—pushing themselves along with their
is “No adult interference with children’s movement.” hands and scooting on their backsides. Au parents dis-
courage crawling to reduce the risk of their babies con-
Allowing infants to move freely results in remarkable
tracting disease. Their babies do not crawl; they learn to
competence, balance, coordination, and calculated risk-
walk, although a few months later than children in the
taking. Visitors to the Pikler Institute are impressed with
United States and Europe.
the ease and confidence with which very young children
move their bodies. The children know how to handle These examples and countless others demonstrate how
their bodies, have impressive equilibrium, and their body cultural practices influence children’s development—
awareness is far above average. In addition, there is a even their physical development—which is so depen-
very low accident rate at the Institute. dent on biology and maturation. Consider how these
approaches compare to the expectations for babies’ free-
Another example of Dr. Pikler’s philosophy in action is
dom of movement in your own cultural group.
how babies were put down to sleep. Sixty years ago, no
one was talking about “Back to Sleep,” placing babies
Sources: “The Pikler Institute: A Unique Approach to Caring for
on their backs to prevent sudden infant death syndrome Children,” by J. Gonzalez-Mena, E. Chahin, and L. Briley, 2005,
(SIDS). However, Pikler was doing it—back to sleep and Exchange, 166, 49–51, retrieved from http://www.pikler.org;
back to play as well, without one SIDS incident ever. Will Baby Crawl?, by National Science Foundation Discoveries,
American advocates for “tummy time” fear that too much 2005, retrieved September 18, 2009, from http://www.nsf.gov/
time on their backs will compromise infant development discoveries/disc_summ.jsp?cntn_id=103153&org=NSF.
Chapter 15 Physical Development and Health 493
Coordination and balance improve as kindergartners learn to jump rope, hop on one
foot, and skip. An increasing awareness of their own skills and abilities leads to better
understanding of unsafe behaviors; however, children can still lose control and become
overexcited or unable to manage during large-group activities.
The ability of the brain to conceive, organize, and carry out a series of unfamiliar
actions is called motor planning and takes center stage as children work to gain control motor planning The ability of
over their growing bodies. For example, 2½-year-old Lena tries to catch a ball by extend- the brain to conceive, organize,
ing her arms. She knows what should happen, yet ends up with the ball bouncing off. By and carry out a series of unfa-
contrast, 4-year-old Derek moves his body so he can enclose the ball in his arms. Finally, miliar actions.
kindergartner Julianne moves her body around so she can catch the ball between her
hands with no assistance from her forearms.
The primary goal of the curriculum for preschoolers and kindergartners
is to help them make progress on fundamental motor skills. In acquiring
physical skills, competence leads to confidence and further persistence, so
success matters. Therefore, it is important for teachers to intentionally teach
fundamental motor skills, just as Ms. Perez did with Allison at the beginning
of this chapter. Intentional teachers provide encouragement, coaching, and
modification of the toys and materials to increase the chances of successful
skill learning. They offer cues about how to perform specific skills, such as Classroom Connection
suggesting that children widen their stance to increase stability while bend-
The two children in this video
ing forward. They also challenge children to extend, hold, or repeat skills as
have been friends for a long time.
they practice, or they may add a challenge such as “Recite a poem while bal- As you watch them play together,
ancing on one foot.” Table 15.2 describes effective strategies and examples note the ways in which their
of how teachers can promote gross-motor development in children from birth motor development is typical for
to kindergarten. children of this age.
Inclusion of children with disabilities requires that they participate as
fully as possible in all activities. Embedding interventions in the regular
classroom day is an excellent way to meet the needs of all children during one activity.
For example, Caden, a 2-year-old with severe disabilities, cannot roll over on his own. His
physical therapist works with him on the floor, gently rolling his body from side to side.
To the other children in the class, this looks like great fun, and soon five other children are
rolling on the floor and laughing along with Caden.
Table 15.2 Effective Strategies: Gross-Motor Skills from Birth through Age 5
Intentional teachers use effective strategies such as these to support children’s gross-motor development,
which is not an automatic process.
Teaching Strategy Examples
Respond to babies and take delight in their Smile and laugh as babies kick their legs over and over.
motor skills. Provide constant supervision and a safe environment (e.g., no objects that might be
swallowed).
Give babies opportunities to control their Avoid the use of infant seats, swings, playpens, and other equipment that restricts
own bodies without restraint or external movements or limits explorations and repetition.
support.
Give babies places and spaces to explore in Provide floor time (“tummy time” for non-crawlers) with a clean carpet or blanket on
a safe environment. the floor.
For toddlers, provide sufficient space and Pay particular attention to children’s safety as they explore and take risks.
low indoor climbing equipment for them to
practice new skills.
Include periods of time for uninterrupted Organize the classroom to provide sufficient indoor space so that children can move
gross-motor play. without getting in each other’s way.
Provide active outdoor play. Provide space and time for children to freely engage in unstructured play and physi-
cal activity such as running, climbing, digging, and tricycle riding.
Plan structured opportunities to build and Act out the movements to songs, rhymes, chants, and finger plays.
practice gross-motor skills indoors.
Provide gross-motor opportunities that use a Set up an obstacle course or play a game such as having children move to music
range of different skills and combine skills and freeze their bodies in place when the music stops.
in novel and interesting ways.
Use a variety of developmentally appropriate Supply balance beams, ladders, large wooden and plastic blocks, jump ropes, balls,
toys and materials. floor puzzles, push carts, tumbling mats, scooter boards, and so forth.
Provide structured play experiences that Engage children in activities such as rolling balls, bowling, tossing bean bags into
help children build and practice fundamen- baskets, climbing stairs, or tumbling on mats. Have children play games using hula
tal motor skills. hoops, streamers, parachutes, or beach balls. Have them participate in music activi-
ties such as marching to the beat of a musical selection.
Use motor movements during routines and Have children waddle like a duck or jump like a frog to get from the classroom to
transitions. the cafeteria.
Integrate movement with other curriculum Select action-oriented books to read to children and then add movements to the
topics such as literacy or music. stories (e.g., Dinosaur Roar!).
Consciously choose, adapt, and use materi- Provide equal encouragement to boys and girls.If children have difficulty with mate-
als to ensure maximum participation by all rials, adapt them by adding handles, buttons, or knobs; prevent slipping with Velcro
children, including children with disabilities. or mats. Simplify the task by limiting the range of difficulty; by adding sensory cues
such as color, sound, textures, or scents; or by encouraging cooperation among chil-
dren who can do the gross-motor activities and those who cannot.
Sources: Based on Innovations: The Comprehensive Preschool Curriculum, by K. Albrecht and L. G. Miller, 2004, Beltsville, MD: Gryphon
House; “Developmentally Appropriate Practice in the Kindergarten Year—Ages 5–6: An Overview,” by H. B. Tomlinson, 2009a, 187–216, and
“Developmentally Appropriate Practice in the Preschool Years–Ages 3–5: An Overview,” by H. B. Tomlinson and M. Hyson, 2009, 111–148,
both in Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth through Age 8, revised edition,
edited by C. Copple and S. Bredekamp, Washington, DC: NAEYC.
(Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, 2010). This trend is troubling and potentially dam-
aging to children’s academic achievement—opposite of the desired effect (Goodway,
Ozmun, Derringer, & Lee, 2013).
A large body of research demonstrates the educational, social, and physical benefits
of recess (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2013). Playful breaks maximize children’s
ability to perform higher-level cognitive tasks and improve social competence, adjustment
Chapter 15 Physical Development and Health 495
Source: Based on “Developmentally Appropriate Practice in the Primary Grades—Ages 6–8: An Overview,” by H. B. Tomlinson, 2009b,
pp. 257–288, in Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth through Age 8,
revised edition, edited by C. Copple and S. Bredekamp, Washington, DC: NAEYC.
to school, and physical health. In a study of almost 11,000 third graders, children who
had at least 15 minutes of daily recess behaved more positively than those who didn’t
(Barros, Silver, & Stein, 2009). And children of color from low-income families in urban
areas were less likely to have recess—the very children who may need it most. Ironically,
eliminating recess is the strategy schools often use to try to close the achievement gap for
this same group of children (Goodway, Ozmun, Derringer, & Lee, 2013).
FIGURE 15.1 Second Grader’s Field Day Story This second grader’s documentation of her field day
experience illustrates how gross-motor experiences can be incorporated into the school day and link to
other areas of the curriculum such as literacy.
496 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
Promoting Play
Teaching Sports Skills in Primary Grades
While observing children on the playground in fall, provided many balls and used cones to mark places
second-grade teachers Alex and Mel noticed that on the playground to run around and kick through.
children were beginning to put teams together For the last 10–15 minutes of every 45-minute
and play “sports.” They watched as children put lunch recess, they helped the children play a short
together a soccer game, which rapidly devolved game of soccer. They organized the children’s teams
into arguments about rules and all abandoning the daily, making sure to mix up the team member-
game. Alex and Mel recognized that primary-school ship. Mel and Alex emphasized teamwork with the
children enjoy games with rules, and that the gross- children—assists in scoring were celebrated as
motor play during recess would help their learning much as the scoring.
and development. But they also realized that the
The children’s skills grew, and Mel and Alex began
children needed support with playing more complex
to teach the children more of the rules, and higher-
games. At class meeting the next Monday, they
level skills, such as passing the ball. In addition
surveyed children about their interest in sports,
to their growing gross-motor skills, the teachers
asking which ones children liked most and would
noticed that children began to develop more confi-
like to learn to play. The children voted for soccer,
dence in their interactions. They negotiated in their
and agreed they would like to learn to play baseball
other areas of play, and got along better with chil-
(whiffle ball) in spring.
dren in general. Over the course of the fall, Mel and
Using visuals and clips of soccer from YouTube, Alex were less needed during the soccer games, and
Alex and Mel introduced soccer during large-group were available to support disputes and made certain
time—especially for children who were not familiar that all children had equal opportunities to play.
with the game from family and friends. They were Not all children played soccer every day—some chil-
sure to explain that these professional soccer play- dren preferred sports more than others. But children
ers were so skilled because of years of practice. who did play benefited in important ways. They
Focusing on the skills used in soccer, Mel and Alex looked forward to the spring, when they would teach
developed a series of games around kicking balls, whiffle ball, which would help children with differ-
kicking while running, and aiming at a target. They ent skills and rules.
Some think that recess interferes with children’s attention spans, but the opposite is
true; research finds that in kindergarten and primary grades, children are more inattentive
before than after recess (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2013). Recess increases the
amount of time children stay on task and reduces fidgeting (Jarrett et al., 1998). Further-
more, since children in the primary grades have more advanced gross-motor skills and
can play games with rules, many enjoy learning how to play sports with their classmates.
Read the Promoting Play feature to learn how one teaching team introduced sports to
their second grade class.
Fine-Motor Development
fine-motor manipulative The term fine-motor manipulative movement refers to control, precision, and accuracy
movements Control, precision, of small muscle movement, such as those inherent in picking up objects with the thumb
and accuracy of small muscle and forefinger, tying shoes, cutting with scissors, or using a keyboard. Fine-motor skills
movement.
allow children to explore how things work, get dressed, use writing tools, put puzzles
together, prepare snacks and meals, and engage in many more activities that require
Chapter 15 Physical Development and Health 497
Fine-Motor Development from Birth to Age 3 Babies spend the first year
of life working on grasping objects and tracking movements with their eyes and heads.
They perfect picking up objects with their whole hand, pointing, putting objects into con-
tainers, and drinking from a cup.
Toddlers begin to use a spoon to eat, turn pages, stack blocks, scribble with crayons
or markers, hold drinking cups, and remove clothing. By age 2, they are able to remove
shoes and some clothing, hold a cup or glass in one hand, unbutton large buttons, turn
doorknobs, stack small blocks, fit large pegs in pegboards, pour and fill containers at a
sensory table, unzip large zippers, and begin to show a preference for one hand. Toward
the end of toddlerhood, children tackle toileting, which involves many motor skills such
as pulling underwear down and up and controlling the small muscles that hold and release
bodily functions. Table 15.4 provides examples of ways teachers can promote fine-motor
skills in very young children.
Developmental Continuum
Fine-Motor Skills from Birth
through Age 8
Approximate Age Widely Held Expectations
Birth to about 9 months Small muscles respond reflexively in newborns (automatically
grasp object)
Reach for and grab objects with hands, hold rattle
Gradually gain control in grasping and explore objects (often
mouths them)
About 9 to 18 months May use pincer grasp (thumb and forefinger) to pick up objects
Gain control in exploring and manipulating objects
Use both hands, may show preference for one hand
May undress self, untie shoes, begin to feed self
Scribbles with crayons
About 18 to 36 months Can hold utensils and feed self (with spills)
Dress self with loose clothing, except for buttons and shoelaces
Does three- to five-piece puzzle
Scribble, paint, and draw making recognizable lines and shapes
7- and 8-year-olds Independently use fine-motor skills to accomplish tasks and goals
Control handwriting, begin cursive writing
Use keyboard easily
Use tools such as saw, hammer, and nails successfully
their own shoes. When children’s fine-motor skills are well developed and practiced, their
creativity can take off. Five-year-old Sandi loves creating things using items from her
family’s recycling box and a non-hot glue gun. Figure 15.2 is Sandi’s robot mommy with
a baby in her tummy. By contrast, her twin sister Ella has little interest in doing the same
kind of projects.
Chapter 15 Physical Development and Health 499
Sources: Based on Innovations: The Comprehensive Infant Curriculum, by K. Albrecht and L. G. Miller, 2000a, Beltsville, MD: Gryphon House;
Innovations: The Comprehensive Toddler Curriculum, by K. Albrecht & L. G. Miller, 2000b, Beltsville, MD: Gryphon House; Innovations: Infant
and Toddler Development, by K. Albrecht & L. G. Miller, 2001, Beltsville, MD: Gryphon House.
(a) (b)
FIGURE 15.2a & 15.2b Five-Year-Old’s Robot Mommy with Baby in the Tummy Using “found”
materials, tape, and glue, this 5-year-old constructed a robot mommy that opens up to see the baby
inside, demonstrating both her fine-motor skills and her creativity.
500 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
Gender differences in motor skills are evident in this period. In general, girls tend
to be more advanced than boys in fine-motor skills and in gross-motor skills that require
precision, whereas boys tend to do better with skills that require force and power (Berk,
2008). Table 15.5 presents ways to help preschoolers and kindergartners master fine-
motor skills.
When fine-motor experiences lead to frustration and fatigue or when children prefer
gross-motor activities, they need encouragement and support and sometimes instruction
in skills or models of what to try next. Teachers need to carefully observe children to be
sure they are ready to tackle the next challenge. Here again, intentional teaching is impor-
tant, as described in the feature Becoming an Intentional Teacher.
Sources: Based on Innovations: The Comprehensive Preschool Curriculum, by K. Albrecht and L. G. Miller, 2004, Beltsville, MD: Gryphon
House; “Developmentally Appropriate Practice in the Kindergarten Year—Ages 5–6: An Overview,” by H. B. Tomlinson, pp. 187–216, and
“Developmentally Appropriate Practice in the Preschool Years—Ages 3–5: An Overview,” by H. B. Tomlinson and M. Hyson, pp. 111–148,
both in Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth Through Age 8, revised edition,
edited by C. Copple and S. Bredekamp, 2009, Washington, DC: NAEYC.
“boisterous, large motor, physical activity children seem to crave” (Carlson, 2011, 2015).
The outdoors is one of the most stimulating, engaging contexts for children’s develop-
ment and learning and for this type of play. However, current changes in children’s lives
threaten their exposure to nature, as described next.
Address Nature Deficit Louv (2005) proposes that children, families, and commu-
nature-deficit disorder Hypo-
nities are experiencing “nature-deficit disorder.” The hypothetical disorder describes the
thetical disorder related to lack
of exposure and experience out-
human costs of alienation from nature that include “diminished use of the senses, attention
doors and in the natural world.
difficulties, and higher rates of physical and emotional illnesses” (Louv, 2005, p. 34). These
concerns led to an examination of how outdoor environments are designed
Classroom Connection and constructed and to a movement toward more natural outdoor playgrounds
(Rivkin, 2014).
Watch this video to see how one A growing trend among playground planners rejects the idea of play-
community created a high-quality grounds full of commercially purchased plastic, metal, or wood structures sur-
outdoor play environment using
rounded by safety zones filled with wood chips. Instead, these planners favor
all natural materials.
environments that make creative use of natural features and objects while still
meeting the health and safety standards required for children’s outdoor play-
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=DhZNX3y60ds
grounds (see American Academy of Pediatrics, American Public Health As-
sociation, & National Resource Center for Health and Safety in Child Care
and Early Education, 2011). They believe that playgrounds should have areas
with trees, grass, shrubs, planters, pots, and paths to show children what the world is made
of—the real stuff, not a plastic or simulated version (Rivkin, 2014).
2001) and that bullying behavior is reduced by frequent play in natural environments
(Malone & Tranter, 2003).
pieces. However, these surfaces are very difficult for children who move with a walker or
wheelchair to navigate. Teachers must observe how children with and without disabili-
ties access their current outdoor play space, and introduce materials and structures that
allow children to participate more fully, including interacting with peers while playing.
When children are given ample time to play outdoors, they can practice and perfect many
physical skills; they feel powerful and successful. For this reason, most children love the out-
doors—it is a “can do” place. Yet the fast-paced activity of the outdoors can also be overstimu-
lating and overwhelming for some. Children need quiet places to cool off, calm down, or rest;
they also need water available to quench their thirst. A blanket in the shade can provide a place
for children to spend some time with the teacher, refueling and recharging before heading back
out to explore the world again. Time outdoors provides a change of pace, freedom from being
close to other children, and a constant source of interesting stimuli.
Many people worry that technology interferes with children’s outdoor experiences.
However, teachers can integrate technology goals and activities outdoors (Blagojevic &
Thomes, 2014). While exploring the natural environment, children can use tablets to pho-
tograph and document nature-based art, and can research their discoveries online. They
can document aspects of nature they find exciting or beautiful, and integrate these into
their writing projects back in the classroom.
2015). Teachers need to make sure the environment where children play is safe and stay
close by to supervise at all times, key elements of health and safety standards in early
childhood programs, which we discuss in the next section.
FIGURE 15.4 Proper Hand-Washing Procedures The most effective way to prevent illness is for both
adults and children to always use these proper hand-washing procedures.
Source: Reprinted from Handwashing Procedure, by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, retrieved March
20, 2012, from http://www.cdc.gov/handwashing/.
Teachers also need to teach children about accident prevention, tricycle and bicycle
safety, walking in traffic, and preparedness for emergencies. The majority of injuries that
occur at school happen on the playground (CDC, 2012a). Nonfatal playground injuries
are most often caused by falls. Children under age 4 are more likely to suffer head and
face injuries, whereas children ages 5 to 14 are more likely to suffer injuries to the arms
and hands (Mack, Hudson, & Thompson, 1997).
Balance Risk and Challenge In striving to protect children’s safety and health,
however, early childhood educators need to understand the impact of the amount of risk and
risk vs. challenge continuum challenge in the environment, what is called the risk vs. challenge continuum (Greenman,
Concept that children not only 2005a). The concept is that extremes of either risk or challenge—too much or too little—
need to be safe but they also are not in the best interest of children (Curtis, 2010; Gramling, 2010). Too little risk, and
need to be challenged if they are
children may withdraw or try harder to make something happen by using inappropriate or
to advance their skills and learn
how to keep themselves safe.
dangerous behaviors. Too much risk will certainly result in accidents and injuries.
Concern for children’s safety is absolutely necessary, and environments should be
hazard A danger that must be designed to minimize risks and eliminate hazards as much as possible. A hazard is a
avoided. serious danger that must be avoided; a risk is a possibility of harm that can be minimized
risk A possibility of harm that with planning and supervision (Carlson, 2011). An attempt to eliminate all risk can lead
can be minimized with plan- to eliminating all challenge. Children not only need to be safe, they also need to be chal-
ning and supervision. lenged if they are to advance their skills and learn how to keep themselves safe.
From infancy on, children try out challenging activities that might put them at
risk for injury, most of them as a part of normal exploration. Consider the concept of
Chapter 15 Physical Development and Health 509
risk vs. challenge in deciding whether children should be allowed to climb trees. One
teacher might consider the risk of injury is too high and, therefore, that tree limbs on
playgrounds should be trimmed to prevent tree climbing. However, from the perspective
of a veteran child care center director, tree climbing is a learnable skill that can be safely
taught to children and practiced with careful supervision (Curtis, 2010).
Explicit Teaching Some children benefit from a more direct approach. Teachers us-
ing a direct approach describe, model, and demonstrate the necessary components of the
physical skill being taught. A benefit of the direct approach is that it is immediately clear
if children can or cannot perform the skills.
An additional benefit of explicit teaching is that it is efficient. It takes less time to
show children how to do movements than to let them figure them out on their own. Chil-
dren also learn to do the skills correctly, which can prevent injuries. On the other hand, the
direct approach leaves little room for creativity and individuality. During early childhood,
the direct approach should be used infrequently and in an individualized way rather than
as a primary teaching strategy (Pica, 2014).
What Works
Teaching Physical Skills
Children don’t automatically develop the skills of throwing, catch- • Embed skills in playful experi-
ing, kicking, skipping, climbing, balancing, and the like; they ences. Suggest that children who
require instruction and practice. To acquire foundational skills, are learning to hop can pretend to be rab-
children need the guidance of involved adults within an environ- bits. When they’re practicing long jumps, place mats in a row
ment that has developmentally appropriate equipment. They learn to be the river they are trying to jump across. Give them fun
both through free play and exploration and through adult-guided challenges, such as “Let’s see how many ways we can think of
instruction. Young children are most likely to learn physical skills to get across the room besides walking.”
and develop enjoyment and confidence in physical activity when • Individualize. Simplify or add complexity to fit the child’s skill
teachers use these strategies: level. For example, if a child is having trouble throwing a ball
• Design tasks for gradual and sequential learning. Keep in mind into the air and catching it, try giving him a larger rubber ball
that tasks should be more general than specific. You could say, and asking him to bounce and catch it.
“Show me that you can throw the ball at the wall,” rather than • Show skills in action. Many children have difficulty learning
“See if you can hit the bull’s-eye.” physical actions from verbal instruction alone; they may do bet-
• Break down motor skills into small, “do-able” actions. The goal ter when they can watch someone modeling the skill.
is for everyone to participate, even if this means partial partici- • Offer a variety of tasks, materials, and learning centers. Help
pation for some. For instance, if a child cannot grip a racket children practice specific skills and learn to use different types
to strike a balloon, encourage her to strike the balloon with and sizes of equipment by offering them variety. For example,
her hand. provide balls of all sizes, shapes, and weights in the form of
• Provide cues that help children refine specific skills. Observe beanbags, yarn balls, sock balls, and rubber and plastic balls.
their movements and make helpful, concrete suggestions. The Then set up centers to allow children to practice throwing,
best cues provide children with little steps that help them learn bouncing, and rolling the balls in different ways.
a skill more quickly and correctly and, at the same time, keep Source: Excerpted and adapted from “Physical Education in Kindergar-
them from forming bad habits. When children are learning to ten,” by S. W. Sanders, 2006, pp. 135–137, in K Today: Teaching and
catch, for example, some will benefit from the tip “Keep your Learning in the Kindergarten Year, edited by D. F. Gullo, Washington, DC:
NAEYC. Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the
eye on the ball.”
Education of Young Children (NAEYC). www.naeyc.org.
persist. The first step to effective teaching is for teachers themselves to be physically ac-
tive and interested in meaningful physical activity.
shared experiences of visiting the doctor and dentist and getting regular
immunizations are conceptual organizers for this topic. They can also
learn about germs and how germs are spread from one person to another.
Many children’s books treat the topic of visiting the physician and other
health and wellness topics. Examples include Corduroy Goes to the Doctor
(Freeman, 2001), Wash Your Hands! (Ross, 2000), and Germs Are Not for
Sharing (Verdick, 2006).
Routines That Promote Health and Wellness Young children need adult
support to remember and practice what they have learned about health and wellness.
Without including healthy practices in the daily, weekly, and monthly routines, children
aren’t likely to integrate them into their lives and apply them at home and in other spheres.
Children’s health is also affected by their growing independence in carrying out per-
sonal routines, their awareness of health and safety concerns, and their ability to follow
rules and take steps to keep themselves safe and healthy. Teachers can use different strate-
gies with different children to teach health and wellness practices, such as hand washing
or sanitizing table tops before lunchtime, offering specific feedback (such as washing the
front, back, and in between the fingers), creating or adding a challenge such as washing
for as long as the child sings “Happy Birthday,” or modeling appropriate hand washing
for a child who skips steps.
We began this chapter with alarming statistics about the health and fitness of our
nation’s children and the disturbing childhood obesity crisis. Having explored the con-
tinuum of motor development and effective curriculum and teaching strategies for pro-
moting health and fitness, we return to Ms. Perez and Ms. Aliote’s classroom to see how
they implement these practices.
15 Chapter Summary
• Given the benefits of physical activity for young • Physical development—gross-motor, fine-motor, and
children as well as the risks of poor levels of fitness, perceptual-motor development—follows a relatively
teachers need to ensure that promoting physical predictable sequence that is influenced by both matu-
development and health are core curriculum goals ration and experience.
and not simply add-ons. Children’s physical fit- • Teachers foster children’s physical development by
ness and health have become urgent concerns as the providing age-appropriate materials and learning envi-
rate of childhood obesity in America has increased ronments, supporting play and movement exploration,
significantly. and explicitly teaching motor skills.
Chapter 15 Physical Development and Health 515
• Children need opportunities for unstructured and struc- who intentionally plan engaging curriculum to
tured play, including rough-and-tumble play, throughout promote physical development and fitness.
the day to promote physical activity and develop skills. • Health education curriculum goals include teaching
Outdoor play is a particularly valuable context for pro- children health and safety procedures such as emer-
moting physical activity. Some children today do not get gency preparedness, practices for preventing illness
enough exposure to nature and its many benefits. and injury, and good nutrition.
• Physical fitness and health and wellness habits are
formed early in life. Children benefit from teachers
Key Terms
■■ auditory awareness ■■ gross-motor development ■■ nature-deficit disorder ■■ spatial awareness
■■ body composition ■■ gross-motor manipula- ■■ perceptual motor ■■ stability movements
■■ cardiorespiratory tive movements development ■■ structured physical
(aerobic) system ■■ hazard ■■ physical fitness activity
■■ directional awareness ■■ health-related fitness ■■ pincer grasp ■■ temporal awareness
■■ fine-motor development ■■ locomotor movements ■■ risk ■■ unstructured free play
■■ fine-motor manipulative ■■ motor planning ■■ risk vs. challenge
movements ■■ muscular strength and continuum
■■ flexibility endurance ■■ rough-and-tumble play
or big body play
© Kathryn Tunstal
Case Study
S
tudents are gathering on the first day of class in a college course
titled Foundations of Early Childhood Education. Each individual
contemplates the next semester from his or her own experience. Consider
how their diverse paths have led them to this shared place. Aisha has always wanted to be a teacher. Her mother
and grandmother were teachers before her, and education is strongly valued in her family. When she was a little
girl, her favorite thing to do was to “play” school. She is excited that this class will begin her journey toward that
lifelong dream. Laron is a little surprised to find himself here. He never thought of education as a career goal. But
the last two summers, he worked as a lifeguard and discovered that giving swimming lessons to preschool-aged
children was the most fun he’d ever had in a job. He felt so good every time a 4-year-old gave him a giant smile
after overcoming that initial fear of the water. Now he’s considering early childhood education as a major. Julienne
is certain about why she is here. She has decided to get a dual major in early childhood education and early
intervention in order to be certified as an early childhood special educator. Her twin brother has cerebral palsy,
and she is committed to serving children with disabilities in inclusive settings.
Compared to Aisha, Laron, and Julienne, Rita is feeling nervous. She is a 32-year-old single mother of three who
is starting college now that her children are all in school. She can’t help feeling a little out of place with all these
younger people. But raising her own children and taking care of nieces and nephews made her want to become a
teacher herself. Oralie has a similar story. She volunteered in her children’s Head Start program, obtained a CDA
Credential, was employed as an assistant teacher, and now is pursuing her college
degree with support from her supervisors.
The other students in the class have their own stories—all different. Some will learn
that they have little interest or aptitude for becoming teachers. If so, it is
wise for them to pursue another field. Others will be amazed at all there is
to learn about young children. They assumed that teaching young children
would be simple compared to older children, but they will come
to understand the complexity as well as the challenge of this
work. Eventually a number of them will be better
parents for having taken this course of study. Most
important, many of them will become the effective
teachers that every child needs and deserves. ■
E
very morning in communities across the country, young children arrive at child
care centers and family child care homes, preschools, Head Start programs, and
K–3 primary schools. Their teachers are there to greet them and to help them take
another step on the lifelong journey of development and learning. At the same time, the
teachers themselves are on a journey—to be and become the most caring, informed, and
effective early childhood professionals possible. In this chapter, we visit some of those
teachers to see what life is like for them in their chosen careers. Then we discuss some of
the broader aspects of an early childhood professional’s journey.
Throughout this book, we describe ways that effective teachers help build strong
foundations of development and learning for young children. This work has three inter-
connected dimensions. Effective teachers must:
• Know children—who they teach.
• Understand how to teach—the complex roles of the teacher, which include building
caring relationships with children, working with families, planning and implement-
ing curriculum, assessing children, and adapting teaching strategies.
• Know what to teach—the goals and content for children’s learning and development.
517
518 Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
Experienced teachers know that these dimensions of their work cannot be separated.
They teach the whole child. And they do not work in isolation; they are connected to col-
leagues, families, and communities. One of the biggest challenges for teachers is putting
it all together.
Meanwhile, across the room, Victoria calmly plays on the rug with the mobile
toddlers, who are just beginning to talk. They are enchanted by a set of large, plastic,
colored blocks that they can pick up and place together, forming a big pattern on the
floor. Victoria describes what they are doing as it happens: “Alan has a red peg. He put
it next to the green one.” Alan starts to fuss when Wanda pushes against him. “Wanda,
you are in Alan’s space. Can you move just a little?” asks Victoria in a soft voice. Alan
calms and Wanda smacks a kiss on his cheek. Victoria smiles, “You’re a good friend,
Wanda.”
As the play time comes to an end, Victoria says, “Let’s see who is big and strong and
can help me pick up the pegs.” As Victoria places the full bin onto the shelf, Gary holds
on, too. Victoria says, “It’s heavy. We have to lift it up high.” Gary responds, “Up,” and
Victoria says, “Yes, let’s put it up on the shelf. Now, let’s go outside. It’s
warm and we can play on the ride-on toys or go for a walk in the stroller.”
In this brief scene, we see effective practices in action. Victoria and Luisa
create a calm and warm climate for these young children, focusing on build-
ing a relationship with each child. They model kindness and social skills,
which even these very young children are starting to emulate. They weave
into play ways to support all areas of development and learning. The teachers
help the children develop physical skills (rolling the ball, placing the pegs)
and knowledge about the world while building language skills. They model Classroom Connection
rich vocabulary such as spatial relation words like next to and up and explain This video takes you inside a
the phrase “You’re in his space.” And they are keen to create new experiences high-quality infant and toddler
to stimulate children’s senses and interests, such as being outside in nature, program. Observe the interac-
the beginning of science learning. tions between the teachers and
Throughout the day, Victoria and Luisa keep careful records about each children. How do the teachers
baby—what they eat and drink, bowel movements, their moods, and any spe- feel about their work? What do
cial accomplishments—to share with parents at the end of the day. Observing you think are the most gratifying
and recording is an effective way of assessing children and communicating aspects of working with this age
what families want and need to know. These exchanges help build close re- group?
lationships with the families, who then feel more secure about leaving their
precious infants in the care of others.
in English and some in Spanish. The children head off to wash their hands and settle in
for breakfast. Ana helps them serve oatmeal and orange slices and pour their own milk,
while Masami sits and begins a conversation about the bus ride.
The sixteen 3- and 4-year-olds live in an economically disadvantaged community.
Some have been exposed to violence and a few have serious emotional problems. Masami
and Ana’s program places a strong emphasis on building social skills and emotional self-
regulation. They use a comprehensive curriculum that promotes language and thinking
© Lord and Leverett/Pearson Education
Intentional preschool teachers work with small groups of children at times during the day to assess their
current levels of ability and scaffold their learning.
Chapter 16 Putting It All Together in Practice: Making a Difference for Children 521
through interesting projects that build science, math, and literacy skills. It also includes
lots of art and music. To achieve the curriculum goals and build secure, continuous rela-
tionships, Masami and Ana each work with a group of eight children at times during the
school day, which lasts from 8:30 A.M. to 3:30 P.M.. For instance, half the group will go
outside with Ana while the rest stay in with Masami, and then they switch.
After breakfast, Masami leads the children in singing and then reads a book about a
new baby. The group is involved in a long-term science project about how people grow
and change. Then they discuss the choices for center time. Learning centers include dra-
matic play (set up as a hospital with props and dress-up materials), creative art, math/
manipulatives, writing center, library area, and blocks. Masami talks with the children
about where they plan to play and what they’d like to do, which helps them regulate their
behavior and thinking. The children are becoming better listeners. As they describe their
plans, Ana helps them leave the group and transition to the next activity. Sharde calls out,
“I got room at my table for Keyona’s wheelchair.”
During center time, Masami works with a small group in the art center. They ex-
amine their own baby pictures, look in the mirror, and use different media including
digital cameras to represent how they look. The discussion centers on how big they can
make their drawings. They get excited at the idea of projecting their faces on the large
interactive whiteboard. Some children write recognizable letters on their pictures, while
others dictate their thoughts for Masami to write. In the dramatic play area, Assata
dresses as the doctor while Ben and Rhonda bring their new baby for a checkup. Ayah
goes to the writing center, makes marks on a piece of paper, and hands it to Assata,
“Here’s a letter.”
Mia, who has just turned 3, heads toward the restroom. Ana congratulates her on lis-
tening to her body and getting to the toilet in time. Mia beams in response. Ana helps her
get her pants buttoned (she pulls them up all by herself) and then they wash their hands.
In the library area, Arturo studies an information book about baby animals. Ana talks
with him about how some look like their mothers, and some do not. Their conversation
continues as Arturo, who was adopted from Costa Rica, explains that he doesn’t look like
his mom, either.
After cleanup, the children join Masami on the carpet and tell him about what they
did during activity time. Mia proudly says she went to the toilet (although that is not
exactly what she said!). Arturo says he read a book; others talk about how they observed
each other’s drawings of themselves—“Marco has brown eyes and he made them blue.”
On the playground, Arturo and Kiesha ride on the wheeled toys. Mia starts
climbing to the loft of the playhouse. Jorge calls to her to join him in the sand-
box. Masami asks Mia if she heard Jorge’s invitation. She nods. He coaches Classroom Connection
her to tell Jorge she wants to climb, so he will know what her answer is.
In this video, you will hear ex-
After lunch, the children settle in for naps. Ana and Masami play soft
perienced teachers describe the
music, pat a few backs and soon the children sleep. After naptime, the chil- joys and rewards of teaching in a
dren find several activity areas, including a self-service snack area. Children high-quality preschool. Note the
write their names or make a mark by their photo when they wash their hands children’s and parent’s evalua-
and serve themselves a snack. tions of the preschools and also
At the end of the day, Masami and Ana meet to review the day and re- children’s growing competence as
cord their observations of the children’s progress. Masami plans to inform young learners.
Mia’s mother about her toileting success, and Arturo’s mother about his
reflections on adoption. They also plan ways to build vocabulary through https://www.youtube.com/watch?v
children’s interests in babies and their growing bodies. =6LNAmFR0xjA&app=desktop
carefully,” Hope says. “I know that most of you used your clipboards, made some draw-
ings. During choice time this morning, I’d like you to refer to those and write in your
journals about what you saw and learned. We also have digital photos that we’ll put on
the computer and project on the wall to help you remember details. Now, I’m going to
read parts of an information book about sea life that you can look at later in the library
area.”
During the morning activity period, two children feed the fish in the classroom
aquarium and write a brief note: “Fsh et.” Hope assists the children in their journal writ-
ing, helping them with letters and words, but emphasizes communicating their ideas
rather than correct spelling. She also works with a small group who are still struggling
with recognizing letters. An inviting library area is stocked with a variety of diverse,
high-quality books at varying reading levels, including multiple copies of kindergarten-
level texts. Storybooks and information books reflect the cultural and linguistic diver-
sity of the group. Some children listen to audio books and follow along in the printed
book.
Following the midmorning snack, children independently browse or read self-selected
familiar books, especially ones that Hope has previously read aloud, such as the fish book.
The field trip, books, and ongoing science study of sea life broaden the children’s back-
ground knowledge and vocabulary. To build reading comprehension, Hope guides discus-
sions about what is being read or listened to. She asks the children to predict
events, retell or act out stories, and notice when a text does not make sense.
The kindergartners also have physical education classes three times a Classroom Connection
week. Working with Hope, the PE teacher plans related movement a ctivities—
How would you move like you’re swimming? What if you were a fish and In this video, you’ll hear about a
there was no water? In the classroom, Hope has a creative art center where day in the life of a kindergarten
teacher. Observe how she inter-
some children make representations of their favorite fish and underwater
acts with the children, teaches
environments; others create simply from their imaginations. After lunch and
literacy and math, and describes
outdoor play, the children have another 60-minute choice period before dis-
the rewards of teaching this age
missal. This is a favorite time for many because they especially like dramatic
group.
play, block building, and board games. During this time, Hope works with
small groups on the mathematics curriculum goals. Today, a group spon- https://www.youtube.com/
taneously decides to replicate the aquarium with unit blocks. This leads to watch?v=AsHCK1LLGhc
lengthy debates about how to re-create the water because a flat piece of blue
paper wouldn’t really hold up the fish. At the end of the day, the group meets
to reflect on their day and look forward to tomorrow.
Most public school kindergar-
tens today set high expectations
Considerations for Teaching Kindergarten Hope Millner has taught for children’s reading progress.
k indergarten in a suburban school district for 15 years. In that time, she has seen chang- How can kindergarten teachers
es in the curriculum, especially recently with the Common Core standards on English use developmentally appropri-
language arts and mathematics, and less administrative support for play. She has also ate practices to help children
observed that a higher proportion of her students now build early literacy skills?
attend preschool and enter school with more basic
knowledge about how the written language system
works. At the same time, Hope knows that, develop-
mentally, 5- and 6-year-olds haven’t fundamentally
changed and that they benefit from both “learningful
play and playful learning” (Graue, 2006). Her task
© Christopher Futcher/E+/Getty Images
© iofoto/Shutterstock
instruction and discussion of new concepts,
introducing and explaining new vocabulary
words in everyday language. Then the class
divides into smaller groups. Each day, Lina
works with small groups on guided reading, A major portion of the day in
during which she assesses their reading comprehension and ability to monitor themselves primary grades is devoted to
reading and writing instruction.
for understanding. She coaches them to ask questions such as “Does that make sense?”
What are some ways that inten-
“What does that mean?” and “How you know?”
tional teachers can integrate
At the same time, others read independently or in pairs. Then, children continue with other areas of the curriculum
individual work, such as writing in journals, while Lina observes and offers individual help as such as science and social stud-
needed. She ends the language arts period with a whole-group read-aloud, which the children ies with reading and writing?
love. At this point in their reading journey, the books the children can decode on their own have
limited vocabulary and are not as interesting as the stories that Lina reads to them. Lina keeps
careful records of children’s reading progress. She takes great pride in their a chievements
while also focusing on ways to adapt her teaching for those who are behind.
Some days the class has physical education before lunch, and other days they have
music. After lunch, they play outside for 20 minutes and then return for focused math
time. Again, Lina varies the teaching context. She may introduce a new math concept,
such as a put-together/take-apart problem, to the whole group. Then she gives them a
problem to discuss with their neighbors: “Sixteen plus what number equals 21?” The
children report their solutions and reasoning to the whole group. Seven-year-old Nan-
cy explains, “We got 5. We started with 16 and counted 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, and that’s
five numbers.” Lina says, “That’s one way to solve the problem. Is there another way?”
Lina observes children’s grasp of the problem. Then, she follows the whole-group
time with small-group work, during which she focuses on those who haven’t grasped
the new concept, or gives more difficult problems to those who need challenge. Science
or social studies projects follow that integrate literacy, language, and math-
ematics goals.
At the end of her day, Lina meets with the other first-grade teachers to
talk about effective ways of helping struggling readers and children who are
having trouble grasping basic math concepts. She also seeks their advice on
ways to assist Irina and Carlos, who are learning English. She plans to com-
municate with their families as well.
In this section, we used broad strokes to paint images of life in classrooms for teachers
of children from birth through age 8. However, teachers lead important professional lives
beyond the classroom, as discussed in the next section.
Become a Professional
A profession is an occupation that requires extensive education and/or specialized profession An occupation that
training, such as the legal or medical professions. Professionals draw on this specialized requires extensive education
body of knowledge and expertise to guide their decisions and behavior, but not p rescribe and/or specialized training.
it (Feeney & Freeman, 2012). Professions also mandate requirements for entry and
standards for practice by their members. They tend to be exclusive in that only those
individuals who meet the requirements can call themselves members of the profession
(Goffin, 2013).
Although some positions in the early childhood field abide by this strict definition
of a professional, others do not. In general, teachers at the elementary level are consid-
ered professionals because they are required to have baccalaureate degrees and licenses
and to participate in continuing professional development to stay current in the field. By
contrast, there are no uniform educational requirements for teachers of children from
birth to age 5. Nevertheless, early childhood education is evolving and can boast several
key characteristics of a profession, such as a commitment to a greater good—the welfare
of children, a body of knowledge to guide practice, professional associations, and a code
of ethics (Feeney & Freeman, 2012; Lutton, 2012).
Become Involved in the Early Childhood Field One of the most valuable
steps in becoming a professional is joining an organization that offers resources and
services to its members, such as conferences and publications. These affiliations provide
a sense of identity, the opportunity to establish relationships with like-minded people,
and access to the most current research and information about the field. Professional
associations, such as the American Medical Association, restrict membership to qualified
individuals. Early childhood education, on the other hand, has several professional asso-
ciations, but membership in them is open to all.
The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) is the larg-
est association of individuals who work with and for children from birth through age 8.
Other organizations also strengthen individuals’ ties to their chosen field and advocate on
behalf of children, including the National Black Child Development Institute, National
Council of La Raza, National Head Start Association, and the National Association for
Family Child Care. Most national associations such as these also have state and/or local
affiliate groups through which new and experienced teachers can find support from col-
leagues and mentors.
Most elementary school teachers belong to one of the two teacher unions: the National
Education Association or the American Federation of Teachers. Increasingly, child care pro-
fessionals are joining unions as well in order to band together for improved wages and work-
ing conditions. Many primary-grade teachers belong to a content specialty organization such
as the International Literacy Association or the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
and provides guidance for what professionals should do when they encounter difficult
or conflicting obligations or responsibilities in their work. The NAEYC Code of Ethical
Conduct (NAEYC, 2011a) guides early childhood educators in their relationships with
children, families, colleagues, and the broader society. Supplements to the code also exist
for program administrators, principals, teacher educators, and others involved in profes-
sional development.
morality Personal views about Individual people have their own personal views about morality—what they think
what is right and wrong and is right and wrong and how they should behave. Ethics involves critical thinking about
how to behave. morality and the ability to make choices about one’s own values. In contrast to individual
ethics Critical thinking about morality, professional ethics are “the kinds of actions that are right or wrong in the
morality and people’s ability workplace and are a public matter” (Feeney & Freeman, 2012, p. 6). They help individuals
to make choices about their resolve moral dilemmas they encounter in their work.
own values.
Understanding Ethical Responsibilities Ethical responsibilities refer to the o bligations
professional ethics The kinds
of actions that are right or
that every teacher agrees to uphold with honesty, integrity, and respect. In fulfilling these
wrong in the workplace and are responsibilities, early childhood educators should adhere to principles articulated in
a public matter. NAEYC’s Code of Ethical Conduct. For example, the first principle is the most important
ethical responsibilities The and takes precedence over all others:
obligations that every teacher Above all, we shall not harm children. We shall not participate in practices that are
agrees to uphold with honesty,
emotionally damaging, physically harmful, disrespectful, degrading, dangerous,
integrity, and respect.
exploitative, or intimidating to children. (NAEYC, 2011a, p. 3)
Other examples of teachers’ ethical responsibilities include never sharing confidential
information about a child or family with a person who has no legitimate need for know-
ing, obeying relevant laws (especially those regarding child abuse), and respecting the
rights of children with disabilities. In difficult situations, teachers should consult the code
for guidance about their ethical responsibilities, as illustrated in the following situation:
Daniel is a child in Kiera Blaine’s kindergarten class. His parents are divorcing and
ethical dilemma Deciding the involved in a nasty custody battle. Kiera has had several c onferences with Daniel’s
right thing to do when two or father because he is concerned about the effect of the divorce on his son. Daniel’s
more values conflict. mother hasn’t said anything to Kiera. After several months, Daniel’s father asks Kiera
to testify on his behalf in the custody case. Kiera feels bad for Daniel’s father and
wants to help him, but isn’t sure if she should.
Here is a case in which consulting the code can ease Kiera’s mind and help her do
Over the course of your teach- the right thing. The code clearly states: “In cases where family members are in conflict
ing career, you are likely to with one another, we shall work openly, sharing our observations of the child, to help all
encounter difficult situations
parties involved make informed decisions. We shall refrain from becoming an advocate
when you aren’t sure about
the right decision. In these
for one party” (NAEYC, 2011a, p. 4).
cases, NAEYC’s Code of Ethical Resolving Ethical Dilemmas Sometimes the right answer in a difficult situation is not
Conduct will help you resolve
clear. An ethical dilemma involves deciding the right thing to do when two or more
ethical dilemmas.
values conflict, as in the following case:
Little Achievers is a well-respected child care center
in a relatively affluent community with a long wait-
ing list for admission. Beverly Stanos is excited to
get a job there as an infant/toddler teacher that pays
© Pauline Cutler/Bubbles Photolibrary/Alamy
more than any other position she has had. Soon she
begins to feel bewildered and conflicted. The center
moves the babies and toddlers to a new group every 6
months; the director explains that they do this so that
the babies don’t get attached to the teachers.
Beverly is upset; this practice goes against every-
thing she has learned in her teacher education program
about the importance of early attachments for babies’
development. She checks the licensing standards and
Chapter 16 Putting It All Together in Practice: Making a Difference for Children 529
finds nothing to prohibit the practice. Finally, she meets with the director to try to
get her to change the policy based on research about child development. The direc-
tor dismisses Beverly’s ideas because she says the policy is a good selling point with
parents who don’t want their babies to become attached to anyone but them. On the
one hand, Beverly thinks she should quit this job, but she knows that if she just quits
nothing will change. On the other hand, she feels an obligation to tell the parents that
the policy is wrong.
Although many early childhood professionals choose their jobs based on the philoso-
phy of the school or program, many find that at some point in their career, they may en-
counter an ethical dilemma, as Beverly does, in which values conflict. In Beverly’s case,
several principles in the code apply and she should weigh them as she attempts to resolve
the dilemma:
• The code states that early childhood professionals should be familiar with the
knowledge base of the profession and appreciate the vulnerability of children and
their dependence on adults, which Beverly clearly does in this case.
• The code also guides her to acknowledge families’ child-rearing values and their
right to make decisions for their children.
• The code directs early childhood educators “to do nothing that diminishes
the reputation of the program in which we work unless it is violating laws and
regulations designed to protect children or is violating the provisions of this Code”
(NAEYC, 2011a, p. 5).
Beverly’s dilemma causes her to feel stress and discomfort and forces her to consider:
• Who she is most obligated to in this situation
• What she should do to address her dilemma
• Examining the code for additional guidance
As an early childhood professional, you will most likely encounter ethical dilem-
mas of your own. Knowing the resources and tools to refer to is a first step in resolving
the conflict. It is also important to understand the philosophy of any place where you
are considering taking a position. If Beverly had known from the start what the pro-
gram’s practice was for moving children from one group to the next, she very well might Professionals reflect on their
have continued her job search. Read the Promoting Play: Resolving an Ethical Dilemma decisions and discuss, debate,
about Play feature and consider how you would use the Code of Ethical Conduct to ad- and analyze their practices with
dress this dilemma. their colleagues. Becoming a
professional teacher means
committing to becoming a
Engage in Continuous, Collaborative lifelong learner.
Learning to Inform Practice Knowledge
about child development and learning and
about effective curriculum and teaching is al-
ways changing and expanding. Early childhood
educators have an obligation to keep up to date
with the latest research developments in the field
(Institute of Medicine [IOM] & National Research
Council [NRC], 2015). Professional education
doesn’t end with completion of a degree or initial
licensure. Rather, teachers commit themselves to
lifelong professional learning. Technology greatly
© Paul Jenkins/Pearson Education
Promoting Play
Resolving an Ethical Dilemma about Play
You teach 3- and 4-year-olds in a large, diverse child early childhood environments must support each
care agency. Your personal teaching philosophy is child’s culture, language, ethnicity, and family
that children learn a great deal through play, espe- structure. A similar principle requires that profes-
cially socio-dramatic play. Your classroom environ- sionals respect the dignity and preferences of fami-
ment includes a large housekeeping area. You regu- lies to ensure a culturally consistent environment
larly provide specific props related to children’s in- for children. And that families must be listened to
terests or the current topic of study to encourage and and involved in program decisions.
extend their pretend play. Many of the families, how-
No simple resolution to the situation exists. How-
ever, are members of cultural groups that object to
ever, applying both the code of ethics and what
the children taking on pretend roles that they do not
you know about child development, here are some
consider culturally appropriate. For example, some
appropriate actions:
of the Latino parents are upset to see boys playing in
the housekeeping area. Some of the Arabic families • Meet with families to listen to their specific
do not want boys and girls playing together at all. You concerns and desires for their children.
personally are opposed to gender stereotyping and try • Provide interesting socio-dramatic play themes
to counteract it in your classroom whenever possible. that do not involve housekeeping.
• Encourage but don’t force friendships between
You are faced with an ethical dilemma. To resolve
children or across genders.
it, you consult the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct,
• Foster positive relationships among all children
which leads you to first consider the knowledge
and teach anti-bias approaches to diversity.
base about child development and learning. You are
• Respect children’s choice of playmates but pro-
already convinced that socio-dramatic play is valu-
hibit expressions of bias toward other children for
able. Research informs you that preschool children
any reason.
often show preference for playmates of their own
• Provide toys and play experiences that appeal to
gender. At the same time, research indicates that
both genders.
young children become aware of and often react
• Explain to families, through a translator if neces-
negatively to differences among people, which
sary, how you are working to accommodate their
requires straightforward anti-bias teaching and
concerns, respect their cultural values and prefer-
learning experiences to counteract.
ences, and also provide a developmentally appro-
Next, you consult the code of ethics, which priate program for their children.
includes an important, applicable principle that
own practices, participate in conferences, and stay current by reading and discussing
publications and Internet sites. For example, a group of kindergarten teachers might fig-
ure out how to share a limited set of materials across classrooms to enhance the complex-
ity of children’s play. A team of preschool teachers might meet regularly to compare ob-
servations of children’s interests and t hinking. The staff of a child care center might read
an article on biting and agree on ways to handle the problem with toddlers and families.
FIGURE 16.2 Becoming an Informed Advocate Effective teachers not only focus on the children
in their classrooms, but also advocate for high-quality programs for all children and families, and better
work environments for professionals.
Sources: Based on Advocates in Action: Making a Difference for Young Children, revised edition, by
A. Robinson and D. R. Stark, 2005, Washington, DC: NAEYC; Essentials for Child Development
Associates Working with Young Children, revised edition, edited by C. B. Day, 2005, Washington, DC:
Council for Professional Recognition.
advocates present research on program effectiveness, but they also share the stories of
children and families whose life experience is represented by the data.
Informed advocacy requires that early childhood professionals be familiar with the
central policy issues affecting the field, including compensation for teachers, financing
of the early education system, standards for curriculum, and appropriate methods of
assessment. They also need to understand how public policies are developed and dem-
onstrate essential advocacy skills, such as clear verbal and written communication skills
and the ability to work effectively with others toward a common goal (Kieff, 2009).
Figure 16.2 lists ways in which informed advocates act on behalf of children and the
profession.
Signs and Symptoms of Child Abuse and Neglect There are several
types of child abuse, including physical abuse, neglect, sexual abuse, and emotional
abuse. In most cases, however, children experience these abuses in combination—a sexu-
ally abused child is also harmed physically and mentally. Teachers need to be alert to
general warning signs for abuse. If a teacher suspects a parent or other adult of abusing a
child, it is important to observe both the child’s and adult’s behavior individually and also
to observe the interaction between them. For example, a child might be always watching
as though waiting for something bad to happen, a parent may show little concern for the
child, and when together they may avoid looking at or touching each other (Child Welfare
Information Gateway, 2007). Teachers also need to know the typical warning signs of
specific types of abuse, which are listed in Table 16.5.
Reporting Requirements Almost every day the media report tragic incidents of
child abuse that could have been alleviated if someone had reported their suspicions to the
proper authorities. Too many people feel that it is none of their business or they are afraid
of offending parents or colleagues. Although anyone can and should report suspected
abuse, teachers, child care workers, and school officials are mandatory reporters. They are
required by law to report maltreatment of children. Every state has child abuse reporting
procedures, but the specific regulations regarding confidentiality and how to report vary
from state to state. The Child Welfare Information Gateway provides links to each state’s
requirements.
Teachers are not only legally mandated to report suspected child abuse but
also have an ethical responsibility to do so. The NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct
(NAEYC, 2011a) states that even when another person tells us of their suspicion, we
should assist them in taking action, and if a child protective service agency fails in its
responsibilities, we should advocate for improved services. Being the one person in
a child’s life who intervenes to stop the horror of abuse is probably the most difficult
task of any teacher’s career but would also make the biggest difference in an individual
child’s life.
What Works
Having an Effective Teacher
Most people intuitively know that good teachers make a difference teacher effectiveness was measured
in how well children learn. In fact, some studies show that the by how much the twins’ classmates’
most effective teachers can contribute as much as an extra year’s reading ability improved over the course of the
growth in academic achievement for the fortunate children in their year. What the researchers found was that among
classes. But conducting such research is difficult because it is identical twins with different teachers, the twin with the more
hard to know whether the differences were caused more by the effective teacher had better reading skills. Looking at fraternal
children’s inborn abilities or their environmental circumstances and identical twins, the researchers concluded that if teachers are
than by the teacher’s practice. equally excellent, genetics plays a larger role in reading achieve-
A well-designed study addressed the question of cause and ment, but that poor-quality, ineffective teaching inhibits chil-
effect directly by measuring the reading achievement of identical dren’s ability to reach their full potential.
and fraternal twins who had more- or less-effective teachers. Using
twins enabled the researchers to control for genetics because Source: Based on “Teacher Quality Moderates the Genetic Effects on Early
identical twins share 100% of their genes, and fraternal twins Reading,” by J. Taylor, A. D. Roehrig, B. S. Hensler, C. M. Connor, & C.
share 50%. In the study of more than 800 first and second graders, Schatschneider, 2010, Science, 328(5977), 512–514.
Chapter 16 Putting It All Together in Practice: Making a Difference for Children 535
FIGURE 16.3 NAEYC Statement of Commitment The NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct and all the
organization’s work is based on this foundational statement of commitment to children and families.
Source: From Code of Ethical Conduct and Statement of Commitment, revised edition, 2011a, Washington,
DC: NAEYC. Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children.
of the individual’s willingness to embrace the values and moral obligations that lead to
becoming part of the early childhood profession.
16 Chapter Summary
• A
career in early childhood education is filled with • E
arly childhood educators are also effective advocates
never-ending rewards and challenges. Among the ma- for children and the profession. They know about the
jor questions early childhood educators face is which central policy issues in the field, including professional
age group(s) they would most like to work with and compensation, financing of the early education system,
why. For each age group/position, there are interesting and standards for curriculum and assessment.
points to consider. • T
eachers and child care providers must know the warning
• T
he NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct guides early signs of child abuse and neglect, and are required by law
childhood educators in making decisions about their to report suspected abuse to the proper authorities.
professional responsibilities and resolving ethical • E
arly childhood teachers have the opportunity to make
dilemmas that arise in their relationships with children, lasting, positive contributions to the lives of children and
families, colleagues, and society. to make a significant difference in the world.
Key Terms
■■ advocacy ■■ ethical dilemma ■■ ethics ■■ profession
■■ code of ethics ■■ ethical responsibilities ■■ morality ■■ professional ethics
absorbent mind—Maria Montessori’s image of alternative assessments—Assessments that call Bank Street approach—Originating with Lucy
the child as actively learning from sensory for a child to produce a response rather than Sprague Mitchell at Bank Street College and
experiences. select from a list of possible responses. later called the Developmental-Interaction
abstraction—The concept that anything can be anecdotal records—Short descriptions w ritten approach, a curriculum framework based
counted. by teachers and based on observations of on individual children’s development,
academic discourse—The language of school, incidents, or anecdotes, involving one or emphasizing that learning begins in
which is important for school success. more children. children’s experiences in the immediate
accommodation—When new information or anti-bias education—Learning experiences environment (here and now).
experience doesn’t fit within an existing and teaching strategies that are specifically base ten place value system—Highly efficient
concept (scheme), the child must modify designed not only to prepare all children for system of using just 10 numerals to write
it or construct a new scheme. life in a culturally rich society, but also to counter any counting number no matter how large, in
accommodations—Changes in assessment the stereotyping of diverse groups, and to which the meaning of a numeral depends on
procedures, materials, or setting to eliminate guard against expressions of bias where it is placed within the number.
barriers related to the child’s disability that apprenticeship—The process of children behavior intervention plan—Describes the
might keep children from demonstrating their learning by observing adults and more strategies adults will use to prevent a child’s
full capabilities. accomplished peers performing tasks and by negative behavior and to teach more accept-
accountability—The process of holding practicing the skills themselves with adult able behavior.
teachers, schools, or programs responsible guidance and support. behaviorism or behavioral learning—Theory
for meeting a required level of performance. approaches to learning—Behaviors, tendencies, that learning is a change in behavior that is
accreditation system—NAEYC’s voluntary or typical patterns that children use in controlled by the consequences, either posi-
system for identifying high-quality early learning situations that include both how tive or negative, that follow the behavior.
childhood centers and schools serving they feel about learning—their level of bias—Negative feelings and expressions toward
children from birth through kindergarten. enthusiasm, interest, and motivation—and groups or individuals.
acculturation—The process whereby children how they engage with learning. bicultural—Capable of operating successfully in
learn expected rules of behavior. aptitude tests—Tests designed to measure both the home environment and the d ominant
achievement tests—Tests designed to measure children’s potential for learning in the future. culture of the larger world.
what children have learned in general or in a assertive communication—Telling the truth in body composition—Weight and body fat.
content area such as reading or mathematics. a thoughtful and considerate way; considered bullying—Occurs when a person repeatedly
acknowledging—Giving positive verbal or the most effective form of communication. commits aggressive acts that intend to harm,
nonverbal attention that promotes the child’s assessment—The ongoing process of gathering and an imbalance of power makes it hard for
persistence and effort. evidence of children’s learning and develop- the victim to defend himself or herself.
adaptation—The mental process of altering ment, and then organizing and interpreting cardinality—The concept that the last number
concepts (schemes) in response to the information to make informed decisions said stands for the total number in the set.
experience, which occurs in two ways: about instructional practice. cardiorespiratory (aerobic) system—Body
through assimilation and accommodation. assimilation—When new information or system made up of the heart, lungs, and
advance organizers—Ways of introducing new experience is understood in connection with blood; provides the stamina needed to be
information that serve as a bridge between existing knowledge (schemes). active for a long period of time.
what the student already knows and the assistive technology—A piece of equipment or caring community of learners—A group or
new learning. product that is used to increase, maintain, classroom in which children and adults
advocacy—Aiding a cause that you believe in. or improve the functional capabilities of engage in warm, positive relationships, treat
age appropriate—Age-related human charac- individuals with disabilities. each other with respect, and learn from and
teristics that allow teachers to make general associative play—Children play and share with with each other.
predictions within an age range about what each other, usually one other child. challenging behavior—Any behavior that inter-
materials, interactions, and experiences will attachment theory—The theory that children’s feres with children’s learning, development,
be safe, interesting, challenging, and within ability to learn depends on their developing and success at play; is harmful to the child,
reach for children and, thus, likely to best trusting relationships with caregivers. other children, or adults; or puts a child at high
promote their learning and development. auditory awareness—Listening to verbal input risk for later social problems or school failure.
aggressive communication—Speaking the truth or distinguishing between different sounds. charter schools—Independently operated,
in a hurtful way. autism spectrum disorder (ASD)—Complex publicly funded schools that have greater
alignment—Coordination of the curriculum developmental disabilities that impact flexibility than regular schools in meeting
from one level of education to the next in the normal development of the brain pro- regulations and achieving goals.
order to build on what children have already cesses related to social interaction and checklists—Practical and versatile tools for
learned and to ease transitions for students communication skills. gathering assessment information about
between schools and school levels. babble—Produce consonant/vowel sounds such children’s behavior, skills, or attitudes.
alliteration—Two words beginning with the as “ba ba.” Child Care and Development Block Grants
same sound. background knowledge—Concepts and basic (CCDBG)—Federal funds allocated to states
alphabetic principle—The understanding that information about how the world works that for low-income working families to purchase
there is a systematic relationship between is essential for reading comprehension. child care.
letters and sounds, and that all spoken sounds balanced approach—Effective reading instruc- child care center—Group program that provides
and words can be represented by a limited set tion that helps children master the alphabetic care and education for young children during
of agreed-on symbols called letters. principle and acquire meaning from text. the hours that their parents are employed.
537
538 Glossary
child care licensing standards—Minimum completion prompt—A prompt that requires curriculum approach—Describes the main
requirements, legally established by each the child to verbally complete the end of a elements or direction of a program; is less
state, for a child care program to operate. sentence. detailed than a curriculum model.
Child Development Associate (CDA) composing/decomposing—Mathematical pro- curriculum framework—A guide for designing
credential—National competency-based cesses of putting together and taking apart or choosing a curriculum.
credential for entry-level early childhood (for example, addition and subtraction). curriculum model—A research-based, idealized
educators. comprehension—The ability to understand version of what and how teaching and
child study movement—Early 20th-century what is read and to interpret and analyze the learning should occur.
effort to scientifically observe and systemati- author’s meaning; the ability to make sense curriculum-embedded assessment—Formative
cally document children’s individual devel- of what is read. assessment that is integrated into the
opment under the leadership of G. Stanley concepts of print—Beginning understandings curriculum; this assessment does not
Hall and Arnold Gesell. about the forms and functions of written occur as a separate procedure.
child-centered curriculum—John Dewey’s idea language, such as that words carry messages. day nurseries—Programs designed to serve
that curriculum should reflect the concepts conceptual frameworks—Mental models that working families in the late 19th and early
and topics that the child is interested in and connect new learning to prior knowledge, 20th centuries; the forerunner of present-day
capable of learning. enhance memory, and deepen understanding. child care centers.
child-initiated experiences—Experiences that conceptual organizer—Ways of organizing decode—The ability to figure out what written
allow children to gain knowledge and skills curriculum, such as the project approach, that symbols—letters of the alphabet—represent.
through their own exploration and interac- make content knowledge more meaningful, decontextualized speech—Talk about events,
tions with objects and other children. interesting, and understandable for children. experiences, or people that are beyond the
children with disabilities—Children who have connections—Refers to understanding links here and now or that inhabit children’s
been identified as having a specific category between different areas of math and connect- imaginations.
of disability, such as autism or cerebral palsy. ing math concepts to real-world problems. demonstrating—Showing the correct way to
children with special needs—A broad term used consequences—Principle of operant condition- perform a skill or procedure while children
to describe children who may have multiple ing that behavior changes as a result of what observe the outcome.
risk factors, specialized health care needs, occurs immediately afterward. development—Age-related change that results
mental or emotional health concerns, severe al- conservation—The understanding that the from an interaction between biological matu-
lergies, or physical and/or cognitive disabilities. quantity of objects stays the same regardless ration and physical and/or social experience;
chronosystem—System that refers to effects of of changes in appearance. development occurs as children grow, adapt,
circumstances over time. constructivism—Learning theory derived from and change in response to various experiences.
classification systems—Systems teachers use to the work of Jean Piaget, which assumes developmental continuum—A predictable, but
help children build concepts by identifying that children actively build their knowledge not rigid, sequence of typical accomplish-
similarities and differences or by comparing from firsthand experiences in stimulating ments within age ranges that is used to plan
and contrasting objects and ideas. environments. curriculum; also an effective assessment tool
Classroom Assessment Scoring System content standards—Describe what students used to focus teacher attention on what is
(CLASS)—Preschool and elementary class- should know and/or be able to do within a important to assess—what children can do—
room observational instrument that assesses particular discipline such as math or science. and to identify goals for continued progress.
the quality of teachers’ relationships and in- conventional reading—Reading in which the developmental domain—An area of develop-
teractions with children and the instructional reader gains meaning from unfamiliar text. ment such as fine- and gross-motor skills,
strategies used to support children’s learning. cooing—Vocalizing vowel sounds. cognitive abilities, self-help capabilities,
closed questions—Lower-level questions that cooperative play—Children assume different and social and communication skills.
have one right answer and usually require roles and share a purpose for the play. developmentally appropriate practice
children to recall information or facts. co-player—Teachers actually join in and take an (DAP)—Ways of teaching that engage
co-construction—Children learning by solving active role in children’s play. children’s interests and adapt for their age,
problems collaboratively with the teacher’s Council for Exceptional Children (CEC)— experience, and ability to help them meet
support or by working with peers; also called The national professional association for challenging and achievable learning goals.
social construction of knowledge. special educators. diagnostic tests—Tests designed to identify the
code of ethics—Defines the core values of a criterion-referenced tests—Tests that compare specific learning or developmental problems a
profession and provides guidance for what a person’s score to a predetermined level of child has and to plan interventions; must be ad-
professionals should do when they encounter performance. ministered by specially trained professionals.
difficult or conflicting obligations or cultural competence—The ability to work dialogic reading—Interactive, shared picture
responsibilities in their work. effectively across cultural groups. book reading during which the adult and the
code switch—The ability to understand and use culturally appropriate—Applying knowledge child gradually switch roles so that the child
both the mainstream version of English and of the social and cultural contexts in which learns to become the storyteller with the
the home dialect or language. children live, which helps teachers build on assistance of the adult, who plays the role of
cognitive (mental) flexibility—The ability to children’s prior knowledge and make experi- active listener and questioner.
find new solutions or revise plans in response ences meaningful and responsive. differentiated instruction—The creation of
to changing circumstances. culture—The explicit and implicit values, multiple paths so that children of different
cognitive development—Thinking, intelligence, beliefs, rules, and expectations for behavior abilities, interests, and learning needs experi-
and language abilities. of members of a group that are passed on ence equally appropriate ways to achieve
Common Core State Standards—Rigorous from one generation to the next. These rules important learning goals.
national standards in English language arts determine to a large extent what group mem- digital literacy—The ability to obtain, use,
and mathematics for kindergarten through bers regard as important and what values interpret, and evaluate information available
grade 12 developed by the Council of Chief shape their actions and judgments. through multimedia, digital sources.
State Officers (CCSSO) and the National curriculum—A written plan that describes direct instruction—Explicitly giving direc-
Governor’s Association (NGA). the goals for children’s learning and tions for completing a task; providing facts,
competent child—The image of children as development, and the learning experiences, verbal labels, or other specific information;
active players in their own development and materials, and teaching strategies that are or providing instructions for a child’s action
learning. used to help children achieve those goals. or behavior.
Glossary 539
directional awareness—Anticipating which ecological systems theory—Bronfenbrenner’s evidence—An outward sign or indication of
way to go. theory that describes the diverse, interac- children’s learning, such as their response to
disequilibrium—An imbalance in think- tive contexts that influence children’s a question or their solution to a problem.
ing that occurs when new information or development over time. exceptional children—An all-encompassing
physical experience cannot be understood in effective teaching—The use of approaches that term used to communicate inclusion of gifted
terms of what is already known (cannot be are proven to be successful based on scientific and talented children as well as children
assimilated). evidence and that have a high probability of en- whose development is below the expected
disorganized/disoriented attachment—Seen hancing children’s learning and development. range.
in children who lack secure attachments with efficacy—Children’s belief in their own ability to executive function—The ability to control
adults due to having experienced neglect, accomplish what they set out to do. emotions, focus attention, plan and think
abuse, or violence in the home, who have not egocentrism—The process whereby very young ahead, and monitor cognitive processes.
developed useful strategies for seeking com- children tend to see everything from their exosystem—Systems that affect the child’s mi-
fort or attention or handling difficulties. own intellectual and emotional point of view. crosystems, but that the child doesn’t directly
distancing questions—Questions that relate Elementary and Secondary Education Act participate in, including economic, media,
pictures and words in the book to children’s (ESEA)—Law governing how the federal education, health, legal and political entities
own experiences beyond the book. government distributes education funds to that directly affect a person or circumstance
Division for Early Childhood (DEC)— states and holds public schools accountable in the child’s microsystem.
Subdivision of the Council for Exceptional for the use of funding. expressive language—The ability to communi-
Children that is the national professional eligibility guidelines—Guidelines established cate; use and knowledge of spoken language.
organization for early childhood special on a state-by-state basis according to IDEA extended discourse—Talking with children in
educators and early intervention specialists. that determine whether children may receive ways that build on and expand what they say.
domain-general processes—Broad abilities that special education services. extinction—The process whereby a condi-
cut across traditionally defined developmen- emergent curriculum—Curriculum that tioned behavior diminishes and eventually
tal domains. develops in an educational environment in disappears when reinforcers are removed.
domains of development—Areas of human response to children’s interests and needs facilitating—Providing short-term, temporary
development and functioning that include rather than according to predeveloped plans. assistance to help a child achieve the next
cognitive, social, emotional, and physical. emotional development—Acquisition of level of functioning.
dual language learners—Children who are important emotional skills such as identifying family-centered practice—Providing resources
learning to speak two languages at the same feelings and learning to regulate emotions and supports to families that promote
time—usually their home language and and express them appropriately. children’s development and learning and, at
English. emotional literacy—Children’s ability to the same time, strengthen the competency of
dual language learning—Simultaneously learn- identify their own and others’ emotions, to families in their role.
ing two languages: the home or first language express emotions in a healthy way, and to family child care home—Child care in which
as well as English or another second self-regulate their feelings. caregivers provide care in their own homes
language. encode—Translating speech sounds into for a small group of children, often multi-age
dynamic assessment—Analyzes a child’s per- symbols—the letters of the alphabet—to groups.
formance not just in terms of what the child create writing. family systems theory—Views family members
can do independently, but what the child can encouragement—Verbal comments or non- as interconnected parts, with each member
do with the assistance of a teacher or peer. verbal signs such as pats or high fives that influencing the others in predictable and
early childhood education—Education and promote the child’s persistence and effort. recurring ways.
child care services provided for children engaged citizens—Children as change agents feedback loop—Back-and-forth communica-
from birth through age 8. in schools, communities, and eventually in tion between a teacher and a child or small
Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale the world. group of children in an effort to reach deeper
(ECERS-3)—Observational instrument used enumeration—The act of counting. understanding.
to rate program quality on a 7-point scale equilibration—The process whereby humans fidelity—Faithful implementation of a
from inadequate to excellent. try to make sense of new experiences by curriculum model.
early childhood special education—Services creating new concepts (schemes) or adapting fine-motor development—Physical skills
for children with disabilities or special existing ones. related to the small muscles found in
needs who meet eligibility guidelines that equity pedagogy—The idea that teaching about individual body parts, especially those
are determined on a state-by-state basis differences needs to include teaching about in the hands and feet.
according to the Individuals with Disabilities oppression and equity. fine-motor manipulative movements—Control,
Education Act. ethical dilemma—Deciding the right thing to do precision, and accuracy of small muscle
Early Head Start—Federally funded program when two or more values conflict. movement.
serving low-income pregnant mothers, ethical responsibilities—The obligations that 5- to 7-year shift—Major transition in cognitive
infants, and toddlers that promotes healthy every teacher agrees to uphold with honesty, abilities that gradually occurs between 5 and
family functioning. integrity, and respect. 7 years of age, resulting in increased ability
early intervention—Services for infants and ethics—Critical thinking about morality and to think logically, self-regulate, and solve
toddlers who are at risk of developmental people’s ability to make choices about their problems.
delay and their families. own values. flexibility—The ability to bend and stretch
early learning standards—Describe what ethnicity—The shared characteristics and expe- easily.
children should know and be able to do riences of a group of people, such as nation- fluency—Rapid, efficient, and accurate word
before entering kindergarten. ality, race, history, religion, and language. recognition skills that permit the reader to
early literacy—Skills and knowledge that come evaluation—The process of making a judgment comprehend the meaning of text.
before and lead up to (forerunners) conven- about assessment results; frequently consid- formal assessment—Assessment that follows
tional reading and writing. ered the last step in assessment. a specific procedure and uses a specially
earth and space science—Studying properties everyday mathematics—Informal, intuitive designed instrument or tool.
of earth materials, changes on the earth, knowledge about math, including basic ideas formative assessment—The process of gather-
patterns of movement, and changes of the about quantity (more and less), size, shape, ing information about children and using it to
sun and moon. and pattern. plan effective and individualized instruction.
540 Glossary
free appropriate public education (FAPE)— home-based programs—Programs based on integrated curriculum—Learning plan that
Education for children with disabilities that visits to families designed to support parents addresses goals across multiple areas of the
is required by IDEA, so that children with in the parenting role, involve them in their curriculum at the same time.
disabilities are not denied the same opportu- children’s education, and help them achieve intentional teachers—Teachers who have a
nities offered to everyone else. their own life goals. purpose for the decisions they make and can
frequency counts—Method used by teachers to home visiting—Visits made by a teacher to explain that purpose to others.
keep track of how often a behavior occurs. the child’s home on a regular basis to get interdependent cultural groups—Cultural
Froebel’s occupations and gifts—Invented to know children and their families. groups that focus on the needs of the group
by Froebel for kindergartners, occupa- hypothesis—An assumption about or tentative rather than those of the individual, also called
tions were planned experiences designed to explanation of a phenomenon. collectivist.
train children’s eye-hand coordination and hypothesis generating and testing—Applying interviews—Teacher-created, predetermined
mental activity, and gifts were concrete ma- previously acquired knowledge to a new questions that are designed to reveal what
terials, many of which influenced later toy situation by making a prediction and then children understand.
development. observing and reflecting on the outcome. invented spelling—Developmental or phonetic
functional assessment or functional analysis— identity—The collection of characteristics that spelling that represents children’s initial
The process of determining why a child is individuals recognize as constituting their attempts to associate sounds with letters.
behaving a certain way, based on the sense of self and belonging to a group. kindergarten—Typically considered the first
principle that all behavior serves a function inclusion—Participation and services for year of formal schooling; serves 5- and
or purpose. children with disabilities and special needs in 6-year-olds.
functional skills—The essential abilities needed programs and settings where their typically K-W-L—An advance organizer strategy in
to fulfill goals parents have for their children, developing peers are served. which teachers ask children what they al-
such as communicating, making friends, and individualistic cultural groups—Cultural ready know (K) about the topic of study,
learning self-help skills. groups that focus on the needs of the what they want (W) to know, and then what
funds of knowledge—Experiences, traditions, individual, independence, self-expression, they learned (L).
goals, resources, and rich culture that fami- and personal property and choice. laboratory school—School operated by colleges
lies bring to their roles. individualized education program (IEP)—A and universities that usually serves children
generative skills—Skills that can be used across written plan designed to meet the unique of students and faculty and also acts as a
settings, people, events, and objects. needs of a child with a disability or special model of excellent education for student
geometry—The study of shapes and space, need; it is developed, reviewed, and revised teachers.
including flat, two-dimensional space and by an IEP team during meetings for each Lanham Act—Federal legislation to provide
three-dimensional space. child who is eligible for special education emergency child care and other services for
graphic representation—The process of services. families employed in the war effort during
depicting thoughts and ideas through individualized family service plan (IFSP)— World War II.
drawing, modeling, or other media. Documents and guides the early intervention learning—A change in knowledge or skill that
gross-motor development—Physical skills process for children with disabilities from results from experience or instruction.
related to moving the whole body or major birth to age 3 and their families; contains learning centers—Defined areas of the class-
parts of the body. information about the services necessary to room that have a particular purpose and that
gross-motor manipulative movements— facilitate a child’s development and enhance contain relevant furnishings and materials.
Large muscle movements involving giving the family’s capacity to facilitate the child’s learning continuum, learning trajectory, or
or receiving force from objects such as development. learning path—Similar to a developmental
throwing, catching, or kicking. individualized intervention—A systematically continuum, but focuses on sequences of
guidance—The process of teaching children the planned and implemented set of actions knowledge or skill in a content area.
life skills they need to function productively designed to alter the course of a child’s learning standards—Expectations for student
with other children. development or learning. learning.
hazard—A danger that must be avoided. individually appropriate—Information about learning strategy—How children construct
Head Start—Federally funded, national pro- the strengths, interests, abilities, and needs meaning in any context or situation.
gram that promotes school readiness by en- of each individual child in the group that learning trajectory—Sequence of teaching and
hancing the social and cognitive development enables teachers to adapt to and be learning knowledge or skills in a content
of children ages 3, 4, and 5 through provid- responsive to individual variation. area. Also called developmental or learning
ing educational, health, nutritional, social, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act continuum.
and other services to the nation’s poorest (IDEA)—Federal law governing provision life science—The study of the characteristics,
children and families. of services for children with disabilities and life cycles, and environments of organisms.
Head Start Program Performance Stan- special needs. listening—The process of taking in information
dards—National standards that establish the informal assessment—Gathering information through the sense of hearing and making
level of quality of services provided by every for teacher’s use to make everyday classroom meaning from what is heard.
Head Start program. decisions or adjustments to teaching. locomotor movements—Movements that allow
health-related fitness—Any aspect of health inhibitory control or cognitive self-control— the body to proceed in a horizontal or vertical
that can be improved by physical exercise The ability to think before we act and to direction from one place to another, such as
and activity. focus attention on what is necessary. walking, running, leaping, or jumping.
high-context culture—Culture in which insecure-ambivalent/resistant attachment— logico-mathematical knowledge—The
communication relies less on words and Children’s inability to trust adults to keep relationships that are constructed in our
more on contextual cues, such as facial them safe due to neglect, abuse, or other minds between objects or concepts.
expressions, gestures, or other physical clues, difficult circumstances that results in a lack low-context culture—Culture that focuses
to convey meaning. of social competence. on direct, logical, precise verbal
high-stakes testing—Using standardized test insecure-avoidant attachment—Rejection and communication.
scores to make decisions about individual insensitivity from adult caregivers that causes macrosystem—System that includes the over-
children, teachers, or schools that have children to turn away from or avoid adults arching cultural context of the values, beliefs,
potential long-term consequences. and not seek their comfort. laws, and policies of a society
Glossary 541
manipulatives—Small-sized blocks, cubes, pat- parks, a neighbor’s house, or the zoo, as op- about objects in the environment and use this
tern blocks, beads, pegs, and the like that are posed to hospitals, clinics, and therapy offices. information to coordinate their movements.
designed for children’s play and learning. naturally occurring reinforcers—Conse- performance assessment or authentic assess-
mathematize—To understand and think about quences that are likely to occur whenever the ment—Determines what children know and
everyday problems and experiences in ex- child performs the skill and are, therefore, can do from their demonstration of a skill or
plicitly mathematical terms. highly effective. their creation of a product.
math talk—Using the language and vocabulary nature—The hereditary or genetic contributions performance standards—Describe the knowl-
of mathematics. to human development. edge or skill that students should acquire by
maturationist—Theory of development that as- nature-deficit disorder—Hypothetical disorder a particular point in their schooling, usually
sumes that the sequence of changes in abili- related to lack of exposure and experience tied to grade or age level; also known as
ties and behavior is largely predetermined by outdoors and in the natural world. benchmarks.
children’s biological growth processes rather negative reinforcement—An unpleasant conse- person-first language—Language that recog-
than by their experiences or learning. quence that is avoided if the person performs nizes that a child is a child first, whether or
measurement—The process of determining a desired behavior more frequently. not he or she has a disability (e.g., saying
size, length, area, or volume using a standard neurons—Nerve cells in the brain that receive “child with special needs” as opposed to
unit. information through the senses or from other “special needs child”).
mesosystem—Interaction of different neurons, and then communicate information phonemes—The individual sounds of spoken
microsystems in a child’s life. back to other parts of the body. language; changing one in a word changes
metacognitive activities—Activities that engage normal curve—A distribution of scores that the meaning of the word.
children in thinking and reflecting about their looks like a bell shape, with most people phonemic awareness—Recognizing that spoken
own learning. scoring at the midrange and fewer scoring at words are made up of individual sounds that
microsystem—System in which the child the higher and lower ends. can be manipulated.
directly participates on a regular basis and norm-referenced tests—Tests that compare an phonics—A system of teaching the correspon-
include the family, child care, school and individual’s score to that of other test takers. dences between letters or groups of letters
faith-based settings. nursery schools—Schools serving children and the sounds they represent.
mindfulness—The practice of purposefully younger than kindergarten age; out-of-date phonological awareness—Consciousness that
and nonjudgmentally noticing sensations term for preschool or prekindergarten. the stream of spoken language is made up of
(bodily, mentally, emotionally) in the present nurture—Environmental factors and experi- smaller units or chunks of sound.
moment. ences that influence human development and physical development—Biological growth and ac-
mistaken behavior—Alternative term for chil- behavior. quisition of fine-motor and gross-motor skills.
dren’s misbehavior, recognizing the fact that object permanence—A concept that babies lack physical fitness—Children’s overall physical
young children are still learning acceptable early in the period of sensorimotor develop- condition: growth, strength, stamina, and
behavior and that they are bound to make ment, so that when an object is no longer in flexibility.
mistakes. their sight, it ceases to exist for them. physical knowledge—Understanding how
modeling—Teacher showing children a skill or one-to-one correspondence—Attaching one objects move and function in space and
desirable way of behaving or speaking; also and only one number word to each object how the physical world works.
children imitating the behavior of others. being counted. physical science—Basic ideas about the proper-
modifications—Changes in an assessment that onlooker—Teachers act as the audience for ties of liquids and solid materials, how things
alter what the assessment measures or what children’s play. move and change position, and cause-and-
the results mean. open-ended questions—Questions that require effect relationships.
morality—Personal views about what is right children to analyze information in some way pincer grasp—Grasp used to pick up objects
and wrong and how to behave. and that have many possible answers. with the thumb and forefinger.
motor planning—The ability of the brain to operant conditioning—The process of using planning—Requires children to make inten-
conceive, organize, and carry out a series of pleasant or unpleasant consequences to tional choices and encourages them to
unfamiliar actions. control behavior. identify their goals, consider the options for
multi-language learners—Children who are operations—Working with and solving prob- achieving them, make predictions, and an-
learning more than two languages. lems about relationships such as more than ticipate consequences; helps build children’s
muscular strength and endurance—The ability or less than. higher-level thinking and problem solving.
to keep moving without stopping because of order irrelevance principle—The concept that plasticity—The brain’s ability to develop and
fatigue. counting can begin with any object in the set change in response to experiences.
narrative—A story with a beginning, middle, as long as each is counted only once. play-based assessment—Similar to curriculum-
and end; characters; dialogue; and a plot parallel play—Children play next to each other, embedded assessment, but the context for
with a problem to solve or a dilemma to be but not with each other; they may speak, but observing and interacting with children is the
resolved. don’t really converse. children’s play.
narrative records—Teachers’ attempts to record parent cooperative—Preschool program owned, play-by-play language—Language that de-
detailed descriptions of children in a situation operated, and partially staffed by parents. scribes what is happening during routines
or event that is the focus of the observation. parentese—The high-pitched tone of voice and social interactions with babies and
National Association for the Education of adults and even children tend to use naturally toddlers; also called running commentary.
Young Children (NAEYC)—The world’s with babies; also called motherese. play leader—Teachers participate in children’s
largest organization of early childhood passive communication—Speaking in a way play; includes making deliberate attempts to
educators, whose mission is to act on behalf that is sensitive to the listener’s feelings, enrich and extend the play episode.
of the needs and interests of children from but so vague that the message is easily portfolios—Systematic and organized collections
birth through age 8. NAEYC establishes misunderstood. of children’s work and demonstrations of their
standards for teacher preparation and pedagogy—What a teacher says or does that progress relevant to the goals of the curriculum.
accreditation of early childhood programs. engages children and contributes to their position statement—A document that articu-
natural learning environments—Settings that are learning and development. lates a stance, usually research based, that an
natural or normal for the child’s same-age peers perceptual-motor development—Occurs when organization is taking in response to an issue
without disabilities such as child care centers, children use their senses to take in information or a problem.
542 Glossary
positive behavior support (PBS)—A method of potentially negative effects for children living resilience—A child’s ability to overcome, adapt to,
identifying the causes and functions of prob- in identified high-risk situations. or minimize the damaging effects of adversity.
lem behaviors in order to develop support proximal processes—Interactions in the context Response to Intervention (RTI)—A three-tiered
strategies that prevent challenging behaviors of daily living that have the most impact on framework intended to prevent learning delays
and teach new, more appropriate skills. a child’s development, due to their frequent, in primary grades from becoming learning
positive reinforcement—A reward or pleasant ongoing nature, often over extended periods disabilities.
consequence that follows a behavior, causing of time. rhymes—Two words ending with the same sound.
that behavior to be repeated. pruning—The process whereby the brain risk—A possibility of harm that can be mini-
predictable books—Books with controlled eliminates unnecessary or unused synapses, mized with planning and supervision.
vocabulary using parallel text structures that which contributes to efficient brain operation, risk factors—Inherited or experiential condi-
become familiar to children. aids learning and memory, and increases the tions that potentially contribute to poor
predictors—Set of early literacy skills and brain’s flexibility. developmental outcomes for children, such
knowledge that increase the likelihood of punishment—An unpleasant consequence that as peer rejection, academic failure, juvenile
later success in learning to read and write. stops or decreases the frequency of a behavior. delinquency, and school expulsion.
prekindergarten (pre-K)—Educational pro- push-down curriculum—Content previously risk vs. challenge continuum—Concept that
gram serving 3- and 4-year-olds, usually in taught in a higher grade in school being children not only need to be safe but they
public schools. expected to be learned in an earlier grade also need to be challenged if they are to
preschool—Educational programs serving quality rating and improvement systems advance their skills and learn how to keep
3- and 4-year-olds delivered under various (QRIS)—State-operated tiered systems themselves safe.
sponsorships. that evaluate and rate the quality of child rough-and-tumble play or big body play—The
primary grades—First, second, and third grade; care programs according to achievement of boisterous, large-motor, physical activity
sometimes includes kindergarten. benchmarks beyond those required for mini- children seem to crave.
print awareness—Beginning knowledge about mal licensing, such as having more highly rubrics—Descriptive rating scales that detail the
written language. qualified teachers or better ratios. qualities related to each rank on the scale;
private speech—The process whereby interper- questioning—Eliciting different types of responses includes clear descriptions of each point on
sonal understanding or socially constructed and promoting different types of thinking. the scale or guidelines for making judgments
knowledge is turned into intrapersonal rare words—Multisyllable words that are not about a rating.
knowledge (thinking aloud becomes thinking typically part of a young child’s vocabulary. running record—A chronological record, like
to oneself). rating scales—Method of recording teacher’s a diary, of an individual child’s behavior that
process quality—The quality of the relationships judgments about how a child’s performance helps teachers better understand that behavior.
and interactions among teachers and children, compares to that of peers or to a predeter- scaffolding—The assistance, guidance, and
and the appropriateness of the materials, mined standard. direction teachers provide children to help
learning experiences, and teaching strategies readiness tests—Achievement tests adminis- them accomplish a task or learn a skill
occurring in an early childhood program. tered to children at entry to kindergarten. (within their ZPD) that they could not
profession—An occupation that requires exten- reasoning—Thinking logically to come to a achieve on their own.
sive education and/or specialized training. conclusion or find a result. scheme or schema—The organization of mental
professional ethics—The kinds of actions that recall questions—Questions asked by the structures people use to think or guide behav-
are right or wrong in the workplace and are teacher about a book to see what children ior; the structures develop and change with
a public matter. remember. experience.
professionals—Members of an occupational receptive language—The ability to understand school readiness—Children’s competencies
group that make decisions based on a special- what is being said. related to success in kindergarten, including
ized body of knowledge, continue to learn reciprocal relationship—A two-way relation- physical development, health, and well-
throughout their careers, and are committed ship in which information and power are being; social-emotional development and
to meeting the needs of others. shared evenly. learning; cognitive development and general
program evaluation—The process of gathering reciprocal teaching—A strategy that promotes knowledge such as mathematics and science;
information about a program’s quality and children’s reading comprehension and higher- positive approaches to learning such as
effectiveness. order thinking by engaging them in summa- curiosity and motivation; and language
progressive education movement—Major effort rizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting development and early literacy skills.
to reform schooling in the early 20th century redirection—Drawing a child’s attention or science—Study of the physical and natu-
to make it more democratic and responsive to behavior toward a more desirable alternative ral world, especially by observing and
children’s needs. This movement was highly than the one on which the child is currently experimenting.
influential on early childhood education and focusing. scientifically based curriculum—Derives from
later ideas about developmentally appropriate reflection—Teaching strategy in which teachers research evidence about what kinds of learn-
practice. help children go beyond remembering what ing outcomes relate to later achievement, and
project—An in-depth investigation of a topic they did to becoming aware of what they what types of teaching and learning experi-
worth learning more about, usually involving learned, what was interesting, how they felt ences help children acquire those outcomes.
a small group, but occasionally the whole about the experience, and what they can do Such a curriculum has been evaluated and its
class. to build on and extend the experience. effectiveness demonstrated.
project approach—Strategy for conceptually reinforcer—Consequence—either positive or scientifically based instructional practices—
organizing curriculum by engaging children negative—that increases or strengthens a Curriculum and instructional practices that
in in-depth investigation of a topic, focused behavior. research has demonstrated improve learning
on finding answers to questions posed by the reliability—The extent to which the results ob- outcomes.
children, the teacher, or the teacher working tained from a test are accurate and consistent scientific inquiry—Involving children in
with the children. over time. observing, predicting, and investigating.
prompts—Gestural, model, physical, pictorial, replacement behaviors—Desirable prosocial scientific method—Method of beginning with
or verbal clues that elicit responses from chil- behaviors that replace problem behaviors. a hypothesis, testing it with an experiment,
dren to assist them in using a specific skill. representing—Expressing mathematical ideas making observations and gathering data, and
protective factors—Mechanisms, both inher- with words, diagrams, pictures, and/or then confirming or disconfirming the initial
ited and experiential, that may minimize the symbols. hypothesis.
Glossary 543
scope—The particular focus of the curriculum at social-emotional learning—Children’s ability syntax—Grammar and sentence structure.
a given point in time; that is, how much of a to recognize and regulate their emotions, teacher-initiated experiences—Learning ex-
larger content area will be taught. establish and maintain positive relationships, periences in which teachers take the lead by
screening tests—Tests administered to all chil- make responsible decisions, and solve social providing explicit information and modeling
dren, usually in preschool or kindergarten, as problems constructively. Also called social or demonstrating a skill, as determined by
the first step in a process to determine which competence. the teacher’s goals and direction.
children are at risk of a possible disability or sociocultural theory—Vygotsky’s theory that teaching strategy—A behavior or activity that
learning problem; also called developmental children learn from social interaction within a teacher deliberately selects and flexibly
screening. a cultural context. applies to help students construct meaning.
script language—The typical ways that people socioeconomic status (SES)—Family income technology—Tools used to change or modify the
communicate in different contexts or settings. level. natural world to meet human needs.
secure attachment relationship—A responsive solitary play—Children play alone, usually with telegraphic speech—Combining words into
and sensitive relationship with caregivers that toys or objects. two-word utterances.
allows children to venture forth and comfort- spatial awareness—Perceptions of where the temperament—The pattern of arousal and
ably explore and learn about the world. body is. emotionality that is characteristic of an
secure base—An attachment figure (mother or spatial relations—Spatial sense and familiarity individual.
caregiver) who serves as an anchor for chil- with shape, structure, and location. temporal awareness—Speeding up or slowing
dren to rely on and from which children can specialized instruction—Involves teachers down a movement.
safely venture out and explore. matching an individual child’s goals and Temporary Assistance for Needy Families
self-actualization theory—Maslow’s view that objectives with appropriate teaching meth- (TANF)—Federally funded program, more
behavior and learning are motivated by a hi- ods and materials, deciding what amount commonly known as Welfare to Work, that
erarchy of needs. of assistance each child with special needs provides temporary financial aid but requires
self-concept—Children’s stable perceptions about requires, providing the assistance, and then recipients to move into the labor force or
themselves despite variations in their behavior. determining whether the instruction was schooling.
self-esteem—Children’s perception of their own effective. tennis ball messages—Communications that are
worth. stability movements—Movements in which the easily “tossed” and easily received and that
self-regulated learning—Bandura’s theory that body remains in place but moves around its help form the foundation of a relationship;
people not only learn by modeling the behav- horizontal or vertical axis; examples include they constitute the everyday chitchat between
ior of others, but by observing and evaluating balancing, dodging, starting, and stopping. teachers and parents.
their own. stable order principle—The concept that num- testing—A systematic procedure for evaluating
self-regulation—The ability to adapt or control ber words need to be said in the same order a child’s behavior and knowledge that is then
behavior, emotions, and thinking according every time. assigned a score.
to the demands of the situation. stage manager—Teachers set the stage for chil- thematic curriculum—Way of integrating cur-
separation anxiety—Feeling a baby experiences dren’s play by providing the props and theme riculum in which a broad topic of interest or
when the caregiver is not in sight; the baby and being available to respond to children’s a “big idea” provides the basis for making
may cry or cling to a caregiver in the pres- requests. connections across learning goals.
ence of strangers; usually occurs around 8 standardized assessment—Assessment of all theory—An explanation of how information and
months of age. children using the same procedures and observations are organized and relate to one
sequence—The order in which knowledge and performing the same task under the same another.
skills will be taught. conditions. theory of multiple intelligences—Theory devel-
sequential language learning—Learning a standardized testing—Uses prescribed methods oped by Howard Gardner that identifies eight
second language after the first language is for administering and scoring. different intelligences as opposed to a single
relatively well established. structural quality—Features of an early child- score on an intelligence test; this theory is
shaping—Teaching a new skill or behavior by hood program, such as maximum group useful for thinking about variation among
rewarding each step or successive approxi- sizes, teacher/child ratios, and teacher quali- children and teaching to their strengths.
mation toward the goal. fications, that are relatively easy to quantify time-out—Removing a child to a specified chair
simultaneous acquisition—Learning two lan- and measure. or area of the room for a period of time
guages at the same time during the earliest structured physical activity—Adult-guided following an unacceptable behavior.
years of life. play that is designed for a purpose such as tourist curriculum—An approach in which a
slippery egg messages—Communications that increasing endurance or flexibility. culture is visited as though it were an exotic
are difficult to “toss” (send) and “catch” subitizing—The ability to look at a small set of destination where people dress, talk, dance,
(receive), and must be expressed gently to objects (four or fewer) and know how many and eat differently before returning to the
be sure that the “catcher” receives the there are without counting. “normal” place where we all live.
communication as intended. successive approximations—Behaviors that are toxic stress—Children’s experience of intense,
social cognitive theory—Bandura’s theory that reinforced (shaped) that are not the actual frequent, and/or prolonged anxiety such as
people can learn efficiently from observ- desired behaviors, but each approximate abuse, neglect, violence, or economic depriva-
ing the consequences of another person’s behavior that is closer to the goal. tion without adult support to help them cope.
behavior. summative assessment—Assessing student transactional theory of development—Theory
social development—The ability to estab- learning at the end of an educational experi- that development is the result of both biology
lish positive relationships with adults and ence to evaluate the effectiveness of the and experience and how they influence each
peers, make friends, cooperate, and resolve experience. other.
conflicts. supporting—Providing assistance that helps the transitions—Changes from one activity or place
social studies—The integrated study of the his- child to accomplish a difficult task by making to another.
tory, geography, economics, political science, it easier. unitizing—Finding or creating a mathematical
and other related aspects of societies of the symbolic representation—The process of men- unit.
past, present, and future. tally using one thing to stand for something universal design—The concept that materials
social-conventional knowledge—The culturally else. and environments need to be usable by
agreed-on names and symbols that need to be synapses—Connections in the brain that carry everyone, including those with disabilities,
transmitted to the learner directly. information between neurons. to the greatest extent possible.
544 Glossary
universal voluntary prekindergarten—Pub- visual literacy—Ability to create visual mes- word identification—The process of decoding
licly funded preschool, usually for 4-year- sages and to interpret messages contained in unfamiliar words and recognizing high-
olds but sometimes 3-year-olds; available to visual communications. frequency (both regularly and irregularly
any family that chooses to use it. vocabulary—A combination of receptive and spelled) words by sight.
unstructured free play—Play that is chosen expressive language; the number of words working memory—The ability to retain in-
and initiated by children, such as that which a person knows and uses when listening or formation for a short period of time, which
occurs on a playground. speaking. enables transfer to long-term memory.
utility—Used to benefit children. wait time—The length of time that a teacher WPA nurseries—Federal emergency relief
validated curriculum—Curriculum that waits for a response after asking a question nursery schools, funded by the Works Prog-
has been evaluated and its effectiveness or responding to a comment. ress Administration (WPA) during the Great
demonstrated. webbing—A planning tool that teachers and Depression, designed to support the economy
validity—The degree to which an instrument children create together to organize by providing jobs for those who worked on
measures what it purports to measure. curriculum content. the site and child care services to families
vicarious learning—Learning by observing Wh- questions—Questions that begin with seeking work.
the effects of other people’s behavior, rather “Why” or “What” to get children thinking zone of proximal development (ZPD)—The
than experiencing rewards or punishments about characters’ motives or feelings. distance between the actual developmental
directly. widening horizons approach—Approach to so- level an individual has achieved (her inde-
virtual field trip—Trip taken via the Internet cial studies curriculum planning designed to pendent level of problem solving) and the
in which children can go anywhere in the begin “where children are” and then expand level of potential development she could
world. outward. achieve with adult guidance or through
visual arts—Creative processes and products windows of opportunity—Periods of time collaboration with other children.
that involve drawing, painting, sculpting with during which human brains are particularly
clay, or making models of objects using a susceptible and responsive to certain types of
variety of materials. experience.
References
545
546 References
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Name Index
A Barnett, W. S., 4, 6, 9, 22–27, 87, 89, 94–95, 120, 301, Browning, K., 24
Abou-Sayed, Y., 296 318 Bruder, M. B., 160, 161
Achieve, Inc., 442 Barr, R., 223, 302 Bruner, C., 375
Ackerman, D. J., 313 Barros, R. M., 495 Bruner, J. S., 285
Acock, A. C., 119, 457 Barrueco, S., 184 Bryant, D., 95, 230, 394
Adams, M., 398 Barton, E. E., 158 Buell, M., 281
Adelstein, S., 95 Bassok, D., 71, 97 Bukatko, D., 143
Administration for Children and Families, 310 Bates, C. C., 296, 389 Buly, M. R., 374
Aikens, N., 144, 245, 357 Bates, D., 192 Bunseki Fu-Kiai, K. K., 57
Ainsworth, M. D. S., 244, 245 Bates, J. E., 145 Burchinal, M., 87, 95, 142, 230
Aiyer, S. M., 311, 412, 497 Baucum, D., 500 Bureau of Labor Statistics, 9
Alanis, I., 191 Bauer, D., 512 Burger, K., 27
Albert, N. G., 10, 12 Bauer, P. J., 116 Burns, M. S., 381, 396, 406
Albert Shanker Institute, 446 Baumi, M., 53, 54 Burns, S., 94, 145, 182, 278, 335
Albrecht, K., 494, 499, 500, 503 Baumrind, D., 104 Burr, J. E., 144
Algina, J., 243 Beatty, B., 313 Buysse, V., 276, 460
Alliance for Childhood, 71, 72, 131 Beaty, J. J., 364, 370 Bye, B., 27
Allington, R. L., 151 Beck, I. L., 280, 407
Almon, J. W., 30, 71, 95, 408 Beiland, S. L., 446
Alper, M., 303 Bell, D., 335 C
Amanti, C., 212 Benedett, B., 409 Cabrera, N., 212
American Academy of Pediatrics, 31, 458, 493, 494, Beneke, S., 276, 325, 369, 433 California Department of Education Child Development
496, 504, 507 Bennett, T., 153, 184 Division, 191
American Association for the Advancement of Berk, L. E., 69, 116, 131, 133, 301, 500 Calkins, S. D., 119, 457
Science, 422, 447 Berkule, S. B., 403 Callahan, C., 179
American Educational Research Association Bernath, P., 512 Cameron, C. E., 289, 294
(AERA), 348 Berrueta-Clement, J. R., 23 Camilli, G., 24
American Psychiatric Association, 155–156 Bhattacharya, J., 172 Campaign for Commercial-Free Childhood, 72
American Public Health Association, 504, 507 Biber, B., 54 Campbell, F. A., 23
Ames, L. B., 103 Biddle, J. K., 335 Cantor, P., 47
Anderson, C. J., 56 Bierman, K., 97, 335 Carle, E., 74, 390
Andrews, R. K., 241 Bilbrey, C., 24 Carlson, B. W., 7
Annie E. Casey Foundation, 9, 10–11 Bishop-Josef, S. J., 89, 131, 133, 298 Carlson, F. M., 504, 506–507, 508
Ansari, A., 47 Blagojevic, B., 304, 506 Carlsson-Paige, N., 72, 408
Aries, P, 39, 42 Blair, C., 119, 331, 332, 457 Carolan, M. E., 4, 6, 9, 22, 26
Armistead, M. E., 409 Bloodworth, M. R., 241 Carrasquillo, A., 391
Arnold, D. H., 436 Bodrova, E., 117, 119, 120, 122, 132, 133, 298, 301, Carroll, M. D., 486
Aronson, S. S., 507 331, 346, 364, 366, 370, 383, 404, 439, 464, 468 Carta, J., 239
Arts Education Partnership, 416–417 Bornfreund, L., 30 Casas, J. F., 144
Atkins-Burnett, S., 357, 358 Bosseler, A., 107 Case, R., 116
Au, W., 352, 373 Boulware, G. L., 287 Casey, B., 204
Aud, S., 25, 26 Bowlby, J., 244, 245 Casey, M. B., 143, 440, 441
Austin, B., 449 Bowman, B. T., 94, 145, 182, 278, 288, 289, 335, 373 Castle, S., 478
Ausubel, D. P., 289 Boxmeyer, C., 120 Cates, C. B., 403
Boyce, W. T., 107, 120 Cavallini, I., 333
Boyd, J., 120, 122 Ceder, I., 143, 440
B Boyd, J. S., 423 Celano, D., 395
Baby FACES Team, 225 Bradley, B. A., 402 Center for Law and Social Policy (CLASP), 30
Bagnato, S. J., 358, 359 Bransford, J. D., 290, 324 Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University,
Bailey, B. A., 119 Brazelton, T. B., 213 105, 106, 107, 108, 141, 142, 424, 458
Bailey, D., 163 Bredekamp, S., 13, 38, 49, 52, 70, 73–74, 80, 85, 87, Cerda, N., 61
Bailey, M., 304 97, 117, 127, 133, 135, 196, 198, 214, 278, 279, Chahin, E., 492
Bailey, R., 102, 120 318, 319, 333, 335–336, 353, 360, 386, 398, 491, Chalk, R., 212
Bailey & Brooks, 119 494, 495, 498, 500, 503, 518, 519, 524, 531 Chall, J., 406
Baillargeon, R., 116 Brenneman, K., 319, 428, 442, 445 Chalufour, I., 324
Baker, A. C., 213 Briley, L., 492 Chang, F., 394
Baldini, R., 333 Brock, L., 21, 240 Chard, D. J., 406
Balfanz, R., 424 Brookes, C., 119 Chard, S. C., 325
Bandel, E., 357 Bromer, J., 179 Charner, K., 70, 74, 319, 518, 519, 524
Bandura, A., 124, 128–130 Bronfenbrenner, U., 82, 122–124, 130, 173, 208–209, 336 Cheung, A., 187, 391
Bandy, T., 212 Bronson, M. B., 295 Chhabra, V., 275
Banks, J. A., 176, 474 Brown, A. L., 290, 292, 324 Child Care Aware® of America, 19, 21
Barbarin, O., 94, 182, 185, 228, 263–264, 265 Brown, C., 97 Child Trends, 172, 207, 212, 216
Barbour, C., 226 Brown, E. D., 409, 417 Child Welfare Information Gateway, 214, 532–533, 534
Barbour, N. H., 226 Brown, K. C., 4 Children’s Defense Fund (CDF), 9, 58–59, 207, 211
Barker, K., 80 Brown, M. W., 54 Ching, D., 30
Barnes, H. V., 23, 328 Brown, W. H., 488 Chiong, C., 408
566
Name Index 567
Christian, L. G., 209, 210 Defending the Early Years, 72 Farran, D., 24, 436
Christie, J. F., 131, 298, 299, 467 Defeyter, M. A., 512 Feeney, S., 527, 528
Christodoulou, D., 311 Delaney, K., 72, 197 Felitti, V. J., 458
Christopoulos, C., 457 Delpit, L., 176, 197 Fernald, A., 26, 381
Church, A., 283 Denton, K., 144 Field, S. L., 53, 54
Church, V., 177 Derman-Sparks, L., 177, 192, 193, 194, 195, 478 Fight Crime: Invest in Kids, 4
Clark, C., 328 Derringer, S. T., 494, 495, 504–505, 510 First Five Years Fund, 4
Clark, K. F., 285 Desouza, J. M. S., 447 Fischer, P. H., 436
Clark, S. K., 398, 399 Dev, D. A., 513 Fisher, R., 232, 233
Clements, D. H., 116, 143, 302, 332, 337, 423, 426, DeVries, R., 259, 446 Fitzgerald, J., 9
429, 430, 431, 432, 436, 437, 438, 439, 440, 450 Dewey, J., 48–50, 54, 58, 325, 479 Flanagan, K. D., 9
Clements, M. A., 90, 278 Diamond, A., 132, 133, 241, 242, 278, 298, 301, 331, Flegal, K. M., 486
Clifford, R.M., 21, 198, 352 423, 424, 445, 457 Fleischman, H. L., 422
Cloud, N., 185–186 Diamond, K. E., 94, 95 Fleming, D., 324
Cocking, R. R., 290, 324 Dichtelmiller, M., 368 Flook, L., 470
Coffman, J., 30, 116, 319 Dickerman, B., 512 Forbis, S. G., 512
Cohen, D., 512 Dickinson, D., 281, 294, 296, 297, 332–333, 385, 386, Forman, G., 291, 311, 333, 368
Cohen, R. C., 225 388, 390 Foulger, T. S., 223
Cohen Group, 302 Diehl, A., 197 Foundation for Child Development, 12, 26, 317
Cohrssen, C., 283 Division for Early Childhood of the Council (DEC) for Fountas, I. C., 314
Colasanti, M., 9 Exceptional Children, 8, 126, 154, 161, 162, 287, Fox, L., 239, 243, 248, 249, 258, 260
Coleman, M. R., 149, 152 351, 352, 358, 531 Fox, M., 25
Colker, L. J., 12, 14, 93, 513 Dobbs, J., 436 FPG Child Development Institute, 8, 21, 151
Collier, V. P., 391, 394 Dobrec, T., 60 Frede, E., 25, 27, 95, 313
Collins, M. F., 388, 390, 397, 398–399, 400, 502 Doctoroff, G. L., 436 Freeman, D., 512
Commeyras, M., 314 Dodge, D. T., 93, 330 Freeman, N. K., 527, 528
Committee for Economic Development, 4 Dolgin, K., 143 French, L. A., 443, 444
Committee on Psychosocial Effects of Child and Family Dolnick, M., 471 Froschl, M., 263, 265
Health, 22 Dombro, A. L., 371 Frost, J. L., 42, 133
Common Core State Standards Initiative, 72, 273, 318, Domitrovich, C. E., 468 Fuligni, A. S., 96
322, 408, 431 Dong, N., 24 Fuller, B. F., 27
Common Sense Media,72, 301 Donohue, C., 72, 304, 450 Fuller, M. L., 213, 229
Compher, C., 512 Donovan, A., 260 Fusaro, M., 105, 106
Connor, C. M., 534 Donovan, M. S., 94, 145, 182, 278, 335 Fuson, K. C., 440
Copeland, K. A., 31 Dossani, R., 302
Copley, J. V., 296 Downer, J. T., 21, 96, 246
Copple, C., 13, 38, 49, 70, 73–74, 80, 85, 87, 97, 117, Drake, E. A., 24 G
127, 135, 191, 196, 278, 279, 292, 295, 319, 360, Duke, N. K., 407 Gabriel, M. M., 504
398, 491, 494, 495, 498, 500, 503, 518, 519, 524 Duncan, G. J., 422 Gadsden, V. L., 324
Core Knowledge Foundation, 330 Dunlap, G., 239, 243 Gadzikowski, A., 276
Cortes, R., 468 Dunst, C. J., 161, 214 Gainsley, S., 328, 367, 368, 371
Cost, Quality, and Child Care Outcomes Study Team, 24 Durlak, J. A., 242, 247 Galinsky, E., 102, 120, 241
Council for Professional Recognition, 226, 532 Dymnicki, A. B., 242 Gallagher, K. C., 145, 246, 248, 458
Cowan, C. P., 228 Gallahue, D. L., 486, 489, 490, 506, 509, 510
Cowan, P. A., 228 Gallistel, C. R., 424, 430
Crago, M. G., 184, 185, 390 E Galper, A., 428, 442, 443, 479
Craig, G. J., 500 Early, D., 206, 252, 275, 276, 285, 296 Gandini, L., 291, 311, 333, 334, 368
Crawford, G., 394 Education Commission of the States, 9 Gapin, J., 121
Crick, N., 144 Edwards, C. P., 246, 291, 311, 333 Garcia, E. E., 357, 375, 391
Cross, C. T., 53 Edwards, J. O., 177, 192, 193, 194, 195, 368, 478 Gardner, H., 147–148, 330
Crowe, H., 510 Elias, C. L., 301 Garner, A. S., 22, 108
Cryer, D., 21, 198, 352 Eliot, Abigail, 52, 56, 58 Garner, P. W., 241
Cullerton-Sen, C., 144 Eliot, L., 143 Gartrell, D., 127, 251, 253, 259, 264, 265
Cunningham, A. E., 335 Elkind, D., 41, 44, 131 Gartstein, M. A., 145
Cunningham, C. E., 58, 59 Ellis, R. R., 207 Gelman, R., 116, 319, 424, 428, 430, 442, 445
Curby, T. W., 21, 240 Else-Quest, N. M., 47 Genesee, F., 184, 185, 186, 390
Curtis, D., 508, 509 Ennis, S. R., 10, 12 Gerde, H. K., 213
Czerniak, C. M., 447 Entz, S., 191, 283, 284 Germino-Hausken, E., 144
Epstein, A. S, 13, 23, 87, 278, 292, 297, 328, 329, 367, Gesell, A., 50, 52, 103
368, 371, 412, 455, 456, 468, 519 Gest, S. D., 142
D Epstein, J. L., 228 Gewertz, C., 318
Daehler, M. W., 143 Erikson, E., 108–111, 130 Giardiello, P., 44
Dahlberg, G., 72, 197 Erkut, S., 143, 440–441 Gilden, R., 335
Daniel-Echols, M., 24 Erwin, P., 143 Gillanders, C., 182, 185
Daugherty, L., 302 Espinosa, L. M., 12, 152, 184, 187, 190, 191, 284, 317, Gilliam, W. S., 89, 241
David, J., 54, 474 356, 375, 390, 391, 393 Gilpin, A., 120
David, J. L., 327 Etnier, J. L., 121 Ginsburg, H. P., 133, 423, 424, 426, 427, 428,
Davidson, A. J., 142 Etzel, R. A., 512 429, 439, 503
Davidson, J., 416 Eyer, D. W., 319 Ginsburg, K. R., 31
Davidson, M., 335 Glowacki, S., 38
Davidson, R. J., 470 Goffin, S. G., 17, 313, 527, 531
Dawson, G., 157 F Goldberg, S. B., 470
Day, C. B., 175 Faber Taylor, A., 504 Goldman, B. D., 460
De Bellis, M. D., 23 FairTest, 349, 373 Golinkoff, R. M., 131, 298
Dean, C. B., 278, 289, 291, 292 Falconer, R. C., 478 Gomby, D., 120
Dearing, E., 228 Fan, X., 198 Gonzalez, J. E., 282, 296, 389
DeCaro, J., 120 Fantuzzo, J. W., 104, 145, 324 Gonzalez, N., 212
568 Name Index
Gonzalez-Mena, J., 174, 177, 183, 189, 197, 319, 491, Hewes, D. W., 50, 51, 52 Jordan, N. C., 440
492, 498 Hiemenz, J., 358 Jose, P. E., 411
Goodman, M., 142, 456 HighScope, 436 Joseph, G. E., 243, 256, 257, 325, 374, 465, 469
Goodway, J. D., 486, 489, 490, 494, 495, 505, 506, 510 Hill, C. J., 95 Jung, K., 95
Gopnik, A., 112 Hill, P. S., 51 Jung, L. A., 356, 360, 365, 367
Gormley, W. T., 25, 95 Hills, T. W., 353, 355, 356 Justice, L. M., 283
Graham, E. T., 60 Hinitz, B. S. F., 59, 63
Graham, S., 400 Hirsch, E. D., 330, 407 K
Gramling, M., 508 Hirsh-Pasek, K., 131, 298 Kahng, R., 358
Grammer, J. K., 116 HITN Early Learning Collaborative, 303 Kainz, K., 246
Graue, M. E., 29, 30, 72, 90, 97, 197, 278, 523 Hoberman, M. A., 55 Kaiser, B., 241, 242, 249, 250, 251, 255, 260, 262,
Graves, M. F., 285 Hofer, K., 24 268–269
Gray, J., 450, 451 Hohmann, M., 292, 328, 468 Kaldor, T., 222, 223
Greenberg, J., 383, 385, 387 Holland, A. L., 285 Kalich, K., 512
Greenberg, M. T., 256, 468 Hollingsworth, H., 460 Kalkwarf, H. J., 31
Greenberg, P., 53, 54 Hong, S. S., 96 Kardos, S. M., 313
Greenes, C., 424, 436 Hong, S.-Y., 278, 445 Kartoshkina, Y., 224
Greenman, J., 240, 266, 267, 504, 507, 508 Honig, A. S., 95, 466, 504 Karweit, N., 389
Greenspan, S. I., 213 Hooper, S. R., 305 Katz, L. G., 325, 326, 433
Greenwald, D., 319 Hopstock, P. J., 422 Kauerz, K., 30, 319
Gretchell, N., 500 Horton, C., 373 Kauffman, D., 313
Griffin, P., 381, 396, 406 Howes, C., 21, 29, 96, 142, 242, 246, 280 Kelley, K., 145
Griffin, S., 171, 423, 436 Hu, B. Y., 198 Kelly, S. M., 177
Grimm, K. J., 311, 412, 497 Huang, F. L., 24 Kendeigh, C. A., 31
Grissmer, D. W., 311, 412, 497 Huang, Y., 96 Kennedy, D. O., 512
Grollman, S., 441, 444, 445 Hubbell, E. R., 278 KewalRamani, A., 25
Gropper, N., 263, 265 Hudson, S., 508 Keyser, J., 212, 214, 226
Guernsey, L., 30, 72, 408 Huffman, L. C., 142 KidHealth.org, 512
Gullo, D. F., 295, 348, 368, 511 Hulsey, L., 245 Kieff, J., 532
Gunderson, E. A., 437, 446 Huntsinger, C. S., 411 Kikas, E., 426
Gutiérrez-Clellen, V. F., 357 Hurley, S., 436 Kilbourne, J., 40, 41
Hutchins, P., 441 Killen, M., 193, 197
Huttenlocher, J., 116, 437, 440
H Hwang, W., 512
Kim, J. S., 404
Haigh, K. M., 335 Kim, K., 328
Hyson, M., 102–103, 145, 466, 494, 503 Kim, S., 143
Hale, J. E., 58, 197
Halgunseth, L. C., 228 King, M., 240, 263, 264, 265
Kisker, E. E., 7
Hall, E. L., 41 I Kit, B. K., 486
Hall, G. S., 50, 58 Ilg, F, 103
Halle, J., 184 Klahr, D., 424
Imada, T., 107
Hamayan, E., 185, 186 Kleeman, D., 302
Ingwersen, J., 512
Hamby, D., 161, 214 Klein, A., 422, 423
Institute of Education Sciences, 312, 389
Hamoudi, A., 457 Klein, E. L., 133, 298, 467
Institute of Medicine (IOM), 29, 529
Hamre, B., 21, 95, 142, 240, 242, 246, 275, 276, 278, Klibanoff, R. S., 437
International Reading Association (IRA), 293, 387, 393,
280, 283, 285, 352 Klinkner, J., 241
396, 404, 406, 407
Han, M., 281 Kobak, R., 246
Invernizzi, M. A., 24
Hanhan, S. F., 224 Kohn, A., 127
Iruka, I., 212, 213, 214
Hannust, T., 426 Koralek, D., 74, 319, 518, 519, 524
Isenberg, J. P., 409, 410, 415, 417
Hanson, M. J., 175, 176, 178, 179, 184, 188, 463 Kostelnik, M. J., 69
Izard, C. E., 246
Hardin, B. J., 365 Kotler, J., 512
Harms, T., 21, 198, 352 Krauss, R., 54, 55
Harris, K. R., 400 J Kreider, H., 228
Harris, W., 47, 61 Jablon, J., 368 Kreider, R. M., 207
Hart, B., 144, 381, 382 Jacklin, C. M., 143 Krieg, D. B., 411
Hatfield, B., 275 Jacobson Chernoff, J., 9 Krinzinger, H., 143
Haugen, K., 162 Jalongo, M. R., 386, 409, 410, 415, 417 Kroeger, J., 97
Hayslip, W. W., 191 Jamil, F., 275 Kucan, L., 280, 407
Haywood, K. M., 500 Jansen, E. A., 144 Kuhl, P. K., 107, 112, 384, 391
Head Start, 6, 7, 20, 29, 30, 175, 320, 415, 435, 507 Janson, G. R., 240, 263, 264, 265 Kuo, F. E., 504, 505
Head-Reeves, D., 228 Jarrett, O. S., 496 Kusché, C. A., 256, 468
Healey, K. M., 403 Jenkins, H., 303 Kuwahara, R. H., 191
Heckman, J., 4, 328 Jennings, P. A., 249 Kyger, C. S., 266
Hedges, L. V., 437 Jensen, A. R., 140 Kyler, A., 197
Heffron, S., 478, 479 Jewkes, A. M., 371
Helm, J. H., 325, 326, 369 Jirout, J., 424 L
Hemmeter, M. L., 239, 243, 260 Johnsen, S. K., 149 La Paro, K., 21, 96, 240, 275, 352
Hemphill, F. C., 25 Johnson, E.-E., 302 Labbo, L. D., 408
Hendricks, C., 511 Johnson, J. E., 131, 298, 299, 300, 467, 468 Ladd, G. W., 241
Hennon, C. B., 229 Johnson, M. H., 414 Lally, J. R., 319
Henry, G. T., 328 Johnson, S. M., 313 Landry, C. E., 291
Hensler, B. S., 534 Johnson, S. R., 246, 311 Landry, S. H., 335
Herald, S. L., 241 Jones, C. D., 398, 399 Landy, S., 456
Hernandez, C. M., 61 Jones, E., 294, 298, 299, 322–323 Lange, A. A., 436
Hernandez, D. J., 26 Jones, I., 442, 443 Lara-Cinisomo, S, 96
Heroman, C., 93, 295 Jones, J., 4 Larner, M., 96, 328
Herr-Stephenson, B., 303 Jones, S., 102, 120 Lascarides, V. C., 59
Heward, W. L., 149, 305 Jones-Branch, J., 504 Laski, E. V., 440
Name Index 569
Lawner, E. K., 268 McCann, C., 30 National Center for Education Statistics, 9, 10, 26, 171
Lee, J., 494, 495, 505, 510 McCardle, P., 275 National Center on Cultural and Linguistic
Lee, J. S., 423 McClelland, M. M., 119, 457 Responsiveness, 393
Lee, K., 132, 133, 298, 331, 423 McCollum, J., 184 National Center on Family Homelessness at American
Lee, K. S., 391 McConnell-Farmer, J. L., 59 Institutes for Research, 11
Lenhart, L. A., 387, 393, 395, 402 McDermott, M. J., 289 National Center on Quality Teaching and Learning, 310,
Lentini, R. H., 258 McDermott, P. A., 145, 324 311, 313, 316, 444, 447
Leong, D. J., 117, 119–120, 122, 132, 133, 298, McDevitt, T. M., 109, 355, 369 National Center on Response to Intervention, 151,
301, 331, 337, 346, 364, 366, 370, 404, 439, McDonough, S., 116 350–351
464, 468, 491 McEvoy, M., 260 National Center on Universal Design for Learning, 162
Lerner, C., 223, 302 McGee, L. M., 388, 389, 390 National Child Care Information Center, 10
Levin, D. E., 40, 41, 302 McGuire, M., 474 National Child Traumatic Stress Network, 458–459
Levine, M., 408 McKeown, M. G., 280, 407 National Coalition for Core Arts Standards, 409, 415
Levine, S. C., 116, 437, 440, 446 McLaughlin, G. B., 408 National Council for the Social Studies, 455, 473,
Levitt, P., 106, 497 McLoyd, V. C., 26 475, 480
Li, K., 198 McMenamin, K., 302 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 327, 429
Lieber, J., 241 McPartlin, D., 512 National Council on Measurement in Education, 348
Lieberman, D. A., 132 McPhee, C., 9 National Early Literacy Panel (NELP), 275, 327, 394
Lifter, K., 158 McWayne, C. M., 104 National Institute for Literacy, 312
Lillard, A. S., 47 McWilliam, R. A., 164, 165 National Institute of Child Health and Human
Lim, S., 227 Meacham, S., 281, 282, 283 Development (NICHD), 275, 327, 380
Linder, S. M., 450 Mehigan, K. R., 277 National Parent Teacher Association, 228
Linebarger, D. L., 302 Meier, D. R., 505 National Professional Development Center on Inclusion
Lipsey, M., 24, 436 Meisels, S. J., 368, 371, 373 (NPDCI), 151
Liu, E., 313 Melhuish, E., 96, 283 National Research Council (NRC), 29, 53, 214, 275,
Liu, J., 512 Meltzoff, A. N., 112 318–319, 350, 422, 431, 432, 529
Locasale-Crouch, J., 21 Mendelsohn, A. L., 403 National Resource Center for Health and Safety in
Lochman, J., 120 MenTeach, 263 Child Care and Early Education, 504, 507
Lonigan, C. J., 296, 390, 394, 397, 398 Miller, E., 30, 71, 72, 95 National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse, 229
Lopez, A., 61, 62, 198 Miller, J. L., 504 National Science Foundation Discoveries, 492
López, L. M., 357 Miller, L. G., 494, 499, 500, 503 Nayfeld, I., 319, 445
Lopez, M., 62, 184 Miller, M., 121 NCTSN Core Curriculum on Childhood Trauma Task
Louv, R., 504 Milteer, R. M., 503 Force, 458–459
Lowenstein, D., 30 Mindes, G., 356, 360, 365, 367, 480 Neilsen, S. L., 260
Lozano, P., 184 Minervino, J., 21, 23, 24, 29 Neitzel, J., 165
Lukondo-Wamba, A. M., 57 Mitchell, A., 19, 54, 474 Nelson, C. A., III,104, 105, 106
Luo, Z., 411 Mitchell, S. M., 223 Nemeth, K. N., 192, 224
Lutton, A., 526, 527, 529, 531 Mix, K. S., 116 Nemours Health and Prevention Services, 512
Lynch, E. W., 173–180, 184, 188, 189 Modigliani, K., 179 Neugebauer, B., 60
Lyons, K. E., 470 Moffitt, T. E., 241, 457 Neugebauer, R., 21
Moiduddun, E. M., 7, 144 Neuman, S. B., 26, 280, 319, 380, 381, 385, 386, 388,
Moll, L. C., 212 395, 398, 400, 402, 403, 407
M Montessori, M., 45–47 New, R. S., 196, 197
Maccoby, E., 144 Montie, J. E., 295 Niles, M. D., 90, 278
MacDonald, G., 442 Moodie, S., 228 Nimmo, J., 313, 323
Mack, M. G., 508 Moore, K. A., 142, 210, 212 Nogueron-Liu, S., 408
MacKenzie, B., 56 Morhard, R. H., 265 North Carolina Foundations Task Force (2013),
Macy, M., 358, 359 Morris, P., 469 461, 462
Magruder, E. S., 191 Morris, P. A., 123, 208, 336 Nourot, P. M., 43, 44, 56
Main, M., 245 Morrison, F. J., 119, 289, 294, 457
Malaguzzi, L., 291, 333–334 Morrow, L. M., 296, 389, 403
Mallory, B. L., 196 Mosher, M., 144 O
Malone, K., 505 Moss, J., 439 Obradovi, J., 107, 120
Malone. L., 245 Moss, P., 72, 197, 333 O’Connell, A., 398
Mangione, P. L., 319 Munsen, S., 409 Oczkus, L. D., 292, 293
Mann, T. D., 133 Murphy, S., 120 Oertwig, S., 182, 185, 285
Marcelo, A. K., 186 Murrah, W. M., 311, 412, 497 Office of Early Learning, 27
Marchman, V. A., 26, 381 Murray, D. W., 457 Ogan, A. T., 133
Marks, E. L., 60 Muttock, S., 355 Ogden, C. L., 486, 487
Marsden, D. B., 368, 371 Ogle, D. M., 289
Marshall, B., 328, 367, 368, 371 Okamoto, Y., 116
Martin, B., 81 N Oklahoma Child Care Services, 320
Marzano, R. J., 292 NAEYC Organizational History and Archives Oklahoma Department of Human Services, 320
Mashburn, A. J., 95, 96, 212, 283 Committee, 50 O’Leary, P. M., 213
Masi, W., 512 Nager, N., 54, 64 Olive, M. L., 260
Maslow, A. H., 111–112 National Association for Gifted Children, 149 Olsen, G., 213, 229
Mason, E. J., 158 National Association for Sports and Physical Education Olsen, L., 172, 188
Masten, A. S., 142 (NASPE), 486 Ong, C., 184
Matera, C., 191 National Association for the Education of Young Ormrod, J. E., 109, 355, 369
Matychuk, P., 80 Children (NAEYC), 4–5, 8, 20, 52, 69, 85, Ornstein, P. A., 116
Maxwell, K. L., 230, 375 127, 135, 161, 172, 191, 192, 246, 336, 353, Osborn, D. K., 58, 59
Mbiti, J., 57 354, 396, 404, 406, 446, 511, 527, Ostrosky, M. M., 184, 256, 257, 276, 433
McAfee, O., 337, 346, 347, 348, 351, 352, 354, 355, 531, 535 Ostrov, J. M., 144
360, 362, 363, 364, 365, 366, 367, 369, 370, 372, National Association of Child Care Resource and Ou, S. R., 24
383, 404, 464, 491 Referral Agencies (NACCRRA), 11 Owsianik, M., 104
McBride, B. A., 513 National Center for Children in Poverty (NCCP), 25, Ozmun, J. C., 486, 489, 490, 494, 495, 505,
McBride, B. J., 287 211, 314 506, 510
570 Name Index
State of Washington, 461, 462 U.S. Department of Education, 185, 246, 263, 389 Wiggins, A. K., 330
Steele, J. S., 311, 412, 497 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 9, 25, Wilbers, J., 155
Stein, R. E. K., 495 26, 211, 310, 316, 321, 357, 393, 447 Willemin, C., 95
Steinheimer, K., 325, 369 Willer, B., 274, 275, 356
Stephenson, C., 439 Williams, C., 30
Stetsenko, A., 117 V Williams, L., 416
Stevenson-Garcia, J., 428 Vagh, S. B., 357 Williford, A. P., 119, 246, 457
Stipek, D., 95, 436 Valencia, S. W., 374 Willmes, K., 143
Stoltz, L. M. H., 49 Vance, E., 247 Willoughby, M., 142
Stone, B. J., 278 Vandivere, S., 212 Wilson, S., 436
Stonehouse, A., 266 Vanneman, A., 25 Wilson, S. J., 332
Strain, P. S., 163, 239, 243, 256, 257, 260, 465, 469 Vargas, S., 24 Wiltz, N. W., 133, 298, 467
Strauss, V., 45, 71 Vasilyeva, M., 437 Winsler, A, 47
Strickland, D. S., 406 Vaughn, S., 465 Winton, P., 206
Stright, A. D., 145 Vecchi, V., 333, 334, 335 Wolery, M., 155, 158, 163, 165
Sullivan, W. C., 505 Verdick, E., 512 Wolfe, C. B., 436
Suriyakham, L. W., 437 Vernon-Feagans, L., 246 Wolfe, J., 40, 42, 43, 44, 45, 49, 51, 52, 54
Sutton-Smith, B., 298 Vianna, E., 117 Wong, C. S., 126, 157, 468
Swick, D. C., 228 Vick Whittaker, J. E., 246 Wong, J., 228
Sylva, K., 96, 283, 284, 297, 335 Vitiello, V. E., 246 Wong Filmore, L., 187
Sylvester, P., 248, 458 Vogel, C. A., 7, 225 Wood, D., 285
Szekely, A., 423 Vukelich, C., 281 Wood, G., 143
Vygotsky, L. S., 103, 118, 122, 132, 192, 285 Woodhead, M., 72
Woodring, S. D., 443, 444
T Woods, T. A., 53
Tabors, P. O., 187, 357, 386, 387, 393, 395 W Woolfolk, A., 143, 146, 185
Taggart, B., 96, 283 Wainwright, D. K., 302 Woolverton, M., 328
Tarullo, L., 144, 245 Wakabayashi, T., 24 Worth, K., 324, 441, 444, 445
Tayler, C., 283 Wakeley, A., 423 Wortham, S. C., 42, 59, 133, 365
Taylor, A. F., 505 Walberg, H. J., 241 Wright, C., 302
Taylor, J., 534 Walters, C., 24, 29 Wright, J., 144
Taylor, R. D., 242 Wang, L., 212 Wright, J. A., 487
Teaching Tolerance, 192 Wardle, F., 131, 176, 177, 193, 298, Wright, T. S., 280, 380, 381, 385, 386, 388, 402,
Temkin, D., 268 299, 467 403, 407
Temple, J. A., 24 Washington, V., 17, 313
Tepylo, D. H., 439 Wasik, B., 94, 296, 389
Terzian, M. A., 268 Watson, B., 436 X
Thai, A., 30 Watson, M., 244 Xiang, X., 295
Tharp, R., 191, 283, 284 Webster-Stratton, C., 257, 468, 469–470 Xiang, Z., 24
Thomas, W. P., 391, 394 Weikart, D. P., 23, 96–97, 292, 328
Thomes, K., 506 Weiland, C., 94, 96, 332
Thompson, C. M., 410, 411, 412, 417
Y
Weinstock, M., 449
Yamauchi, L. A., 191
Thompson, D., 508 Weislader, A., 26
Yange, Y., 7
Thompson, R. A., 142, 456, 458 Weiss, H., 228
Yarosz, D. J., 9
Thompson, S. D., 266 Weissberg, R. P., 241, 242
Yates, T., 184
Thornburg, K. R., 87, 94–95 Weitzman, E., 383, 385, 387
Yates, T. M., 186
Tierney, A. L., 104, 106 Welch, K. J., 207, 209
Yopp, H. K., 397, 398
Tobin, K. J., 512 Werner, E. E., 142
Yopp, R. H., 397, 398
Tomlinson, C. A., 150 Wesley, P., 276
Yoshikawa, H., 23, 24, 26, 27, 94, 96, 332, 335
Tomlinson, H. B., 494, 495, 503 Wesnes, K. A., 512
Youn, M.-J., 95
Torquati, J., 504 West, J., 144
Young, J. M., 143, 440
Tranter, P., 505 West, T., 152, 460
Trawick-Smith, J., 173–174 WestEd San Marcos, 249
Trivette, C. M., 161, 214 Weston, D. R., 371 Z
Trumbull, E., 183 Wetzel, K., 223 Zakriski, A., 144
Wheeler, E., 259 Zan, B., 259
Whiren, A. P., 69 Zelazo, P. D., 470
U Whitaker, R. C., 249, 487 Zellizer, V., 40
Umansky, W., 305 White, B., 335 Zepeda, M., 183, 197
Underwood, M., 144 White, B. A. B., 24 Zero to Six Collaborative Group, 458
United Nations Convention on the Rights of the White, J. M., 145 Zigler, E. F., 89, 131, 133, 298
Child, 42 White, K. M., 246 Zill, N., 328
Ury, W., 232 Whitebook, M., 13, 21, 29 Zimmerman, C., 424
U.S. Department of Agriculture, 512 Whitehurst, G. J., 296 Zins, J. E., 241
Subject Index
A Arts education B
ABC’s of behavior analysis, 260–61 case study, 379, 417 Babble, 383, 384
Abecedarian Early Childhood Intervention Project, creativity, supporting, 410–11 Background knowledge, 402
23, 225 developmental continuum, 412 Back to Sleep, 492
Ability tests, 372–73 drama, 416 Bandura, Albert, 128–29, 130
Absorbent mind, 45–47 music, movement, and dance, 415–16 Bank Street approach, 325–27, 474
Abstraction, 430 scaffolding, 412–13 Bank Street College, 54, 64
Abuse, child, 214, 226–27, 532–34 symbolic representation, 410 Base ten place value system, 427
Academic discourse, 381 value of, 409–11 Becoming an Intentional Teacher
Accommodation(s) visual arts, 411 advocating for children with disabilities, 531
children with special needs, 358–60 visual literacy, 414–15 alphabet and phonological awareness, 399
Piaget’s theory, 113 ASD. See Autism spectrum disorder (ASD); Special assessment, uses of, 365
Accountability, 28, 373–74 education being purposeful and playful, 15
Accreditation, 19–20 Asian-Americans, family configurations, 207 block building, integrating science, 446
Acculturation, 174 Aspira vs. the City of New York, 61 cultural differences, responding to, 199
Achievement gap, closing of Assertive communication, 220 curriculum, connecting to students, 315
language development, 381 Assessment of progress expanding children’s experience, 55
mathematics, 422–23, 428–29 accountability and, 352 fine-motor skills, 501
overview, 25–26 case study, 345, 376 individualizing group time, 167
self-regulation and, 457 children with special needs, 358–60 interviewing to uncover thinking, 118
technology use, 301 concerns about, 373–74 responding to parent complaints, 221
Achievement tests, 372 cultural and linguistic diversity, 183–84, separation anxiety, easing of, 245
Acknowledging and encouraging, 278–80 356–58 small group work, 296
Adaptation, Piaget’s theory, 113 curriculum decisions, 87, 319 social studies, integrating, 477
ADHD (Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), 154, developmentally appropriate assessment, thinking and communication skills, 77
241. See also Special education 354–56 Behavior challenges. See Challenging behavior
Advance organizers, 289–290 dynamic assessment, 348 Behavior intervention plan, 261–62
Advocacy, 39, 531–32 effectiveness of, overview, 353–54 Behaviorism, Skinner, 124–25, 130
Aerobic system, 486 formative and summative assessment, 346–47 Bell curve, 349
African-Americans informal and formal assessments, 347 Bias
cultural differences, 185 interpreting and using, 369–372 anti-bias curriculum, 196
demographic trends, 10–11 methods, summary chart, 353, 364 learning goals, 192–99
in early childhood history, 58–59 observation, 347, 360–63 standardized tests, 373
family configurations, 207 overview, 346 Bicultural, 198
Age appropriate, defined, 79. See also Developmentally performance assessment, 347–48 Big Math for Little Kids, 436
appropriate practice program evaluation, 352 Bilingual education. See also Dual-language learners
Age of enrollment, 7 recording progress, 363–69 Bilingual Education Act, 61
Aggression screening and diagnostic purposes, 351–52 history of, 60–62
gender differences, 143–44 special education, 166 teachers, role of, 16
rough-and-tumble play, 503–4 standardized testing, 348–49, 372–76 Bilingualism, benefits of, 391–94
social problem solving skills, 469–70 standards for, 20 Biology, influence of, 140–41
Teaching Pyramid model, 242–43 for teaching and learning purposes, Biting, response to, 266–67
Turtle Technique, 471 350–51 Blended families, 207
Aggressive communication, 220 technology and, 371 Blind students, 154. See also Special education
Alaskan Natives, 59–60 Assimilation, 113 Blocks, 52–53, 436, 438–39, 446, 493
Alignment of curriculum, 30, 319 Assistance, offering, 279 Board games, 440, 473
Alliteration, 397 Assistive technology, use of, 304–5 Body composition, 486
Alphabetic principle, 398 Associative play, 467 Book appreciation, 400–402
Alphabet knowledge, 397–98 At risk, family challenges, 209–12 Both/and thinking, 49, 89–90, 111, 178
Alternative assessments, 348 Attachment theory, 244–46 Boundaries, family systems, 209–10
American Federation of Teachers, 527 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 154, Boys, teaching strategies for, 263–66
American Sign Language, 337–39 241. See also Special education Brain development, 105–8
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 63 Audiotapes, recording observations, 366 Brain research, 22–23
Analysis, mathematic skills, 434 Auditory awareness, 501 Bronfenbrenner, Urie, 122–24, 130, 208–9
Anecdotal records, 365–66, 370 Authentic assessment, 371–72. See also Assessment of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model, 208–9
Anger management, 471 progress Building blocks, mathematics curriculum,
Antecedents, behavior, 261 defined, 347–48 332–33, 436
Anti-bias curriculum, 196 Authoritarian parenting, 104 Bullying, 268–69
Anxiety, 107–8, 458 Authoritative parenting, 104 Bureau of Educational Experiments
Apprenticeship, 281 Autism spectrum disorder (ASD). See also Special (BEE), 54
Approaches to learning, 145 education
Approximations, successive, 126 behaviorism, 126–27
Aptitude tests, 372–73 defined, 154 C
Artistic development. See Creative arts early intervention, Project DATA, 287 Calendar, 433
Art of teaching, 276–77. See also Teaching individual differences, 155–57 California Achievement Test, 372
strategies nutrition and, 513 Cardinality, 430
Art production apps, 411 social behavior skills, 241 Cardiorespiratory system, 486
572
Subject Index 573
Career opportunities, 13–17. See also Professional diversity concepts, 194–98 Code switch, 391, 393
development ecological model, Bronfenbrenner, 208–9 Cognitive development
Caring community of learners, creating ecological systems theory, Bronfenbrenner, children’s thinking, 424–27
case study, 239, 269–70 122–24 continuum of, 424
conflict resolution, 257–59 emotional development, 456–57 creative arts and, 409–10
defined, 85–86, 240 gender differences, 143–44 defined, 102
guidance and punishment, 255–56 IFSP (Individualized family service plan), 160–61 executive function, 422–23
individualized interventions, 259–63 instructional decisions and, 76 gender differences, 143
physical environment, 251–52 language development, 380–84 gifted and talented children, 149
relationships with children, 244–51 model of, 79 individual differences, 144
rules for behavior, 253 motor skills, fine, 500 language and, 427–28
supporting positive behavior, 253–55 motor skills, gross, 490–96 screening and diagnostic tests, 351–52
Teaching Pyramid Model, 240–43 motor skills, perceptual, 501–2 Cognitive flexibility, 424
time schedule, 252 overview of, 102–5 Cognitive self-control, 424
Casa dei Bambini, 45 physical development, overview, 488–89 Cognitive theory, Piaget, 112–17, 130
Case Studies Piaget, Jean, 43 Collaboration, 215. See also Families
assessment, 345, 376 play, role of, 131–33 Collectivist cultural, 178
caring community of learners, 269–70 psychosocial theory, Erikson, 108–11 Colors around Me, 177
child development and learning, 101 screening and diagnostic tests, 351–52 Comenius, John Amos, 42–43
community of learners, creating, 239 self-actualization theory, Maslow, 111–12 Common Core English Language Arts (ELA)
cultural and linguistic diversity, 200 self identity, 193 standards, 408
curriculum planning, 309, 340–41 self-regulation, 457 Common Core Standards, 29, 71–72, 318–22, 431
developmentally appropriate practice, 69, 98 social-emotional development, 459–65 Communication skills. See also Creative arts;
early childhood education, overview, 3, 33 sociocultural theory, Vygotsky, 117–22 Literacy skills
family partnerships, 205, 235 theories, summary chart of, 130 behavior as communication, 251
individual differences, 139, 167–68 transactional theory of development, 141 communication styles, 219–20
instructional strategies, 305 Child Development Associate (CDA), 29, 59, 62 cross-cultural communication, 188–90
language, literacy, and arts, 379, 417 Child-initiated experiences, 90, 278 cultural and linguistic diversity, 182–87
physical development and health, 485, 514 Child labor laws, 40 intentional teaching, 77
problem solving skills, 421, 452 Child poverty, 211 mathematics process, 434–36
social studies, 455, 482 Children nonverbal communication, 189–90
tradition of excellence, 37, 65 changing views of, 39–41 Communication with families. See also Families
Cause and effect, science concept, 427–28, 443 economic value, historical view, 40 barriers to, 216–18
Center for Multicultural Education, University of as innocents, 40 building partnerships, 87–88, 228–29
Washington, 474 “limited English proficient” children, 61 communication styles, 219–20
Cerebral palsy, 154. See also Special education rights of, 41 conferencing, 224–25
Challenges, providing, 279, 282 teacher-child interactions, effects of, 95–96 home visiting, 225–27
Challenging behavior Children’s Defense Fund, 58–59 informal communication, 220–22
biting, 266–67 Children’s Technology Review, 450 responding to parent complaints, 221
defined, 242 Children with disabilities, defined, 154. See also strategies for, 218–27
individualized interventions, 259–63 Disabilities, children with technology, use of, 222–24
preventing, 241–42 Children with special needs. See also Special education Communities, relationships with, 20, 87–88, 230
responses to, 248–50 defined, 154 Community of learners, creating
rules for classroom, 253 screening assessments for, 351–52 case study, 239, 269–70
social problem solving skills, 469–70 Child study movement, 50 defined, 85–86, 240
supporting positive behavior, 253–55 Child/teacher ratios, 19 individualized interventions, 259–63
Charter schools, 9 Child Trends, 212 relationships with children, 244–51
Checklists, recording methods, 367, 370 Child Welfare Information Gateway, 532 rules of behavior, 253
Chicago Child-Parent Centers (CPC), 23–24 Chronosystems, 124 supporting positive behavior, 253–55
Child abuse, 214, 226–27, 532–34 Circle time, 294–95 Teaching Pyramid Model, 240–43
Child care Citizenship, 479–80. See also Social studies Community resources, risk and resilience, 142
Child Care and Development Block Grants Civil Rights Movement, 63 Competent child, defined, 40–41
(CCDBG), 10 CLASS (Classroom Assessment Scoring System), 21, Completion prompt, 389, 390
child care movement, 55–56 95, 96, 240, 275–76, 352 Composing, mathematic process, 435
current trends, 10–11 Classification systems, 291 Comprehension skills, 386–87, 396–400
families, communication barriers, 216–18 Classroom Connections. See Video clips Concept development, 291–92
Lanham Act, 56 Classroom environment. See also Community of Conceptions, thinking skills, 426–27
licensing standards, 19–20 learners, creating Concepts of print, 398–99
overview of, 6 arrangement of room, 252 Conceptual frameworks, defined, 288
teachers, role of, 15–16 assessment and, 355 Conceptual organizers, 337
Child Care Aware of America, 19 boys, strategies for, 264–65 Concrete operational stage of development, 116
Child-centered curriculum, 49 differentiated instruction, 150–51 Conditioning, 124–25
Child development. See also Developmentally group work, 294–96 Conferences, 224–25, 363, 364
appropriate practice; Individual differences; literacy-rich environments, 395 Conflict resolution
Language development Montessori method, 45–46 negotiation process, 232–34
artistic development, 412–14 research on, 275–76 teaching of, 257–59
attachment theory, 244–46 standards for, 20 Connections, mathematic process, 434
Bank Street College, 53–54 Teaching Pyramid model, 242–43 Consequences, behaviorism, 125
benefits of early childhood education, 22–26 universal design, 493 Consequences of behavior, documenting, 261
brain development, 105–8 welcoming environments, 217 Conservation, concept of, 115, 426
case study, 101 Classroom Observation of Early Mathematics- Constructive play, 131–32
cognitive development, 423–29 Environment and Teaching (COEMET), 437 Constructivism
constructivist learning theory, Piaget, 112–17 Climate, family systems theory, 209–10 cultural diversity and, 197
culture and, 82–83, 173–74 Closed questions, defined, 282 defined, 43
definitions of, 102 Co-construction of knowledge, 118–19, 279, 284 Constructivist learning theory, Piaget, 112–17
developmentally appropriate assessment, 354–56 Code of Ethics. See Ethics Content standards, 318
574 Subject Index
Context, assessment and, 355 anti-bias curriculum, 196 assessment, interpreting results, 369
Context, language development, 387–88 assessment for improving, 350–51 cognitive, 425
Conventional reading, 404 Bilingual and Bicultural Curriculum Models, 62 creative arts, 412
Convergence, 26 case study, 309, 340–41 defined, 337
Conversation, language development and, 381, 386 child-centered curriculum, 49 fine-motor skills, 498
Cooing, 383, 384 Common Core Standards, 29, 72, 318, 431 gross-motor skills, 491
Cooperative play, 467 components of, 316 literacy skills, 396, 405
Cooperative preschools, history of, 54–55 Core Knowledge, 330–31 oral language, 383
Coping skills, play and, 466 Creative Curriculum, 330 second language learning, 390–91
Co-player role, 299–300 cultural and linguistic diversity, 190–99 Developmental delay, 154, 160, 351–52. See also
COR-Advantage, 371 culturally appropriate practice, 197–98 Special education
Core Knowledge curriculum, 330–31 defining, 310–11 Developmentally appropriate practice
Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), 154 developmentally appropriate practice, 71, 84–90 assessments, 354–56
Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO), 29 differentiated instruction, 150–51 case study, 69, 98
Counting, 427, 430–32 effectiveness, indicators of, 315–17 defined, 18
CPC (Chicago Child-Parent Centers), 23–24 either/or and both/and thinking, 89–90 in the digital age, 72
Creative arts emergent curriculum, 322–23 either/or and both/and thinking, 89–90
case study, 379, 417 focused curriculum, 332–33 future trends, 97
creativity, supporting, 410–11 health and safety, 511–14 informed decision making, 78–84
developmental continuum, 412 HighScope, 328–29 intentional teaching, 13, 75–78
drama, 416 high-stakes testing and, 373 overview of, 70–75
music, movement, and dance, 415–16 infants and toddlers, standards for, 319 research on, 91–94
scaffolding, 412–13 integrated curriculum, 324 teachers, role of, 84–90
symbolic representation, 410 intentional teaching, 315 teaching decisions, overview, 75
value of, 409–11, 416–17 kindergarten and primary grade standards, video segment, 70
visual arts, 411 320–22 Developmental screening, 351–52
visual literacy, 414–15 knowledge, types of, 114 Developmental spelling, 400
Creative Curriculum System, 330, 371 mathematics, 429, 431, 436 Dewey, John, 48–50
Criterion-referenced tests, 349 models, approaches, and frameworks, 311 Diagnostic tests, 351–52
CROWD, dialogic reading, 389 physical activity needs, 487–88 Dialogic reading, 389
Cues, as instructional strategy, 279, 281–82, 289 physical development, 509–11 Diet, education about, 512–13
Culture. See also Culture Lens; Individual differences; Piagetian theory, implications of, 118 Differentiated instruction, 150–51
Social studies planning, overview, 71, 87 Digital divide, 301, 450–51
anti-bias curriculum, 196 planning model, 335–40 Digital literacy, 407–8
assessments and, 356–58 preschoolers, standards for, 319–20 Digital media
behavior, view of, 250 project approach, 325–27 assistive technology, 304–5
case study, 171, 200 push-down curriculum, 71 research on, 301–2
code switching, language, 381, 393 rating scales and rubrics, 367 teaching about and with technology, 448–51
conflicting values, 182 Reggio Emilia approach, 333–35 trends in, 30
creative arts, 411 research-based curricula, 86–87, 328–35 use of, 302–4
cultural competence, 187–89 Response to Intervention (RTI), 151–52 Direct instruction, 96–97, 284–85
culturally appropriate practice, 82–83, 197–98 social cognitive theory, 128–29 Directional awareness, 501
curriculum planning and, 336–37 social-emotional development, 469–70 Director, 16
defined, 172–73 sociocultural theory, 110–11, 121 Disabilities, children with. See also Individual
development, role of culture, 83, 173–74 sources of, 337 differences
early childhood education, 17–19 special education, effective practices, 162–66 advocacy for inclusion, 531
effective practices, 182–87, 190–99 standards for, 20, 318 assessment, 184, 358–360
families, diversity of, 207–8 summary chart, 314 assistive technology, 304–5
family systems theory, 209–10 teacher’s role, 313–15 autism spectrum disorders, 155–57, 287
father-friendly practices, 229 thematic curriculum, 324 behaviorism and, 126–27
framework for understanding, 177–80 Tools of the Mind, 122, 331 defined, 154
function of culture, 175–77 tourist curriculum, 194 developmentally appropriate practice, 80–81
intentional teaching, 199 webbing, 325 diversity and, 184
language and culture, 185–87 written plans, 313 early intervention, 8
language development, 381 Curriculum developer, 16 effective teaching practices, 162–66
music, 415–16 Curriculum-embedded assessment, 347 family centered practice, 214
norm-referenced tests, 349 gross-motor development, 493
personal perspectives, understanding, 180–82 Head Start, history of, 63
research and theory, 104 D inclusion, 8, 161–62
science, teaching of, 445–46 Daily notes, 222 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA),
social-emotional development, 463–65 Daily schedule, 252 8, 63, 157–58
sociocultural theory, Vygotsky, 117–22 Dance, 415–16 key principles, 155
Culture Lens. See also Culture Day nurseries, 56 language of special education, 154
adapting to school, 250 Deafness, 154, 337–39. See also Special education Response to Intervention (RTI), 151–52
code switching, 393 Decode, defined, 404 science, teaching of, 448
culture, role in development, 83 Decomposing, mathematic skills, 435 self-help and social skills, 127
families, sharing power with, 216 Decontextualized speech, 387–88 social-emotional development, 465
finger counting, 432 Democracy, teaching about, 479–80 Disaster preparedness, 507
gross-motor development, 492 Demographic trends, 10–11, 301, 486 Discrimination, 175, 196
individual differences, responding to, 147 Demonstrating, as teaching strategy, 279, 281 Disequilibrium, 113
Milestones Project, 476 Department of Education, U.S. Disorganized/disoriented attachment, 245
non-western culture, 57 No Child Left Behind, 374 Distancing questions, 389, 390
research and theory, 104 Race to the Top, 28 Diversity. See also Culture
Curriculum Descriptive records, 364–66, 370 disabilities and, 184
adapting for individual differences, 339–40 Developmental continuum. See also families, trends in, 207–8
alignment with K–3, 30 Child development valuing, social studies curriculum, 474
Subject Index 575
Division for Early Childhood (DEC), 154 Ecological model of human development, 208–9 reporting abuse and neglect, 532–34
Documentation Ecological systems theory, Bronfenbrenner, 130 Ethnicity. See also Culture
behavior issues, 261 Economic factors. See Funding sources; Socioeconomic achievement gap, 25–26
as dynamic assessment, 368–69, 370 status culture and, 175
methods for observation, 360–63 Economics, teaching of, 478 early childhood education trends, 10–11
recording progress, methods of, 363–69 Education for All Handicapped Children Act, 63 family configurations, 207
Reggio Emilia, 334 Effectiveness measures, 22 Head Start participation, 7
Domain-general processes, 102 Effective teaching, 274. See also Teaching strategies Evaluation, defined, 347
Domains of development, 102–3 Efficacy, 241 Evaluation, program, 352
Down syndrome, 154. See also Special education Egocentrism, 115 Event sampling, assessment, 370
Drama, 416 Either/or thinking, 89–90 Evidence, defined, 346
Dual-language learners. See also Linguistic diversity Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), Executive function, 120, 424
assessment of, 183–84, 356–58, 375–76 28, 61 Exercise. See also Physical development and health
bilingualism, benefits of, 391–94 Eliot, Abigail, 56 benefits of, 486
code switching, 381, 393 Email, family communication, 223 boys, strategies for, 264–65
creative arts, 411 Emergency preparedness, 507 curriculum planning, 487–88
current trends, 11, 12 Emergent curriculum, 319, 322–23 gender differences, 143
curriculum approaches for, 317 Emergent-reader story books, 408 recess, 493–95
curriculum standards, 320 Emotional development Exosystem, defined, 123–24
decisions about, family relations and, 216 of 3- through 5-year-olds, 462 Explicit teaching, providing, 284–85
dual language acquisition, developmental building emotional skills, 241–42, 255–59 Expressive language, 381
continuum, 391 conflict resolution skills, 257–59 Extended discourse, 386, 389
individual differences, 153 defined, 102 Extended families, configurations, 207
language and culture, 185–87 individual differences, 144–45 Extinction, behaviorism, 126
learning a second language, process of, of infants and toddlers, 461 Eye-hand coordination, 412
390–94 overview of, 456–57
literacy skills, birth to age five, 392–93 of primary grades, 464
modeling language, 381 self-regulated learning, 129 F
norm-referenced tests, 349 Teaching Pyramid model, 242–43 Facilitating learning, defined, 281
parent role in assessment, 363 Emotional disorders, 126–27 Fade-out, 26
science, teaching of, 445–46 Emotional literacy, 257 Families. See also Culture
teachable moments, 297 Emotional literacy, defined, 456 assessment, role in, 363, 364
teaching of, 394 Encode, defined, 404 attachment theory, 244–46
technology, use of, 303 Encouragement, as teaching strategy, 278–280 blended families, 207
Dynamic assessment, defined, 348 Engaged citizens, 455 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model, 208–9
English as second language (ESL). See Dual-language case study, 205, 235
learners circumstances and challenges, 209–12
E English-only laws, 394 communication barriers, 216–18
Early childhood education Enumeration skills, 430 communication strategies, 218–27
access to, 10 Environment, classroom. See also Community of diversity of, 207–8
achievement gap, closing of, 25–26 learners, creating family centered practice (care), 214–15
African Americans, history of, 58–59 assessment and, 355 family engagement, importance of, 228–30
alignment with K–3, 30, 319 boys, strategies for, 264–65 family systems theory, 209–10
benefits of, 22–26 classroom arrangement, 252 father-friendly practices, 229
building on tradition, 64–65 differentiated instruction, 150–51 Head Start, role in, 64
child care movement, 55–56 group work, 294–96 IFSP (Individualized family service plan), 160–61
continuity and change in, 31–32 literacy-rich environment, 395 overview of, 206
culture of, 17–19 parenting styles, 104
Montessori method, 45–46
current trends, 9–10 relationships with, 87–88, 213–15
research on, 275–76
defined, 4 responding to parent complaints, 221
science, effective teaching of, 445
European influences on, 41–47 roles of parents and teachers, 213–14
standards for, 20
groups served by, 5–9 standards for serving, 20
Teaching Pyramid model, 242–43
history of, 37–41, 47–48 Family child care homes, 6, 16
universal design, 493
Latino, history of, 60–62 Family services worker, 16
Native American, history of, 59–60 welcoming environments, 217 FAPE (Free appropriate public education), 157
nursery school movement, 50–55 Environment, influence of. See also Culture Father-friendly practices, 229
profession, overview of, 12–17 ecological model of human development, 208–9 Fear, play and, 466
public support of, 27 literacy-rich environments, 395 Feedback, instructional strategy, 279, 280
settings, 5 overview, 141 Feedback loop, defined, 280
special education, 8, 16 risk and resilience, 142 Feedback on behavior, 254–55
standards and accountability, 19–22, 28–29 sociocultural theory, Vygotsky, 117–22 Fidelity, defined, 311
teacher qualifications, 29–30 toxic stress, 107–8 Field trips, 480–82
technology trends, 30 Environment, natural, 504–5 Fine-motor skills
universal prekindergarten movement, 25 Equilibration, 113 artistic skills, 412
value of, 4–5 Equilibrium, family systems theory, 209–10 intentional teaching, 501
Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale Equity pedagogy, 474 overview, 488, 496–503
(ECERS-3), 21, 352 Erikson, Erik, 108–11, 130 Finger counting, 432
Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort ESEA (Elementary and Secondary Education 5- to 7- year shift, 116
(2007), 9 Act), 61 Flexibility, physical fitness, 486
Early Connections, 223 ESL (English as second language). See Dual-language Fluency, 406
Early Head Start, 7, 15, 225 learners Food choices, 512
Early intervention specialists, 16 Ethics Formal assessments, 347, 348–49, 353. See also
Early Learning Challenge grants, 375 code of conduct, 528–31 Assessment of progress
Earth science, 443 ethical dilemmas, 528–29 Formative assessment, 346–47. See also
Ebonics, 393 ethical responsibilities, 528–31 Assessment of progress
ECERS-3 (Early Childhood Environment Rating NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct, 17–18 Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning and Children’s
Scale), 21, 95, 96 NAEYC Statement of Commitment, 535 Media, 30
576 Subject Index
Free appropriate public education (FAPE), 157 Hearing impairment. See also Special education Individual differences. See also Disabilities,
Frequency counts, 366–67, 370 defined, 154 children with
Friendships. See Social-emotional development screening tests, 351 approaches to learning, 145
Froebel, Friedrich, 43, 47 Heath, Shirley Brice, 189 autism spectrum disorders, 155–57
Froebel’s occupations and gifts, 44–45 Helicopter parent, 218 case study, 139, 167–68
Functional analysis, behavior, 260–61 Helping strategies, 165–66 cognitive development, 144
Functional assessment, behavior, 260–61 Heredity, influence of, 141 Culture Lens, 147
Functional play, 131 Hierarchy, family systems theory, 209–10 curriculum adaptations, 339–340
Functional skills, 359 Hierarchy of needs, Maslow, 111–12 differentiating instruction, 150–51
Funding sources High-context cultures, 188–89 effective practices, 162–66
charter schools, 9 High-level thinking skills, 291–93 emotional and social development, 144–45
current trends, 11 HighScope curriculum, 328–29, 468–69 gender differences, 143–44
Head Start, 7 HighScope Educational Research Foundation, 23, gifted and talented children, 149
increasing support for programs, 5, 27 96–97 importance of, 140–42
standards and accountability trends, 27–28 High-stakes testing, concerns about, 373 individualized education program (IEP), 158–59
Funds of knowledge, 212 Hill, Patty Smith, 50–52 multiple intelligences theory, 147–49
Hints, as instructional strategy, 279, 281–82 physical development, 146
Hispanics responding to, 146
G achievement gap, 25–26 Response to Intervention (RTI), 151–52
Games, 132, 440 current trends, 10–11 sources of, 140–41
Gaming apps, 302 family configurations, 207 special education, overview of, 153–62
Gardner, Howard, 147–49 history of, 60–62 Individualistic cultural groups, 177
Gender differences History, concept of, 476–77 Individualized education plan (IEP)
boys, teaching strategies, 263–66 History of early childhood education assistive technology, 305
fine-motor skills, 500, 501 African Americans, 58–59 curriculum adaptations, 339–40
science, teaching of, 446–48 building on tradition, 64–65 instructional goals, 158–59
summary of, 143–44 child care movement, 55–56 sample of, 158
Geography education standards, 477–78 European influences, 41–47 Individualized family service plan (IFSP), 160–61
Geography skills, 477–78 Head Start, 62–65 Individualized instructional strategies, 166
Geometry, 44, 367, 368, 432, 435 Kindergarten movement, 47–48 Individualized interventions, behavior challenges,
Gesell, Arnold, 50 Latinos, 60–62 259–263
Gesell Institute, Yale University, 50 Native Americans, 59–60 Individually appropriate, defined, 80–82. See also
Gifted and talented children, 149, 372 nursery school movement, 50–55 Developmentally appropriate practice
Goals, instructional. See also Developmentally overview, 37–41 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
appropriate practice Home-based programs, 226–27 assistive technology, 304
inclusions, 161–62 home visitor, 16 history of, 63
individualized education program (IEP), 158–59, Home visits, 225–26 overview of, 8
305, 339–40 Human development, culture and, 175–76 requirements of, 157–58
special education, effective practices, 164–66 Hypotheses, generating and testing, 292–93, 427 Infants
standards, relationship to, 319 Hypothesis, defined, 103 building relationships, 245
strategies, decisions about, 286 cognitive development, 425
Grade school. See Primary grades curriculum standards, 319
Grammar, development of, 381 I early literacy, 396, 397
Graphic representations, 291–92 I Can Problem Solve curriculum, 468–69 fine-motor skills, 498–99
Gross-motor development, 490–96, 509–11 IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act) gross-motor development, 490–91, 494
Gross-motor manipulative movements, assistive technology, 304 language development, 384–85
defined, 490 history of, 63 perceptual-motors skills, 501–2
Group time overview, 8 social-emotional development, 459–60
individualizing, 167 requirements of, 157–58 teachers, role of, 518–19, 520
mathematics, 438–39 Identity, sense of, 193, 474 Informal assessment, 347, 353. See also
reading, 388–89 IEP (individualized education plan) Assessment of progress
Group work, as instructional strategy, 294–98 assistive technology, 305 Information logs, 222
Guidance, 255–56 curriculum adaptations, 339–40 Inhibitory control, 424
instructional goals, 158–59 Injury prevention, 507–8
IFSP (individualized family service plan), 160–61 Insecure-ambivalent/resistant attachment, 245
H Illness prevention, 507 Insecure-avoidant attachment, 244–45
Hall, G. Stanley, 50 Image, graphic representations, 291–92 Instruction, providing, 279
Hand-eye coordination, 412 Imaginative thinking. See Creative arts Instructional strategies. See Teaching strategies
Hand-washing procedures, 508 Including All Children Integrated curriculum, 324, 402
Hazards, 508–9 autism spectrum disorders, 287 Intellectual disability, defined, 154. See also
Head Start. See also Preschool developmentally appropriate practice, 81 Disabilities, children with; Special education
curriculum standards, 319–20 diversity and disability, 184 Intelligence tests, 372
framework for, 22 family-centered practice, 215 Intentional teachers
history of, 39, 62–65 fostering friendships, 465 advocating for children with disabilities, 531
home visits, 225 history of special education, 63 assessment, uses of, 365
Latino history, 60–62 IEPs, meeting individual needs, 339 being purposeful and playful, 15
Native Americans, 59–60 individually appropriate assessments, 359 block building, integrating science, 445
overview, 7 Project DATA, autism spectrum disorders, 287 characteristics of, 14
parent involvement, 228–29 science exploration, 448 cultural differences, responding to, 199
performance standards, 20 self-help and social skills, teaching of, 127 curriculum, connecting to students, 315
teachers, qualifications of, 29–30 social and emotional skills, teaching of, 258 defined, 13
teachers, role of, 15 universal design, 493 expanding children’s experience, 56
Health Inclusion feedback and encouragement, offering of,
health and safety curriculum, 511–14 advocacy for, 531 254–55
standards for, 20, 507–9 benefits of, 161–62 fine-motor skills, 501
Health-related fitness, 486 gross-motor skills, 493 individualizing group time, 167
Healthy Habits for Life, 512 overview of, 8 informed decision making, 78–84
Subject Index 577
interviewing to uncover thinking, 118 screening and diagnostic tests, 351–52 background knowledge, 402
overview of, 75–78 symbolic representation, 410 birth through age five, 394–403
responding to parent complaints, 221 Lanham Act, 56 book appreciation and motivation to read, 400–402
scaffolding, 286 Latinos case study, 379, 417
science, teaching of, 445 achievement gap, 25–26 Creative Curriculum, 330
separation anxiety, easing of, 245 current trends, 10–11 dialogic reading, 389
small group work, 296 defined, 177 early writing, 400–402
social studies, integrating, 477 family configurations, 207 HighScope curriculum, 328–29
thinking and communication skills, 77 history of, 60–62 individual differences, 144
Interactive media, 450 Lau vs. Nichols, 61 interactive book reading, 388–89
Interactive reading, 388–89 Leadership, standards for, 20. See also Community of large group reading, 390
Interdependent cultural groups, 178 learners, creating literacy-rich environments, 395
International Kindergarten Union, 48 Learning, approaches to, 145 Montessori method, 46
International Literacy Association (ILA), 407 Learning and development. See also Individual phonological awareness and letter knowledge,
International Reading Association (IRA), 407 differences; Language development 397–98
International Step by Step Association, 43 approaches to, 145 primary grades, 404–8
Interviewing, application of, 118, 363 behaviorism, Skinner, 124–28 print awareness, 398–99
Invented spelling, 400 brain development, 105–8 small group reading, 389
Iowa Test of Basic Skills, 372 case study, 101 visual literacy, 414–15
IQ tests, 372 cognitive development, 423–29 Locally developed curriculum, 312
constructivist learning theory, Piaget, 112–17 Locomotor movements, 489
developmentally appropriate assessment, 354–56 Logico-mathematical knowledge, 114
J diversity concepts, learning of, 194–98 Low-context cultures, 189
Jones, Elizabeth, 323 ecological model of human development, 208–9
ecological systems theory, Bronfenbrenner, 122–24
K emotional development, 456–57 M
Kaiser Shipbuilding, 56 executive function, 120, 424 Macrosystems, 124
KidHealth.org, 512 fine-motor skills, 500 Make-believe play, 122
Kid Pix, 449, 450 gender differences, 143–44 Management, standards for, 20
Kindergarten gross-motor skills, 490–96 Mandatory reporting, abuse, 214, 533–34
curriculum standards, 320–22 language development, process of, 380–84 Manipulatives, 440
gross-motor development, 492–93 learning, defined, 103 Mapping skills, 477–78
history of, 44–45 learning trajectories, 429–30 Mariner’s star, 85
kindergarten movement, history of, 47–48 literacy skills, birth to age five, 396 Maslow, Abraham, 111–12, 130
overview of, 8–9 multiple intelligences theory, 147–49 Mathematics
perceptual-motor skills, 502 overview of, 102–5 achievement gap, 422–23
social-emotional development, 460–62 perceptual-motor skills, 501–2 case study, 421, 452
teachers, role of, 522–24 physical development, overview, 488–89 children’s thinking, 424–27
Kindergarten Entry Assessments, 374–75 play, role of, 131–33 Common Core Standards, 29
Kindergarten schedule, 93 psychosocial theory of development, Erikson, 108–11 curriculum overview, 429–33
Knowledge, types of, 114 screening and diagnostic tests, 351–52 effective teaching of, 436–39
knowledge gap, 26 self-actualization theory, Maslow, 111–12 everyday mathematics, 428–29
K-W-L, advance organizer, 289–290, 326–27 self identity, 193 geometry, spatial relations, and measurement, 432–33
self-regulation, 457 importance of, 422–23
social cognitive theory, Bandura, 128–29 individual differences, 144
L social-emotional development, 459–65 language of, 427, 438–39
Laboratory schools, 6 sociocultural theory, Vygotsky, 117–22 logico-mathematical knowledge, 114
Language development. See also Language skills theories, summary chart of, 130 math talk, defined, 437
babies and toddlers, 384–85 transactional theory of development, 141 number and operations, 430–32
comprehension, promoting, 386–87 Learning centers, 252, 294–98 patterns, identifying, 435
conversations, improving, 386 Learning community. See Community of learners, play and, 439–41
decontextualized speech, 387–88 creating problem solving and reasoning, 434
development process, 380–84 Learning continuum, 337 putting together and taking apart, 435
individual differences, 144 Learning path, 337 representations, designing and analyzing, 434–35
play and, 403 Learning standards, 318 unit blocks, 52–53
preschoolers, 381–87 Learning strategies, defined, 277 unitizing, 435
reading and, 388–89 Learning trajectory, 337, 429, 431 Mathematize, defined, 428
sociocultural theory, 119 Legislation Maturationist theory of development, 103–4
Language Lens, 12, 153, 297, 317, 357, 394 children with special needs, history of, 63 McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities, 372–73
Language mixing, 391 Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), 28 McMillan, Margaret and Rachel, 55–56
Language skills. See also Dual-language learners; Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Meaning
Language development; Linguistic diversity; (IDEA), 8, 63, 157–58, 304 balanced approach to reading, 404
Literacy skills Letters. See Alphabet knowledge culture and, 174, 185
assessment, parent role in, 363 Licensing, standards for, 19–20 instructional strategies for, 289
assessments, appropriateness of, 356–58 Life science, 443 Measurement skills, mathematics, 433
bilingualism, benefits of, 391–94 “Limited English proficient” children, 61 Media, technology uses, 448–51
case study, 379, 417 Linguistic diversity. See also Dual-language learners Memory, 424
cognition and, 427–28 case study, 171, 200 Mental flexibility, 424
Common Core Standards, 29 cultural competence, 187–89 Mentor teacher, role of, 16
exposure to multiple languages, 107 effective practices for learners, 190–99 Meriam Report, 59
International Children’s Digital Library, 303 issues for teachers, 182–87 Mesosystem, defined, 123
kindergarten and primary grade standards, 320–22 language and culture, 185–87 Messages, types of, 219. See also Communication
mathematical language, math talk, 437 Listening skills, 386–87. See also Communication with families
modeling, 280–81 with families Metacognitive activities, 288
norm-referenced tests, 349 Listservs, 223 Microsystems, defined, 123
preschool curriculum, 319–20 Literacy skills Milestones Project, 474
578 Subject Index
Military Child Care Act (1989), 21 Nonstandard units, measurement skills, 440 Perry Preschool Project, 23, 225
Mindfulness, 249, 470 Nonverbal communication, 189–90 Personality, students, 80–82
Misconceptions, thinking skills, 426–27 Normal curve, assessments, 349 Person-first language, 155
Mistaken behavior, 251 Norming group, 349 Pestalozzi, Johan, 43–44
Mitchell, Lucy Sprague, 53–55 Norm-referenced tests, 349, 372 Phonemes, 397
Modeling. See also Culture Numbers Plus Preschool Mathematics Curriculum, 436 Phonemic awareness, 397, 400, 406
as instructional strategy, 279, 280–81 Number Worlds, 436 Phonetic spelling, 400
language development, 381 Nursery school, 6. See also Preschool Phonics, 406
reading fluency, 406 Nursery school movement, 50–55 Phonological awareness, 397–98
social cognitive theory, 128–29 Nutrition education, 512–13 Photography, recording observations, 366, 371
social problem solving skills, 469–70 Physical activity. See also Physical development and health
Modifications, for assessments, 358 benefits of, 486
Montessori, Maria, 45 O boys, strategies for, 264–65
Montessori method, 44–45 Obama administration, 28 curriculum planning, 487–88
Morality, 528 Obesity, 486–87 gender differences, 143
Motherese, 384 Objectives, instructional. See Developmentally recess, 493–95
Mothers, role of, 44. See also Families appropriate practice Physical development and health
Motivation Object permanence, 114 case study, 485, 514
assessment and, 355–56 Observation culture and, 492
play and, 133 advantages and disadvantages, 364 curriculum, health and safety, 511–14
to read, 400–402 as assessment, 347 curriculum, physical development, 509–11
Motor development methods for, 360–63 defined, 102
artistic skills, 412 recording, methods of, 363–69 fine-motor development, 496–503
curriculum for, 509–11 recording, summary chart, 370 gross-motor development, 490–96
overview, 488 social cognitive theory, Bandura, 128–29 health and safety standards, 507–9
screening tests, 351–52 technology for, 371 intentional teaching, 501
Motor planning, 493 Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Languages natural environment experiences, 504–5
Movement, creative arts, 415–16 Affairs (OBEMLA), 61 perceptual-motor skills, 501–2
Multicultural curriculum, 62 Office of English Language Acquisition, 61 physical fitness, benefits of, 486
Multiple intelligences theory, 147–49 Office of Indian Education, 60 recess, importance of, 493–95
Muscular strength and endurance, 486 Oklahoma universal prekindergarten, 25 types of physical development, 488
Music, 415–16 One-to-one conversation, 386 Physical knowledge, 114
My Pedagogic Creed (Dewey), 48 One-to-one correspondence, 430 Physical science, 442–43
MyPlate, 512 Online Child Observation Record, 371 Piaget, Jean, 44, 112–17, 130, 131
Onlooker role, play, 299 Pictures, graphic representations, 291–92
Open-ended questions, defined, 282, 389, 390 Pikler Institute, 492
N Opening the World of Learning (OWL), 332–33 Pincer grasp, 489
NAEYC. See National Association for the Education of Operant conditioning, 124–25 Plan-do-review process, 328
Young Children (NAEYC) Operations, mathematics, 430 Planning. See also Curriculum
Narrative, reading of, 389 Orbis Pictus, 42–43 children’s involvement in, 329
Narrative records, 364–66, 370 Order irrelevance principle, 430 differentiated instruction, 151
National Association for Family Child Care, 527 Ounce Scale, 371 intentional teaching, 76
National Association for Nursery Education Outdoor play environments, 505–6 problem solving skills, teaching, 292
(NANE), 52 Overweight and obesity, 486–87 special education, effective practices, 164–66
National Association for the Education of Young Owen, Robert, 44 Plasticity, brain development, 106
Children (NAEYC) Play. See also Creative arts
accreditation standards, 19–20 assessment context, 361
Code of Ethical Conduct, 528–31 P digital play vs. traditional play, 451
developmentally appropriate practice, 70–72 Pacific Islanders, 59–60 drama, 416
history of, 52, 58–59 Parallel play, 460, 467 ethical dilemma resolution and, 530
overview of, 5 Parent Cooperative Preschools International, 54–55 gaining control through, 467
Technology and Young Children Interest Forum, Parent cooperative schools, 6, 16, 54–55 gender differences, 143
450–51 Parentese, 384 language development and, 403
National Association of Colored Women (NACW), 58 Parents, role of. See also Families as a learning context, 298–301
National Black Child Development Institute attachment theory, 244–46 levels of social play, 467
(NBCDI), 527 father-friendly practices, 229 make-believe play, 122
National Center for Children in Poverty, 211 Head Start, 64 mathematics, teaching of, 439–41
National Committee on Nursery Schools, 52 helicopter parent, 218 Montessori method, 45–46
National Council of La Raza, 61, 527 IFSP (Individualized family service plan), 160–61 natural environment experiences, 504–5
National Education Association, 527 parenting styles, 104 parallel play, 460
National Governors Association (NGA), 29 reciprocal relationships, 213–15 planning, involving children in, 329
National Head Start Association, 527 Parent-teacher conferences, 224–25 progressive education movement, 52–53
National Research Council, 422–23 Parks, 505–6 promoting, 42
Native Americans, 59–60, 185 Partnerships, with families, 230–34 role in development and learning, 131–33
Native Hawaiians, 59–60 Passive communication, 219–20 role of, 42
Natural environment experiences, 504–5 Patterns, identifying, 435 rough-and-tumble play, 503–4
Natural learning environments, 161–62 Paul, Alice, 60 social development and, 467–68
Naturally occurring reinforcers, 166 Pedagogy, 274. See also Teaching strategies social-emotional development, role in,
Nature deficit disorder, 504 PEER, reading technique, 389 466–68
Nature vs. nurture, 140–41 Peer rejection, 127 social studies, teaching about, 480–82
Negative reinforcement, 125 Peer relationships. See Social-emotional learning sociocultural theory, 121
Neglect, reporting, 533–34 Perceptual-motor development, 488, 501–2 teachers, role of, 298–301
Negotiations, 232–34 Performance assessment, 347–48. See also Assessment Play-based assessment, 348
Nemours Health and Prevention Services, 512 of progress Play-by-play language, 385
Neurons, 105 Performance standards, 318 Playgrounds, 505–6
No Child Left Behind Act (2001), 374 Permissive parenting, 104 Play leader role, 300–301
Subject Index 579
Sensorimotor stage of development, 114–15 creative arts, 411 attachment to teachers, 246
Sensory system, development of, 501–2 cultural diversity and, 184 characteristics of, 14
Separation anxiety, 245, 459 effective practices, 162–66 child-centered curriculum, 49
Sequence, curriculum, 327 history of, 63 child/teacher ratios, 19
Sequential language learners, 391 individualized education program (IEP), 158–59 cultural and linguistic diversity, working with,
Sesame Workshop, 512 language of, 154 182–87, 190–99
Shades of People, 177 natural learning environment and inclusion, 161–62 cultural competence, 187–89
Shaping behavior, 126 overview, 8 cultural perspectives, personal, 180–82
Simultaneous acquisition, dual language, 390 screening assessments for, 351–52 curriculum, role in, 313–15
Skinner, B. F. 124–28, 130 teachers, role of, 16 decision making, overview, 75
Slippery egg messages, 219 Specialized instruction, 163 developmentally appropriate practice, role in,
Small-group discussions, assessment and, 363 Special needs, children with 84–90
Small group learning, 295–96, 439 assessment, 358–60 high-stakes testing, 373
Social benefits, early childhood education, 23–25 family centered practice, 214 infants and toddlers, care of, 518–19, 520
Social cognitive theory, 128–29, 130 gross-motor development, 493 intentional teaching, 14, 75–78
Social competence. See Social-emotional learning science, teaching of, 445, 448 kindergarten, 522–24
Social construction of knowledge, 118–19, 242 social-emotional development, 465 kindergarten movement, history of, 47–48
Social-conventional knowledge, 114, 284–85 Spelling, early writing, 400. See also Language skills licensing standards, 19–20
Social development, 457–58, 467–68 Stability movements, 490 measuring quality of, 21
Social-emotional development Stable order principle, 430 Montessori method, 46
3- through 5-year-olds, 462 Stage manager role, play, 299 practices, research on, 96–97
diversity and, 463–65 Standardized testing preschool teachers, 519–21, 522
gender differences, 143–44 concerns about, 373–74 primary grades, 524–26
individual differences, 144–45 overview of, 348–49 profession, overview of, 12–17
infants and toddlers, 459–60 types of tests, 372–73 qualifications of, 29
overview of, 456–58 uses of, 373 relationships in the classroom, 248–250
play, role of, 466–68 Standards relationships with families, 213–15
primary grades, 464 accreditation standards, 19–20 role in play, 298–301
Social-emotional learning child care licensing, 19–20 scaffolding, role in, 285–86
children with disabilities, 12 Common Core, 29, 318, 431 standards for, 20
conflict resolution, 257–59 current trends, 28–29 teacher-child interactions, 95–96
curriculum goals, 256, 456–57, 460–63 curriculum, 29, 318, 431 Teaching Pyramid Model
emotional development, 256, 456–57 Head Start, 20 biting, response to, 266–67
overview, 455–56 health and safety, 507 boys, teaching strategies, 263–66
self-regulation, 457 Military Child Care Act, 21 bullying, response to, 268–69
strategies for, 255–59 professional development, 526–27 overview, 240–43
stress in children’s lives, 458–59 Standards for Early Childhood Professional Teaching strategies
Teaching Pyramid model, 241–43 Preparation, 526 acknowledging and encouraging, 278–80
Social justice, 25 Stanford-Binet test, 372–73 art and science of teaching, 274–77
Social studies Statement of Commitment, NAEYC, 535 case study, 273, 305
case study, 455, 482 STEM (science, technology, engineering, and challenges, creating, 282
content goals, 472–82 mathematics), 422 co-constructing learning, 284
defined, 455 Stereotypes concept development strategies, 282–84
intentional teaching, 477 anti-bias curriculum, 196 cues and hints, 281–82
overview of, 472–73 cultural perspectives, 182 demonstrating, 281
teaching strategies, 480–82 father-friendly practices, 229 explicit or direct instruction, 284–85
Sociocultural factors. See also Culture; Individual race and ethnicity, 175 feedback, providing, 280
differences tourist curriculum, 194 group work, 294–98
curriculum planning, 336–37 Storytelling Sagas, 440–41 learning goals and, 288–94
ecological model of human development, 208–9 Stress, 107–8, 458–59 to make meaning, 289
psychosocial theory of development, Erikson, 108–11 Strong Start for America’s Children Act (2014), 27 modeling, 280–81
risk and resilience, 142 Structural quality, defined, 21 overview of, 277–78
social cognitive theory, Bandura, 128–29 Structured physical activity, 487 play, 298–301
toxic stress, 107–8, 458 Subitizing, 426 problem solving and higher-level thinking, 292
Sociocultural theory, Vygotsky, 117–22, 130, 331 Successive approximations, 126 questioning, 282–84
Socio-dramatic play, 332, 403, 439 Summative assessment, 346–49. See also Assessment scaffolding, 285–86
Socioeconomic status of progress summary chart of, 279
achievement gap (see Achievement gap, closing of) Supporting learning, defined, 281 teacher-initiated and child-initiated
current trends, 11 Sustained shared thinking, 284 experiences, 278
economics, teaching of, 478 Symbolic play, 132 technology, use of, 301–5
family challenges, 209–12 Symbolic representation, 132, 410 Teaching Strategies GOLD, 371
family involvement, benefits of, 228 Synapses, 106 Technology
insecure-avoidant attachment, 244–45 Syntax, 381 art production apps, 411
language development, 381–82 Systems, science skills, 443 assessments, use in, 371
literacy-rich environments, 395 Systems theory, family, 209–10 assistive technology, 304–5
Montessori method, 45 communicating with families, 222–24
preschool program types, 6–8 current trends, 30
risk and resilience, 142 T digital literacy, 407–8
Solitary play, 467 TANF (Temporary Assistance for Needy Families), 10 digital media, research on, 301–2
Space science, 443 Teachable moment, identifying, 258 digital media, using, 302–4
Spatial awareness, 501 Teacher-developed curriculum, 312 mathematics curriculum, 436
Spatial relations, 432–33 Teacher-directed experiences, 90 social studies, teaching of, 481–82
Spatial skills, 53, 439, 440 Teacher-initiated experiences, defined, 278 teaching about and with technology, 448–51
Special education Teacher-proof curriculum, 314 Telegraphic speech, 383
assessments, 358–60 Teachers. See also Community of learners, creating; Temperament, individual differences, 145
children with disabilities, key principles, 155 Intentional teachers Temporal awareness, 501
Subject Index 581