HES 029 – REVIEWER

Anatomy – Study of structures of the body

2 levels of study under Anatomy
1) Gross Anatomy – Can be seen by the naked eye.
2) Microscopic Anatomy – Can only be seen using the microscope.
Physiology – Study of processes and functions of the body.
Pathophysiology – Study of origin of diseases.

5 levels of organization for the Human Body

1) Chemical
2) Cell
3) Organ
4) Organ System
5) Organism

11 Organ Systems of the Body

1) Integumentary – Provides protection, regulates temperature, prevents water loss, helps
produce vitamin D.
2) Skeletal – Provides protection and support, allows body movements, produces blood
cells, stores minerals and adipose tissue.
3) Muscular – Provides body movements, maintain posture, produce body heat.
4) Nervous – Major regulatory system, detects sensations and controls movements.
5) Endocrine – Influences metabolism, growth, reproduction.
6) Cardiovascular – Transports nutrients, waste products, gasses, and hormones.
7) Lymphatic – Removes foreign substances from blood and lymph, combats diseases,
maintains tissue fluid balance, absorb dietary fats.
8) Respiratory – Exchange Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide between blood and air.
9) Digestive – Performs mechanical and chemical processes of digestion, absorption of
nutrients, and elimination of wastes.
10) Urinary – Removes waste products from blood, regulates pH balance.
11) Reproductive – Produces oocytes for women and sperm cells for men.

6 essential characteristics of life

1) Organization – Refers to a specific relationship of many individuals.
2) Metabolism – Ability to use energy to perform vital functions.
3) Responsiveness – Ability to sense change.
4) Growth – Increase in size of all or part of organism.
5) Development – Change an organism undergoes through time.
6) Reproduction – Formation of new cells.
Homeostasis – State of maintenance of equilibrium.
Insulin – Only hypoglycemic hormone.
Hypoglycemia – High blood sugar.
Negative Feedback Mechanism – deviation is resisted.
Positive Feedback Mechanism – Initial stimulus further stimulates the response.

Planes
 Sagittal Plane – Vertically through the body.
 Median Plane – Through the midline of the body.
 Transverse/Horizontal Plane – Parallel to the surface of the ground.
  Frontal/Coronal Plane – Vertically from right to left.
Sections
 Longitudinal – Cut along the length of the organ.
 Transverse/Cross Section – Cuts completely through an organ.
 Oblique – Cut is made diagonally across the long axis.
Trunk Cavities
 Thoracic Cavity – Surrounded by rib cage, separated from the abdominal cavity.
 Abdominal Cavity – Bounded primarily by abdominal muscles.
 Pelvic Cavity – Enclosed by the bones of the pelvis.
Serous Membranes
 Visceral – Membranes in contact with the organ/s.
 Parietal – Membranes in contact with the walls of the cavity.

[ Anterior View ]
Cephalic – Head Region
 Frontal – Forehead
 Orbital – Eyes
 Oral – Mouth
 Otic – Ears
 Buccal – Cheeks
 Nasal – Nose
 Mental – Chin
 Cervical – Neck
 Clavicular – Collarbone/Clavicle
[ Trunk Region ]
Thoracic – Thorax
 Pectoral – Chest
 Sterneal – Breastbone
 Mammary – Breast
[ Upper Limb ]
 Axillary – Armpits
 Brachial – Arms
 Antecubital – Front of elbow
 Antebrachial – Forearm
 Abdominal – Abdomen
 Umbilical – Navel
Manual – Hand
 Carpal – Wrist
 Palmar – Palms
 Digital – Fingers
[ Lower Limbs ]
 Pelvic – Pelvis
 Inguinal – Groin
 Pubic – Genital
 Coxal – Hip
 Femoral – Thigh
 Patellar – Kneecap
 Crural – Leg
Pedal – Foot
 Talus – Ankle
 Dorsum – Top of foot
 Digital – Toes
 [ POSTERIOR VIEW ]
Cranial – Skull
 Occipital – Base of skull
 Nuchal – Back of neck
[ Trunk ]
Dorsal – Back
 Scapular – Shoulder Blade
 Vertebral – Spinal Column
 Lumbar – Loin Right Epigastric Left
Hypochondriac Region Hypochondriac
 Sacral – Between hips Region Region
 Gluteal – Buttocks
 Perineal – Perineum
[ Upper Limb] Right Umbilical Left
 Acromial – Point of Shoulder Lumbar Region Lumbar
 Olecranon – Point of Elbow Region Region
 Dorsum – Back of hand
[ Lower Limb ]
 Popliteal – Hollow behind knees
 Sural – Calf Right Hypogastric Left
 Plantar – Sole Iliac Region Iliac
 Calcaneal – Heel Region Region
 Dorsum – Top of feet

Cells – Basic living unit of all organisms

Organelles – Specialized structures that perform special function.
Cytoplasm – Holds organelles and enclosed by Cell Membrane.
Cell Membrane/Plasma Membrane – Outermost component of the cell.

Functions of the cell

 Cell Metabolism and energy use.
 Synthesis of Molecules
 Communication
 Reproduction and Inheritance

Molecular Structure:
Phospholipids - Forms a double layer that has 2 regions; Polar Region and Non-polar
region.
Protein – Float among the phospholipid molecules. Function as membrane channels, carrier
molecules, receptor molecules, enzymes, or structural support.
Other Structure:
Cholesterol – Provide added strength and stability by limiting the amount of movement of
phospholipids.
DNA – Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Carbohydrates – May be bound to some CHON Molecules. Chromatin – Code formed in DNA
Strands
Integral Proteins – Imbedded in the membrane of phospholipids. RNA – Ribonucleic Acid
Peripheral Proteins – Additional protein molecules. Cytoskeleton – Cell Skeleton;
Includes Microfilaments and
[ Organelles and their Function ] Intermediate Filaments

CYTOSINE-GUANINE
ADENINE-THYMINE
  Nucleus – Contains DNA, Site of RNA Synthesis.
 Nuclear Envelope – Double-walled membrane.
 Nucleolus – “Tiny Nucleus”, Synthesis of RNA.
 Ribosomes – Site of protein synthesis.
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – Site of protein synthesis, has ribosomes attached.
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – Site of Lipid Synthesis
 Golgi Apparatus – Modifies and packages CHON in Secretory Vesicles.
 Secretory Vesicles – Contains material produced in cell; Formed by the Golgi
Apparatus, Secreted by exocytosis.
 Lysosome – Contains enzymes that digest material taken into the cell; Plays a role in
repairing the plasma membrane.
 Peroxisome – Breaks down fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide.
 Mitochondria – Powerhouse of the cell; Site of aerobic respiration and ATP Synthesis
 Microtubule – Supports the cytoskeleton; Assists in Cell Division and forms Cilia and
Flagella
 Centrosomes – Contains a pair of Centrioles
 Centrioles – Facilitate the movement of chromosomes during cell division.
 Cilia – Move substances over surfaces of certain cells
 Flagella – Proper sperm cells
 Microvilli – Increase surface area of certain cells; Finger-like projections of the cell

Passive Membrane Transport – Does not require the cell to expand energy.
Active Membrane Transport – Require cell to expand energy.
Electron Microscope – Instrument that uses a beam of electrons, rather than a beam of light,
to form images of a tiny specimen.
Resolution – Ability to distinguish detail.
Diffusion – Movement of solute from an area of higher concentration to an area with a lower
concentration within a solvent.
Concentration Gradient – Concentration of a solute at one point in a solvent minus the
concentration of that solute at another point in the solvent divided by the distance between the
points.
Osmosis – Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
Facilitated Diffusion – Moves substances from a higher to lower concentration and does not
require energy.
Carrier-Mediated Transport – Movement of a substance across a membrane by means of
carrier molecule.

Endocytosis – Movement of materials into the cells by the formation of vesicles.

 Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis – Involves cell receptors attaching to molecules
 Phagocytosis – Movement of solid materials into cells; Cell-eating
 Pinocytosis – Materials ingested is much smaller and is in solution; Cell-drinking
Exocytosis – Secretion of materials from cells by vesicle formation.

Gene Expression – Process in which the information in DNA directs protein synthesis.
2 Stages of Gene Expression
 Transcription – Process in which DNA is read.
 Translation – Process by mRNA is converted into amino acids; Polypeptides.
Cell Cycle – Series of events that produce new cells for growth and tissue repair.
2 phases of Cell Cycle
  Interphase – Non-dividing phase in which the DNA replicates.
 Cell Division – Formation of two daughter cells from a single parent cell.
Consists 46 chromosomes. Occur through Mitosis.
4 phases of Cell Division
a) Prophase – Two chromatids joined at the centromere.
b) Metaphase – Chromosomes align at the center of the cell
c) Anaphase – Chromatids separate at the centromere and migrate to opposite
poles.
d) Telophase – Two nuclei assume their normal structure, cell division is
completed.
Differentiation – Process in which cells develop specialized structures and functions.
Apoptosis – “Programmed cell death”; Cell numbers within various tissues are adjusted and
controlled.
Cellular Aspects of Aging
1) Cellular Clock
2) Death Genes
3) DNA Damage
4) Free Radicals

4 Types of Tissue
1) Epithelium – Covers and protects the inside and outside surfaces of the body.
2) Connective – Makes up parts of every organ.
3) Muscle – Makes movement possible.
4) Nervous – Responsible for coordinating and controlling many body activities.
Basement Membrane – Thin, Glue-
Distinct Cell Surfaces
like layer that holds the epithelium in
 Free/Apical Surfaces – exposed, not attached to other cells. place while remaining highly
 Lateral Surface – cells attached to other epithelial cells. permeable to water and other
 Basal Surface – Attached to a Basement Membrane. substances.
Goblet Cells – Special cell that is
Major Functions of Epithelia: often interspersed among the other
1) Protection columnar cells. Also produces
2) Acting as barrier Mucus.
3) Permitting passage of substance
4) Secretion
5) Absorption
Classification of Epithelium
 Simple - Single layer of cells
 Stratified – More than one layer of cells
 Pseudostratified – Appears to be stratified but is not.
 Transitional – Modification of stratified epithelium that can be greatly stretched.

Types of Epithelium
1) Squamous – Flat or scale-like
2) Cuboidal – Cube shaped; as wide as they are tall.
3) Columnar – Tends to be taller as they are wide.

Simple Epithelium
 Simple Squamous – Single layer of flattened cells; Diffusion and Filtration.
 Simple Cuboidal – Single layer of almost cubic cells; Secretion and Absorption
  Simple Columnar – Forming linings specialized for absorption and secretion
 Pseudostratified Columnar – Single layer of columnar cells that all attach to the
basement membrane.
Stratified Epithelium
 Stratified Squamous – Composed of multiple layers of flat, tile-like cells.
o Non-Keratinized – Moist, surface cell retains nucleus and
cytoplasm.
o Keratinized – Cytoplasm of cells at the surface is replaced by a
protein called Keratin.
 Stratified Cuboidal – Many layers of cube-shaped cells; Absorb, Secrete, Protect
 Stratified Columnar – Many layers but only surface cells are columnar; Secrete,
Protect
 Transitional – Changes shape. Squamous when stretched, Cuboidal when not.

Microvilli – Increases cell’s surface area.

Cilia – Move materials across cell’s surface.

Structures of Cell connections

 Tight Junctions – Bind adjacent cells
 Desmosomes – Mechanical link that binds cells
 Hemidesmosome – Bind cells to basement membrane
 Gap Junction – Allow molecules to pass between cells and allow cells to communicate.

Glands – Secrete substances onto a surface, into a cavity, or into blood.

2 Types of Glands:
1) Exocrine – with ducts.
2) Endocrine – without ducts, products are called hormones.
Classification according to ducts
 Simple Glands – Single, non-branched ducts.
 Compound Glands – Multiple, branched ducts.
Classification according to Shape of Secretory Regions
 Tubular – Shaped as tubules, can be straight or coiled.
 Acinar/Alveolar – sac-like structure
 Tubuloacinar/ Tubuloalveolar – Combination of Tubular and Alveolar/Acinar.
Classification according to Type of Secretion
 Merocrine Secretion – Involves the release of secretory products by exocytosis.
 Apocrine Secretion – Release of secretory products as pinched-off fragments of gland
cells
 Holocrine Secretion – Involves shedding of entire cell.

Connective Tissue – Distinguished by its extracellular matrix which results from the activity of
specialized connective tissue cells; Blast Cells (forms), Clast Cells (Break down), Cyte Cells
(Maintain).

Major Component of Extracellular Matrix

1) Protein Fibers – Composed of many substances but with a dominance of protein
 Collagen Fibers – Very flexible but resist stretching.
 Reticular Fibers – Very fine, short collagen fibers. Forms a supporting
network.
  Elastic Fibers – Has the ability to return to its original shape after being
stretched.
2) Ground Substance – Consists of non-fibrous molecules. Elastin – Stretchy fibrous protein,
forms thick, single fibers.
 Hyaluronic Acid – Makes fluid slippery. Cartilage – Combination of fibers
 Proteoglycan Aggregates – Traps water which and ground substance that gives it a
gives tissues the capacity to recoil when deformed. rubbery quality.
 Adhesive Molecules – Hold Proteoglycan together Chondrocytes – Cartilage cells
and to plasma membrane. Osteocytes – Bone cells
3) Fluid – The matrix is liquid that enables blood to flow rapidly Myeloid Tissue – Red bone
through the body. marrow

Functions of Connective Tissue

1) Enclose and Separate other tissues
2) Connect tissues to one another
3) Support and move parts of the body
4) Storing compound
5) Cushion and Insulate
6) Transporting
7) Protecting

Classification of Connective Tissues

1) Connective Tissue Proper
a. Loose Connective Tissue – consist of relatively few protein fibers, forms a lacy
network with spaces filled with ground substances and fluid.
i. Areolar – Fine network of fibers with spaces in between; Loose packing,
support, and nourishment.
ii. Adipose – Little extracellular matrix, adipocytes are full of lipids; Packing,
Thermal Insulator, Energy Storage, protect organs from being jarred.
iii. Reticular – Fine network of reticular fibers irregularly arranged.
b. Dense Connective Tissue – Has relatively large number of protein fibers that
form thick bundles and fill nearly all of the extracellular space.
i. Regular Collagenous – Collagen fibers running in same direction;
Withstand great pulling forces exerted in direction of fiber orientation.
ii. Irregular Collagenous – Collagen fibers run in several directions
iii. Regular Elastic – Matrix composed of collagen fibers and elastin fibers;
capable of stretching and recoiling like a rubber band.
iv. Irregular Elastic – Composed of collagen fibers and elastin fibers
oriented in many different directions;
2) Supporting Connective Tissue
a. Cartilage – Composed of chondrocytes; Springs back after being compressed.
Heals slowly after an injury.
i. Hyaline – Small and evenly dispersed making it transparent; Allows
growth, Rigidity with some flexibility, forms embryonic skeleton.
ii. Fibrocartilage – More numerous than in others; arranged in thick
bundles; Somewhat flexible and capable of withstanding considerable
pressure.
iii. Elastic – Similar to hyaline, but matrix contains elastic fibers; Rigidity with
even more flexibility. Recoils after being stretched.
b. Bone – Hard connective tissue that consists of living cells and mineralized
matrix. Composed of Osteocytes.
 i. Compact bone – More solid, almost no space between thin layers of
mineralized matrix.
ii. Spongy Bone – Has spaces between trabeculae of bone.
3) Fluid Connective Tissue
a. Blood – Composed of formed elements and a fluid matrix.
b. Homopoietic Tissue – Composed of red and yellow marrow.

Muscle Tissue – Contracts, shortens, and makes movement possible.

 Skeletal Muscle – Forms muscular organs that attach to the skeleton and move
its parts. Striated. Large, long, cylindrical.
 Cardiac Muscle – found only in the walls of the heart. Cylindrical, branched and
connected to one another by intercalated disks. Striated, Involuntary.
 Smooth Muscle – Involuntary muscle type, found in walls of hollow organs such
as digestive track and blood vessels. Not Striated.
Nervous Tissue – Specialized to conduct action potentials, located in the brain, spinal cord,
and ganglia.
 Neurons – Transmit information in form of action potentials, store information,
and integrate and evaluate data.
The body is composed of 4 tissue
3 Major Parts: membranes, 1 external and 3
internal.
1) Cell Body – Site of general cell function; contains nucleus.
2) Dendrites – Receive stimuli leading to electrical changes.
3) Axon – Send action potential to another neuron.
Glia – Surround the neurons. Protect, nourish, and form specialized sheaths.
Tissue Membrane – Thin sheet or layer of tissue that covers a structure or lines a cavity.
Cutaneous Membrane/Skin – External tissue membrane; composed
Of stratified squamous epithelium and dense connective tissue.
– Primary organ of integumentary system and is the largest part of
the body.
3 Internal Tissue Membranes
1) Mucous – Consists of epithelial cells, has many goblet cells to secrete mucus. Line
cavities to outside of body, secrete, absorb, and protect.
2) Serous – Consist of simple squamous, do not contain glands but secrete serous fluid.
Line cavities doesn’t open to exterior of body, lubricates and protects internal organs
from friction, holds organs in place, selectively permeable barrier.
3) Synovial – Made up of only connective tissue and consists of modified connective tissue
cell; Line cavities of freely movable joints, produce synovial fluid to make joints slippery
allowing movement.

Inflammation – Occurs when tissues are damaged, can result from immediate and painful
events that follow trauma.
Chronic Inflammation – Results when the agent responsible for an injury is not removed or
something interferes from the healing process.
Inflammatory Response – an unpleasant but beneficial occurrence in the human body when
tissues are damaged.
Signs of Inflammation
Redness/Rubor
Heat/Calor
Swelling/Tumor
Pain/Dolor
Disturbance of function
Chemical Mediators – Substances that are released or activated in the injured tissues and
adjacent blood vessels.
Histamine – Released from the
Neutrophils – Type of phagocytic white cell that enters the mast cells and causes vasodilation
tissues and fights infections by ingesting bacteria. Dies after Prostaglandin – Sensitizes the pain
ingesting bacteria. receptors and enhances the effects
Tissue Repair – Substitution of viable cells for dead cells. of histamine.
Pus – Mixture of dead neutrophils,
2 Types of Tissue Repair other cells and fluid that can
1) Regeneration – New cells are the same type as those accumulate.
That were destroyed, normal function is usually Stem Cells – Self-renewing,
restored. undifferentiated cells that
2) Fibrosis/Replacement – New type of tissue develops continue to divide throughout life.
that eventually causes scar production and the loss of
some tissue function.

In the process of Tissue Damage, a clot is formed. New epithelial cells grow into the wound,
followed by the formation of granulation tissue. Finally, granulation is replaced with new
connective tissue.

 Clot – Contains thread-like protein fibrin, binds edges of wound together

stopping the bleeding.
 Scab – Dried clot, seals the wound to prevent infection.
 Macrophage – Second type of phagocytic cells that removes dead neutrophils,
cellular debris, and decomposing clot.
 Fibroblast – Produces collagen and other extracellular matrix components
 Granulation Tissue – Delicate, granular-appearing connective tissue that
consists of fibroblast, collagen, and capillaries.
Types of Heat Loss
Radiation (infrared energy)
Major Functions of Integumentary System Convection (air movement)
1) Protection Conduction (direct contact)
2) Sensation 9 lbs. – Skin’s approximate weight.
3) Vitamin D Production Thick Skin – Only found at soles
4) Temperature Regulation and palms
5) Excretion Stratum Germinativum – Basale
and Spinosum together.
Epidermis – Superficial layer, sheet of keratinized stratified
squamous epithelium.

5 Epidermal Strata
1) Stratum Basale – Deepest stratum of epidermis. Consists of single sheet columnar
cells. Undergo mitotic divisions every 19 days. Firmly attached to dermis.
2) Stratum Spinosum – multilayer of distorted cells, composed of 8-10 layers of
keratinocytes. Spiny in appearance. Keratinocytes – Cells that
3) Stratum Granulosum – Superficial to Spinosum. Contains manufacture and store keratin.
flattened cells pushed up from the deeper strata. Forms protein Conditions associated with Corneum
granules. Generate large amounts of keratin which is fibrous. Dandruff – excessive sloughing in
4) Stratum Lucidum – very thin layer, present only on thick skin. scalp
5) Stratum Corneum – Layer or dead, keratinized tissue. Callus – hard skin
Outermost layer of epidermis. Coated and surrounded by lipid, Corn – thick, forms a cone shaped
structure.
which acts as a waterproofing material.
Dermis – Layer of skin deep to the epidermis, sheet of irregular fibrous connective tissue.
Usually much thicker than epidermis. Has a scattering of blood vessels and nerves.

Layers of Dermis Keratinization – process in which

1) Papillary Layer – Bumpy superficial layer of the dermis, new keratinized cells push older
attached to the epidermis. Thin connective tissue, contains cells to surface. Takes about 40-56
days.
blood vessels.
Cleavage/Tension Lines – areas
2) Reticular Layer – Thick region of irregularly arranged protein where skin is more resistant to
fibers. Most fibers are collagenous but some are elastin. stretching.
Deepest layer of dermis, accounts for 80%. Stretch Marks – Visible lines in
epidermis due to overstretching.
Factors affecting Skin Color Papillae – Bumps in Papillary layer,
 Pigments in skin meaning nipples.
 Blood Circulating on skin
 Thickness of corneum
 Genetics
Melanosomes – Melanin-containing vesicles which move into the cell process of melanocytes.
Melanin – Group of pigments primarily responsible for skin, hair, and eye colour; Provides
protection against UV light from sunlight.
Albinism – recessive genetic trait
Determinants of Melanin Production that causes deficiency or absence
 Genetic Factors – responsible for the amounts of melanin of melanin.
Estrogen & MSH – Increase
produced in different races. melanin production during
 Exposure to UV light – stimulates melanocytes to produce pregnancy.
more melanin. MSH – Melanin-Stimulating
 Hormones – certain hormones increase melanin production. Hormone.
Carotene – yellow pigment found in
Subcutaneous Tissue/Hypodermis – Also known as Superficial plants.
Fascia. Connects the skin to underlying muscles and bones; Supplies ACTH – adrenocorticotropic
the area with blood vessels and nerves. hormone

Accessory Skin Structure

Hair – Cylinder of compact keratinized material. Found everywhere on the skin except, palms,
soles, nipples, lips, parts of genitalia and digitals.

Hair Components
 Hair Follicle – sheathlike indentation of the epidermis. Responsible for giving different
shapes to the hair.
 Hair Papilla – Located at the bottom of the follicle, produces the hair. Supply the hair
bulb with the nourishment needed to grow hair.
 Hair Root – Portion of hair within the follicle. Protrudes below the surface.
 Hair Shaft – Portion that has been pushed out of the follicle, flexible strands of
keratinized cells that protrudes above the skin.
 Hair Bulb – Base of hair root; where hair is produced.
 Hair Cortex – Hard covering of hair that is surrounded by the cuticle.
 Hair Medulla – Softer center that is surrounded by cortex.
 Arrector Pili – Strap of smooth muscle tissue connecting the side of a follicle to the
surface of dermis. Contraction dimples the epidermis resulting to goosebumps
2 Major glands of the skin
1) Sebaceous Gland – Simple, branched acinar glands. Most are connected by a duct to
follicle. Secretes Sebum, released by holocrine secretion.
2) Sweat Glands
2 types of Sweat Glands
1) Eccrine Sweat Glands – Release sweat by merocrine secretion, made of
mostly water with few salts. Located almost evert part of the skin but,
numerous in palms and soles.
2) Apocrine Sweat Glands – Produce a thick secretion rich in organic
substances. Located only in armpits and genitalia, causes body odor during
puberty.
Nail – Thin plate with layers of dead stratum corneum cells with a very hard type of keratin.

Nail Structure:
 Nail Body – Visible part of nail.
 Nail Root – Covered part by the skin
 Cuticle/Eponychium – Stratum Corneum that extends onto the nail body.
 Nail Matrix – made up of epithelial cells with a stratum basale that gives rises to
most of the nail.
 Nail Bed – Located distally to the nail matrix and attaches to nail.
 Lunula – small part of the nail matrix that can be seen through the nail body.
Whitish, cresent-shaped area at the base.

Variations in Skin Colour:

 Redness/Blushing – Caused by increased blood flow.
 Pallor/Paleness – Caused by decreased blood flow.
 Cyanosis – Bluish colour of skin caused by decreased blood oxygen content.
 Jaundice – Yellowish discoloration of skin; Associated with liver disorder, too much
carotene intake.
 Bronzing – darkened skin pigmentation usually caused by stimulant effect of excess
ACTH on the melanocytes.
 Bruising – blue to purple discoloration caused by broken blood vessels

Burn – injury to a tissue caused by heat, cold, friction, chemicals, electricity, or radiation.

Classification of burns
 Partial-Thickness Burn – Part of stratum basale remains viable, regeneration of the
epidermis occurs from within the burn area as well as from the edges of the burn.
o First degree burn – Involves only the epidermis; Redness, slight swelling, pain
is present. Usually caused by sunburn or brief exposure to very hot or cold
objects.
o Second degree burn – Damages both the epidermis and dermis; Redness,
pain, swelling, and blisters are present.
 Full-Thickness Burn/Third degree burn – Epidermis and dermis are completely
destroyed. Usually painless as the sensory receptors are destroyed. Skin graft may be
necessary.
Burn Treatments
 Split Skin Graft – Burn treatment procedure wherein the epidermis and part of the
dermis are removed from another part of the body and placed over the burned area.
  Debridement – Procedure that involves removal of dead tissue from the burn area that
helps prevent infections by cleaning the wound.

Calcium and Phosphate – Gives

bone compression strength.
Major functions of Skeletal System Hydroxyapatite – Calcium
 Provides major support for the body phosphate crystals.
 Protects internal organs Bone reabsorption – Removing of
existing bone.
 Allows movements between bones Osteon – Structural unit of compact
 Store and release minerals as needed by the body bone that consists osteocytes and
 Gives rise to blood cells and platelets Lamella, Lacunae, Canaliculus,
and Central Canal.
Bone – Flexible and able to bare weight; Collagen and Minerals
Cartilage – Good shock absorber; Collagen and Proteoglycan
Tendons and Ligaments – Very tough; Large amounts of Collagen
Collagen – Tough, rope-like protein
Proteoglycans – Large molecules consisting of many polysaccharides; Can attract and retain
large amounts of water.

4 Categories of Bones based on their Shape

1) Long Bones – Longer than they are wide.
Structure of Long Bone
 Diaphysis – Central shaft; Compact bone tissue on outside.
 Epiphysis – Ends; spongy bone tissue
 Articular Cartilage – Covers the ends of epiphyses, reduces friction
 Epiphyseal Plate – Site of bone growth, between diaphysis and epiphysis
 Medullary Cavity – Center of diaphysis, spaces are filled with marrow
o Red Marrow – location of blood forming cells
o Yellow Marrow – Replace red marrow in adults, mostly fats.
 Periosteum – Dense connective tissue around bone’s outer surface.
 Endosteum – Membrane that lines medullary cavity.
2) Short Bones – Approximately as wide as they are long.
3) Flat Bones – Have a relatively thin, flattened shape. Provide a strong barrier around soft
organs.
4) Irregular Bones – Shapes does not fit in any categories, provides protection while
allowing bending and flexing of certain body regions.

Histology of Bones
 Osteoblast – Responsible for formation of bone, repair and remodeling.
 Osteoclast – Contribute to bone repair and remodeling by removing existing bone
Lamella – Rings of bone matrix
Major types of bone based on Histological Structure Lacunae – Spaces between
1) Compact/Cortical Bone – Mostly solid matrix and cells, consists lamellae
osteons. Canaliculus – Tiny canals,
2) Spongy Bone – Consists of trabeculae with no osteons and transport nutrients and removes
central canals; lacy network of bone with many small, waste.
marrow-filled spaces. Central canal – Center of osteon,
contains blood vessel
Trabeculae – Interconnecting rods
in which spaces contain marrow.
Types of Bone Formation
1) Intramembranous Ossification – This occurs within the connective tissue membranes,
primarily in skull bones.
2) Endochondral Ossification – This occurs inside hyaline cartilage, primarily in all
bones.

Classification of Bone Fractures

1) Open Fracture – Formerly known as compound fracture; Occurs when an open wound
extends to the site of fracture, or a fragment of bone protrudes through the skin.
2) Closed Fracture – Simple Fracture; Occurs when the skin is not perforated.
3) Complicated Fracture – Occurs when soft tissues around a closed fracture are
damaged.
Types of bone fracture
 Complete – Bone is broken into at least two fragments
 Incomplete – Does not extend completely across the bone
 Greenstick – incomplete fracture on the convex side of the curve of the bone
 Hairline – incomplete fracture; two sections of the bone do not separate
 Comminuted – complete fracture; bone breaks into more than 2 pieces, usually major
and smaller fragments
 Impacted – one fragment is driven to the spongy portion of the other
 Linear – runs parallel to the length of the bone.
 Transverse – right angles to the length of the bone
 Spiral – takes a helical course around the bone Parathyroid Hormone – Maintains
 Oblique – runs obliquely in relation to the length of the bone Calcium Homeostasis.
 Dentate – have rough, toothed, broken ends Low Blood Calcium = PTH
 Stellate – have breakage lines radiating from a central point High Blood Calcium = Calcitonin
Skull consists of 22 bones. 8 -
braincase, 14 – facial bones, hyoid
Axial Skeleton – Includes skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. bone, and 6 auditory ossicles

1) Braincase/Neurocranium – Encloses the cranial cavity, protects the

brain.
 Parietal
 Temporal – Side of the head.
o External Auditory Canal – ear canal that enables sound waves reach the
eardrum
o Mastoid Process – prominent projection posterior to the ear and attached to
neck, involved in head rotation.
o Styloid Processes – two long, pointed projections from inferior surfaces of
temporal and attached to muscles involved in moving the tongue, hyoid bone,
and pharynx.
o Carotid Canal – passage of internal carotid artery.
o Jugular Foramen – passage of internal jugular vein.
 Frontal – composed of the forehead
 Occipital – Composed of back of the head.
o Occipital Condyles – smooth points of articulation between the skull and
vertebral column.
o Foramen Magnum – where the spinal cord joins the brain.
 Sphenoid – resembles a butterfly; extends completely across the skull.
o Sella Turcica – resembles a saddle; contains pituitary gland.
 Suture – Joint that unites bones of
o Foramen Rotundum and Foramen Ovale – transmit important the skull nerves to face
o Foramen Spinosum – Passage of major artery to the meninges
Squamous – Parietal and Temporal
 Ethmoid Coronal – Parietal and Frontal
2) Facial Bones/Viscerocranium – Form the structure of the face, Lambdoid – Parietal and Occipital
All are paired bones except mandible and vomer. Sagittal – Two Parietal
 Maxilla – jawbone, forms the upper jaw, contains superior
teeth
 Zygomatic – cheekbone, anterior to sphenoid bone.
o Zygomatic Arch – forms a bridge across the side of
the face and provides a major attachment site for muscles moving the mandible.
 Palatine – Roof of oral cavity that separate the nasal cavity and nasopharynx from the
mouth. Enables chewing and breathing at the same time
o Hard Palate – roof of the mouth, floor of nasal cavity
o Soft Palate – made up of connective tissue and muscles, extend posteriorly from
hard palate.
 Nasal – forms the bridge of the nose, mostly consists of cartilage.
o Nasal Cavity – one of the most prominent openings into the skull.
o Nasal Septum – divides the nasal cavity into left and right halves, formed by
vomer bone and perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone.
o Nasal Conchae – increase the surface area which facilitates in moistening and
warming of air inhaled through the nose.
o Paranasal Sinuses – open into the nasal cavity which decrease the weight of
the skull and acts as resonating chambers during voice production
 Lacrimal – Small bone in the eye sockets.
o Orbits/Eye sockets – cone-shaped fossae in which the eyes rotate within;
provide protection for eyes and attachment point for muscles.
o Superior and Inferior Orbital Fissures – provide openings through which
nerves and blood vessels communicate with the orbit or pass to the face.
o Optic Foramen – passage of optic nerve entering the cranial cavity.
o Nasolacrimal Canal – passes from the eye sockets to the nasal cavity, contains
a duct that carries tears.
 Inferior Nasal Concha – Separate bones that forms nasal conchae
 Mandible – forms lower jaw, contains inferior teeth.
o Mandibular Fossa – anterior to mastoid process; mandible articulates with
temporal
 Vomer – forms the inferior half of nasal septum
3) Auditory Ossicles – Consist of 6 bones in total, 3 in each middle ear (malleus, incus, and
stapes)
4) Hyoid Bone – U-shaped bone which is not part of the skull, has no direct bony attachment to
any bones. Provides attachment to some tongue muscles and neck muscles.

Vertebral Column – Spine; central axis of the skeleton, extending from the base of the skull to
slightly pass the end of pelvis. Adults usually have 26 individual
bones in vertebral column, grouped
Major Functions of Vertebral Column in 5 regions. 7 – Cervical Vertebrae,
1) Supports weight of head and trunk 12 – Thoracic Vertebrae, 5 –
2) Protects spinal cord Lumbar, 1 – Sacral, 1- Coccyx.
3) Allows spinal nerves to exit spinal cord
4) Provides site for muscle attachment Intervertebral Disk – Pads of
fibrocartilage.
Articular Facet – Smooth “Little
Face”
 5) Permits movement of head and trunk
Major Curvatures
 Anterior curve – cervical and lumbar
 Posterior curve – thoracic, sacral, and coccygeal regions.
Abnormal Vertebral Curvatures
 Kyphosis – Abnormal posterior curve, mostly in the upper thoracic region; Hunchback
 Lordosis – Abnormal anterior curve, mainly in lumbar region; Swayback
 Scoliosis – Abnormal lateral curvature.

General Plan of vertebra

 Body – weight-bearing portion of each vertebra and are separated by intervertebral disk.
 Vertebral Arch – surround a large opening called vertebral foramen, in which collective
forms vertebral canal to enclose and protect the spinal cord from injury
o Pedicles – extend from body to the transverse process of each vertebra
o Laminae – extend from the transverse process to spinous process
 Processes that provide attachment sites for muscles that moves the vertebral column
o Spinous Process – One in each vertebra; projects dorsally from where the two
laminae meet. Can be seen and felt as series of projections down the midline of
the back.
o Transverse Process – extend laterally from each side of the arch, between
pedicle and laminae
o Superior and Inferior Articular Process – where the vertebrae articulate with
each other. Contains Articular Facet
Intervertebral Foramina – Gaps between successive vertebrae which is formed by notches in
the pedicles; serves as an exit of spinal nerves from the spinal cord.

Regional Difference in Vertebrae

 Cervical Vertebrae – Very small bodies except for atlas, common site for dislocations
and fractures. Has transverse foramen.
o Atlas – 1st vertebra; holds up head and responsible for “yes” motion, slight tilting
of head from side to side.
o Axis – 2nd vertebra; rotates head and responsible for “no” motion. Rotation
occurs around a process called dens.
 Thoracic Vertebrae – Long, thin, spinous processes, directed inferiorly; extra articular
facets on lateral surface, articulates with ribs.
 Lumbar Vertebrae – Large, thick bodies, heavy, rectangular transverse and spinous
process; Common site for back pain.
 Sacrum – fused 5 sacral vertebrae into one bone. Spinous processes of first 4 vertebrae
form the median sacral crest and the fifth one does not form, leaving sacral hiatus at
inferior end.
o Sacral Promontory – formed by the bulge of the anterior edge of the body of the
first sacral vertebrae which serves as a landmark that can be felt during vaginal
exam.
 Coccyx – Tailbone; consists of 4 more-or-less fused vertebrae, easily fractured when
sitting down hard on a solid surface, of during childbirth.
Thoracic Cage/Rib Cage – Protects the vital organs and prevents the collapse of the thorax
during respiration.
1) Ribs – Consists of 12 pairs that can be divided into
a. True Ribs – Ribs 1-7, attach directly to sternum by costal cartilages.
 b. False Ribs – Ribs 8-12, do not attach directly to sternum.
i. Floating Ribs – Ribs 11 and 12, do not attach to sternum at all.
2) Sternum – also known as breastbone and is divided into three parts:
a. Manubrium
b. Body – Area where the pressure of the hands is applied during CPR
c. Xiphoid Process – Landmark to identify the location of the body of the sternum.

Prominent Features of Sternum

 Jugular Notch – A depression that is located at the superior end and between the ends
of clavicles where they articulate with the sternum.
 Sternal Angle – Slight elevation that can be felt at the junction of manubrium and body
of sternum, used to identify the location of second rib.

APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Pectoral Girdle or Shoulder Girdle
1) Scapula/Shoulder Blade – Flat, triangular bone with 3 large fossae where muscles
extending to arm are attached.
a. Glenoid Cavity – 4th fossa where the head of humerus connects to scapula
b. Spine – ridge that runs across the posterior surface of the scapula
c. Acromion Process – projection that extends from the scapular spine to form the
point of the shoulder.
d. Coracoid Process – curves below the clavicle and provides for the attachment
of arm and chest muscles
2) Clavicle/Collarbone – The first bone to begin ossification in the fetus and last to
complete the process. Articulates with the scapula at the acromion process.

Upper Limb
1) Arm – Region between the shoulder and elbow which contains humerus.
a. Head – rounded, smooth proximal end of humerus. Attaches to scapula at gland
cavity.
b. Anatomical Neck – Located round the edge of the humeral head; inaccessible in
surgery
c. Surgical Neck – Located at proximal end of humeral shaft; accessible site for
surgical removal.
d. Greater and Lesser Tubercles – Lateral to head, attachment of muscles
originating on the scapula; hold the scapula to humerus
e. Deltoid Tuberosity – Attachment of deltoid muscles
f. Epicondyles – Located at distal end of humerus, provide attachment sites for
forearm muscles
2) Forearm Ulna and Radius – Two bones of
a. Trochlear Notch – at proximal end of ulna, forming Forearm.
Thumb only has 2 phalanges
most of the elbow joint. Tibia - Shinbone
b. Olecranon Process – extensions of ulna which can be
Felt as the point of elbow.
c. Coronoid Process – complete the “grip” of ulna.
d. Ulnar Head – articulates with the bones of wrists.
e. Radial Head – articulates with both humerus and ulna.
f. Radial Tuberosity – Attachments of biceps brachii
g. Styloid Process – Provide attachment sites for
ligaments of wrist.
3) Wrist – Composed of 8 carpal bones.
e. Hamate
f. Capitate
g. Trapezoid
h. Trapezius
 a. Scaphoid
b. Lunate
c. Triquetrum
d. Pisiform

4) Hand – Consist of 5 metacarpal bones, attached to carpal bones.

a. Metacarpal bones – aligned with five digits, 1-5, from the thumb.
b. Phalanges – three small bones of each finger, called proximal, middle, and
distal.

Pelvic Girdle – Ring of bone made up of right and left hip bones joining each other anteriorly
and sacrum posteriorly.
 Iliac Crest – seen along the superior margin of each ilium
 Anterior Superior Iliac Spine – Important hip landmark located at anterior end of iliac
crest.
 Pubic Symphysis – where the hip bones converge anteriorly
 Acetabulum – socket of the hip joint
 Obturator Foramen – large hole in each hip bone that is closed off by muscles and
other structures.

Lower Limbs
1) Thigh – region between hip and knee; only has one bone called femur.
a. Head – articulates with acetabulum
b. Condyles – articulate tibia
c. Epicondyles – points of ligament attachment
d. Trochanters – points of muscle attachment
e. Patella/Kneecap – located within the major tendon of anterior thigh, enables
tendon to bend over knee.
2) Leg – region between thigh and ankle. Contains medial tibia and lateral fibula.
a. Tibial Tuberosity – attachment of muscle to anterior thigh
b. Head of Fibula – attached to proximal end of tibia as the fibula does not
articulate with femur.
3) Ankle
a. Medial Malleolus of Tibia
b. Lateral Malleolus of Fibula
4) Foot
a. Tarsal Bones – consists of 7 bones: Talus, Calcaneus, Cuboid, Navicular, and
the Medial, Intermediate, and Lateral Cuneiforms.
b. Metatarsal Bones and Phalanges – arranged and numbered in a manner very
similar to the hands.
Joints/Articulations – a place where 2 bones come together.

Classification of bones according to degree of motion

1) Synarthroses – non-movable joints
2) Amphiarthroses – slightly movable joints
3) Diarthroses – freely movable joints

Classification of joints according to structure

1) Fibrous Joints – Consists of bones united by fibrous connective tissue; allow little or no
movement.
 a. Sutures – joins between the bones in skull
b. Syndesmoses – bones are separated by some distance and held together by
ligaments
c. Gomophoses – consists of pegs fitted into sockets; held in place by ligaments
2) Cartilaginous Joints – consist of bones united by cartilage and exhibit slight movement
a. Synchondroses – joints containing hyaline cartilage
b. Symphyses – joints containing fibrocartilage
3) Synovial Joints – Consists of articular cartilage over uniting bones, highly movable
joints.
a. Plane/Gliding
b. Saddle
c. Hinge
d. Pivot
e. Ball-and-Socket
f. Ellipsoid/Condyloid

Types of Movement
 Flexion – Bending; decrease the angle of joint.
o Plantar Flexion – Movement of foot toward plantar surface
o Dorsiflexion – movement of foot toward shin
 Extension – Straightening; increase the angle of joint.
o Hyperextension – defined as extension of a joint beyond 180 degrees
 Abduction – away from median or midsagittal plane
 Adduction – toward median or midsagittal plane
 Pronation – rotation of forearm with palms face down
 Supination – rotation or forearm with palms face up
 Eversion – turning the foot so that the plantar surface faces laterally
 Inversion – turning the foot so that the plantar surface faces medially
 Rotation – turning of structure around its long axis
 Circumduction – arms move so that it traces a cone where the shoulder joint is at the
cone’s apex
 Protraction – structure glides anteriorly
 Retraction – structured glides posteriorly
 Elevation – movement to superior direction
 Depression – movement to inferior direction
 Excursion – movement to one side
 Opposition – movement of thumb to other digits.
 Reposition – Return the digits to anatomical position.

Disorders and Disease of Skeletal System

 Osteogenesis Imperfecta/Brittle bone disease – rare disease wherein bone matrix
has decreased flexibility and more easily broken
 Sprain – bones of joints are forcefully pulled apart, ligaments around are pulled or torn
 Carpal Tunnel Syndrome – compression of median nerve
 Dislocation – end of one bone is pulled out of a socket
 Osteoporosis – porous bone. Deformed and prone to fracture.

Major functions of muscular system Threshold – Increase in positive

1) Movement of the body charge changes the membrane
potential to a value
Acetylcholine(ACh) –
Neurotransmitter in synaptic vesicle
Aerobic – requires oxygen
Anaerobic – does not require
oxygen
 2) Maintenance of posture
3) Communication
4) Respiration
5) Production of heat
6) Constriction of organ and vessels
7) Contraction of heart

Major Functional Characteristics of Muscle Tissue

1) Contractility – ability shorten forcefully
2) Excitability – ability to respond to a stimulus
3) Extensibility – can be stretched beyond its normal length and still able to contract
4) Elasticity – ability to recoil to its original resting length after being stretched.

Connective Tissue Coverings of Muscle

 Epimysium/Muscle Fascia – Surrounds entire skeletal muscle
 Muscle Fascicles – Bundles of muscle fibers
 Perimysium – Separates muscle fascicles from each other
 Muscle Fiber – separate muscle cells in each fascicle
 Endomysium – Surround each muscle fiber
Muscle Fiber Structure
 Sarcolemma – Cell membrane, contains T Tubules.
 T Tubules – tube-like inward folds associated with sarcoplasmic reticulum
 Sarcoplasmic Reticulum – type of smooth ER that surround myosin
 Terminal Cisternae – enlarged portion of sarcoplasmic reticulum
 Sarcoplasm – cytoplasm; contains many bundles of myofibrils
 Myofibrils – thread-like bundles of proteins that make up muscle fibers
 Myofilaments – protein fibers that make up myofibrils
 Actin Myofilament
o Actin – Attachment site for myosin filaments
o Troponin – binding sites for calcium
o Tropomyosin – cover the attachment site on actin myofilament
 Myosin Myofilament – Thick myofilament, contains myosin head.

Sarcomere – Basic structural and functional contractile unit of skeletal muscle.

 Z disk – forms stationary anchor for actin myofilaments to attach
 I band – light-staining band that consist of only actin myofilament
 A band – central dark-staining band where the actin and myosin filaments overlap
 H zone – smaller, lighter-staining region at the center of each A band
 M line – fine protein filaments that anchor the myosin myofilaments in place
Resting Membrane Potential – state where cell membranes have negative charge on the
inside relative to positive charge outside.
Action Potential – brief reversal of the membrane charge, carried rapidly along the cell
membrane.
 Depolarization – change in charges where the sodium channels are open
 Repolarization – returns the cell to its resting membrane conditions and action potential
ends.

Nerve Supply and Muscle Fiber Stimulation

  Motor Neurons – specialized nerve cells that carry action potentials to skeletal muscles
and stimulates contraction
 Motor Unit – group of muscle fibers that motor neuron stimulates
 Neuromuscular Junction/Synapse – where the neuron and muscle fibers meet
 Synaptic Vesicle – contains the neurotransmitter that stimulates or inhibits postsynaptic
cells.
Acetylcholinesterase – an enzyme that breaks down the ACh to prevent overstimulation of
muscle.
Muscle Contraction – occurs as actin and myosin myofilaments slide past one another,
causing sarcomeres to shorten. In sarcomere, H zone, and I band shorten, while A band stays
the same.
Adenosine Triphosphate – Produced from the energy that is released during the metabolism
of food which is used for muscle contraction. Breaks down to Adenosine Diphosphate and
Phosphate.
Rigor Mortis – Stiffening of muscle fibers that occurs after death.
Muscle Twitch – A single contraction of muscle fiber in response to a stimulus
 Lag Phases / Latent Phase – Time between the application of stimulus and beginning
of contraction
 Contraction Phase – Time during which the muscle contracts
 Relaxation Phase – Time during which the muscle relaxes

Two Way in Increasing the Force of Muscle Contraction

1) Summation – Individual muscles contract to more forcefully through rapid stimulation of
muscle fibers preventing relaxation.
a. Tetanus – sustained contraction that occurs when the frequency of stimulation is
so rapid that no relaxation occurs.
2) Recruitment – More motor units are stimulated which increases the total number of
muscle fibers contracting
a. All or none law – no in between in muscle contraction. Either the muscle
contracts or does not.
Autorhythmicity – Periodic spontaneous contraction; involuntary control
Intercalated Disk – Allow action potential to be conducted directly from cell to cell making it to
function as a single unit.

Aponeuroses – broad sheet-like tendon

Retinaculum – Band of connective tissues that holds down the tendons at each wrist and ankle

Terms
 Origin – stationary end of muscle, point of attachment
o Head – term used in each origin with multiples
 Insertion – end of muscle attached to the bone with greatest movement
 Belly – part between the origin and insertion
 Agonist – causes a specific movement
 Antagonist – causes the opposite movement
 Synergist – muscles working together
o Prime mover – muscle that plays the major role in accomplishing the desired
movement
 Fixators – holds one bone in place relative to the body while a usually distal bone is
moved.
Muscles are named according to:
1) Location
2) Size
3) Shape
4) Orientation of Fascicles
5) Origin and Insertion
6) Number of Heads
7) Function
Pattern of Fascicle Arrangement
 Circular – Arranged in a circle around an opening; act as sphincters to close the
opening
 Convergent – broadly distributed fascicles converge at a single tendon
 Parallel – lie parallel to one another along the long axis of muscle
 Unipennate – fascicles are only at the one side of tendon
 Bipennate – fascicles are on both sides of the tendon
 Multipennate – fascicles are arranged in many places around the central tendon
 Fusiform – belly of muscle is larger in diameter than ends.

Muscles of Facial Expression

 Buccinator – flattens cheeks
 Depressor Anguli Oris – Depresses mouth angle
 Levator Labii Superioris – elevates upper lip
 Occipitofrontalis – elevates eyebrows
 Orbicularis Oris – closes lip
 Orbicularis Oculi – closes eye
 Zygomaticus Major – elevate and abducts upper lip
 Zygomaticus Minor – elevate and abducts upper lip
Muscle of Mastication
 Temporalis – elevates and retracts mandible
 Masseter – elevates and protracts mandible
 Lateral Pterygoid – protracts and depresses mandible
 Medial Pterygoid – protracts and elevates mandible
Tongue and Swallowing Muscles
 Tongue Muscles
o Intrinsic – changes shape of tongue
o Extrinsic – moves tongue
 Hyoid Muscle
o Suprahyoid – elevates hyoid
o Infrahyoid – depresses hyoid
 Soft Palate – moves soft palate, tongue or pharynx
 Pharyngeal Muscles
o Elevators, Constrictors, Superior, Middle, Inferior
Neck Muscles
 Deep Neck Muscles
o Flexors – flex head and neck
o Extensor – extends head and neck
 Sternocleidomastoid – rotates head
 Trapezius – extend and laterally flexes neck
Trunk Muscles
Muscles Moving the Vertebral Column
 Superficial Back Muscles
o Erector Spinae – extends vertebral column
 Deep back muscles – Help bend vertebral column laterally
Thoracic Muscles
 Scalenes – elevates ribs, inspiration
 External Intercostals – elevates ribs inspiration
 Internal Intercostals – depress ribs, forced expiration
 Diaphragm – depress floor of thorax, inspiration
Abdominal Wall Muscles
 Rectus Abdominis
 External Abdominal Oblique
 Internal Abdominal Oblique
 Transversus Abdominis
Pelvic Floor and Perineal Muscles
 Levator Ani – Elevates anus
 Bulbospongiosus – erects penis in male and clitoris in female
 Ischiocavernosus – compresses base of penis or clitoris
 External Anal Sphincter – keeps orifice of anal canal closed
 Transverse Perinei
o Deep – Support pelvic floor
o Superficial – fixes central tendon
Upper Limbs
Muscles acting on Scapula
 Levator Scapulae – elevate, retracts and rotates scapula
 Pectoralis Minor – depresses scapula
 Rhomboids – retracts, rotates, and fixes scapula
 Serratus Anterior – rotates and protracts scapula
 Trapezius – elevates, depresses, retracts, rotates and fixes scapula
Muscle for Arm movements
 Deltoid – abducts and medially and laterally rotates arm
 Latissimus Dorsi – adducts and medially rotates arm
 Pectoralis Major – flexes shoulder
 Teres Major – extends shoulder
 Rotator Cuff
o Infraspinatus – laterally rotates arm
o Subscapularis – medially rotates arm
o Supraspinatus – abducts arm
o Teres Minor – adducts and laterally rotates arm
Arm Muscles
 Biceps Brachii – elbow and shoulder flexion, forearm supination
 Brachialis – elbow flexion
 Triceps Brachii – elbow and shoulder extension, adducts arm
Forearm Muscles (Anterior)
 Palmaris Longus – tightens skin in palms
 Flexor Carpi Radialis – flexes and abducts wrist
 Flexor Carpi Ulnaris – flexes and adducts wrist
  Flexor Digitorum Profundus and Flexor Digitorum Superficialis – flexes fingers and
wrists
 Pronator – pronates forearm
Forearm Muscles (Posterior)
 Brachioradialis – elbow flexion
 Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevis and Extensor Carpi Radialis Longus – extend and
abducts wrist
 Extensor Carpi Ulnaris – extend and adducts wrist
 Extensor Digitorum – extends fingers and wrists
 Supinator – supinates forearm and hand
Lower Limb Muscles
Muscles Moving thighs
 Iliopsoas – hip flexion
 Gluteus Maximus – hip extension, abduct and laterally rotates thigh
 Gluteus Medius and Gluteus Minimus – abducts and medially rotates thigh
 Tensor Fasciae Latae – steady the femur when standing
Leg Movements
 Anterior Compartment
o Quadriceps Femoris – knee extension
o Sartorius – knee flexion, laterally rotates thigh
 Medial Compartment
o Adductor Longus – adducts and laterally rotates thigh, flexes hip
o Adductor Magnus – extends knee
o Gracilis – adducts thigh and flexes knee
 Posterior Compartment
o Biceps Femoris – laterally rotates leg
o Semimembranosus – medially rotates leg
o Extensor Digitorum Longus – extends four lateral toes, everts foot
o Extensor Hallucis Longus – extends great toe, inverts foot
o Tibialis Anterior – inverts foot
o Fibularis Tertius – inverts foot
 Posterior Compartment
o Superficial (Gastrocnemius, Soleus)
o Deep – foot inversion
 Flexor Digitorium longus – flexes four lateral toes
 Flexor Hallucis Longus – flexes great toe
 Tibialis Posterior – inverts foot
 Lateral Compartment – everts and plantar flexes foot (Fibularis Brevis, Fibularis
Longus)
Disease and Disorders of Muscular System
 Spastic Paralysis – condition where the muscles contract and cannot relax.
 Flaccid Paralysis – muscle is incapable of contracting in response to nervous
stimulation
 Torticollis/Wry Neck – result from injury to one sternocleidomastoid muscles or
sometimes caused by damage to baby’s neck muscles during child birth
 Low Back Pain – muscle strains or sprains of lumbar vertebral