Hes 029 Reviewer
Hes 029 Reviewer
Planes
Sagittal Plane – Vertically through the body.
Median Plane – Through the midline of the body.
Transverse/Horizontal Plane – Parallel to the surface of the ground.
Frontal/Coronal Plane – Vertically from right to left.
Sections
Longitudinal – Cut along the length of the organ.
Transverse/Cross Section – Cuts completely through an organ.
Oblique – Cut is made diagonally across the long axis.
Trunk Cavities
Thoracic Cavity – Surrounded by rib cage, separated from the abdominal cavity.
Abdominal Cavity – Bounded primarily by abdominal muscles.
Pelvic Cavity – Enclosed by the bones of the pelvis.
Serous Membranes
Visceral – Membranes in contact with the organ/s.
Parietal – Membranes in contact with the walls of the cavity.
[ Anterior View ]
Cephalic – Head Region
Frontal – Forehead
Orbital – Eyes
Oral – Mouth
Otic – Ears
Buccal – Cheeks
Nasal – Nose
Mental – Chin
Cervical – Neck
Clavicular – Collarbone/Clavicle
[ Trunk Region ]
Thoracic – Thorax
Pectoral – Chest
Sterneal – Breastbone
Mammary – Breast
[ Upper Limb ]
Axillary – Armpits
Brachial – Arms
Antecubital – Front of elbow
Antebrachial – Forearm
Abdominal – Abdomen
Umbilical – Navel
Manual – Hand
Carpal – Wrist
Palmar – Palms
Digital – Fingers
[ Lower Limbs ]
Pelvic – Pelvis
Inguinal – Groin
Pubic – Genital
Coxal – Hip
Femoral – Thigh
Patellar – Kneecap
Crural – Leg
Pedal – Foot
Talus – Ankle
Dorsum – Top of foot
Digital – Toes
[ POSTERIOR VIEW ]
Cranial – Skull
Occipital – Base of skull
Nuchal – Back of neck
[ Trunk ]
Dorsal – Back
Scapular – Shoulder Blade
Vertebral – Spinal Column
Lumbar – Loin Right Epigastric Left
Hypochondriac Region Hypochondriac
Sacral – Between hips Region Region
Gluteal – Buttocks
Perineal – Perineum
[ Upper Limb] Right Umbilical Left
Acromial – Point of Shoulder Lumbar Region Lumbar
Olecranon – Point of Elbow Region Region
Dorsum – Back of hand
[ Lower Limb ]
Popliteal – Hollow behind knees
Sural – Calf Right Hypogastric Left
Plantar – Sole Iliac Region Iliac
Calcaneal – Heel Region Region
Dorsum – Top of feet
Molecular Structure:
Phospholipids - Forms a double layer that has 2 regions; Polar Region and Non-polar
region.
Protein – Float among the phospholipid molecules. Function as membrane channels, carrier
molecules, receptor molecules, enzymes, or structural support.
Other Structure:
Cholesterol – Provide added strength and stability by limiting the amount of movement of
phospholipids.
DNA – Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Carbohydrates – May be bound to some CHON Molecules. Chromatin – Code formed in DNA
Strands
Integral Proteins – Imbedded in the membrane of phospholipids. RNA – Ribonucleic Acid
Peripheral Proteins – Additional protein molecules. Cytoskeleton – Cell Skeleton;
Includes Microfilaments and
[ Organelles and their Function ] Intermediate Filaments
CYTOSINE-GUANINE
ADENINE-THYMINE
Nucleus – Contains DNA, Site of RNA Synthesis.
Nuclear Envelope – Double-walled membrane.
Nucleolus – “Tiny Nucleus”, Synthesis of RNA.
Ribosomes – Site of protein synthesis.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – Site of protein synthesis, has ribosomes attached.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – Site of Lipid Synthesis
Golgi Apparatus – Modifies and packages CHON in Secretory Vesicles.
Secretory Vesicles – Contains material produced in cell; Formed by the Golgi
Apparatus, Secreted by exocytosis.
Lysosome – Contains enzymes that digest material taken into the cell; Plays a role in
repairing the plasma membrane.
Peroxisome – Breaks down fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide.
Mitochondria – Powerhouse of the cell; Site of aerobic respiration and ATP Synthesis
Microtubule – Supports the cytoskeleton; Assists in Cell Division and forms Cilia and
Flagella
Centrosomes – Contains a pair of Centrioles
Centrioles – Facilitate the movement of chromosomes during cell division.
Cilia – Move substances over surfaces of certain cells
Flagella – Proper sperm cells
Microvilli – Increase surface area of certain cells; Finger-like projections of the cell
Passive Membrane Transport – Does not require the cell to expand energy.
Active Membrane Transport – Require cell to expand energy.
Electron Microscope – Instrument that uses a beam of electrons, rather than a beam of light,
to form images of a tiny specimen.
Resolution – Ability to distinguish detail.
Diffusion – Movement of solute from an area of higher concentration to an area with a lower
concentration within a solvent.
Concentration Gradient – Concentration of a solute at one point in a solvent minus the
concentration of that solute at another point in the solvent divided by the distance between the
points.
Osmosis – Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
Facilitated Diffusion – Moves substances from a higher to lower concentration and does not
require energy.
Carrier-Mediated Transport – Movement of a substance across a membrane by means of
carrier molecule.
Gene Expression – Process in which the information in DNA directs protein synthesis.
2 Stages of Gene Expression
Transcription – Process in which DNA is read.
Translation – Process by mRNA is converted into amino acids; Polypeptides.
Cell Cycle – Series of events that produce new cells for growth and tissue repair.
2 phases of Cell Cycle
Interphase – Non-dividing phase in which the DNA replicates.
Cell Division – Formation of two daughter cells from a single parent cell.
Consists 46 chromosomes. Occur through Mitosis.
4 phases of Cell Division
a) Prophase – Two chromatids joined at the centromere.
b) Metaphase – Chromosomes align at the center of the cell
c) Anaphase – Chromatids separate at the centromere and migrate to opposite
poles.
d) Telophase – Two nuclei assume their normal structure, cell division is
completed.
Differentiation – Process in which cells develop specialized structures and functions.
Apoptosis – “Programmed cell death”; Cell numbers within various tissues are adjusted and
controlled.
Cellular Aspects of Aging
1) Cellular Clock
2) Death Genes
3) DNA Damage
4) Free Radicals
4 Types of Tissue
1) Epithelium – Covers and protects the inside and outside surfaces of the body.
2) Connective – Makes up parts of every organ.
3) Muscle – Makes movement possible.
4) Nervous – Responsible for coordinating and controlling many body activities.
Basement Membrane – Thin, Glue-
Distinct Cell Surfaces
like layer that holds the epithelium in
Free/Apical Surfaces – exposed, not attached to other cells. place while remaining highly
Lateral Surface – cells attached to other epithelial cells. permeable to water and other
Basal Surface – Attached to a Basement Membrane. substances.
Goblet Cells – Special cell that is
Major Functions of Epithelia: often interspersed among the other
1) Protection columnar cells. Also produces
2) Acting as barrier Mucus.
3) Permitting passage of substance
4) Secretion
5) Absorption
Classification of Epithelium
Simple - Single layer of cells
Stratified – More than one layer of cells
Pseudostratified – Appears to be stratified but is not.
Transitional – Modification of stratified epithelium that can be greatly stretched.
Types of Epithelium
1) Squamous – Flat or scale-like
2) Cuboidal – Cube shaped; as wide as they are tall.
3) Columnar – Tends to be taller as they are wide.
Simple Epithelium
Simple Squamous – Single layer of flattened cells; Diffusion and Filtration.
Simple Cuboidal – Single layer of almost cubic cells; Secretion and Absorption
Simple Columnar – Forming linings specialized for absorption and secretion
Pseudostratified Columnar – Single layer of columnar cells that all attach to the
basement membrane.
Stratified Epithelium
Stratified Squamous – Composed of multiple layers of flat, tile-like cells.
o Non-Keratinized – Moist, surface cell retains nucleus and
cytoplasm.
o Keratinized – Cytoplasm of cells at the surface is replaced by a
protein called Keratin.
Stratified Cuboidal – Many layers of cube-shaped cells; Absorb, Secrete, Protect
Stratified Columnar – Many layers but only surface cells are columnar; Secrete,
Protect
Transitional – Changes shape. Squamous when stretched, Cuboidal when not.
Connective Tissue – Distinguished by its extracellular matrix which results from the activity of
specialized connective tissue cells; Blast Cells (forms), Clast Cells (Break down), Cyte Cells
(Maintain).
Inflammation – Occurs when tissues are damaged, can result from immediate and painful
events that follow trauma.
Chronic Inflammation – Results when the agent responsible for an injury is not removed or
something interferes from the healing process.
Inflammatory Response – an unpleasant but beneficial occurrence in the human body when
tissues are damaged.
Signs of Inflammation
Redness/Rubor
Heat/Calor
Swelling/Tumor
Pain/Dolor
Disturbance of function
Chemical Mediators – Substances that are released or activated in the injured tissues and
adjacent blood vessels.
Histamine – Released from the
Neutrophils – Type of phagocytic white cell that enters the mast cells and causes vasodilation
tissues and fights infections by ingesting bacteria. Dies after Prostaglandin – Sensitizes the pain
ingesting bacteria. receptors and enhances the effects
Tissue Repair – Substitution of viable cells for dead cells. of histamine.
Pus – Mixture of dead neutrophils,
2 Types of Tissue Repair other cells and fluid that can
1) Regeneration – New cells are the same type as those accumulate.
That were destroyed, normal function is usually Stem Cells – Self-renewing,
restored. undifferentiated cells that
2) Fibrosis/Replacement – New type of tissue develops continue to divide throughout life.
that eventually causes scar production and the loss of
some tissue function.
In the process of Tissue Damage, a clot is formed. New epithelial cells grow into the wound,
followed by the formation of granulation tissue. Finally, granulation is replaced with new
connective tissue.
5 Epidermal Strata
1) Stratum Basale – Deepest stratum of epidermis. Consists of single sheet columnar
cells. Undergo mitotic divisions every 19 days. Firmly attached to dermis.
2) Stratum Spinosum – multilayer of distorted cells, composed of 8-10 layers of
keratinocytes. Spiny in appearance. Keratinocytes – Cells that
3) Stratum Granulosum – Superficial to Spinosum. Contains manufacture and store keratin.
flattened cells pushed up from the deeper strata. Forms protein Conditions associated with Corneum
granules. Generate large amounts of keratin which is fibrous. Dandruff – excessive sloughing in
4) Stratum Lucidum – very thin layer, present only on thick skin. scalp
5) Stratum Corneum – Layer or dead, keratinized tissue. Callus – hard skin
Outermost layer of epidermis. Coated and surrounded by lipid, Corn – thick, forms a cone shaped
structure.
which acts as a waterproofing material.
Dermis – Layer of skin deep to the epidermis, sheet of irregular fibrous connective tissue.
Usually much thicker than epidermis. Has a scattering of blood vessels and nerves.
Hair Components
Hair Follicle – sheathlike indentation of the epidermis. Responsible for giving different
shapes to the hair.
Hair Papilla – Located at the bottom of the follicle, produces the hair. Supply the hair
bulb with the nourishment needed to grow hair.
Hair Root – Portion of hair within the follicle. Protrudes below the surface.
Hair Shaft – Portion that has been pushed out of the follicle, flexible strands of
keratinized cells that protrudes above the skin.
Hair Bulb – Base of hair root; where hair is produced.
Hair Cortex – Hard covering of hair that is surrounded by the cuticle.
Hair Medulla – Softer center that is surrounded by cortex.
Arrector Pili – Strap of smooth muscle tissue connecting the side of a follicle to the
surface of dermis. Contraction dimples the epidermis resulting to goosebumps
2 Major glands of the skin
1) Sebaceous Gland – Simple, branched acinar glands. Most are connected by a duct to
follicle. Secretes Sebum, released by holocrine secretion.
2) Sweat Glands
2 types of Sweat Glands
1) Eccrine Sweat Glands – Release sweat by merocrine secretion, made of
mostly water with few salts. Located almost evert part of the skin but,
numerous in palms and soles.
2) Apocrine Sweat Glands – Produce a thick secretion rich in organic
substances. Located only in armpits and genitalia, causes body odor during
puberty.
Nail – Thin plate with layers of dead stratum corneum cells with a very hard type of keratin.
Nail Structure:
Nail Body – Visible part of nail.
Nail Root – Covered part by the skin
Cuticle/Eponychium – Stratum Corneum that extends onto the nail body.
Nail Matrix – made up of epithelial cells with a stratum basale that gives rises to
most of the nail.
Nail Bed – Located distally to the nail matrix and attaches to nail.
Lunula – small part of the nail matrix that can be seen through the nail body.
Whitish, cresent-shaped area at the base.
Burn – injury to a tissue caused by heat, cold, friction, chemicals, electricity, or radiation.
Classification of burns
Partial-Thickness Burn – Part of stratum basale remains viable, regeneration of the
epidermis occurs from within the burn area as well as from the edges of the burn.
o First degree burn – Involves only the epidermis; Redness, slight swelling, pain
is present. Usually caused by sunburn or brief exposure to very hot or cold
objects.
o Second degree burn – Damages both the epidermis and dermis; Redness,
pain, swelling, and blisters are present.
Full-Thickness Burn/Third degree burn – Epidermis and dermis are completely
destroyed. Usually painless as the sensory receptors are destroyed. Skin graft may be
necessary.
Burn Treatments
Split Skin Graft – Burn treatment procedure wherein the epidermis and part of the
dermis are removed from another part of the body and placed over the burned area.
Debridement – Procedure that involves removal of dead tissue from the burn area that
helps prevent infections by cleaning the wound.
Histology of Bones
Osteoblast – Responsible for formation of bone, repair and remodeling.
Osteoclast – Contribute to bone repair and remodeling by removing existing bone
Lamella – Rings of bone matrix
Major types of bone based on Histological Structure Lacunae – Spaces between
1) Compact/Cortical Bone – Mostly solid matrix and cells, consists lamellae
osteons. Canaliculus – Tiny canals,
2) Spongy Bone – Consists of trabeculae with no osteons and transport nutrients and removes
central canals; lacy network of bone with many small, waste.
marrow-filled spaces. Central canal – Center of osteon,
contains blood vessel
Trabeculae – Interconnecting rods
in which spaces contain marrow.
Types of Bone Formation
1) Intramembranous Ossification – This occurs within the connective tissue membranes,
primarily in skull bones.
2) Endochondral Ossification – This occurs inside hyaline cartilage, primarily in all
bones.
Vertebral Column – Spine; central axis of the skeleton, extending from the base of the skull to
slightly pass the end of pelvis. Adults usually have 26 individual
bones in vertebral column, grouped
Major Functions of Vertebral Column in 5 regions. 7 – Cervical Vertebrae,
1) Supports weight of head and trunk 12 – Thoracic Vertebrae, 5 –
2) Protects spinal cord Lumbar, 1 – Sacral, 1- Coccyx.
3) Allows spinal nerves to exit spinal cord
4) Provides site for muscle attachment Intervertebral Disk – Pads of
fibrocartilage.
Articular Facet – Smooth “Little
Face”
5) Permits movement of head and trunk
Major Curvatures
Anterior curve – cervical and lumbar
Posterior curve – thoracic, sacral, and coccygeal regions.
Abnormal Vertebral Curvatures
Kyphosis – Abnormal posterior curve, mostly in the upper thoracic region; Hunchback
Lordosis – Abnormal anterior curve, mainly in lumbar region; Swayback
Scoliosis – Abnormal lateral curvature.
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Pectoral Girdle or Shoulder Girdle
1) Scapula/Shoulder Blade – Flat, triangular bone with 3 large fossae where muscles
extending to arm are attached.
a. Glenoid Cavity – 4th fossa where the head of humerus connects to scapula
b. Spine – ridge that runs across the posterior surface of the scapula
c. Acromion Process – projection that extends from the scapular spine to form the
point of the shoulder.
d. Coracoid Process – curves below the clavicle and provides for the attachment
of arm and chest muscles
2) Clavicle/Collarbone – The first bone to begin ossification in the fetus and last to
complete the process. Articulates with the scapula at the acromion process.
Upper Limb
1) Arm – Region between the shoulder and elbow which contains humerus.
a. Head – rounded, smooth proximal end of humerus. Attaches to scapula at gland
cavity.
b. Anatomical Neck – Located round the edge of the humeral head; inaccessible in
surgery
c. Surgical Neck – Located at proximal end of humeral shaft; accessible site for
surgical removal.
d. Greater and Lesser Tubercles – Lateral to head, attachment of muscles
originating on the scapula; hold the scapula to humerus
e. Deltoid Tuberosity – Attachment of deltoid muscles
f. Epicondyles – Located at distal end of humerus, provide attachment sites for
forearm muscles
2) Forearm Ulna and Radius – Two bones of
a. Trochlear Notch – at proximal end of ulna, forming Forearm.
Thumb only has 2 phalanges
most of the elbow joint. Tibia - Shinbone
b. Olecranon Process – extensions of ulna which can be
Felt as the point of elbow.
c. Coronoid Process – complete the “grip” of ulna.
d. Ulnar Head – articulates with the bones of wrists.
e. Radial Head – articulates with both humerus and ulna.
f. Radial Tuberosity – Attachments of biceps brachii
g. Styloid Process – Provide attachment sites for
ligaments of wrist.
3) Wrist – Composed of 8 carpal bones.
e. Hamate
f. Capitate
g. Trapezoid
h. Trapezius
a. Scaphoid
b. Lunate
c. Triquetrum
d. Pisiform
Pelvic Girdle – Ring of bone made up of right and left hip bones joining each other anteriorly
and sacrum posteriorly.
Iliac Crest – seen along the superior margin of each ilium
Anterior Superior Iliac Spine – Important hip landmark located at anterior end of iliac
crest.
Pubic Symphysis – where the hip bones converge anteriorly
Acetabulum – socket of the hip joint
Obturator Foramen – large hole in each hip bone that is closed off by muscles and
other structures.
Lower Limbs
1) Thigh – region between hip and knee; only has one bone called femur.
a. Head – articulates with acetabulum
b. Condyles – articulate tibia
c. Epicondyles – points of ligament attachment
d. Trochanters – points of muscle attachment
e. Patella/Kneecap – located within the major tendon of anterior thigh, enables
tendon to bend over knee.
2) Leg – region between thigh and ankle. Contains medial tibia and lateral fibula.
a. Tibial Tuberosity – attachment of muscle to anterior thigh
b. Head of Fibula – attached to proximal end of tibia as the fibula does not
articulate with femur.
3) Ankle
a. Medial Malleolus of Tibia
b. Lateral Malleolus of Fibula
4) Foot
a. Tarsal Bones – consists of 7 bones: Talus, Calcaneus, Cuboid, Navicular, and
the Medial, Intermediate, and Lateral Cuneiforms.
b. Metatarsal Bones and Phalanges – arranged and numbered in a manner very
similar to the hands.
Joints/Articulations – a place where 2 bones come together.
Types of Movement
Flexion – Bending; decrease the angle of joint.
o Plantar Flexion – Movement of foot toward plantar surface
o Dorsiflexion – movement of foot toward shin
Extension – Straightening; increase the angle of joint.
o Hyperextension – defined as extension of a joint beyond 180 degrees
Abduction – away from median or midsagittal plane
Adduction – toward median or midsagittal plane
Pronation – rotation of forearm with palms face down
Supination – rotation or forearm with palms face up
Eversion – turning the foot so that the plantar surface faces laterally
Inversion – turning the foot so that the plantar surface faces medially
Rotation – turning of structure around its long axis
Circumduction – arms move so that it traces a cone where the shoulder joint is at the
cone’s apex
Protraction – structure glides anteriorly
Retraction – structured glides posteriorly
Elevation – movement to superior direction
Depression – movement to inferior direction
Excursion – movement to one side
Opposition – movement of thumb to other digits.
Reposition – Return the digits to anatomical position.
Terms
Origin – stationary end of muscle, point of attachment
o Head – term used in each origin with multiples
Insertion – end of muscle attached to the bone with greatest movement
Belly – part between the origin and insertion
Agonist – causes a specific movement
Antagonist – causes the opposite movement
Synergist – muscles working together
o Prime mover – muscle that plays the major role in accomplishing the desired
movement
Fixators – holds one bone in place relative to the body while a usually distal bone is
moved.
Muscles are named according to:
1) Location
2) Size
3) Shape
4) Orientation of Fascicles
5) Origin and Insertion
6) Number of Heads
7) Function
Pattern of Fascicle Arrangement
Circular – Arranged in a circle around an opening; act as sphincters to close the
opening
Convergent – broadly distributed fascicles converge at a single tendon
Parallel – lie parallel to one another along the long axis of muscle
Unipennate – fascicles are only at the one side of tendon
Bipennate – fascicles are on both sides of the tendon
Multipennate – fascicles are arranged in many places around the central tendon
Fusiform – belly of muscle is larger in diameter than ends.